Ladle Metallurgy and Practices at LF For Uninterrupted Casting

Cover Page
LADLE METALLURGY AND PRACTICES AT LF

FOR UNINTERRUPTED CASTING
By
Shubham Indoria,
Shashi Bhushan Prasad,
Sachin Srivastva
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree
B.tech.(hons.): metallurgy and material science

engineering
Nation Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur

Project Supervisor/Mentor
BALAM SINGH
SR. MANAGER, CCS (O)
June 2013
CERTIFICATE
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
This is to certify that
Shubham Indoria, Sachin Srivastva, Shashi Bhushan Prasad,
VACATIONAL TRAINEES at SMS-2, B.S.P.
Have completed their technical project successfully at SMS-II. Their
performance was good and the project assigned to them was completed
within the specified time period. They were given the project
LADLE METALLURGY AND PRACTICES AT LF FOR UNINTERRUPTED
CASTING.
I wish them all the success and believe that this project training will stand
them in good stead in their future.
Mr. BALAM SINGH

Sr. Manager CCS (O)
S.M.S -2
AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work contained within this report was performed at SAIL, BHILAI. This
work carries with it the kind support, inspiration and guidance by various
people at various levels, to whom I am grateful and sincerely indebted.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the following
persons and/or institutions for their assistance and contributions in
completion of this project:
Mr. Balam Singh, sr. mgr. Ladle furnace for his support, guidance and
continued encouragement during the course of my studies. His enthusiastic
and diligent approach to life, as well as his dedication and loyalty towards his
students will always be appreciated.
Mr. Shobhit Sharad Gottlieb, for his continuous support and interest in
the progress of our work.
Mr. Rajesh Devangan, sr. mgr. training at SMS-II, & Mr. Sudhir Kumar,
AGM (secondary steel making) for their guidance, continued encouragement
throughout this project.
Mr. P Subba Rao, AGM (Contracts), & Mr. C b Rao sir, for all the help and
resources that were made available to me.
A. V. Fuley, VT co-ordinator BSP, for his constant support and guidance.
SAIL, BHILAI for allowing us to visit their laboratory facilities and
instrumentation, and the helpful of the staff at times when I was in need of
advice.
Our families and friends who always encouraged me during my studies.
Shashi Bhushan
Indoria
Srivastava
Shubham
Sachin
Vacational TRAINEEs
SMS-2
BHILAI STEEL PLANT; SAIL
Table of Contents
LADLE METALLURGY AND PRACTICES AT LF FOR UNINTERRUPTED CASTING...........1
CERTIFICATE...................................................................................................... 2
AKNOWLEDGEMENT........................................................................................... 3
Table of Contents............................................................................................... 4
Table of Figures................................................................................................. 7
1.
INTRODUCTION TO BHILAI STEEL PLANT........................................................ 8

1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND............................................................................................... 9
1.2. PRODUCTS OF BSP..................................................................................................10
1.3. ACHIEVEMENTS....................................................................................................... 11
1.4. PROCESS DESCRIPTION IN BHILAI STEEL PLANT..................................................................11
1.4.1 Plant facilities...................................................................................................... 12
1.5. PURPOSE OF VISITING BSP............................................................................................. 14
1.6. PURPOSE OF SELECTING THIS TOPIC.................................................................................14
2.
Introduction to Steel Melting Shop II and Its Units....................................... 15

2.1
INTRODUCTION TO SMS-II............................................................................................. 16
2.2
CONVERTOR SHOP....................................................................................................... 16
2.2.1 Process Flow in Convertor Shop...........................................................................18
2.2.2 Mixer Section....................................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Scrap Yard........................................................................................................... 20
2.2.4 Ladle Preparation Section....................................................................................20
2.2.5 Slag Pot Handling Section....................................................................................20
2.2.6 Bulk Material Handling......................................................................................... 21
2.2.7 Gas Cleaning Section........................................................................................... 21
2.3
CONTINUOUS CASTING SHOP..........................................................................................22
2.3.1 Argon Rinsing Bay............................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Secondary Steel Making Processes:.....................................................................23
2.3.2.1
2.3.2.2
2.3.2.3
VAD (Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit)............................................................................. 23

Ladle Furnace............................................................................................................. 26
RH Degasser.............................................................................................................. 28
2.3.3 Tundish preparation Bay......................................................................................29

2.3.4 Casting Bay......................................................................................................... 30
2.3.5 Slab & Bloom Storage Yard (SBS).........................................................................31
2.3.6 Mould Repair Shop............................................................................................... 31
2.3.7 Casting Powder Plant (SFMPP).............................................................................31
2.3.8 Brief Description Of Continuous Casting Shop.....................................................32
2.4
COORDINATION BETWEEN CONVERTOR AND CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINES.........................33
2.4.1 Temperature........................................................................................................ 33
2.4.2 Chemistry............................................................................................................ 33
2.4.3 Time.................................................................................................................... 34
3.
Literature Survey: Secondary Steel Making................................................. 35

3.1
3.2
HISTORY OF SECONDARY STEEL MAKING...........................................................................36

PURPOSE OF SECONDARY STEEL MAKING..........................................................................37
3.3
GASES IN STEEL.......................................................................................................... 38
3.3.1 Sieverts Law....................................................................................................... 38
3.3.2 Oxygen in Steel................................................................................................... 38
3.3.3 Nitrogen In Steel.................................................................................................. 39
3.3.4 Hydrogen In Steel................................................................................................ 40
3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2
3.3.4.3
4.
Hair line cracks (flakes) & Hydrogen embrittlement...................................................40

Hydrogen blistering.................................................................................................... 41
Loss of tensile ductility............................................................................................... 42
Ladle Metallurgy........................................................................................ 43
4.1
SLAG MAKING/TREATMENT............................................................................................. 44
4.1.1 Function of slag in Ladle furnace:........................................................................44
4.1.2 Philosophy of charging of lime & deoxidisers for making slag.............................44
4.1.3 Problem of carryover of slag................................................................................45
4.1.4 Use of Synthetic Slag........................................................................................... 45
4.2
DESULPHURIZATION...................................................................................................... 46
4.3
TEMPERATURE CONTROL................................................................................................47
4.4
ALLOYING ADDITIONS.................................................................................................... 48
4.4.1 Alloying Addition Calculation...............................................................................49
4.4.2 Cooling Effect of Ferro-alloys...............................................................................49
4.4.3 Mode of Alloying Additions...................................................................................49
4.5
HOMOGENIZATION OF TEMPERATURE AND CHEMISTRY OF THE BATH........................................50
4.6
METALLURGICAL ASPECTS OF LF FOR UNINTERRUPTED CASTING............................................50
5.
Practices at Ladle Furnace.......................................................................... 52

5.1
ARCING...................................................................................................................... 53
5.1.1 Basic Principles.................................................................................................... 53
5.1.2 Arcing Electrodes................................................................................................. 53
5.1.3 Electrode Slipping................................................................................................ 53
5.1.4 Temperature rise in Ladle Furnace.......................................................................54
5.1.1.1
5.1.1.2
5.1.1.3
5.1.1.4
5.1.1.5
5.1.1.6
5.1.1.7
Tap Changer/Current & Voltage.................................................................................. 54

Chilling due to alloying elements............................................................................... 54
Purging Condition....................................................................................................... 55
Ladle Condition.......................................................................................................... 55
Heat Size................................................................................................................... 55
Lime Addition............................................................................................................. 55
Electrode Regulation System..................................................................................... 55
5.2
INERT GAS PURGING..................................................................................................... 56
5.2.1 Purging Philosophy.............................................................................................. 56
5.2.2 Porous Plug Design and Specifications..............................................................56
5.2.3 Emergency Lancing............................................................................................. 57
5.3
SAMPLING & TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT.......................................................................58
5.3.1 Sample Probe...................................................................................................... 58
5.3.2 Temperature Probe.............................................................................................. 58
5.3.3 Pneumatic Probe.................................................................................................. 58
5.4
ALLOYING ADDITIONS.................................................................................................... 59
5.4.1 Ferro Alloys Addition System (Using Hoppers).....................................................59
5.4.2 Wire Feeder......................................................................................................... 60
5.5
FUME EXTRACTION SYSTEM............................................................................................. 61
5.5.1 Equipments of Fume Extraction System..............................................................61

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Water cooled fume duct..................................................................................................... 61

Damper............................................................................................................................. 61
Spark arrestor:................................................................................................................... 61
Bag Filter:.......................................................................................................................... 61
Rotary Air Lock:................................................................................................................. 61
Screw Conveyor:................................................................................................................ 62
I.D. Fan:............................................................................................................................. 62
Chimney:........................................................................................................................... 62
Dust Collector:................................................................................................................... 62
5.5.2 Description of system and main equipment........................................................62

5.6
UTILITIES AND SERVICES............................................................................................... 63
5.6.1 Industrial Water................................................................................................... 63
5.6.2 Soft Water............................................................................................................ 63
5.7
LINING PRACTICES AND PERFORMANCE OF STEEL LADLE......................................................64
5.8
HYDRIS PROBE............................................................................................................ 64
5.8.1 Configuration....................................................................................................... 64
5.8.2 Hydris Components............................................................................................. 65
5.8.2.1
5.8.2.2
The Hydris probe........................................................................................................ 65

The Pneumatic Unit.................................................................................................... 66
5.8.3 Measurement Principle........................................................................................67

5.8.4 Measurement procedure......................................................................................69
6.
Optimisation of Casting Process.................................................................. 70

6.1
SOFT REDUCTION......................................................................................................... 71
6.2
CLEAN STEEL FOR CONTINUOUS CASTING.........................................................................72
6.3
PREVENTION OF CONTAMINATION.....................................................................................73
6.3.1 Ladle to Tundish................................................................................................... 73
6.3.2 In the Tundish...................................................................................................... 73
6.3.3 Tundish to Mould.................................................................................................. 74
6.4
THE FIRST STAGE OF SOLIDIFICATION IN THE MOULD........................................................74
6.5
EFFECT OF STEEL COMPOSITION ON SHELL FORMATION.......................................................75
6.6
THE INFLUENCE OF STEEL COMPOSITION ON AS CAST QUALITY.............................................76
7)
Data Analysis............................................................................................. 77
8)
Conclusions............................................................................................... 78
Table of Figures
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
1 Process flow at BSP..................................................................................... 13

2 Schematic LD Vessel...................................................................................17
3 Process flow diagram of SMS-II...................................................................19
4 Schematic: Vacuum Degasser.....................................................................25
5 Schematic Ladle Furnace............................................................................26
6 Schematic R.H. Degasser............................................................................29
7 Binary system of CaO - Al2O3......................................................................34
8 Hydrogen induced cracking........................................................................41
9 Hydrogen Blistering and Embrittlement......................................................41
10 Solubility of Gas Decreases with Decrease In Partial Pressure of Gas.......42
12 CaO-Al2O3 Binary system..........................................................................50
13 Schematic Porous Plug.............................................................................. 56
14 Alloy feeding Mechanism..........................................................................60
15 Multi-Lab Hydris, pneumatic unit, lance and Hydris sensors.....................65
16 Hydris insert before final assembly in a cardboard tube...........................66
17 Hydris pneumatic unit............................................................................... 67
18 Hydris measurement principle..................................................................68
19 A typical measurement in the calculation only mode...............................69
20 Graphical representation of the soft reduction zone.................................71
1.INTRODUCTION TO BHILAI STEEL PLANT

1) Historical Background
2) Process Description in BSP
3) Achievements
4) Products of Bhilai Steel Plant
5) Purpose of visiting BSP
6) Purpose of selecting this topic
1.1.
Historical Background
Bhilai Steel Plant, a symbol of Indo-Soviet techno-economic collaboration, is one of the

first three integrated steel plants set up by Government of India to build up a sound base for
the industrial growth of the country.
The agreement for setting up the plant of 1 MT capacity Ingot steel was signed between
the Government of erstwhile USSR and India on 2nd February, 1955. And only after a short
period of 4 years, India entered the main stream of the steel producers with the
commissioning of its first Blast Furnace on 4th February, 1959 by the then President of India,
Dr Rajendra Prasad. Commissioning of all the units of 1 MT stage was completed in 1961.
BSP expanded its production capacity in two phases - first to 2.5 MT which was
completed on Sept. 1, 1967 and then on to 4 MT which was completed in the year 1988. The
plant now consists of ten coke oven batteries. Six of them are 4.4 meters tall. The 7 meter
tall fully automated Batteries No 9 & 10 are among the most modern in India. Of BSP's seven
blast furnaces, three are of 1033 cu. meter capacity each, three of 1719 cu. meter and one
is 2000 cu. meter capacity. Most of them have been modernised incorporating state-of-theart technology.
All the units of the plant have been laid out in sequential formation according to
technological inter-relationship so as to ensure uninterrupted flow of in-process materials like
Coke, Sinter, Molten Iron, Hot Ingots, as well as disposal of metallurgical wastages and slag
etc., minimizing the length of various inter-plant communications, utilities and services.
BSP meets its raw material requirements by its own captive mines spread over 10929.80
acres. Iron ore comes from Rajhara group of mines, 85 kms south-west of Bhilai. Limestone
requirements are met by Nandini mines, 20 kms north of Bhilai and dolomite comes from
Hirri in Bilaspur district, 135 kms east of the plant. To meet the future requirement of iron
ore, another mining site Rowghat , situated about 100 km south of Rajhara, is being
developed.
Steel Authority of India limited is the largest steel producer in India with a turnover of Rs.
47, 041 crores in the financial year 2011-2012. Steel and its products are undoubtedly the
pillar and anchor of material developments through the ages.
It is a substantial part of material science and a key material in product development in
modern technological advancement. It is the base material for over 2500 different grades of
products.
The world production of crude steel as reported by world steel association is to a great
extent more than any other metal product; this also proves its wide versatility in material
Consumption.
Its world productions in million metric tons are 1327, 1219, 1413 and 1490 in the year
2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 respectively. India is on 4th in the production of steel and the
productions in million metric tons are 58, 63, 69 and 72.2 in the year 2008, 2009, 2010 and
2011 respectively.
1.2.
PRODUCTS OF BSP
BSP is the sole manufacturer of rails and producer of the widest and heaviest plates in India.
BSP specializes in the high strength UTS 90 rails, high tensile and boiler quality plates, TMT
bars, and electrode quality wire rods. It is a major exporter of steel products with over 70%
of total exports from the Steel Authority of India Limited being from Bhilai. The products of
Bhilai Steel Plant are:-
Product
Type
Product
End use / consumers
Rails in 13m, 26m, 65/78 m length and welded

Rail &
FINISHED
panels of 130m/260m length Indian Railways, Export
Structural
PRODUCTS
Heavy Structural Construction Crane Rails Cranes
Mill
Crossing sleepers Broad gauge sleepers
Merchant Light structural engineering and construction,
Mill
medium rounds (plain & TMT), heavy rounds (plain)
Wire Rod Wire rods - plain construction wire rods - TMT EQ wire
Mill
rods electrodes
Plates boilers, defence, railways, shipbuilding, LPG
Plate Mill
cylinders, export
Billets
SEMIS
(from
Re-rollers
BBM)
Blooms
(from
BBM)
Narrow
width
slabs
CC blooms
Killed
slabs
IRON
Pig iron
Foundry
Coal chemicals, ammonium sulphate (fertilizer), tar
By
CHEMICALS
and tar products, (pitch, naphthalene, creosote oil,
products
road tar, Anthracene
1.3.
ACHIEVEMENTS
A leader in terms of profitability, productivity and energy conservation, BSP has

maintained growth despite recent difficult market conditions. Bhilai is the only steel plant to
have been awarded the Prime Minister's Trophy for the best integrated steel plant in the
country nine times.
The distinction of being the first integrated steel plant with all major production units and
marketable products covered under ISO 9002 Quality Certification belongs to BSP. This
includes manufacture of blast furnace coke and coal chemicals, production of hot metal and
pig iron, steel making through Twin Hearth and Basic Oxygen processes, manufacture of
steel slabs and blooms by Continuous Casting, and production of hot rolled steel blooms,
billets and rails, structural plates, steel sections and wire rods. The plant's Quality Assurance
System has subsequently been awarded ISO 9001:2000.
Bhilai Steel Plant also has ISO 14001 certification for its Environment Management
System and its Dalli Mines. It also has introduced various environment-friendly technologies
like Coal Dust Injection System in the Blast Furnaces, de-dusting units and electrostatic
precipitators in other units together with a vigorous afforestation program.
1.4.
Process Description in Bhilai Steel Plant
Steel is made through Twin Hearth furnaces in Steel Melting Shop I as well as through LD
Convertor - Continuous Casting route in Steel Melting Shop II. Production of cleaner steel is
ensured by flame enrichment and oxygen blowing in SMS I while secondary steel making
processes such as Vacuum Arc Degassing unit, RH (Ruhshati Heraus) Degassing Unit, and
ladle furnace refining in ensures homogenous steel chemistry in SMS II. Rh degasser mainly
used to remove hydrogen from rail steel and Ladle Furnace is used for minor alloying
addition and temperature control for casting shop.
The Rolling Mill complex consists of the Blooming & Billet Mill, Rail & Structural Mill,
Merchant Mill, Wire Rod Mill and also a most modern Plate Mill. While input to the BBM and
subsequently to Merchant Mill and Wire Rod Mill comes from the Twin Hearth Furnaces, the
Rail & Structural Mill and Plate mill roll long and flat products respectively from continuously
cast blooms and slabs only. Also there are Ore Handling Plant, three Sintering Plants, two
110 MW generating captive Power Plants, two Oxygen Plants, Engineering Shops, Machine
Shops and a host of other supporting agencies giving Bhilai a lot of self-sufficiency in
fulfilling the rigorous demands of an integrated steel plant.
1.4.1 Plant facilities

Blast Furnaces:
3 of 1033 Cu m capacity each
3 of 1719 Cu m capacity each
1 of 2355 Cu m capacity
Hot Metal Capacity : 4.70 MT / year
Steel Melting Shop:
Steel-making through BOF, VAD/Ladle Furnace/RH-Degasser and Continuous
casting route
3 converters of 110/130 T
VAD unit, 2 RH degasser,2 Ladle furnace
4 Slab Casters, 1 bloom caster, 1 Combi caster
Annual Capacity: 1.425 MT Cast steel
Converter Shop :
3 BOF 110/130 T Convertors
Secondary Refining facilities :
1 VAD unit, 2 RH degassers, 2 Ladle furnaces, 1 Desulphurisation Unit
Continuous Casting Shop:
4 Slab Casters, 1bloom caster, 1Combi caster
Steel-making through Twin Hearth Furnace (THF) route :
4 THFs of 250 T capcity each
Annual capacity 2.5 MT ingot steel
Blooming & Billet Mill
14 pairs of recuperative soaking pits
Capacity to produce 2.14 MT/year of blooms
Capacity to produce 1.50 MT/year of billets
Rail & Structural Mill
Capacity - 7,50,000 T
Merchant Mill
Wire Rod Mill
Plate Mill
Capacity
Plates thickness
Width
Length
9,50,000 T
8-120 mm
1500-3270 mm
5-12.5 M
Figure 1 Process flow at BSP
1.5.
Purpose of visiting BSP
Bhilai Steel Plant (BSP) is one of the giant leaders in steel industry in terms of
profitability, productivity and energy conservation and it has also maintained growth despite
recent difficult market condition. Steel grades confirming to various national and
international specifications are produced here. Production of cleaner steel is ensured by
flame enrichment and oxygen blowing in SMS I while secondary refining in Vacuum Arc
Degassing ensures homogenous steel chemistry in SMS II. Also in SMS II there are two 130 T
capacity RH (Ruhshati Heraus)Degassing Units , installed mainly to remove hydrogen for rail
steel and Ladle Furnaces to meet present and future requirements of quality steel. BSP is
capable of providing the cleanest and finest grade of steel. It consists of the Blooming &
Billet Mill, Rail & Structural Mill, Merchant Mill and also a most modern Plate Mill. The total
length of rails rolled at here so far would circumvent the globe more than 4.5 times.
1.6.
Purpose of selecting this topic
Production of Rail Steel & various defense steels require stringent control over the
chemistry of steel (H2 < 1.5 ppm for rail steel and specific amount of various alloying
elements for greater hardness and toughness in defense alloys) and higher production rates
to meet demands. We undertook this project to grasp the underlying concepts, the
Metallurgy and practices used at Ladle furnace and Rh degasser to make these fine
adjustments and to assist in increasing production rates by adjusting temperature and
chemistry for uninterrupted casting.
2.Introduction to Steel Melting Shop II and Its

Units
1) Introduction to SMS-II
2) Convertor shop
3) Continuous Casting Shop
Secondary Steel Making Units
Casting Bay
Other Units
4) Co-ordination Between Convertor and Continuous Casting Machines
2.1 Introduction to SMS-II

Steel Melting Shop-II (SMS-II) is designed to produce 1.5 MT of Cast Steel in the form of
Slabs and Blooms. The shop was commissioned on 29th of July'1984. With every passing
day, the shop has improved its systems and processes. Many in-house modifications along
with acquisition of most modern steel making equipments have helped in fulfilment of ever
increasing customer demands in terms of quality and quantity. The revised production
capacity is estimated to be about 1.8 MT.
SMS-II is equipped with secondary steel making units like VAD, Ladle Furnace and RH
Degasser to produce low hydrogen, low sulphur and micro-alloy steels.
SMS II comprises of 2 units

A) Converter Shop
B) Continuous Casting Shop
2.2 Convertor Shop

The Converter Shop has 3 converters of 130 T capacities each. The working lining of the
Converter is of 690 mm Magnesia Carbon bricks. The lining life has increased from 100
Heats with TBDB in the beginning to a level of 6252 Heats in SEP'2006 with Magnesia carbon
bricks.
Figure 2 Schematic LD Vessel
Tap to tap time of the Converters is around 60 minutes, with an average heat weight of
nearly 120 Tons.
There are two hot metal charging cranes of 180 + 50 T capacity and a semi-portal crane of
40 + 40 T capacity. Lance handling cranes of 30 / 5 T capacity have also been provided for
fixing and changing of oxygen lances, converter relining and other related maintenance
activities. The operation cycle of the converter is as follows :
a)
Charging
5 Min
b)
Oxygen blowing
20 min
c)
Sampling & temperature measurement
8 min
d)
Corrections before tapping
5 min
e)
Tapping
5 min
f)
Nitrogen splashing, coating & deslagging
7 min
TOTAL
50 min
2.2.1
Process Flow in Convertor Shop
Before charging, the converter is inspected for lining condition, after which scrap and
hot metal are charged. For getting the prediction of O 2 and bulk material, hot metal weight
analyses, temperature and scrap weight is fed to the computer before start of blow. As per
perdition O2 is blown and the bulk materials are charged through a computerised addition
system during the oxygen blowing process. Oxygen blowing is done for about 18 min
according to computer model prediction. The oxygen is blown through a 5-hole nozzle,
water cooled lance, at a pressure of 16 Kg/Cm 2 and a flow rate of 400 - 450 NM 3 /min.
After the blow, convertor is tilted for sample & temp. Reconditioning of bath is done
with O2 and lime addition if bath analysis deviate from desired analysis i.e. reblowing is
done.
The analysis of the steel sample is checked in the site laboratory. Tapping of steel is
done after necessary adjustment in temperature and chemistry.
The steel is tapped into a 130 T steel ladle, placed on steel transfer car moving below
the converter. Ferro-Alloy additions are made in the ladle as per the requirement of the
grade
of
steel.
The steel tapped from here has various possible routes:
i)
Through Argon Rinsing Unit to the Con-cast machines (in case of normal slab
grade heats).
ii)
Through VAD unit (in case of special steel heats like API, Boiler Quality and
Rail Steels).
iii)
Through Ladle Furnace & RH Degasser route (in case of Rail Steels).
The figure below represents the process flow at SMS-II
Figure 3 Process flow diagram of SMS-II
2.2.2
Mixer Section
The main function of Mixer is to supply Hot Metal (Pig Iron) to the converters at a
fairly uniform temperature and composition, in required quantity whenever demanded. The
mixer acts as a buffer between the Blast Furnaces and the Converters.
There are two mixers of 1300 T capacity each. At a time only one mixer is kept in
operation.
The pig iron reaches mixer in ladles of 100 T capacities. The metal from these ladles
is poured into the mixer with the help of two 125 + 30 T cranes. Burners are provided in the
mixer to maintain the temperature of hot metal. Metal from the mixer is supplied to the
converters by hot metal ladles, kept on self- propelled hot metal transfer cars. Weigh bridges
are provided to weigh the quantity of hot metal supplied.
2.2.3
Scrap Yard
Scrap yard receives the scraps generated from all over the plant in wagons and
trucks. Two 30 T magnet cranes do the unloading / loading of scrap. Scrap is supplied to the
converters in 11 M3 scrap boxes kept on two scrap transfer cars. Two weigh scales below the
scrap transfer car track check quantity of scrap supplied.
2.2.4
Ladle Preparation Section
As the name suggests, the steel casting ladles, required for tapping of steel from
converters are prepared here. There are 28 ladles of 130 T capacities each. All the ladles
have provision for bottom purging through porous plugs and fitted with slide gate FLOCON
6300 system for pouring of steel for casting.
Two 75+15 T (100 + 20 T MODIFIED) cranes and 5 T cantilever cranes are provided
here.
The ladles are lined with magnesia carbon bricks to withstand the heat and erosion
during treatment in the VAD, LF and RH units. Repair of ladle lining, pre-heating, fixing of
slide gate system, purging system is the major activity of this section.
2.2.5
Slag Pot Handling Section
The slag produced during steel making is poured out of the converter into 16 M3 slag
pots (also called thimbles). The slag cups are loaded on to the tilting type slag cars with the
help of two 100/20 T slag pot cranes. The tilting slag cars are taken by locomotives to the
slag yard where the slag cups are tilted and emptied. They are then coated with lime and
received back in slag pot handling section to be used again.There are 26 Thimbles and 20
Slag tilting cars to handle Convertor shop slag.
2.2.6
Bulk Material Handling
The following Bulk Materials are handled in this section :

1)
Lime.
2)
Calcined Dolomite.
3)
Lime stone.
4)
Coke.
5)
Raw Dolomite.
6)
Iron Ore
Lime and calcined dolomite are used as fluxes; Iron Ore & Limestone are used as
coolants. Coke is used for pre-heating the converter and coating. Lime and calcined dolomite
are received from RMP-II & RMP-I. Limestone, Iron ore and dolomite come from OHP. Coke is
received from Coke Ovens Department.
All these materials come in the bunkers at a location called junction-34, from where it
is supplied by conveyors to the Converter Shop via junction-35, and distributed to their
respective bunkers by means of reversible shuttle conveyor.
Each converter has 9 bunkers, 3 for lime, 2 for calcined dolomite, 1 for raw dolomite,
1 for Iron ore, 1 for limestone and 1 for coke. Required quantities of these materials are
charged into the converter by means of weigh scales of 5 T and 1 T capacity. The 5 T weigh
scale is for Lime and 1 T scale for other materials.
Very sophisticated microprocessor based system, of weighing and then charging of
bulk materials into converter, is installed in the main control pulpit.
2.2.7
Gas Cleaning Section
This is a modern and sophisticated plant, which cools, cleans, and collects the gases
emerging from the mouth of the converter during oxygen blowing. The system is based on
suppressed combustion principle (air factor 0.1) i.e. the gases rich in CO are not allowed to
come in contact with the atmospheric oxygen and are stored for use as a fuel.
The gases at converter mouth are at a temperature of 1850 - 1900 C and contain
above 230 Gms of dust per NM3. They pass through water cooled hood and stack. The gas
cools to 1019 C at the end of the stack. The gas then enters the quencher, where water is
sprayed on by nozzles, cooling the gas to 72 C, and removing the dust which goes out in
the form of slurry.
The cooled and partially cleaned gas enters the kinpactor venturi where it is cleaned
further. The kinpactor venturi has a variable throat, opening of which is adjusted to maintain
a pressure of 1 mm w.c at converter mouth by regulating the flow of gas to avoid any
infiltration of air into the system or any possibility of gases escaping to atmosphere.
The gases then pass through a mist eliminator to remove any water droplets. After
this gases go to ID Fan, and then to the changeover valve which directs the gases to the
recovery side if the carbon monoxide content is more than 45 %, otherwise, the gases are
burnt and let off into the atmosphere through a flare stack.
The gases to be recovered pass through a booster fan and a hydraulic non-return
valve before going to the gasholder of 40,000 M3 capacities where they are collected over
water.
Before gasholder, the dust content of the gases is 100 Mg/NM3. The gases pass
through an electrostatic precipitator after the gasholder to reduce the dust content to 10
mg/ NM3. This gas is called LD Gas and is used as a fuel. The calorific value of the converter
gas is 2000 k.cal/Cu.m and the average composition is :
CO
65 - 70 %
CO2 = 15 - 20 %
O2
N2
0.10 %
15 - 20 %
About 85 M3 gas is recovered per ton of steel.
2.3 Continuous Casting Shop

Continuous Casting Shop comprises the following sections :
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Argon Rinsing Bay

Tundish preparation Bay
Casting Bay
VAD (Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit)
Ladle Furnace
RH Degasser
Discharge Bay
Slab & Bloom Storage Yard (SBS)
Mould Repair Shop
Casting Powder Plant (SFMPP)
This shop has three single strand radial slab casters, one 4-strand radial bloom caster
and a combi caster - which can be converted to a slab caster or a 3-strand bloom caster as
per requirement. All sections of the Continuous Casting Shop except the Mould Repair Shop
& Casting Powder Plant are parallel to Converter Shop bays. Converter Shop has 3 LD
Converters of capacity 130 Tons each. Liquid steel is taken in 130 T steel casting ladle
transfer car. There are 3 such cars, each running on separate rail track - stretching from
below each converter to casting bay via on-line Argon Rinsing Station. An additional ladle car
is provided for returning the empty ladles.
2.3.1
Argon Rinsing Bay
At Argon Rinsing Bay, the ladle tapped (with liquid steel) is received on the steel car.
Argon / Nitrogen gas is bubbled into the liquid metal from top through a refractory lined
lance called the argon rinsing lance. The rinsing operation does homogenisation of
temperature & composition of liquid metal, as well as deoxidation is carried out by Al
addition. Temperature is measured after rinsing and steel sample is sent to the lab for
analysis. Trimming additions are done as per requirement, for achieving targeted chemistry
of Carbon, Manganese and Aluminium content in steel. If the temperature of the liquid metal
is high, it is brought down by further rinsing, after which heats are sent to CCS machines at
required temperature or sent to secondary steel making units like VAD, LF or RHD.
2.3.2
Secondary Steel Making Processes:
LD process is most fitting for tonnage steel production but it has its limitations on the
quality front due to dissolved gases such as H 2 and N2. So for the production of high quality
steel, secondary refining units are used all over the world.
SMS-II secondary refining units comprise three units:
1)
Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit (VAD)
2)
Ladle Furnace (LF)
3)
RH Degasser (RHD)
2.3.2.1 VAD (Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit)

The VAD unit was commissioned on 17th January'1991. The unit consists of a
vacuum chamber where ladle tapped with liquid steel from converter is placed for
treatment. There is a provision of inert gas (Argon) purging from the bottom. The vacuum
chamber is made air tight with a metallic cover with the help of special type of rubber
sealing. and is connected to vacuum pumps comprising a series of ejector system and
condensers. High pressure super-heated steam is used for creating vacuum as low as 1
millibar or less.
The unit is also provided with heating facility and ferro alloy addition system for
temperature and chemistry adjustments. Heating is done by submerged arcing with the help
of three columns of graphite electrodes using electrical energy. A dedicated transformer is
provided for the purpose. Partial vacuum is maintained in the vacuum chamber to suck out
any fume or dust generated during arc heating. Continuous purging of bath from the bottom
helps in temperature and composition homogenisation. A separate pump house along with
cooling towers and settling tanks is provided to cater to the water requirement of VAD unit.
Continuous chemical dozing of water current is ensured to avoid any deposition and also to
ensure auto corrosive coating inside the narrow pipe lines.
A CaO / Alumina rich slag is formed by addition of lime and prefused synthetic
slag for facilitating desulphurisation if required. A 50 T / 15 T EOT crane, 3 T telpher and 1 T
jib crane are provided for handling and maintenance purposes.
The VAD unit thus serves following functions :

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Temperature adjustment
Chemistry adjustment
Desulphurisation
Removal of dissolved gasses ( H2, N2, O2 )
De-oxidation as per requirement.
TECHNICAL DATA OF VAD

Heat size nominal
110 - 115 T
Free Board necessary
600 - 800 mm
Transformer rating
24 MVA
Roof lifting
Electrode lifting
Type of electrode
Hydraulic, 2 cylinder
:
Hydraulic
Graphite low density
No of electrodes in a column
Diameter of electrode
457 mm
Electrical power HT
11 KV
Electrical power LT
415 V
Heating rate
3 - 4 C / minute of arcing
Industrial Water:
Pressure
3.5 Kg / Cm2 minimum
Inlet temperature
32 C Max
Outlet temperature
41 C approx.
Maximum flow rate
650 M3 / Hr
Flow rate during heating :
50 M3 / Hr
Soft Water:
Pressure
5.0 Kg / Cm2
Inlet temperature
32 C
Flow Rate
80+20m3/Hr (for heat shield) primary,

& 100 m3/Hr Secondary.
Compressed Air:
Pressure
3 Kg / Cm2
Consumption / treatment
2 - 3 NM3
Argon:
Pressure at manifold
Flow rate for stirring
:
:
4 - 10 Kg / Cm2
70 NL/ min (Avg.) & 200 NL/ min
Max
Nitrogen pressure:
For releasing electrode clamps
Type of Vacuum Pump
pump with
:
:
25 Kg / Cm2
6 stage steam jet vacuum
1 starting ejector and 1 heating

ejector.
Steam:
Pressure at manifold
13 Kg / Cm2
Temperature at take over point

Soft water for de-superheating
Temperature at manifold
:
Flow rate during degassing (ejector 1 to 6) :
Flow rate during heating
:
:
350 - 375 C
:
1.6 M 3 / Hr Approx.
220 C
10.5 T / Hr
0.800 T / Hr
Figure 4 Schematic: Vacuum Degasser
2.3.2.2 Ladle Furnace

Ladle Furnace and RH Degasser units are recent additions to SMS-II. The equipment
and technology of 130 T Ladle Furnace was given by M/s GA Danieli. The unit was started on
23rd December'1999.
Ladle Furnace is a heating unit where liquid steel tapped in ladle from converter can
be heated using the similar principle that of VAD unit. Continuous inert gas (Argon) bottom
purging is done for temperature and chemistry homogenisation.
The lid of Ladle Furnace is water cooled and is provided with three holes for three
columns of electrodes, one hole for ferro alloy addition and one for aluminium / Calcium
silicide wire injection.
A 2 T jib crane is provided for electrode column preparation and replacement of same
in Ladle Furnace. A dedicated fume extraction system with bag filters for dust separation is
provided to suck out the fumes and dust generated during arcing. Ladle Furnace performs
all the functions of VAD excepting removal of dissolved gasses.
Figure 5 Schematic Ladle Furnace
TECHNICAL DATA OF LADLE FURNACE

Heat size nominal
130 T
Transformer rating (continuous)
Roof lifting
Hydraulic Cylinder
28 MVA
Electrode lifting
Hydraulic Cylinder
Electrode de-clamping
Hydraulic Cylinder
Type of electrode
Graphite (High density)
No of electrodes in 1 column:
Diameter of electrode
457 mm
Heating rate
3 - 5 C / min of arcing
Electrical Power HT
11 KV
Electrical Power LT
Industrial water:
Pressure
Inlet temperature
Circulation rate
Make up rate
Emergency requirement
Soft Water:
Pressure
Inlet temperature
Circulation rate
Make up rate
415 V
:
:
4 Kg / Cm2
35 C
:
260 M3 / Hr
15 M3 / Hr
:
100 M3
:
:
:
4 Kg / Cm2
35 C
:
60 M3 / Hr
3.5 M3 / Hr
Compressed Air:
Pressure
Requirement
:
:
3 - 4 Kg / Cm2
235 M3 / Hr
Argon:
Pressure
Requirement
:
:
4 ~ 16 Kg / Cm2
48 NM3 / Hr
Nitrogen:
Pressure
:
Requirement (Normal)
Requirement (Intermittent) :
4 ~ 8 Kg / Cm2
:
35 NM3 / Hr
48 NM3 / Hr
2.3.2.3 RH Degasser
The state of the art RH Degasser unit was supplied, erected and commissioned by
M/s Technometal, Germany and M/s Voest Alpine India on a turnkey basis. The unit was
started on 30th March'2000.
RH Degasser is basically a degassing unit. The principle of creating vacuum is
similar to that of VAD unit but there is basic difference in the working principle of the two.
VAD is a tank degasser while RH Degasser belongs to circulating degassing system.
There is a vessel with inlet and outlet snorkels both lined with refractory. The
vessel is immersed into the liquid steel. Inside the inlet snorkel two layers of inert gas supply
lines are installed. The vessel is subjected to low vacuum. The metal level rises in both the
snorkels due to barometric pressure. Inert gas stirring via the lift gas nozzles in the inlet
snorkel causes a partial quantity of melt to be lifted into the RH vessel which subsequently
comes back to ladle through down leg snorkel. Consequently a high turbulent flow from the
inlet to the down leg snorkel takes place. Once into the ladle, the steel flows quite slowly to
the bottom of the ladle and turns back upwards to the uplid snorkel, when velocity is
increased again. Thus the recirculation of molten steel is started and complete heat thus
passes several times through the
RH vessel. The metal inside the RH vessel is exposed to vacuum level of 1 millibar
or less and so dissolved gasses (H2, N2, O2) in the steel is reduced. The circulation rate of
molten steel is as high as 130 T / minute.
The RH process is thus faster and effective than VAD process. The process is most
suitable for making Rail Steel which requires H2 concentration level less than 1.6 ppm. Also
the obtained purity of Al-Si killed grade steel is very high due to effective separation and
removal of non-metallic inclusions during the process. The unit is provided with ferro-alloy
addition system for any trimming addition required during degassing. A separate pump
house along with cooling towers and settling tanks are provided to meet the water
requirements of RH Degasser unit. A unique swivel joint system is provided for lifting and
lowering of RH vessel along with its suction pipes. An off line pre-heating burner is used for
heating the vessel along with snorkels after fresh lining. An extremely sophisticated burner
is provided for heating the vessel at the treatment place whenever required.
Figure 6 Schematic R.H. Degasser
2.3.3
Tundish preparation Bay
Tundish preparation bay has been provided with the facilities for relining and
preparation of tundishes. The bay is serviced by two 50 T / 10 T EOT cranes.
Tundish capacity is of 10 Tons and 20 Tons, for slab and bloom caster respectively.
2.3.4
Casting Bay
In the casting bay all the continuous casting machines are located. This bay is
divided into two blocks. In one block there are three slab casters and in the other block one
combi caster & one bloom caster are located. The casting bay is serviced by three 180 T / 50
T /15 T / EOT cranes and two 50 T semi-portal cranes. The working platform of the bay is at
+ 13.15 Metres elevation.
The rated capacity of Converter Shop & Continuous Casting Shop is raised to 1.8 MT
of cast steel production per annum.
GENERAL FEATURES OF SLAB CASTERS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Radius of machine & mould

:
12000 mm
Length of copper mould
:
1000 mm
Maximum casting speed
:
1.2 M / min
Metallurgical length of machine
:
23 metres
Dummy bay insertion speed
:
4 M / min (Max)
Range of frequency of mould oscillation
:
6 to 13 mm
:
15 - 100 cycles / min
(Increasing with casting speed)
Grades of steel cast
:
Killed, structural & Alloy steel
Cross section of slabs produced
:
200 x 1300, 200 x 1500,250
8.
9.
x 1500
Total tonnage of cast from all the slab casters
1.18
OPERATIONAL DATA FOR SLAB CASTER:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Rated casting speed

Casting time for 120 T heat
Water consumption mould
Total water consumption
Secondary cooling zone
Length of slab cut at gas cutting machine
:
:
:
:
0.5 - 1.0 M / min

55 - 70 min
350 - 500 Cu M / Hr
90 - 130 Cu.M / Hr
6 - 10.5 M
GENERAL FEATURES OF BLOOM CASTER:

1.
2.
Radius of machine and mould

Length of copper moulds
:
12000 mm
1000 mm
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Maximum casting speed of strands

Metallurgical length
Dummy bar insertion speed
Range of amplitude of mould oscillation
Grade of steel cast
Cross section of cast blooms
2.3.5
:
:
:
:
:
6 M / min
24 M
4 M / min
:
6 - 13 mm
:
15 - 100 cycles / min
Rail and structural steels.
300 x 340
Slab & Bloom Storage Yard (SBS)
The slab & Bloom storage yard is 374 M long and 108 M wide arranged in 3 bays,
each 36 M wide. All the cast products of CCS are received here. Slabs for plate mill are cut
into desired size, inspected for visible surface defects and conditioned by scarfing. Accepted
slabs are sent to plate mill for rolling as per rolling plan. Slabs for despatch are inspected,
conditioned and despatched to designated customers through wagons placed on 4 different
tracks laid perpendicular to bays. Blooms are despatched through wagons to Rail &
Structural Mill for rolling.
The yard consists of following facilities for handling, inspection, conditioning, storage
& despatch of cast products.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Gas cutting Machine - 3 Nos for Slab, 1 No for Bloom

5 EOT cranes of 46 T & 64 T hook capacity. Crane Nos 2106, 2107, 2108, 209 & 2110
3 finger cranes 16 T each. Crane Nos F1, F2 & F3
3 gripper cranes 18 T each. Crane Nos 1, 2, 4 with GCM's
6 semi-portal cranes 32 T each. Crane Nos 1 to 6
2.3.6
Mould Repair Shop
In the Mould repair shop, old (used) moulds for casting are repaired and new moulds
are also assembled.
2.3.7
Casting Powder Plant (SFMPP)
In the Powder Plant, also called SFMPP (slag formation mixture preparation
plant) casting powder for slab and bloom casters is prepared by mechanical mixing of
ingredients.
2.3.8
Brief Description Of Continuous Casting Shop
After tapping of liquid steel into steel teeming ladle, the ladle is moved to the Argon
Rinsing Bay. Here the steel is rinsed for proper homogenisation and achieving desired
temperature of liquid steel for casting. After this the ladle is transferred to casting bay by
steel transfer car or sent to secondary steel units for further processing. The steel ladle
received from Secondary steel units or Argon Bay is placed on the Lift & Turn Stand of
Casting machines by means of casting cranes of 180 T capacities. Tundish is brought to the
casting position and the sub-entry nozzle is aligned with the centre of mould. The ladle is
turned to the casting position and placed above the tundish. After this command from the
casting In-charge is received for opening the ladle slide gate. After the slide gate is opened
metal from the ladle is taken into the tundish through a refractory lined pipe called the
shroud. When the metal level in tundish is attained, metal is taken into the mould of
machine through a sub-entry nozzle. When the mould is filled to the working level, mould
oscillation is started and the casting is started at 0.2 m / min speed, and speed is increased
gradually to a constant working speed. When the dummy bay comes out of the roll zone the
holding device hook holds it. When the dummy bar head reaches the withdrawal roll stand, it
is separated from the stand (slab or bloom)
The strand is cut at the gas cutting machine into the desired lengths and cut slabs /
blooms are transported to SBS Yard. 10 minutes before the metal in the ladle finishes,
another ladle is placed on the reserve arm of L & T stand & kept ready. As soon as the metal
in the first ladle finishes, the L & T is rotated by 180 and the sequence ladle comes to
casting position and the ladle is opened for casting. Thus sequence of casting is maintained.
Sequence of casting is maintained depending on the grade of steel being cast. At the end of
casting, tail end of strand is quickly removed form the machine by increasing the speed and
the machine is checked & prepared for next casting.
MAJOR IMPROVEMENTS & ACHIEVEMENTS (SINCE INCEPTION OF SMS-II) :
1.
2.
3.
4.
INCREASE IN LINING LIFE OF CONVERTER TO 6252 HEATS.

PRODUCTION OF RAIL STEEL WITH LESS THAN 2 PPM HYDROGEN AND LOW
SULPHUR STEELS LIKE API AND BS GRADES.
IN-HOUSE IMPROVEMENT IN CASTING MACHINES TO IMPROVE QUALITY OF STEEL AND
YIELD.
5. REDUCTION IN CONSUMPTION OF INPUTS LIKE HOT METAL, LIME AND FERRO ALLOYS.
6. HIGHEST EVER PRODUCTION OF 84 HEATS ON 29-03-2005.
2.4 Coordination between Convertor and Continuous

Casting Machines
Secondary Steel Making Units are designed for maintaining proper coordination between
Convertor & CCM for an uninterrupted casting operation. Among other parameters, the
parameters Temperature, Chemistry and Time majorly influence the casting operations.
Heat, Therefore, before going to continuous casting shop, is taken through various
secondary steel making units ((VAD)/ (LF-Rh)) for maintaining proper temperature and
chemistry. The parameters influence the Casting operation in the following manner.
2.4.1
Temperature
When Heat is transferred from converter to ladle furnace via ladle transfer cars and
cranes, there is temperature drop which can later on prove detrimental to casting. Heat is
subjected to temperature rise at ladle furnace by arcing. A temperature rise of almost
4C/min is observed. Proper attention should be paid to temperature rise and it should not
rise beyond 1635C at any cost otherwise it can lead to solidification problems at CCS.
Generally the heat is taken out of LF at 1620 C and sent to R-H degasser where there is
temperature drop of almost 2.5 C/min. Degassing takes place for 15 minutes. The
temperature at Lf is so adjusted that even after a temperature drop at R-H degasser; it
should have a Superheat of 30-35C When it reaches CCS. High as well as low Temperature
poses serious problems in CCS.
Problems in casting due to low temperature: - If the Heat is sent to CCS at or near the
liquidus temperature, it may lead to freezing of metal in submerged entry nozzle (SEN) or
freezing of metal in mould.
Problems in casting due to High temperature: - If heat is sent to CCS at much higher
superheat, we have to reduce metal through put to avoid problems in solidification which
later on leads to clogging on SEN due to accumulation of Non-Metallic Inclusions.
2.4.2
Chemistry
Chemistry of the Heat plays an important role in uninterrupted casting. Aluminium

wire is added to the heat to produce killed steel. Alumina inclusions occur as deoxidation
products in the aluminium based deoxidation of steel. Pure alumina has a melting point
above 2000C,i.e., these alumina inclusions are present in a solid state in liquid steel. The
addition of calcium to steel which contains such inclusions changes the composition of these
inclusions from pure alumina to CaO-containing calcium aluminates, as
it can be observed from the CaO-Al2O3 binary system, the melting point of the calcium
aluminates will decrease as the CaO content increases, until liquid oxide phases occur at
about 22% of CaO, i.e., when the CaO.2Al2O3 compound is first exceeded at 1600 C. The
liquid phase content continues to increase as CaO content rises further and is 100% at 35%
of CaO. The minimum melting temperature for the liquid calcium aluminates is around
1400C, i.e., when C12A7 forms. Such liquid calcium aluminates may be present in liquid
form until, or even after, the steel solidifies .If the sulphur content of the steel is high,
calcium will react with sulphur forming solid CaS, which could clog up the continuous casting
nozzle.so the sulphur content should be low to avoid such a Possibility.
That is why in BSP there are strict rules for addition of Ca-Si wire to the melt. They are as
follows:1.
2.
3.
When sulphur <0.020%, 200m of Ca-Si wire to be added having Average

powder wt./length=232g/m.
When sulphur 0.020%,-0.025%, 150 m of Ca-Si wire to be added having
Average powder wt./length=232g/m.
When sulphur >0.025%, no Ca-Si to be added
Figure 7 Binary system of CaO - Al2O3
2.4.3
Time
Time also plays an important role in proper coordination between Ladle furnace and
continuous casting. Heat should reach in proper time at CCS from LF otherwise there would
be significant temperature drop from LF to CCS which would pose serious problems in
casting. Moreover, delay in transfer of heat from LF to CCS may lead to discontinuity in
continuous casting operation.
3.Literature Survey: Secondary Steel Making

1) History of Secondary Steel Making
2) Purpose of Secondary Steel Making
3) Gases in steel
a. Sieverts Law
b. Nitrogen In Steel
c. Hydrogen In Steel
3.1 History of Secondary Steel Making

Prior to 1950 or so, after steel was made in furnaces such as open hearths, converters,
and electric furnaces, its treatment in a ladle was limited in scope and consisted of
deoxidation, carburization by addition of coke or Ferro coke as required, and some minor
alloying. However, more stringent demands on steel quality and consistency in its properties
require controls that are beyond the capability of these steelmaking furnaces. This is
especially true for superior-quality steel products in sophisticated applications. This
requirement has led to the development of various kinds of treatments of liquid steel in
ladles, besides deoxidation. These have witnessed massive growth and, as a result,
have come to be variously known as secondary steelmaking, ladle metallurgy,
secondary processing of liquid steel, or secondary refining of liquid steel. However,
the name secondary steelmaking has more or less received widest acceptance and hence
has been adopted.
Secondary steelmaking has become an integral feature of modern steel plants. The
advent of the continuous casting process, which requires more stringent quality control, is
an added reason for the growth of secondary steelmaking. Steelmaking in furnaces, also
designated now as primary steelmaking, is therefore increasingly employed only for speedy
scrap melting and gross refining, leaving further refining and control to secondary
steelmaking. There are processes, such as vacuum arc refining (VAR) and electro slag
remelting (ESR), that also perform some secondary refining. However, they start with
solidified steel and remelt it. Hence, by convention, these are not included in secondary
steelmaking.
Harmful impurities in steel are sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
They occupy interstitial sites in an iron lattice and hence are known as interstitials. The
principal effects of these impurities in steel are loss of ductility, impact strength, and
corrosion resistance. When it comes to detailed consideration, each element has its own
characteristic influence on steel properties. Oxygen and sulphur are also constituents of nonmetallic particles in steel, known as inclusions. These particles are also harmful to properties
of steel and should be removed as much as possible. Carbon is also present as interstitial in
iron lattice. However, unlike the other interstitials, it is generally not considered to be
harmful impurity and should be present in steel as per specification. But, today, there are
grades of steel in which carbon also should be as low as possible.
Historically, the Perrin process, invented in 1933, is the forerunner of modern
secondary steelmaking. Treatment of molten steel with synthetic slag was the approach.
Vacuum degassing (VD) processes came in the decade of 19501960. The initial objective
was to lower the hydrogen content of liquid steel to prevent cracks in large forging-quality
ingots. Later on, its objective also included lowering of nitrogen and oxygen contents.
Purging with inert gas (Argon) in a ladle using porous bricks or tuyeres (IGP) came later. Its
primary objective was stirring, with consequent homogenization of temperature and
composition of melt. It offered the additional advantage of faster floating out of non-metallic
particles. It was also found possible to lower carbon to a very low value in stainless steel by
treatment of the melt with oxygen under vacuum or along with an argon stream. This led to
development of vacuum-oxygen decarburization (VOD) and argon-oxygen decarburization
(AOD). Synthetic slag treatment and powder injection processes of molten steel in a ladle
were started in late 1960s and early 1970s with the objective of lowering the sulphur
content of steel to the very low level demanded by many applications. This led to the
development of what is known as injection metallurgy (IM). Injection of powders of calcium
bearing reagents, typically calcium silicide, was also found to prevent nozzle clogging by
Al2O3 and lead to inclusion modification, which are of crucial importance in continuous
casting as well as for improved properties. The growth of secondary steelmaking is
intimately associated with that of continuous casting of steel. Up to the decade of the 1960s,
ingot casting was dominant. Now, most of worlds steel is cast via the continuous casting
route. The tolerance levels of interstitial impurities and inclusions are lower in continuous
casting than in ingot casting, and this has made secondary refining more important. For
good quality finished steel, proper macrostructure of the casting is also important, in
addition to the impurity level. This requires close control of the temperature of molten steel
prior to teeming into the continuous casting mold. In traditional pit side practice, without
ladle metallurgical operations, the temperature drop of molten steel from furnace to mold is
around 2040C. An additional temperature drop of about 3050C occurs during secondary
steelmaking. Continuous casting uses pouring through a tundish, causing some further drop
of 1015C. Therefore, provisions for heating and temperature adjustment during secondary
steelmaking are very desirable. This has led to the development of special furnaces such as
the vacuum arc degasser (VAD), ladle furnace (LF). These are very versatile units, capable of
performing various operations.
3.2 Purpose of Secondary Steel Making

Secondary steel making processes are adopted primarily to achieve various objectives.
The fulfilment of these objectives results in a steel which meets the desired stringent
requirements. These objectives also called the functions and goals of secondary
steel making include:
1. Control of gases: degassing (decreasing the concentration of hydrogen and oxygen in
steel
2. Low sulphur contents (normally less than 0.010 % and to as low as 0.002 % )
3.
Micro cleanliness (removal of undesirable non metallic, primarily oxides and
sulphides)
4. Inclusion morphology ( since the steelmakers cannot remove undesirable oxides
completely, this step allows steelmakers to change the composition or the shape of
the undesired matter left in the steel to make it compatible with the mechanical
properties of finished steel)
5. Mechanical properties
6. Homogenization of liquid steel composition and temperature
7. Achievement of correct temperature of liquid steel for subsequent casting
8. Achievement of correct chemical composition by means of trimming addition
3.3 Gases In Steel

Impurities like C, Si, Mn, S, P etc are eliminated but gases like oxygen, nitrogen and
hydrogen may still remain in solution as deleterious impurities. On solidification, the excess
dissolved gases are liberated which may form skin or pin holes, blow holes etc. these
cavities are in general detrimental to the mechanical properties of steel.
The amount of dissolved gases depends on
Quality of raw materials used.
Steel making process.
Composition and temperature.
3.3.1
Sieverts Law
The equilibrium solubility of diatomic gasses like O 2, N2, H2 in steel is given by

SIEVERTS LAW which states that for any diatomic gas dissolved in liquid steel we have the
relationship
%Gas dissolved=k.
Where P is the partial pressure of the gas in ambient atmosphere k is constant

k depends on interaction of the gas atom with iron &other constituents present in
steel.
3.3.2
Oxygen in Steel
Oxygen is supplied for refining iron and hence a certain fraction is inevitably
left over as dissolved oxygen in liquid steel. Excess oxygen causes defects like blow holes
and non metallic inclusions. Oxygen is lowered by deoxidizers like Mn, Si, and Al etc.
Through RH degasser, oxygen is removed as CO.
Oxygen, as a principle refining agent, plays an important role in determining
the final composition and properties of steel. Oxygen dissolved in steel greatly influences
the consumption of the deoxidizers and thus affect the quality of steel. The control of oxygen
in liquid steel is a prime objective in steelmaking because it enables the desired final
chemical composition and solidification structures to be achieved easily. The cleanliness of
the steel is improved by lowering its oxygen content. If the oxygen content in the molten
steel is sufficiently high during vacuum degassing, the oxygen will react with some of the
carbon in the steel to produce carbon monoxide (CO). The evolved carbon monoxide
escapes and is removed from the system by the vacuum pump along with the other gases.
When used for this purpose, the vacuum degassing process is often referred to as vacuum
carbon Deoxidation. Its difficult and time consuming to produce the steel with the carbon
content below 0.03% by conventional steelmaking procedures. However, if for example, the
non-deoxidized molten steel at about 0.04 % carbon is exposed to a vacuum, carbon is

readily removed to a level of about 0.01 % by reaction with oxygen in steel.
In non-deoxidized molten steel, the carbon and oxygen contents will approach
the equilibrium at a given temperature and pressure according to the following reaction
C + O = CO
The equilibrium constant is
K= pCO/ [%C] [%O]
For carbon content below about 0.5 % and at steelmaking temperatures, the product of (%C)
(%O) is about 0.002 for one atmospheric pressure of carbon monoxide. If the steel is
subjected to lower and lower pressures, the equilibrium between carbon and oxygen will
change and they will react in effort to establish a new equilibrium. Carbon monoxide
produced by this reaction escapes from the system as a gas, and thus most of the oxygen is
no longer available to form non metallic inclusions with other substances that may be later
added to the steel. Strong deoxidizer such as aluminium, titanium and silicon, when added
to the molten steel are effective in reducing the oxygen content so that carbon can no
longer react with oxygen when the steel is vacuum degassed. However the strong
deoxidizers form non metallic inclusions as a product of their reactions with oxygen, and
these inclusions may become trapped in the steel during solidifications and impair its
cleanliness and mechanical properties.
3.3.3
Nitrogen In Steel
Nitrogen may have an undesirable effect on the properties of steel depending

on its composition, subsequent treatment and intended use. Nitrogen contents should be as
low as possible in low carbon steels intended for deep drawing applications. Low nitrogen
contents (0.004% maximum) are particularly important, especially with new sheet steels
developed for processing in continuous annealing lines. Nitrogen like hydrogen, also obeys
SIEVERTS LAW
% [N2] = K
pN 2
One would expect to remove nitrogen by reducing the partial pressure of

nitrogen above the liquid bath. Unfortunately this does not readily occur. Although some
nitrogen is removed from molten steel by inert gas flushing or vacuum degassing, the
amount is extremely slight. Instead, nitrogen tends to form stable nitrides that cannot be
removed effectively by commercial methods of vacuum treatment. As a result low nitrogen
contents are attained mainly by the control of primary steel making practices. Nitrogen in
steel comes from atmospheric air, raw material charges, process adopted and purity of
oxygen used. RH degasser is adopted to reduce some nitrogen contents as well. Reaction is
given below:
2[N] = N2
Where N stands for nitrogen
To get very low nitrogen, vacuum must be very low. Compared to Hydrogen,
nitrogen removal rate is low due to low diffusibility.
3.3.4
Hydrogen In Steel
H2 is formed when water vapour comes in contact with steel &slag .The
amount of H2 dissolved in steel varies with the partial pressure of H 2, composition of steel &
its temperature. The temperature of liquid steel is bounded to drop during vacuum
treatment.
The more is the surface area of steel & the more the prolonged is the
treatment, the more will be the heat loss. The tapping temperature of the steel is generally
kept 50~70 C higher than the steel melting temperature. The degree of vacuum employed
depends upon the degree of the degassing required & the cost of generation of vacuum. The
degree of degassing increases with the degree of vacuum.
Hydrogen is a particularly troublesome gas. It is the cause of bleeding ingots,
embrittlement, low ductility and the presence of blow holes. In solid steel it causes internal
ruptures called thremal flakes. Until recently effective boiling periods in the steelmaking
vessel and the drying of addition agents were necessary precautions taken during
steelmaking to limit the amount of hydrogen in the liquid steel. Even with these precautions,
after solidification the steel had to be subjected to lengthy and complicated heating and
cooling cycles to promote the diffusion of hydrogen that steel might have absorbed. If the
hydrogen content of liquid steel exceeds the solubility limit of hydrogen in solid iron, it leads
to pinhole formation and porosity in steel. Just a few parts per million of hydrogen in
dissolved steel can cause-
3.3.4.1 Hair line cracks (flakes) & Hydrogen embrittlement

Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which various metals, most
importantly high-strength steel, become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen.
Hydrogen embrittlement is often the result of unintentional introduction of hydrogen into
susceptible metals during forming or finishing operations. The mechanism starts with lone
hydrogen atoms diffusing through the metal. At high temperatures, the elevated solubility of
hydrogen allows hydrogen to diffuse into the metal (or the hydrogen can diffuse in at a low
temperature, assisted by a concentration gradient). When these hydrogen atoms re-combine
in minuscule voids of the metal matrix to form hydrogen molecules, they create pressure
from inside the cavity they are in. This pressure can increase to levels where the metal has
reduced ductility and tensile strength up to the point where it cracks open (hydrogen
induced cracking, or HIC).
Figure 8 Hydrogen induced cracking
3.3.4.2 Hydrogen blistering
Figure 9 Hydrogen Blistering and Embrittlement
3.3.4.3 Loss of tensile ductility

Hair line cracks are formed all through the section and are revealed
only after deep etching. Hydrogen is desorbed very slowly even after cooling the steel for
days or even weeks. Sufficient time is allowed for hydrogen to diffuse out.
Figure 10 Solubility of Gas Decreases with Decrease In Partial Pressure of Gas
4.Ladle Metallurgy
1) Slag Making/Treatment
a) Functions of Slag in Ladle Furnace
b) Philosophy of charging lime and deoxidisers for making slag
c) Problem of carryover of slag
2) Desulphurization
3) Temperature Control
4) Alloying Additions
a) Alloy Addition Calculation
b) Cooling Effect of Ferro-Alloys
c) Mode of Alloying Additions
5) Homogenization of Temperature and Chemistry of the bath
6) Metallurgical Aspects of Lf for Uninterrupted Casting
4.1 Slag Making/Treatment

As the famous saying goes
Take care of slag & steel will take care of itself
I.e. The better will be the slag; the better will be the quality of steel.
In Bhilai Steel Plant, we use Oxidising slag in convertor as we seek to remove
impurities like carbon, silicon, phosphorous... etc., Whereas after tapping we use Reducing
slag as we seek for alloying addition and also sometimes for Desulphurization.
In ladle furnace slag plays an important role in Arcing and refining of steel.
4.1.1
Function of slag in Ladle furnace:
a) Slag provides necessary resistance in the bath thus giving voltage drop and
increasing temperature of the bath.
b) Slag stabilises the arc.
c) Reduces noise level during arcing
d) A good reducing slag is necessary for good recovery of alloying elements.
e) Slag provides necessary atmosphere for Desulphurisation.
f)
Prevent from reoxidation of bath.
g) Absorbs Inclusions.
h) Prevent form nitrogen pickup.
4.1.2
Philosophy of charging of lime & deoxidisers for
making slag
After tapping of heat in ladle at convertor, we add lime and deoxidisers in the ladle to
make basic reducing slag to ensure full or excellent recovery of alloying elements. When
heat comes to Lf operator ensures that a thick slag is present in the heat, if he finds thin
slag or week slag then a precautionary measure is taken.
Operator adds lime to the heat while purging, and if necessary then deoxidisers are
also added. Deoxidisers are added in order to reduce the slag thus alloying additions such as
Mn, C, Mo, Ti do not get oxidised and enters directly in the steel. Reducing the oxidation
potential of bath also helps in desulphurisation.
The use of deoxidisers is generally not necessary and not recommended but,
However; use of deoxidisers becomes inevitable if we have some carry over slag from
previous heat. This is called the Problem of carry-over of slag.
4.1.3
Problem of carryover of slag
In spite of all care a certain amount if oxidising slag from primary steel making
furnace does get entrained and carried over, along with the liquid steel, into the Lf during
tapping. This slag always contains some SiO2, besides some FeO and MnO. Aluminium is
consumed unnecessarily in reducing the FeO & MnO thus present, during deoxidation. The
consumption of Al for this purpose is considered as a waste and a drain on cost of
deoxidation. If the refining slag carried over into the Lf there is no alternative but to stand
this loss.
While deoxidising with Al, the SiO 2 present in the bath whether in slag or in any other
source, tends to get reduced as
3(SiO2) + 4Al 2(Al2O3) + 3Si
Because of the shift in equilibrium of Si/O in the direction of more silicon dissolved in
the bath. This creates problem when silicon specification in the bath is very low. The residual
Al in the steel therefore needs to be controlled to minimize reversion in this way.
4.1.4
Use of Synthetic Slag
Synthetic Slag can be used to serve two purposes

1. Deoxidation of Bath
2. For Desulphurization
Slags having low content of (FeO+MnO) can be used for deoxidation purpose.
The effect of (FeO+MnO) content on O2ppm is shown in fig. below
In Ladle Furnace the Deoxidation is based on principles of diffusion deoxidation

combined with intense stirring slag and metal. In practice the area of contact between metal
and slag is increased by pouring molten metal from considerable height and at great speed
into metal containing synthetic slag. The passage of FeO from metal to slag, [FeO] (FeO),
which is slow in normal conditions of diffusion deoxidation is accelerated by intense mixing
of molten metal and slag.
The basic slag with low content of (Feo+MnO) obtained in Ladle Furnace can be utilized for
deoxidation. Their composition may be as folows: CaO 65%, SiO2 13%, Al2O3 2%, CaF2
15%, MgO 4%, FeO<1%, MnO 0.2% , P2O5 0.10%, and CaC2 upto 1%. Such slags have a
deoxidizing as well as desulphurizing action.
4.2 Desulphurization
Ladle Furnace can be used to drop sulphur content of the steel to some extent by
using lime. Lime is chosen because of its relatively low cost and unlimited supply. Reaction
between sulphur and lime is given as follows:[FeS] + (CaO) (CaS) + (FeO)
K= (CaS)(FeO)/[FeS](CaO)
= (CaS)/[FeS] (FeO)/(CaO)
=DS Oxygen Potential/Lime content
[FeS] + (CaO) (CaS) + (FeO)
H=26050-6.99T
Log k =(-5693/T) +1528
So for effective desulphurisation,

1).Reducing atmosphere i.e.low oxidation potential
2).High Basicity (3-4) by increasing lime content
3).High temperature-1580C
To create better reducing conditions, we can use Synthetic slags having reducing
atmosphere. In Synthetic Slag the reducing atmosphere can be created by use of CaC 2 or by
using slags of low FeO & MnO content.
4.3 Temperature Control

Ladle Furnace plays an important role in temperature control of the heat. Heat is
transferred to Ladle furnace from Argon Rinsing Unit (ARU).Depending on the grade of steel
to be cast, temperature is raised in LF by arcing at the rate of 3.5-44
4
C for
sufficient period of time so that even after a temperature drop of almost 2C/min in R-H
degasser for 15 minutes, the heat reaches Continuous Casting Shop at 30-35C superheat
above liquidus temperature. Proper care should be taken that the temperature of the heat
emerging out of Ladle Furnace should not exceed 1635C at any cost otherwise it would
prove detrimental to casting operation. High as well as low temperature can pose serious
problems in casting operation. The liquidus temperature for different grades is given as
follows
Liquidus Temperature
= melting point of pure iron (1535) effect of those which decrease this
+ Effect of those which increases this
=
5
15354- (65%C)- (8%Si) (5%Mn) (30%

(5%Cu) (4%Ni) (1.5%Cr) (2%V) in deg. Celsius
P)
(25%S)
(1.7%Al)
University of Liverpool gave the following formula
Liquidus Temperature = 1537 73.1%C 4%Mn 14%Si 45%S 30%P 1.5%Cr

2.5%Al
(for<0.5%C)
4%V 5%Mo 3.5%Ni
Liquidus Temperature = 1531 61.5%C 4%Mn 14%Si 45%S 30%P 1.5%Cr

2.5%Al
(for>0.5%C)
4%V 5%Mo 3.5%Ni
4.4 Alloying Additions

Ferro alloys of different grades and carbon contents are used for alloying to obtain
the necessary steel chemistry at best possible economy. The following figure represents the
table showing different grades, % recovery and place of addition.
Type of
Ferro
alloys
Grade
%Alloyin
g
content
LC-FeMn(Gr
1,2)
LC-FeMn(Gr
3)
MC-FeMn
HC-FeMn
80-85
80
70-75
70
70-75
70-75
SiMn
Mn
% Recovery
Tap/LF
%C
Place of
addition
Tap/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF
TAP/LF
VD
98
100
0.5
Mn
98
100
0.5
70
70
Mn
Mn
98
98
100
100
1.5
7.0
60-65
60
Mn
98
100
2.0
FeSi(Ord)
70-75
70
Si
62
90 min
0.2
FeSi(low Al)
70-75
70
Si
62
90 min
0.2
LC-FeCr
70-75
70
Cr
98
98
0.1
HC-FeCr
60-65
60
Cr
98
98
7.0
FeNb
62-65
62
Nb
100
100
0.2
Fe-V(Gr 1)
50-55
50
100
100
0.2
Fe-V(Gr 2)
80-85
80
100
100
0.2
Fe-Ti
35-40
35
Ti
70
75
0.1
Fe-P
22-66
23
100
100
0.1
Fe-B
14-18
14
65-70
70-75
0.5
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF/V
D
Before
Ca
treatmen
t
Before
Ca
treatmen
t
Before
Ca
treatmen
t
TAP/LF/V
D
Before
Fe-Mo
62-65
62
CPC
99.5mi
n
99.0mi
n
99.0mi
n
Cu
Ni
Mo
100
100
0.1
99.5 C
80
99.5
99
Cu
100
100
99
Ni
100
100
Ca
treatmen
t
TAP/LF
TAP/LF/V
D
TAP/LF
Tap/LF/V
D
Table 1 Type, grade, use, recovery of various ferro alloys in steel making
4.4.1
Alloying Addition Calculation
Element Addition
In the simplest case when pure element is added the amount of the element added,
Madd is given by
Madd = {(%Maim - %Mpresent)* bath wt.}/(100%)

Alloy addition
Madd
=
{100%*(%Maim
{(%recovery)*(%efficiency)}
%Mpresent)*
bath
wt.}/
(Say) we have 0.1% Mn in Bath and Aim is 0.7% and HC Fe-Mn is added whose
efficiency or Mn content is 75% and avg. recovery of Mn in bath is 90% (bath wt. = 110 t)
Then alloy addition will be, by the formula, 888.8 Kg
4.4.2
Cooling Effect of Ferro-alloys
The Alloying additions are invariably made in cold condition. They have a cooling
effect on the liquid bath, inspite of the fact that some elements like Si, by virtue of its strong
interaction with iron or with dissolved oxygen do generate some heat. As a thumb rule every
k.g. of solid alloy added per ton of liquid steel, would result in drop of 0.5-1.5 C
4.
4.4.3
Mode of Alloying Additions
Any alloy addition in liquid steel can be made in form of virgin metal or simple or
complex ferro alloys. This depends upon the quality/grade of the steel, which we are going
to make. For e.g. in carbon sensitive grades for charging Mn we use low carbon ferro
manganese or silicon manganese again depending on constraint on silicon.
Similarly the way or mode of alloying addition also has to be decided. Alloying can be
added as blocks, cubes, lumps or granules. And at the same time they can be charged
directly into melt via inert carrier gas or fed in cored steel wires. Generally, direct addition in
the form of lumps or blocks is adopted. For sensitive materials like Al & Calcium Silicite we
choose cored wire to charge. The size of the lump is decided in the terms of its kinetics of
dissolution, melting & heating.
In cored mode alloy is added in form of power or at best in fine granulated form. The
fine material has large surface area, thus better kinetics of dissolution in the bath.
Refractories covers more surface area covered with its refractory oxide. This can be
hindrance when added at micro level. Therefore, when refractory additions like Ti are to be
made in small amount, they are better made in lumpy form rather than in cored form.
4.5 Homogenization of Temperature and Chemistry of the

bath
Inert gas purging plays an important role in ensuring homogeneity of bath in terms of
temperature and chemistry of the bath. Heat being received by Ladle Furnace is subjected to
argon purging as soon as arcing in LF starts. If arcing is carried out without argon purging
,only temperature of the top layer will rise which can lead to puncturing of the ladle since
localised temperature around a carbon electrode reaches as high as 5500C .So to avoid it
,proper amount of purging should be carried out to distribute heat produced during arcing to
the whole bath so that there is homogeneity of the temperature of the bath and there is a
steady temperature rise of almost 3.5-4C/min of the bath.
Purging also plays an important role in maintaining homogeneity of the bath in terms
of chemistry. When alloying additions are done at LF, purging continues so that the alloying
additions are distributed uniformly through the bath to achieve a homogeneous composition
of the bath. Purging also floats the inclusions and makes them join the slag layer, thus
cleaning the steel. Excessive purging should be avoided at all costs since it can expose the
metal to atmosphere by formation of eye directly above the purging hole and it can lead to
oxygen pickup by the bath.
4.6 Metallurgical Aspects of Lf for Uninterrupted Casting

The major problem occurs during casting due to the chemistry of heat at LF is nozzle
clogging. Clogging in continuous casting nozzles is the build-up of material in the flow
passage between the tundish and mold. The consequences of nozzle clogging include:
Decreased Productivity, Increased Cost, and Decreased Quality. The most obvious means to
reduce clogging is to decrease the concentration of deoxidation products and the formation
of reoxidation products.
To prevent nozzle clogging in continuous casting by solid inclusions, calcium is added
to steel to modify inclusions and desulphurize the steel. Calcium will convert solid alumina
(Al2O3) inclusions into lower melting point calcium aluminates, which will help prevent the
clogging of the casting nozzles.
Figure 11 CaO-Al2O3 Binary system
However, when calcium is added to steel, it will also react with oxygen and sulphur and
modify the sulphide inclusions. If the sulphur content of the steel is high, calcium will react
with sulphur forming solid CaS, which could clog up the continuous casting nozzle.
For this reason there are strict rules for addition of Ca-Si wire to the melt. They are as
follows:1.
2.
3.
When sulphur <0.020%, 200m of Ca-Si wire to be added having Average

powder wt./length=232g/m.
When sulphur 0.020%,-0.025%, 150 m of Ca-Si wire to be added having
Average powder wt./length=232g/m.
When sulphur >0.025%, no Ca-Si to be added
5.Practices at Ladle Furnace

1) Arcing
a) Basic Principles
b) Arcing Electrodes
c) Electrode Slipping
d) Temperature Rise in Lf
2) Inert gas Purging
a) Purging Mechanism
b) Porous Plug Design and Specifications
c) Emergency Lancing
3) Sampling & Temperature Measurement
a) Sample Probe
b) Temperature Probe
c) Pneumatic System
4) Alloying Additions
a) Ferro Alloys Addition System (Using Hoppers)
b) Through Wire Feeder
5) Fume Extraction System
a) Equipment of Fume Extraction System
b) Description of system and main equipment
6) Utilities and Services
a) Industrial Water
b) Soft Water
7) Lining Practices and Performance of Steel Ladle
8) Hydris Probe
a) Configuration
b) Hydris components
c) Measurement principle
d) Measurement procedure
5.1 Arcing
5.1.1 Basic Principles
5.1.2 Arcing Electrodes

The electrodes arms are mainly consist of a supporting rectangular hollow section bus
and the electrode clamp. To minimize the electrode circle thus allowing for higher arc power
to be used without increased refractory wear the outer arm bodies are of toe-in design to
achieve the tightest possible grouping of electrodes.
The electrode holders are made of forged electrolytic copper with drilled cooling water
channels and machined contact surface. The clamping bar is of non-magnetic steel and
connected to shaft and fixed to the arm structure via a single acting hydraulic cylinder. The
cylinder piston is provided with a disk spring package which provides the clamping force.
The hydraulic cylinder is used for compression of the disk spring staple when the electrode
holder shall be opened.
Technical data
1.
Electrode diameter -450mm
2.
Electrode circle diameter -750mm
3.
Centre distance between electrode carriage pipes -550mm
4.
Force of electrode clamping spring =245KN
5.1.3 Electrode Slipping

The electrodes of three-phase electric arc furnace are made of carbonaceous material,
and they are consumed during normal production. This consumption is usually largest near
the tip of the electrode where the temperature is high and reactants are most active. To
keep the electrode tip at the same position it is therefore necessary to prolong the electrode
regularly. This is referred to electrode slipping.
Ideally, the slipping control should use a measurement of the tip position, but
measuring tip is not simple. So other measurements such as electrode holder position or
furnace load are used.
In order to reduce the electrode consumption and to extend the service life of the roof
delta section, plant service water is sprayed onto the electrodes during melting operation. A
spray ring is installed for this purpose.
5.1.4 Temperature rise in Ladle Furnace

As soon as the arc is struck the temperature starts to increase, this temperature rise
depends upon various factors. Under normal condition a rise of 3.5-4 4C/min is
observed.
Various factors influencing temperature rise are:
5.1.1.1 Tap Changer/Current & Voltage

Temperature rise per minute depends upon tap changers.
Tap Nos.
Voltage (in Volts)
Temp. Rise/Minute
259.2
2.0
278.1
2.5
297.7
3.0
317.5
3.5
337.5
4.0
359.5
5.0
377.3
5.5
396.9
6.0
418.7
6.5
Table 2 Dependence of Temperature rise on Voltage at Lf
5.1.1.2 Chilling due to alloying elements

The Additions like ferro alloys are present at room temperature. In some cases
preheating of additions is done but inevitably they will have their cooling effect.
Following table shows the chilling effect of certain alloys per ton of steel.
1.
Coke
60c per 100 kg.
2.
Lime
40c per 100kg
3.
Si-Mn
1.40c per 100kg
4.
Fe-Si
40c per 100kg.
Table 3 Chilling effect of alloying elements
5.1.1.3 Purging Condition

It purging is normal then temperature rise as per tap changer but if purging is
weak or nil then temperature rise only on the surface, we use top purging to homogenise the
temperature but overall temperature rise per minute is less, it is around 2-2.5 C
4 /min.
5.1.1.4 Ladle Condition
a. Gas ladle & new ladle- Low rise

This is because some heat energy is being lost for increasing ladles
temperature.
b. Circulation ladle temperature rise normal
c. Duration of placement of heat in L.F. after tapping:
More time Temp rise more
Less time Temp rise less
5.1.1.5 Heat Size

If heat size isMore Temp rise less
Less- Temp rise more.
5.1.1.6 Lime Addition

After tapping or in L.F. before arcing if lime added 1kg/ton steel then temp rise as
per tap changer. This is because lime makes slag which in turn makes the arc stable.
5.1.1.7 Electrode Regulation System

If electrode regulation is proper then temp rise is as per system.
5.2 Inert gas Purging

Purging Philosophy
1). As soon as the heat is brought to Ladle Furnace via Ladle Car, operator connects
Argon hose to ladle to supply argon for purging.
2). Argon valve is opened to ensure bubbling in the ladle and regulate the flow to
achieve proper circulation of metal. In the beginning, the purging flow is increased since the
purging plug may have been jammed due to hot metal, but later on the purging flow is
brought back to normal. It may so happen that there is a leakage in the argon hose or argon
pipe of the ladle, then inspite of very high flow rate of argon, the purging may be very weak.
Porous Plug Design and Specifications

Figure 12 shows the design of the porous plug. The body is made mainly of magnesia
with magnesia-alumina spinel additions and is able to produce fine bubbles with a diameter
in the range of 2 mm or less, within molten metals, been also environmental friendly with
minor chromium oxide content, less than 1%. The main application is in the secondary
metallurgy and especially in the ladle treatment of steels and can be also used in a wide
range of other molten metal refining processes. The main goal of the created fine bubbles is
to float out inclusions and micro-inclusions and moreover contributes to the temperature
and composition homogenization of the metal melts.
Figure 12 Schematic Porous Plug
Emergency Lancing
Sometimes due to leakage in argon hoose or argon pipe in Ladle, bottom argon purging
comes to a halt. Choking also proves detrimental to bottom purging. In such cases, there is a
provision for emergency lancing from the top of the Ladle Furnace so that purging goes on.
5.3 Sampling & Temperature Measurement

Sample Probe
The sample of steel is taken by immersing the lance into the bath to a certain
depth. The tip of the lance sample probe is used which is generally made of aluminium or its
alloy. The lance is hydraulically driven. After taking the sample from the ladle it is quenched
and then transferred to the laboratory.
Temperature Probe
For temperature measurement there is one more lance which is supported by a
fixed structure goes into the bath to a certain depth. In the temperature probe thermocouple
is used for temperature measurement. B type(Pt/Rh=30/6) thermocouple is used here.
Generally temperature measurement is two or three times as per required time. First
measurement is taken when heat comes to the LF and last measurement is taken when heat
leaves the LF.
Pneumatic Probe
The steel samples are sent to the laboratory for the quick analysis by the help
pneumatic conveyor which is hydraulically driven. At Lf one suitably designed pneumatic
sample temperature system is provided to transport the sample from operator platform to
SMS-2 laboratory. Compressed air is used for Sample Conveying.
Technical Data (Compressed Air)
Pressure - 3-4kg/cm2
Requirement - 235 M3 /Hr
Technical Data (Nitrogen)
Nitrogen is used for operation of pneumatic cylinders, instruments and for bottom
purging in case of non-availability of argon.
Pressure - 4-8kg/cm2
Requirement (Normal) - 35 nm3 /hr
Requirement (Intermittent) - 48nm3/hr
5.4 Alloying Additions

In Bhilai Steel Plant, we make alloy additions in two modes
3. In form of lumps, blocks or fines of ferro alloys
4. In form of steel-cored-wires via wire feeders
For charging in forms of lumps and fines hopper system is used. When we
seek to charge additions in form of cored wires we use wire feeders. The wire feeding system
is costly it may be preferred for other metallurgical advantages. When cost is no
consideration wire feeder is generally preferred for its better recovery and effectiveness.
Here, both systems are discussed in brief. In BSP, Al is charged through wire
feeders and other additions such as Mn, Ti, V, Mo are done in lumpy (or fines) forms via
hoppers.
Ferro Alloys Addition System (Using Hoppers)

There is one ferro alloy addition system consisting of 8 Numbers of MS
fabricated bunkers at the top of the system. These bunkers are filled by the existing selfdischarge container in the steel melting shop. Necessary lines are provided on the surface of
bunkers, each bunker is also provided with bin level indicator and manually operated rack &
pinion gate of the bottom opening.
There are 8 Numbers of electromagnetic vibro feeder to discharge material to
be weight hopper below the bunker. There are 4 nos. of weight hopper each mounted on
load cells. Role of vibro feeder is to control the rate of descend of materials.
The requirement amount of material is discharged on to a reversible conveyor
by electromagnetic vibro feeder. This reversible conveyor feeds the required amount of alloy
to the additive charging hopper mounted on the ladle furnace roof.
Specifications:
8 numbers of bunkers each of 8 m3 volume
4 numbers of weight hoppers each with 1 m3 volume
Electromagnetic vibro feeder 12 numbers with 40 TPEI
1 No. reversible belt conveyor of belt with 650 mm and capacity 40 TPH
Figure 13 Alloy feeding Mechanism
Wire Feeder
In wire feeder the material is charged in form of Steel-Cored-Wires. A steelcored-wire is nothing but a small, flexible steel-pipe, filled with the powered or granular
addition. It behaves like wire and hence the name. It is available in form of wire reels, filled
with the required material with right size, and using electric motor drive, can be fed with
sufficient speed, usually vertically downwards into the melt. The steel wire-pipe melts inside
the bath and releases the alloy for assimilation in the bath. It helps to inject the materials
well below the bath surface, whereby minimizing the atmospheric oxidation and helping in
better distribution and assimilation therefore, better recovery of material.
In BSP at Lf a 2 strand wire feeder is provided for injection of solid Al wire
(9mm) and cored CaSi wire (8-13mm) at a speed up to 300m/min. Reason that 2 strand wire
feeder was provided, is to use the second strand in case of technical emergency, but we are
using it for charging CaSi wire.
Al is provided by Nalco of WF-10 grade.
Specification for CaSi steel-cored-wire
kg.
Wire Diameter
: 13mm
Avg. Power Wt. per unit length
:
4646 m
Power Weight :
: 232 gm./m wire
1078
length
5.5 Fume extraction system

A fume extraction system is provided for extraction of fume generated from ladle
furnace and also a dedusting system for collection of dust generated from ferro Alloy and
additive system.
The above system mainly consists following equipment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Water cooled fume duct.

Fume Duct.
Spark Arrestor.
Bag Filter Unit with structure.
Rotary Air Lock & Screw Conveyor.
Compressor with accessories.
I.D. Fan with motor and accessories.
Chimney.
Equipments of Fume Extraction System

1
Water cooled fume duct :
Provided to allow the right amount of cooled air to be sucked in the line which dilute
the flue gases.
2 Damper
a
b
c
d
Modulation damper: Provided in the suction line downstream.

Dilution damper : it is placed before the spark arrestor for additional mixing of
fresh air & to reduce the temperature of gases, so that the maximum temperature at
inlet of bag filter is 130oC
Emergency damper: it is provided for emergency dilution air cooling system when
temperature of bag filters beyond 150oC.
By-pass damper : it is provided in the system for doing maintenance or during
breakdown of main system. If the bag filter becomes clogged than also bypass
damper will operate.
3 Spark arrestor:
Contain baffle plat. Here hot particle fall down and gas passes away.
4
Bag Filter:
The dirty air passes through the filter media, the dust is deposited on the outside
surface of the filter bags & the clean air exhaust through the outlet.
5 Rotary Air Lock:

It allows transfer of duck from top to bottom under differential pressure condition.
6
Screw Conveyor:
It carries the dust from rotary air lock to the storage hopper.
I.D. Fan:
It Allows the fumes to pass through chimney.
Chimney:
Used to release the clean gas in atmosphere.
Dust Collector:
Dust is collected in this hopper & will be discharged through manually operated
slide gate on to truck.
Description of system and main equipment

A dry type fume extraction system based on a bag filter is provided for ladle furnace
and deducting of Ferro alloy additive system. Water cooled hood is installed around the
electrode of the ladle furnace to provide the section of fume generative transferring the
heating phase of ladle furnace. An adequate gap between elbow of the hood and the water
cooled duct is provide to allow the right amount of cooled air to be sucked in the line which
dilutes the flue gases. The mixing of gases and air reduces the gas temperature. This gap
can be adjusted manually depending on the system requirement. All mixture of gases is
further cooled in water cooled ducts. A regulation damper is provided in the section line
downstream. A dilution damper is placed before the spark arrestor for additional mixing of
fresh air and to reduce the temperature of gas so that the maximum temperature inlet bag
filter is 130oC. Emergency dilution air damper is provided for emergency dilution air cooling
system to avoid operation of Bag filter beyond the peak of operating temperature (150 oC) of
polyester bags as a safety feature.
A bypass damper is also provided in the system for doing maintenance or during
break down of main system or sanctioning of diluting damper due to which gas temperature
may increase. Spark arrestor is installed on the upstream side of bag filter unit for arresting
sparks if carried through the gas stream to avoid damage of filter bags. After this spark
arrestor gases are passed into the bag filter for cooling purpose. After the bag filter the
cleaned gases will be let off into the atmosphere via induced draft fan and chimney. The bag
will be cleaned using high pressure pulse jet online cleaning system. A master controller is
provided for sequential cleaning of bag in the filter dust collected in the storage hopper from
the bag filter and spark arrestor will be discharge through manually operated slide gate on
to lorry of further disposal of the same. An independent section line is provided for additive
storage bunker and material handling system during the feeding operation. The dust is
collected from the discharge point and the same is connected to fume extraction duct. For
deducting system usually section hoods are placed at the material transfer points and the
generated dust is captured by the section hoods. Dust laden air from different section hoods
travel through duct and connected with fume extraction duct. Finally enters the bag filter
where dust gets separated from the air and clean air discharged to the chimney via I.D. Fan.
5.6 Utilities And Services

Industrial Water
Water of industrial quality is required for following purpose:
1. Water cooled roof for L.F.

2. Heat exchanger of hydraulic power pack for hydraulic oil cooling.
3. Heat exchanger for cooling transformer oil.
4. Heat exchanger for cooling soft water.
5. Water cooled duct of fume extraction system.
6. Washed air ventilation system of MCC room.
Technical Data
Pressure - 4kg/cm2
Inlet Temperature - 35 C
Circulation rate - 260 M3/hr
Makeup Rate - 15 M3/hr.
Soft Water
Re-circulating type soft water system is required for conductor cooling
consisting of electrode holders, electrode arms water cooled current carrying cables. Its
electrical conductivity is close to zero so it prevent the equipments from corrosion.
Technical Data
Pressure - 4kg/CM2
Inter Temp* - 35C
Circulation Rate - 60 M3/hr
Makeup Rate - 3.5 M3/hr
5.7 Lining Practices and Performance of Steel Ladle

1.
210mm (at centre bottom) and 65mm sidewall is cast with LCC 70% leaving the
porous plug and well block area. Insulating board of 5mm thickness is laid is next to
the ladle before casting in metal zone only.
2. Safety bottom of 50mm in high grog quality is laid with 300mm in bottom working
thickness in MCB.
3. 50mm fireclay bricks are used in safety lining in metal level.
4. First three layers are laid with 200mm and then 18 layers are laid with 150mm and
last two layers of metal level ad laid with 200mm MCB
5. With 115mm magnesite bricks as safety lining and 150 mm magnesium carbon bricks
are used in slag zone.
5.8 Hydris Probe

Configuration
The Hydris system measures the hydrogen content in a nitrogen carrier gas.
Its basic components are:
a)
Processor unit, which controls the pneumatic system and displays the hydrogen
result
b)
Pneumatic system for the circulation of the nitrogen carrier gas and
measurement of the hydrogen by means of its Thermal Conductivity Detector
c)
Interface Cable for communication between the processor unit and the
pneumatic unit (not shown in figure 15)
d)
Pneumatic cable, as a link between pneumatic unit and lance (not shown in figure
15)
e)
Lance, for immersing the probe in the steel bath
f)
Disposable probe (ladle, tundish and ingot probes, lengths of nominal 900 mm,
for tundish 900 and 550 mm)
Figure 14 Multi-Lab Hydris, pneumatic unit, lance and Hydris sensors
5.1.1 Hydris Components

5.8.1.1 The Hydris probe
Bubbler tube
melt.
The nitrogen carrier gas is blown through the bubbler tube into the
Quartz tube Contains filter material with different purposes, e.g. protection of connector
and contact block, collection of volatile compounds
Porous stone
The nitrogen carrier gas, blown in the melt, can easily be recovered
through the porous stone.
Connector
The connector with the O-rings is designed to provide a firm, gas-tight,

Push-on/pull-off connection of the probe to the lance.
Protective caps
Are used to avoid slag penetration into the porous stone. They consist
out of a paper cap and a steel cap (for ingot probes an aluminium cap
is used).
Refractory Sleeve Consists out of a ceramic fiber sleeve for the tundish probes and a
sand protection for the ladle probes.
Figure 15 Hydris insert before final assembly in a cardboard tube
5.8.1.2
Carrier gas
The Pneumatic Unit

:
Valves
Interacts with the melt and picks up hydrogen.

:
Filter
Ensure the correct measurement procedure.
Removes residual moisture and collects also some dirt.
Thermal Conductivity Detector: Analyses the hydrogen content in the nitrogen carrier
gas.
Pump
Circulates the carrier gas until equilibrium is obtained.
Blow/suction side
That part of the circuit where either the gas is injected in
the
steel (blow or recovered out of the steel (suction side).
Figure 16 Hydris pneumatic unit
5.1.2 Measurement Principle

The Hydris system measures the hydrogen content in liquid steel using the most
accurate and proven HYDRIS EQUILIBRIUM detection method. A nitrogen carrier gas is
injected in the steel melt and recirculated between melt and pneumatic unit. It will pick up
hydrogen during its passage in the melt. The measurement is stopped when the equilibrium
is reached between the hydrogen dissolved in the melt and the hydrogen in the carrier gas.
The Hydris system measures the hydrogen content by means of a thermal conductivity
detector. It measures the hydrogen concentration in the nitrogen carrier gas.
The final hydrogen content is then calculated based on Sieverts law.

H= K/f. PH2
With: H = Hydrogen in ppm
PH2 = hydrogen partial pressure in hPa
K: = Equilibrium Constant of the reaction
FH: = hydrogen activity coefficient
Figure 17 Hydris measurement principle
5.1.3 Measurement procedure

Step 1:
Flush A: The nitrogen carrier gas is injected into the melt (as well through the
suction side as through the blow side) to remove as much as possible slag
particles and residual moisture of the probe.
Step 2:
Flush B measuring: The nitrogen carrier gas is recovered from the steel. The
hydrogen content is continuously measured by the thermal conductivity
detector. Once the hydrogen semi-equilibrium between melt and carrier gas is
reached, the Hydrogen end value is calculated based on the flush B(pH2-level)
and a M-factor (empirical ).
Step 3:
In case no stable plateau is found during the flush B period, the measurement
will be stopped. Error message will be displayed: Calc. Disabled No Plateau
Figure 18 A typical measurement in the calculation only mode.
6.Optimisation of Casting Process

1) Soft Reduction
2) Clean Steel for Continuous Casting
3) Prevention from contamination
e) Ladle to tundish
f)
In the tundish
g) Tundish to mould
4) The first stage of solidification - in the mould
5) Effect of steel composition on shell formation
6) The influence of steel composition on as cast quality
6.1 Soft Reduction

To achieve the stringent internal quality requirements of products, soft reduction is
proposed. Soft reduction is the gradual squeezing of the strand at the point of final
solidification, at rate above the normal contraction rate, in order to prevent the suction of
solute rich material into the centre of the slab at the final point of solidification, thereby
minimising centre line segregation.
Figure 19 Graphical representation of the soft reduction zone
There are two possible methods of applying soft reduction:

1. Static, where the soft reduction zone is set in one position in the casting machine. This is
the simplest method, but has the operational restriction of requiring a fixed casting speed,
for all the slab widths being cast.
2. Dynamic, where the soft reduction zone actually moves up and down the casting
machine to wherever the final point of solidification is within the caster. Although a more
complicated system as far as control is concerned, this method does allow flexibility in the
casting practice to meet the scheduling of the melt-shop and to adjust for transient casting
conditions (i.e. superheats, tundish changes, etc.). Position controlled hydraulic segment
clamping cylinders and an on-line solidification model to predict the final point of
solidification are both necessary to achieve this feature.
Practically E.M.S. (Electro-magnetic stirring) and S.R. (Soft reduction) have the same effect
on segregation, for low dimension (billet) is enough the EMS, for larger dimension we need
to use also SR.
Advantages:
1. Head crop 400 mm instead of 1.0 mtr. In conventional caster Saving on account of crop
loss 0.6 mtr. X 60 = 36 mtr. = 113 T (11 Lackhs).
2. Mold level control by eddy current gives better control which leads to good quality of the
slabs (with the lesser defects).
3. Caster#6 has multi-point bending system creates lesser strain than in the single point
bending in the old casters.
4. The stresses creates in the bending is removed in the unbending which diminishes the
possibilities of the corner and the surface cracks, hence bending/unbending is beneficial for
caster#6 than the old casters
6.2
Clean Steel For Continuous Casting
Meeting the demands made on the properties of the steel often requires a high degree
of control over carbon, phosphorous, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen contents.
Individually or in combination, these elements mainly determine the material properties
such as tensile strength, formability, toughness, weldability, resistance to stress cracking
and corrosion behavior.
There are limitations to the metallurgical treatment that can be given to molten metal
in high performance melting units such as converters or electric arc furnaces. To ensure
trouble free continuous casting, the composition of the steel has to be trimmed to target
analysis in the ladle after melting, refining and superheating.
The nitrogen and phosphorus content can in general only be reduced to low levels in
the steel making vessel prior to the start of ladle treatment. Very low carbon, sulphur,
hydrogen and oxygen contents can only be obtained by way of appropriate ladle treatment.
The high priority given to supply steel to continuous casters with steel optimally
adjusted in the temperature at the desired time, e.g. to achieve long casting sequences, has
led to the integration of ladle furnace and ladle treatment steps into the process routes.
In terms of continuous casting the concept of
clean steel is reduced to two main criteria:
a) Physical amenability to casting Absence of blowholes in the strand and prevention of
entrapment of exogenous non metallic inclusions. Optimum conditions for the separation of
suspended deoxidation products.
b) Retention of the composition achieved during ladle treatment for carbon, nitrogen,
hydrogen, sulphur and, in particular oxygen.
6.3
Prevention of Contamination
6.3.1 Ladle to Tundish

For long time, protection from oxidation in this area was neglected or its importance
underestimated.
It is now realized that the key to maintaining clean products lies in ladle stream
shrouding. Using the methods, the problem of exposure to air between ladle and tundish has
been largely eliminated and use of these techniques is widespread.
In addition to the reoxidation protection of pouring stream the prevention of slag flow
from ladle to tundish is of great importance, in particular when sequence casting. It is usual
during open pouring for the slide gate to be closed immediately after observation of slag at
the end of casting. In some cases special tundish systems with two casting chambers are
used, which allow to empty the ladle almost completely and yet trap slag in tundish.
Systems for the detection of slag during casting or for monitoring steel level in the
ladle are being tested. These systems should make it possible to close the ladle gate as soon
as slag appears and thus ensure ladle slag does not build up in the tundish.
6.3.2 In the Tundish

The tundish lining is made of a refractory that is almost inert to the deoxidation
elements and a proper tundish cover material is used the remaining important factors are
the geometry, which determines the dwell time of molten steel in tundish, and a constant
tundish steel level. For multi strand bloom and billet casters flow in the tundish is very
important, on leaving the ladle the steel often passes by an underflow weir and over a dam
before flowing into the area form where it discharges to the individual strands.
For slab and large bloom caster various dam systems have been designed to improve
inclusion separation. The control of the minimum filling level in the tundish is to be soon as
an additional geometric physical parameter. Under no circumstances must tundish slag be
allowed to be drawn into the mould by the formation of a vortex. With a stopper the
minimum height can be markedly reduced. For units producing a wide range of steels and
which operate with a slide gate arrangement under the tundish, additional stoppers are
often provided which ensure a minimum level of metal in the tundish before the slide gates
are opened. At the end of cast the use of stoppers can reduce the appearance of a vortex
which sucks slag into the mould.
6.3.3 Tundish to Mould

For casting reoxidation sensitive steel grades mainly, aluminium killed grades,
submerged entry nozzle between tundish and mould are the only successful solution. It is
essential that the connection between the submerged nozzle and the tundish is gas and air
tight. With a slide gate the system may have to be flooded with inert gas in order to prevent
any ingress of air.
It is important to choose suitable materials for the submerged nozzle. In order to
ensure good steel cleanness and to show sufficient life for long sequences they have to
withstand the chemical attack of steel alloying elements such as aluminium, sulphur,
manganese and the attack of mould casting slags.
In many cases alumina graphite nozzle seem to be adequate but for even higher
requirements zircon sleeve nozzles are used for higher wear resistance.
Another point, which may have considerable influence on the cleanness of the cast
products, is the immersion depth, the shape and outlet configuration of submerged nozzle,
i.e. the diameter, number, and angle of the outlet ports.
6.4
The First Stage of Solidification In the
Mould
The main function of the mould during continuous casting is to form a solid shell
without defects and of sufficient load bearing capacity to prevent breakouts below the
mould.
Initial shell formation is considered to take place at the steel meniscus; this has been
demonstrated by radioactive experiments and the hypothesis is also consistent with
practical observations. The conditions during meniscus solidification control the shell rigidity
and to some extent explain the crack sensitivity of the primary shell. There is some
combined influence of heat transfer conditions, lubrication and oscillation on the shell
formation depending on the steel grade.
At the meniscus two main types of solidification are proposed:
Type-I: Discontinuous meniscus solidification
Type-II: No discontinuity when liquid steel is fed into the mould
The importance of casting speed consistency and mould level control has been
demonstrated on many occasions. These hypotheses assist the understanding of the
influence of practical parameters:
1) Flux density (viscosity, melting temperature, composition, etc.)
2) Glassy slag distribution around the mould
3) Heat extraction (cooling of copper mould)
4) Convective current in the liquid steel (the effect of nozzle type and argon injection
etc.)
5) Submerged nozzle immersion depth
6) Consistency of mould level control
7) Constant speed casting
6.5
Effect of Steel Composition on Shell
Formation
The ideal form of meniscus produces defect free strands but if the operating conditions
change rapidly defects can be initiated. The mechanical properties of the shell and
contraction due to the peritectic reaction are also important factors.
According to several studies, plain carbon steel can be placed in four categories. The
first category is <0.08% carbon, the second includes grades with 0.08% to 0.15% carbon
content. These grade show no major internal problems but exhibit an as cast surface
characterized by roughness and rippling. The third group is grades with between 0.15% and
0.5.% carbon, which ahire normally the easiest to continuously cast. The fourth category
>0.50% carbon produce long columnar zones usually associated with internal defects
(segregation, pipe, ghost lines, etc.), but exhibit a smooth surface.
The shrinkage due to the peritectic reaction becomes less important above 0.15%
carbon. More liquid transforms directly to the gamma phase and less rippling of the skin
occurs. The air gap diminishes and a smooth surface is obtained close to the mould wall and
the air gap no longer controls the heat flux. Resulphurised grades, stainless steel or special
alloys should be expected from this general statement.
The micro segregation and back diffusion of elements, such a phosphorous, are
affected by the ferrite austenite transformation during the initial stage of solidification and
are of great importance to the mechanical properties of the shell.
Investigations of the ductility of carbon steels and the effect of carbon and phosphorus
content during cooling indicate that the higher cracking tendency in the 0.1% t. 0.15%
carbon range is due to volume change during delta gamma transformation or the difference
of segregation behaviour of phosphorus. The influence of phosphorus on the hot ductility in
the 0.4% carbon steel. It was found moreover that the embrittlement due to phosphorus is
seen only for the carbon steels having carbon content higher than 0.25%.
6.6
The Influence of Steel Composition on as
Cast Quality
Steel composition is usually fixed by the required properties of the final product and
therefore changes in the analysis to reduce sensitivity to cracking are limited for most
alloying elements.
The carbon content has a strong influence on the sensitivity of steel to all types of
surface cracking, and to internal cracking. Surface cracking; especially longitudinal cracking
occurs more often in the carbon range between 0.10 and 0.14%. The highest risk of internal
cracking is between 0.15 and 0.21% carbon.
Increasing sulphur content aggravates the crack sensitivity of steels because of
formation of iron sulphide inclusions. A high manganese content improves this situation,
especially where there is a higher sulphur content, by the formation of manganese suphide.
A low manganese to sulphur ratio <20, reduces the ductility of the certain steel grades to
very low levels. Manganese sulphide, however, can be found in segregated areas of the slab
and it then has a detrimental influence on the mechanical properties of the finished product.
For internal cracking phosphorus is reported to have detrimental effects but only above
0.25%. However, phosphorus contributes to centre line segregation in addition to carbon,
manganese and sulphur and together with manganese can contributed to hydrogen induced
cracking.
Steels with a silicon content f more than 0.5%, such as electrical steels with 3% silicon,
are very sensitive to internal cracking because of a large columnar crystal structure and a
low creep strength, second only to ferritic stainless steel.
The sensitivity to transverse surface cracking is exacerbated by sulphur and aluminium
and by aluminium and carbon in combination with niobium, titanium, vanadium and nitrogen
because of the formation of nitrides and carbides.
7)
Data Analysis
8)
Conclusions

Ladle Metallurgy and Practices at LF For Uninterrupted Casting

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Cover Page

LADLE METALLURGY AND PRACTICES AT LF

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

B.tech.(hons.): metallurgy and material science

Nation Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur

Mr. BALAM SINGH

INTRODUCTION TO BHILAI STEEL PLANT........................................................ 8

Introduction to Steel Melting Shop II and Its Units....................................... 15

VAD (Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit)............................................................................. 23

2.3.3 Tundish preparation Bay......................................................................................29

Literature Survey: Secondary Steel Making................................................. 35

HISTORY OF SECONDARY STEEL MAKING...........................................................................36

Hair line cracks (flakes) & Hydrogen embrittlement...................................................40

Practices at Ladle Furnace.......................................................................... 52

Tap Changer/Current & Voltage.................................................................................. 54

5.5.1 Equipments of Fume Extraction System..............................................................61

Water cooled fume duct..................................................................................................... 61

5.5.2 Description of system and main equipment........................................................62

The Hydris probe........................................................................................................ 65

5.8.3 Measurement Principle........................................................................................67

Optimisation of Casting Process.................................................................. 70

1 Process flow at BSP..................................................................................... 13

1.INTRODUCTION TO BHILAI STEEL PLANT

Bhilai Steel Plant, a symbol of Indo-Soviet techno-economic collaboration, is one of the

End use / consumers

Rails in 13m, 26m, 65/78 m length and welded

A leader in terms of profitability, productivity and energy conservation, BSP has

Process Description in Bhilai Steel Plant

1.4.1 Plant facilities

Figure 1 Process flow at BSP

Purpose of visiting BSP

Purpose of selecting this topic

2.Introduction to Steel Melting Shop II and Its

2.1 Introduction to SMS-II

SMS II comprises of 2 units

2.2 Convertor Shop

Figure 2 Schematic LD Vessel

Sampling & temperature measurement

Corrections before tapping

Nitrogen splashing, coating & deslagging

Process Flow in Convertor Shop

The figure below represents the process flow at SMS-II

Figure 3 Process flow diagram of SMS-II

Ladle Preparation Section

Slag Pot Handling Section

Bulk Material Handling

The following Bulk Materials are handled in this section :

Gas Cleaning Section

About 85 M3 gas is recovered per ton of steel.

2.3 Continuous Casting Shop

Argon Rinsing Bay

Argon Rinsing Bay

Secondary Steel Making Processes:

Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit (VAD)

Ladle Furnace (LF)

2.3.2.1 VAD (Vacuum Arc Degassing Unit)

The VAD unit thus serves following functions :

TECHNICAL DATA OF VAD

Free Board necessary

Graphite low density

3.5 Kg / Cm2 minimum

Maximum flow rate

Flow rate during heating :