Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2
Displacement Fundamentals
Module 2 Displacement Fundamentals

Estimated Duration: 1 week
Introduction to displacement fundamentals. Factors affecting oil recovery.
Definitions: mobility ratios, sweeping efficiencies, recovery efficiencies, trapped oil
saturation.
Suggested reading: L, S, MAB, AC
Learning Objectives
After completing this module you will be able to:
Define the basic oil recovery equation
Define the various mobility ratios
Define dimensionless time
Define and understand areal (E A) and vertical (E v) recovery efficiencies
Define displacement efficiency (E D)
Evaluate the factors contributing to the residual (trapped) oil saturation
Oil Recovery Equation
Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

Author: Dr. Maria Antonieta Barrufet -Fall 2001
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PETE 609 Module 2

Based upon the overall material balance on cumulative oil recovered. The general oil
recovery equation can be expressed as
N p = Efficiency N
(Eq. 1)
The initial oil in place can be expressed as:
N=
S oiV p
Bo
[=]
bbl
bbl / STB
(Eq. 2)
Note: B o takes into account the shrinkage of oil as traveling from reservoir to surface.
The recovery efficiency, also known as recovery factor (RF), is usually broken as the
product of a microscopic displacement efficiency and a volumetric sweep efficiency.
E R = E D EV =
Np
N
(Eq. 3)
Where E D is the microscopic or displacement sweep efficiency
ED =
Reservoir volumes of oil mobilized by EOR agent

Reservoir volumes of contacted by EOR agent
(Eq. 4)
and E V is the volumetric sweep efficiency defined as
EV =
Reservoir volumes of oil contacted by displacing agent

Reservoir volumes of oil originally in place

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PETE 609 Module 2

(Eq. 5)
Typical values of the overall recovery efficiency E R are:

Steam injection
ER
30-50%
Polymer injection
ER
30-55%
CO2 injection
ER
30%-65%
Solvent injection
ER
35%-63%
These values depend upon the recovery efficiency attained by primary and conventional
recovery as well as reservoir and fluid properties (Carcoana, 1992).
The volumetric sweep efficiency can be decomposed into the product of an areal and a
vertical sweep efficiency.
EV = E A E v
(Eq. 6)
The following figure shows a schematics of an ideal piston-like displacement in a

heterogeneous reservoir with 7 layers of different permeability and thickness.
This figure illustrates the concept of the vertical and areal sweep efficiency.

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PETE 609 Module 2

Unswept zone
Swept zone
hi
ki
Figure 1 - Sketch of vertical and areal sweep efficiency.
The following figure illustrates the definition of areal sweep efficiency.
EA =
Area contacted by displacing agent

Total area

(Eq. 7)
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PETE 609 Module 2

Areal
Sweep
t2
t1
Figure 2 - Sketch of areal sweep efficiency.
Therefore, using all these definitions, the oil recovery equation is
S oiV p
N p = E D E A E v
B
o
(Eq. 8)
To use this equation we must have methods to evaluate the different efficiencies.
Estimates are available from:
Correlations
Scaled laboratory experiments
Numerical simulation
EA - Areal Sweep Efficiency

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PETE 609 Module 2

The most common source of areal sweep efficiency data is from displacements in scaled
physical models. Several correlations exist in the literature. Craig (1980) in his SPE
monograph "The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding" discusses several of
these methods.
These correlations are for piston like displacements in homogeneous, confined patterns.
When the well patterns are unconfined, the total area can be much larger and E A smaller.
The following definitions are needed to describe the effects of reservoir and fluid
properties upon the efficiencies.
Mobility ratio:
The most general definition of the mobility ratio is that is the ratio of the pressure gradient
ahead and behind a piston-like front (Prats, 1982).
The pressure gradients are eliminated using Darcy's law and this general definition can
take different- more practical- forms.
Incompressible displacement: Volumetric flux constant across the front. Here the mobility
ratio is the ratio of the mobility of displacing fluid divided by that of the displaced fluid. This
is used in polymer and micellar-polymer floods. The definition must be corrected when
there are compositional gradients on either side of the front. If there are no gradients, the
mobility ratio is the end-point mobility ratio. Typical mobility ratios for a waterflood range
from 0.02-2.
k
M = w o
w k o
(Eq. 9)
Incompressible and Miscible displacement: Here the mobility ratio is the ratio of the
displaced fluid viscosity to that of the displacing fluid. Used in solvent flooding.

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PETE 609 Module 2


M = o
s
(Eq. 10)
Constant mass flux across the front: Here the mobility ratio is defined by replacing the fluid
viscosities with the kinematic viscosities. Where kinematic viscosity is the dynamic
viscosity divided by the fluid density. The constant mass flux condition is approximated in
steam floods and compressible gas floods.

M = o
s
(Eq. 11)
When the mobility

M >1 unfavorable displacement
M <1 favorable displacement
Warning
The definition of mobility for incompressible displacements (a) expressed here should not
be confused with the similar expression used in the fractional flow equation that uses
relative permeabilities instead.
The permeability used in the definition of mobility is the effective permeability. The water
permeability is that of the water contacted zone of the reservoir, while the oil permeability is
that in the oil bank, that is at two different locations in the reservoir.
In the fractional flow equation, the ratio of the relative permeabilities correspond to one
given saturation.
Dimensionless Time

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PETE 609 Module 2

This variable is used to scale-up between the laboratory and the field. The dimensionless
time is defined as the
tD =
Cumulative volume of injected fluid

Reference pore volume
(Eq. 12)
There are various definitions for the reference pore volume according to the application.
The following table indicates the most common definitions.
Reference Volume
Applications
Equation
Area x length x porosity
Corefloods
AL
Area x thickness x porosity
General
Ah = V p
Total Pore Volume x Volumetric Sweep

Efficiency
= floodable pore volume
Floodable pore volume x Change in oil
saturation = Movable pore
V p EV = VPF
Micellar and
Polymer floods
Waterfloods
V PF S o
Miscible floods
V PF S o = HCPV
volume
Floodable pore volume x Oil saturation
= Hydrocarbon Pore
Volume
The following figure sketches the variation of EA with the mobility ratio and the volume
displaced. Several empirical models have been proposed for different injection patterns.

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PETE 609 Module 2

0.6
Vd
EA
Breakthrough
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
M
Figure 3 - Variation of E A with mobility ratio and displaced volumes.
Observations
EA increases with increasing time or throughput (Vd)
EA increases with decreasing mobility ratio
Viscous Fingering
EA decreases when the mobility increases because the displacement front becomes
unstable. This phenomena, known as viscous fingering results in an early breakthrough for
the displacing fluid, or into a prolonged injection to achieve sweep-out. The next figure
illustrates this phenomena, which is commonly observed in solvent flooding.

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PETE 609 Module 2

solvent
oil
Figure 4 - Viscous fingering commonly observed in solvent flooding.
Vertical Sweep Efficiency
Vertical sweep efficiency can be visualized in the following figure. This is defined as the
ratio of the sum of the darker shaded areas for each layer divided by the lighter shaded
area.
The vertical sweep efficiency depends upon many factors. These include:
Heterogeneity
Gravity
Mobility ratio
Capillary forces
Throughput

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PETE 609 Module 2

Heterogeneity
Observation of next figure indicates a stratified reservoir with layers of different
permeability. The displacement of the fluid is and an idealized piston-flow type. Due to the
permeability contrast the displacing fluid will break through earlier in the first layer, while the
entire cross-section will achieve sweep-out at a later time, when layer #4 breaks through.
Unswept zone
Swept zone
ki
hi
Figure 5 - Vertical sweep efficiency.
Gravity Effect
Gravity is a factor that affects the vertical efficiency not only in heterogeneous reservoirs but
in homogenous as well.
Gravity effects will be important when: (1) vertical communication is good. This is satisfied
when RL is large.

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PETE 609 Module 2

L k
RL = v
Hk
1/ 2
(Eq. 13)
(2) When gravity forces are strong compared to viscous forces. This is satisfied when the
capillary number Ng is large.
k g
u
Ng =
(Eq. 14)
Where:
relative mobility of displacing fluid
= density difference (displaced - displacing)

u=
superficial velocity
Both numbers are dimensionless.
The following figures indicate gravity effects for two different situations
Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid
The displacing fluid will tend to flow to the top of the reservoir and bypass the fluid in the
lower region (tongue over).
Tonguing will occur when M < 1 as long as RL and Ng are large. The effect of heterogeneity
and gravity can be mitigated by a favorable mobility ratio.
Gravity tonguing does not require a dipping reservoir (although dipping can be used as an
advantage when gravity is important).

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PETE 609 Module 2

Gravity tonguing is important in steam flooding applications.
Tongue Over
displaced > displacing
displaced > displacing
Figure 6 - Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid.
displaced < displacing

Tongue Under
Figure 7 - Density of displacing fluid higher than density of displaced fluid.
Displacement Sweep Efficicency
The local displacement efficiency is defined as

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PETE 609 Module 2

ED =
Volume of oil mobilized

Volume of contacted oil
(Eq. 15)
This efficiency is measured directly from a coreflood (since E V=1). It can also be evaluated
from the Buckley-Leveret (or fractional flow theory). For an immiscible displacement E D is
bounded by a residual phase saturation of the displaced phase S or. Miscible
displacements eliminate - in principle - Sor.
ED is a function of
Mobility ratios
Throughput
Wettability
Dip angle
Capillary number
All sweep efficiencies can be increased by decreasing the mobility ratio by either:
Lowering oil or k rw i.e steam flooding
Increasing water or k ro i.e. polymer flooding
Oil recovery would still be limited by the residual or trapped oil saturation. Methods that
target to reduce this saturation include solvent flooding.
Trapped Oil Saturation

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PETE 609 Module 2

Experimental evidence suggests that under most conditions the residual oil saturation
(usually a non-wetting phase) can be as large as the wetting phase saturation.
The relationship between trapping wetting or non-wetting phase and a local capillary
number indicates experimental evidence of trapping in a permeable media. This
relationship is called the capillary desaturation curve.
The local capillary number is
Nc =
(Eq. 16)
Where
interfacial tension between displacing and displaced fuid
u=
displacing superficial velocity
displacing fluid viscosity
Capillary desaturation curves indicate the residual (non-flowing) saturation in the y-axis
versus the local capillary number in the x-axis expressed in a logarithmic scale. The CDC
curves are determined for both the wetting (usually water), and the non-wetting phase
(usually oil). The following figure sketches a typical CDC curve

Page 15/16
Residual Oil Saturation

or Water Saturation
PETE 609 Module 2

Sor
0.3
S wr
0.2
0.1
10-7
10-6
10-5
10 -4
10-3
10-2
10-1
10
Nc
Figure 8 - Typical capillary desaturation curve.
Note that it is required a substantial increase in the capillary number to reduce the residual
oil saturation. The capillary number can be increased by either.
Lowering interfacial tension miscible/solvent methods

Increasing viscosity of displacing fluid polymer flooding.
There are physical, technical and economic limits of how much can the displacing fluid
viscosity and velocity be increased, thus solvent methods are the natural choice to increase
the capillary number and therefore lower the residual oil saturation.
Capillary desaturation curves are also affected by wettability, and pore size distribution.

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Module 2

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PETE 609 Module 2

Module 2 Displacement Fundamentals

Define the basic oil recovery equation

Define the various mobility ratios

Define dimensionless time

Define and understand areal (E A) and vertical (E v) recovery efficiencies

Define displacement efficiency (E D)

Evaluate the factors contributing to the residual (trapped) oil saturation

Oil Recovery Equation

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

The initial oil in place can be expressed as:

Where E D is the microscopic or displacement sweep efficiency

Reservoir volumes of oil mobilized by EOR agent

and E V is the volumetric sweep efficiency defined as

Reservoir volumes of oil contacted by displacing agent

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Typical values of the overall recovery efficiency E R are:

The following figure shows a schematics of an ideal piston-like displacement in a

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Figure 1 - Sketch of vertical and areal sweep efficiency.

The following figure illustrates the definition of areal sweep efficiency.

Area contacted by displacing agent

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Therefore, using all these definitions, the oil recovery equation is

EA - Areal Sweep Efficiency

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

When the mobility

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Cumulative volume of injected fluid

The following table indicates the most common definitions.

Area x length x porosity

Area x thickness x porosity

Total Pore Volume x Volumetric Sweep

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Vertical Sweep Efficiency

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Figure 5 - Vertical sweep efficiency.

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

relative mobility of displacing fluid

= density difference (displaced - displacing)

Both numbers are dimensionless.

Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid

Class Notes for PETE 609 Module 2

PETE 609 Module 2

Gravity tonguing is important in steam flooding applications.

displaced > displacing

displaced > displacing

Figure 6 - Density of displacing fluid lower that density of displaced fluid.

displaced < displacing

Figure 7 - Density of displacing fluid higher than density of displaced fluid.