3 WindTurbineAeroelasticity

Short Course on Wind Energy
- Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity -
POLItecnico
di MIlano
Carlo L. Bottasso
Politecnico di Milano
November 2011
Contents
Blade dynamics
Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity
- Rigid flapping and lagging blade

- Elastic blade
- Simplified blade element aerodynamics
Basic concepts in aeroelasticity

-
The rotor as a filter

Aerodynamic damping
Divergence
Flutter
Stability
- Concepts of static stability

- Stability of LTI systems (with and without analytical model)
- Stability of LTP systems (with and without analytical model)
POLITECNICO di MILANO
POLI-Wind Research Lab
POLItecnico
di MIlano
Blade Dynamics
The Flapping Equation
Consider a rigid flapping blade (simplest possible approximation

of beam flapwise bending):
Acceleration
at hinge H
Hinge
offset
Gravity
Flap stiffness due to centrifugal loading:
Flap stiffness due to gravity:
Restoring moments proportional to flap angle

Kinematic quantities:
Hinge moment:
Aerodynamic
Gravity
Hinge spring
Equations of dynamic equilibrium wrt

an accelerating moving frame centered in H:
Moments of inertia wrt hinge H:
Equations of motion (in components):
Centrifugal load
Gravity
Spring
Feathering (twist), flap and lag dynamic equilibrium:

No twisting
Lag moment due to

flapping (Coriolis)

Flap dynamic equilibrium:
Centrifugal stiffness
Hinge offset
Gravity induced stiffness
(pulsating)
Non-rotating natural frequency
Hinge offset for a uniform blade:
In a vacuum and neglecting gravity, harmonic oscillator (no damping):
Fundamental frequency increased by centrifugal stiffening and hinge

offset
Campbell (Southwell, fan)
diagram:
Response of Second Order Systems
Forced spring-mass-damper system:
Set
Solution:
Response of Second Order Systems

Frequency ratio (forcing/natural):
Amplitude:
Peak response
obtained at freq
ratios smaller than
resonance
Phase:
(From Bramwell 2001)
Forcing at resonance
results in 90 deg delay
Typically for a wind turbine blade:
For a hinged blade (null spring):
Flapping Equation for an Elastic Blade
Equilibrium of blade segment:
Flapping Equation for an Elastic Blade
Differential equations of equilibrium:
From beam theory:

Equations of motion:
Centrifugal stiffening
Rigid Blade Dynamics
Considering lag (simplest possible approximation of blade

edgewise bending):

Considering yaw:
Acceleration at
hinge H due to
Yaw rate
Acceleration at
hinge H due to q
(having dropped small terms
Neglect
(small if q<<)
Feathering (twist), flap and lag dynamic equilibrium:
Feathering equilibrium:
Gyroscopic blade
twisting due to yawing

Flapping equilibrium:
Gravity
Non-rotating freq
Yaw (Coriolis)
Flap/lag coupling

The flap and feathering gyroscopic moments can be used to explain
also gyroscopic effects on the whole rotor:
Feather
Flap
Computing the net effects of all B blades:
and the rotor is subjected to a tilting moment when it yaws

This is the same result obtained using the Principal Theorem of the
Gyroscope:

Equilibrium in lag:
Lag due to flap (Coriolis)
Non-rotating frequency

Centrifugal stiffening: notice different behavior in flap and lag
Flap:
Larger stiffening
effect
Centrifugal force does

not change direction
with flap angle
Centrifugal force
changes direction
with lag angle
Lag:
Blade Element Aerodynamics
Simplified blade element aerodynamics

(for development of analytical models):
Crossflow
Linear vertical
wind shear
View from
above

View from
above
Out-of-plane local wind:
Wind+inflow
Yaw
Flap damping
Vertical shear
Cross-flow
In-plane local wind:
Rotor speed
Cross-flow
Flapping moment:

Flapping moment:
Lock number (ratio of

aerodynamic and
inertial forces)
Non-dimensional
quantities:
In terms of non-dimensional quantities:

Flapping dynamic equilibrium including aerodynamics:
Lock number <0 if

blade stalled (Cl <0)
Damping
Flap
Cross-flow
Stiffness
Centrifugal
Nat. freq.
Coning
Cross-flow
Cross-flow
Yaw
Gyroscopic
Gravity
Vertical shear
Aerodynamic
Flapping-induced aerodynamic damping:
Flap damping ratio:
For a typical blade:
i.e. rapid damping of flapping blade motions:

Analytical solution of the flapping equation:
1. Assume the solution is of the form

(dropping higher harmonics)
2. Insert into
3. Collect terms to match harmonic coefficients (dropping higher

harmonics)

Assumed flapping solution:
View from
above
Solving system in matrix form:
where:
Flap freq including

centrifugal effect
with offset
Axisymmetric flow
term
Axisymmetric flow
term
Gravity

Solution organized by contributors to response:
FG
CF
VS
Y
FG: flow+gravity
VS: vertical wind shear
CF: cross-flow
Y: yaw
: determinant of solving system


Consider solution to flow and gravity:
FG
Cyclic sharing (ratio of sine and cosine harmonic amplitudes):
Hinged blade:
Mostly yawing
Stiff blade:
Mostly tilting
This can also be explained in terms of phase lag: gravity is a cosine input
The Lagging Equation

Equilibrium in lag:
Lag due to flap (Coriolis)
Non-rotating frequency

Lagging dynamic equilibrium including aerodynamics:
Stiffness
Centrif. Gravity
Nat. freq.
Lag-flap coupling
Gravity
Steady lag
Cross-flow
Yaw
Vertical shear
Undamped oscillator:
Remarks:
- In reality, there is small damping term due to changes in drag
(neglected in the present derivations)
- In any case, damping in lag is much smaller than in flap (see later on)

Analytical solution of the lagging equation:
1. Assume the solution is of the form

(dropping higher harmonics)
2. Insert into
3. Collect terms to match harmonic coefficients (dropping higher

harmonics)

Lag motion solution - steady lag angle
where:
Lag freq including

centrifugal effect
with offset
Gravity
Axisymmetric flow
term
Axisymmetric flow
term
Denominator is null if:
Lag motion solution cosine response
Lag motion solution sine response
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Basic Concepts in Aeroelasticity
The Rotor as a Filter
Periodic trimmed condition in non-turbulent

wind: all blades have same motion and loads
Fore-aft tower force:
Rotating frame: complex Fourier series
expansion of blade shear
Non-rotating frame: total fore-aft force on

tower
Only pB/rev harmonics are transmitted to the tower
Rotor torque:
Rotating frame: complex Fourier
series expansion of in-plane blade
shear and bending moment
Non-rotating frame: total torque
Transmission of the sole pB/rev harmonics

Side-side tower force:

Rotating frame: complex Fourier
series expansion of in-plane blade
shear and axial force
Non-rotating frame: total side force
pB/rev harmonics caused by rotating pB1/rev harmonics


This concept leads to the definition of multiblade (or Coleman)
coordinates
From blade coordinates to fixed-frame coordinates (assuming 3 blades):
From fixed-frame coordinates to blade coordinates:
Coleman coordinates can be used for transforming equations of motion

written in terms of blade coordinates into equations written in terms of
fixed-frame coordinates
This does not completely remove the periodicity, simply filters out all
harmonics which are not multiples of the number of blades (see IPC
control later on for details)
Interpretation:
Collective average:
Horizontal tilting:
(i.e. yaw)
Vertical tilting:
Whirling Rotor Modes
CG of K-th blade:
Assuming small lag angle:
CG of whole rotor:
(compare with Coleman
transform)

Non-dim. lag frequency:
(see lag eqs.)
Lag motion at the lag frequency:
Insert into expression for CG, to get whirling rotor CG motion:
Frequency -
Direction depends on sign
(regressive when negative)
Frequency +
Same direction as
(progressive)
Typically for wind turbines
, hence
(2 progressive)
Coefficients:

Whirling CG motion excites side-side tower motions
Possible resonant conditions (Campbell diagram):
Progressive +
Possible resonant
conditions
Progressive -
2nd side-side tower mode
1st side-side tower mode
Not a possible resonant conditions

Exchange of frequencies
(need a coupled rotor-tower analysis
to see this effect)
Aerodynamic Damping
Simple airfoil case: consider airfoil motion orthogonal to flow
Air speed wrt

to airfoil
Airfoil speed
Aerodynamic Damping
Damping
Positive and large in

pre-stall conditions
Aerodynamic Damping
Simple airfoil case: consider airfoil motion aligned with flow
Air speed wrt

to airfoil
Airfoil speed
Aerodynamic Damping
Damping
Small compared
to CL
Aerodynamic Damping
Blade-like case: consider vibrating blade cross section (neglecting

stall, rotor inflow and unsteady aerodynamic effects)
Rotor plane
Neglect inflow for

simplicity
Aerodynamic Damping
Linearizing the aerodynamic force components, one gets the

damping terms:
For a rough estimate, when
The larger of
the two
Aerodynamic Damping
Consider an elliptical motion of the blade cross section:
Parameter describing shape

of elliptical motion (out-ofplane/in-plane displacement)
Rotor plane
Aerodynamic Damping
Work on blade section (if negative, dissipation and positive damping):
Effective damping (unstable motion if negative):
Stall will reduce

mean damping
Mean damping
Damping term affected by direction of vibration
Blade in-plane vibration:

Blade out-of-plane vibration:
The larger of
the two
Divergence
Structural deflection under aerodynamic loading that enhances further
the aerodynamic loading itself
It is a static aeroelastic phenomenon (no presence of inertial or

unsteady aerodynamics effects)
Typical section (simplest model of blade torsional deformation):
Zero lift line
Aerodynamic
center
Elastic
axis
Structural
deformation
Divergence
Lift:
Aerodynamic moment:
Structural moment:
Equilibrium:
Structural torsional deflection:
Divergence:
Divergence
dynamic pressure
Flutter
Flutter: instability due to the interaction of aerodynamic, elastic and

inertial forces which result in the extraction of energy from the
airstream, leading to limit cycles or catastrophic amplification of
oscillatory motion
Seldom (so far) a problem in wind turbines, but this might change
with larger and slender new blades
Difficult to draw conclusions with simple analytical models (very
complex derivations even for few dofs and simplified equations)
Simple models are used for understanding main parameters
Then, use:
Comprehensive models capable of capturing all physical
effects (aerodynamic, structural, inertial) and couplings
Tools for damping estimation
Extensive parametric investigations
Flutter
Many possible potential flutter mechanisms

(most are typically not very likely in wind turbines):
Flap-torsion flutter
Torsional stiffness
parameter
As the blade flaps, inertial and aerodynamic moments

twist the blade, which in turn modify the flap forces
Influenced (and cured) by chordwise CG position
Flap-lag flutter
Flap-lag coupling: flap induces lag by Coriolis forces,

which induce change in angular velocity, which in turn
change centrifugal and aerodynamic forces (including flap forces)
Tendency to flutter increases for similar flap and lag frequencies
CG aft movement
Flap-lag-torsion flutter
Similar to flap-lag, but further excited by changes in pitch due to torsion
All the above coupled to tower/drive-train/nacelle modes

Whirl-flutter
Coupling with tower modes (bending and/or torsion) (very unlikely, would require
extremely soft support)
Stall-induced flutter
Due to coupling between torsional blade deflection and dynamic stall effects on
the airfoil aerodynamic pitching moment
Leads to limit cycle oscillation
Flutter
Dynamic stall:
Flow remains attached for AOAs

exceeding static stall angle,
significant increase in maximum lift
Separation delay due to:
- Kinematic induced camber effect
- Influence of shed wake
- Unsteady turbulent boundary layer
Adverse pressure gradient produces
reversed flow at LE forming dynamic
stall vortex (DSV)
Secondary vortical structure at LE
can produce additional lift increase
Flow reattachment only for AOAs
well below static stall angle,
boundary layer separated for most
of downstroke
Flutter
Dynamic stall:
(Singh at al., JoA 2006)
Flutter
Dynamic stall:
(Singh at al., JoA 2006)
Flutter
Work on airfoil (if negative, dissipation and positive damping)
Counter-clockwise
loop
Clockwise loop
Flutter onset if net damping is negative
Flutter
Oscillating motion:
Aerodynamic moment:
Work:
Thus damping depends on out-of-phase component of pitching

moment wrt angle of attack
Flutter
Several effects govern extent of negative damping loops:

Angle of attack (main parameter):
- Light dynamic stall:
Minor flow separation from airfoil

Small hysteresis, small change in airloads
Sensitive to airfoil geometry and frequency of motion
- Deep dynamic stall:
Vortex-shedding
Large hysteresis, large rapid change in airloads
Less sensitive to parameters
Airfoil type
Frequency of motion
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Stability
Concepts of Static Stability

Thrust-wind stability (vibrations in stall-regulated wind turbines,
floating wind turbines):
Unstable behavior
Apparent wind
on rotor plane
Stable behavior
Concepts of Static Stability

Torque-TSR stability:
Torque :
TSR:
Stable behavior
Unstable behavior
Stability Analysis
Applications in wind turbine design and verification:
Explaining the causes of observed vibration phenomena

Assessing the proximity of the flutter boundaries
Evaluating the efficacy of control laws for low-damped modes
Desirable characteristics of stability analysis tools:
Closed loop: damping of coupled wind turbine/controller system

Applicable to arbitrary mathematical models (e.g., finite element
multibody models, modal-based models, etc.)
Applicable to a real wind turbine in the field
Accounting correctly for underlying physics
Contents
Stability analysis for Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems

Continuous time analysis
Continuous to discrete time conversion
Discrete time analysis
Stability analysis for Linear Time Periodic (LTP) systems

Continuous time
Continuous to discrete time conversion
Discrete time analysis
Input/output model in the discrete-time domain

Auto-Regressive eXogenous (ARX) sequence (LTI)
- Identification / State space realization / Stability analysis
Periodic Auto-Regressive eXogenous (PARX) sequence (LTP)
- Identification / State space realization / Stability analysis
LTI Stability Analysis

Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system:
Solution:
Autonomous problem:
Spectral decomposition:
Solution is asymptotically stable iff
LTI Stability Analysis
Eigenvalue matrix:
For each eigenvalue
, define the frequency
and damping factor
LTI Continuous to Discrete Conversion

Sample generic signal
(input, output or state) at constant time step
Definition:
Continuous time:
Discrete time:
Continuous time system:
Integrate (Lagrange formula) from time
to time
Sample signal with time step
ZOH (zero-order-hold, input constant during time step)
Lagrange formula becomes
Introducing
we get

Continuous time solution:
ZOH solution at discrete time instants:
Discrete time state-space form:
And the relationship between continuous and discrete time forms is:
Remark: it is an approximation; it implies constant inputs within the step

LTI Stability Analysis in Discrete Time
Discrete time solution
Autonomous problem:
Spectral decomposition:
Solution is asymptotically stable iff
LTI Stability Analysis in Discrete Time
Return to continuous poles to get frequencies and damping factors
where
is the j-th discrete pole and
the j-th continuous pole
Having
, one can compute the associated frequency and damping
Remark: one might use Tustin transformation
LTP Systems
Wind turbine models are characterized by periodic coefficients
Example: rigid blade flapping equation in first order form
LTP Systems
Linear Time Periodic (LTP) system:
Periodicity with period T:
LTP Systems
Autonomous problem (i.e.
):
State transition matrix:
Remark: notice that, since
and
then the transition matrix obeys the following
LTP Systems
Other important remark:
The state transition matrix at t+T is a linear combination of the

state transition matrix at t, i.e.
Constant matrix
In fact, assuming the above holds, then
Recalling that
which gives
and, by the periodicity of
, we get
which proves the initial statement

LTP Stability Analysis

Decomposition of the state transition matrix (Floquet normal form):
Non-periodic
Constant matrix
Periodic
: captures contractivity of solution

: captures periodicity of solution
The choice of the non-periodic part as
implies that
is periodic
In fact

Consider the change of coordinates
Since
is periodic, it is also bounded, and therefore the stability
conditions for
are the same as the ones for
Then
and using
and
we get the LTI
whose stability is dictated by the eigenvalues of matrix
(
)

Definition: monodromy matrix (transition matrix over one period)
From the definition:

and in turn
Defining
Dynamic equation of a
time invariant discrete-time system
Contractivity of solution is
contained in matrix

Compute spectral decomposition:
Solutions are stable iff the eigenvalues of
(Remark: since
and
: characteristic exponents
are
have the same eigenvectors
: characteristic multipliers
Since
, the relationship between
and
is
which gives in turn
Remark: arbitrariness in the imaginary part of
!!!
The significance of this issue will be more clear later on

For now ignore the arbitrariness choosing for example
Rewrite transition matrix as a function of characteristic exponents
Notice that
where
Then the state transition matrix becomes
where
and
is the order of the system


Remark:
is periodic and could be expanded in a Fourier series
The final form of the transition matrix is
The LTP exponents,

, theoretically infinite, are present in the
system response and matrices
determine their relative contribution
Definition: modal participation factor
Measure of the relative strength of the n-th harmonic in the j-th mode
The LTP exponents

are the analogs of the LTI eigenvalues
For each exponent we can compute frequency
and damping
and
determine the dynamic behavior of the LTP system

Problem related to the multiplicity in the solutions of
The arbitrariness in the imaginary part of the
is now understood:
All exponents obtained by adding any integer multiple of 2/T to

the imaginary part of
are present in the response of the system
and each of them is associated to a specific participation factor
The arbitrary choice in the multiple solutions of
has no consequence since it involves a frequency shift in the
harmonic content of
such that the triads
,
and
remain the same

Periodic analysis of a LTI system
LTI:
LTP:
Equating the two transition matrices
The closer the participation of a certain harmonic is to 1, the more

the mode behaves as invariant (i.e. non periodic)

Implementation:
1. Compute transition matrix:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Remarks:
- Potentially expensive! To get the transition matrix numerically by perturbation
requires integrating the system for one period for each degree of freedom in
the model
- Need high accuracy integration (perturbation needs to be small for linearity of
response, need to capture effect of perturbation on response)
Get the monodromy matrix

Compute characteristic multipliers and characteristic exponents
Compute periodic eigenvectors
Compute modal participation factors
Triads
describe the behavior of all modes of interest

Numerical example:
Consider the following 2dof system
Remark: for
the system is LTI with one pair of complex poles with
frequency 0.7 rad/s and damping factor 0.2

Consider the invariant case (
)
)
Response to a non-zero initial condition (
Compute state transition matrix within a period, monodromy matrix and

characteristic multipliers
Since
, the system is
asymptotically stable
Compute characteristic exponents
-0.1400 + 5.3141i
-0.1400 + 4.6859i
-0.1400 + 4.3141i
-0.1400 + 3.6859i
-0.1400 + 3.3141i
-0.1400 + 2.6859i
-0.1400 + 2.3141i
-0.1400 + 1.6859i
-0.1400 + 1.3141i
-0.1400 + 0.6859i
-0.1400 + 0.3141i
-0.1400 - 0.3141i
-1
-0.1400 - 0.6859i
-0.1400 - 1.3141i
-2
-0.1400 - 1.6859i
-0.1400 - 2.3141i
-3
-0.1400 - 2.6859i
-0.1400 - 3.3141i
-4
-0.1400 - 3.6859i
-0.1400 - 4.3141i
-5
-0.1400 - 4.6859i
-0.1400 - 5.3141i
Compute
Notice that
by 180 degree
for a given exponent ( e.g.
and
have the same amplitude but phases that differ
Compute frequencies, damping factors and participation factors
5.3160
0.0263
0.00
4.6879
0.0299
0.00
4.3164
0.0324
0.00
3.6885
0.0380
0.00
3.3171
0.0422
0.00
2.6895
0.0521
0.00
2.3184
0.0604
0.00
1.6917
0.0828
0.00
1.3216
0.1059
0.00
0.7000
0.2000
1.00
0.3639
0.4071
0.00
0.3639
0.4071
0.00
-1
0.7000
0.2000
1.00
-1
1.3216
0.1059
0.00
-2
1.6917
0.0828
0.00
-2
2.3184
0.0604
0.00
-3
2.6895
0.0521
0.00
-3
3.3171
0.0422
0.00
-4
3.6885
0.0380
0.00
-4
4.3164
0.0324
0.00
-5
4.6879
0.0299
0.00
-5
5.3160
0.0263
0.00

Consider the non-invariant case (
Response to a non-zero initial condition (
Compute state transition matrix within a period, monodromy matrix and

characteristic multipliers
Since
, the system is
asymptotically stable.
Compute the characteristic exponents
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 + 4.6421i
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 + 3.6421i
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 + 2.6421i
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 + 1.6421i
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 + 0. 6421i
-0.1400 + 0.3579i
-0.1400 - 0.3579i
-1
-0.1400 - 0.6421i
-0.1400 - 1.3579i
-2
-0.1400 1.6421i
-0.1400 - 2.3579i
-3
-0.1400 - 2.6421i
-0.1400 - 3.3579i
-4
-0.1400 - 3.6421i
-0.1400 - 4.3579i
-5
-0.1400 - 4.6421i
-0.1400 - 5.3579i
Compute
Notice that
by 180 degree
for a given exponent (e.g.
and
have the same amplitude but phases that differ
Compute frequencies, damping factors and participation factors
5.3597
0.0261
0.0000
4.6442
0.0301
0.0001
4.3602
0.0321
0.0002
3.6448
0.0384
0.0018
3.3608
0.0417
0.0019
2.6458
0.0529
0.0196
2.3621
0.0593
0.0179
1.6480
0.0850
0.1121
1.3651
0.1026
0.0892
0.6572
0.2131
0.4769
0.3843
0.3643
0.2802
0.3843
0.3643
0.2802
-1
0.6572
0.2131
0.4769
-1
1.3651
0.1026
0.0892
-2
1.6480
0.0850
0.1121
-2
2.3621
0.0593
0.0179
-3
2.6458
0.0529
0.0196
-3
3.3608
0.0417
0.0019
-4
3.6448
0.0384
0.0018
-4
4.3602
0.0321
0.0002
-5
4.6442
0.0301
0.0001
-5
5.3597
0.0261
0.0000
Fourier transform of state
LTP Continuous to Discrete Conversion

The approach is similar to the LTI one and it is based on the
comparison between the continuous time solution and the ZOH
solution between two consecutive time instants
Continuous system:
Discrete system:
Resulting C/D equations
LTP Stability Analysis in Discrete Time

Linear Time Periodic (LTP) system:
Periodicity with period K:
Autonomous problem (i.e.
):
State transition matrix:
Remark: notice that, since
and
then the transition matrix obeys the following

Other important remark:
The state transition matrix at k+K is a linear combination of the
state transition matrix at k, i.e.
Constant matrix
In fact, assuming the above holds, then

Recalling that
which gives
and, by the periodicity of
, we get
which proves the initial statement


Decomposition of the state transition matrix (Floquet normal form):
Non-periodic
Periodic
Constant matrix
: captures contractivity of solution

: captures periodicity of solution
The choice of the non-periodic part as
implies that
is periodic
In fact
Stability Analysis of LTPs in Discrete Time

Consider the change of coordinates
Since
is periodic, it is also bounded, and therefore the stability
conditions for
are the same as the ones for
Then
and using
and
we get the LTI
whose stability is dictated by the eigenvalues of matrix
(
)

Definition: monodromy matrix (transition matrix over one period)
From the definition:

and in turn
Defining
Dynamic equation of a
time invariant discrete-time system
Contractivity of solution is
contained in matrix

Compute spectral decomposition:
Solutions are stable iff the eigenvalues of
(Remark: since
and
: characteristic exponents
are
have the same eigenvectors
: characteristic multipliers
Since
, the relationship between
and
is
which gives in turn
Remark: arbitrariness in the imaginary part of
!!!
As for the continuous time case, this arbitrariness has no effect

For now ignore the arbitrariness choosing for example
Rewrite the transition matrix as a function of characteristic exponents
Notice that
where
Than the state transition matrix becomes
where
and
is the order of the system


Remark:
is periodic and could be expanded in a Fourier series
The final form of the transition matrix is
All
LTP exponents,
, are present in the system
response, and matrices
determine their relative contribution
Definition: modal participation factor
Measure of relative strength of the n-th harmonic in j-th mode
The LTP exponents

eigenvalues:
are the analogs of the LTI
For each exponent we can compute frequency

and damping
converting the discrete exponent into the continuous one, and then
computing frequencies and damping factors as in the continuous
time case
and
determine the dynamic behavior of LTP system
Stability through System Identification

Important remark:
One might not have the analytical expression of a model

Examples:
Experimental observations (only input-output data)
Non-linear comprehensive models (FEM multibody+aerodynamics)
Solution: use system identification techniques using input-output
sequences (applicable to experimental observations and virtual
experiments conducted with numerical models)
LTI Input-Output Model

From discrete time state-space model to linear input-output model
State-space model:
State space observer model (add and subtract
):
Reordering:
Solving for the output with null initial conditions:
ARX sequence:
Neglecting
AR part
X part
(Auto-Regressive) (eXogeneous)
Remark: the AR and X part could have different orders (i.e. a different
number of coefficients)
Example: consider the following discrete time system:
Compute response:
ARX sequence of order 2 for the AR-part and order 1 for the X-part:
LTI State-Space Realization

State-space realization: find a suitable state-space system which has
the given input-output behavior
The problem has infinite possible solutions: find convenient solution!

Canonical realization (minimal, reachable and observable):
LTI Input-Output Model Identification

ARX sequence in matrix form:
where
Least-squares estimation of ARX system parameters:
LTI Stability from Input-Output Model
Approach 1:
Identify ARX sequence:
Compute
matrix with canonical realization
Compute eigenvalues, then frequencies and damping factors of interest
Approach 2:
Introduce the backward shift operator

Write ARX sequence as
s.t.
where
LTI Stability from Input-Output Model
(Approach 2 continued)
Compute roots of polynomial
Compute continuous poles
Compute frequencies
, discrete poles
and damping factors
LTP Input-Output Model
PARX Periodic Auto-Regressive model with eXogeneous inputs:
with
the number of harmonics in the model
and
LTP Input-Output Model Identification
Consider PARX sequence and the Fourier expansion of its coefficients:
LTP Input-Output Model Identification
The PARX sequence can be written as
The unknown coefficients can be identified by least squares:
where
and
is the total number of samples
LTP State-Space Realization
The realization of a periodic state-space model from a periodic inputoutput model is more complicated than in the LTI case (need to ensure
that simulation with realized model gives same input-output sequence)
For stability analysis, one needs only the autonomous response
Rigorous (same input-output) realization of the sole AR-part of the
system is as follows
LTP Stability from Input-Output Model
Once the periodic matrix

transition matrix
is identified, compute the state
Define monodromy matrix
Compute multipliers, exponents, and participation factors as

previous explained
LTP Stability from Input-Output Model
Approaches for wind turbine stability analysis:

1. Direct LTP analysis
Provide suitable excitation of modes of interest
Identify LTP input-output model from wind turbine response
Perform stability analysis
2. LTI reformulation of LTP problem
Provide suitable excitation of modes of interest
Reformulate LTP into an approximate LTI
Identify LTI input-output model from wind turbine response
Perform stability analysis
LTI Reformulation of a LTP Problem

LTP system:
= closed-loop matrix (accounts for pitch-torque controller)
= exogenous input (wind), constant in steady conditions
Fourier reformulation (Bittanti & Colaneri 2000):
1. Approximate state matrix:

2. Transfer periodicity to input term (see later on for details)
Obtain linear time invariant (LTI) system:
where
is the exogenous periodic input
Remark: no need for model generality, just good fit with measures
Given reformulated LTI system
use standard Pronys method (Hauer 1990; Trudnowski 1999):

1. Trim and perturb with doublet (or similar, e.g. 3-2-1-1) input
2. Identify discrete time ARX model (using Least Squares or Output
Error method) with harmonic inputs
3. Compute discrete poles, and transform to continuous time (Tustin
transformation)
4. Obtain frequencies and damping factors

Transferring periodicity to input term
Expanding the periodic terms:
In matrix form:
Constant matrix
Dummy periodic
exogenous input
Illustrative example: lag equation neglecting flap-coupling terms
where the term

damping
accounts for drag-induced and structural
Objective: compute lag-damping factor through identification
Lag equation in state-space form (remark:
fixed)
where
Lag freq including
centrifugal effect
with offset
Yaw
term
Gravity
Cross-flow
term
Steady lag
term
Vertical shear
term
Fourier reformulation:
Approximation of the state matrix:

Remark: neglecting contribution of gravity to stiffness (negligible)
Transferring periodicity to input terms:
Collecting all terms
Resulting LTI system:
Hence, a LTP has been reformulated as a LTI subjected to exogenous

periodic inputs
Applications and Results

Definition of best practices for the identification
of modes of interest:
For each mode:
Excitations (inputs)
Consider possible excitations (applied loads,

pitch and/or torque inputs) and outputs (blade,
shaft, tower internal reactions)
Verify presence of modes in response (FFT)
Verify linearity of response
Perform model identification
Verify quality of identification (compare
measured response with predicted one)
Compiled library of mode id procedures:

In this presentation:
Tower fore-aft mode
Rotor in-plane, blade first edge modes
Response (outputs)
Example: Damping Estimation of

Fore-Aft Tower Modes
Doublets of varying intensity to verify linearity
Excitation: doublet of hub

force in fore-aft direction
Verification of linearity of response
Output: tower root

fore-aft bending
moment

Verification of linearity of response and presence of modes
First tower mode

Second tower mode
1P
9P
3P
6P
12P

Direct LTP analysis
Time domain
Frequency domain

Exponent at 0.33 Hz with a participation
close to 1: first tower mode is nearly
invariant
Participation factor implies

non-negligible periodic effects

Direct LTP vsReformulated LTI analysis:
First tower mode
Second tower mode

Time domain
Frequency domain
Good quality of identified models

(supports hypothesis A() A0)
Necessary for reliable estimation

Estimated damping ratios for varying wind speed


Blade Edge and Rotor In-Plane Modes
Quality of identified model, using blade root bending
First blade
edgewise mode
Excitation: doublet of
In-plane blade tip force
Generator torque
Rotor in-plane
mode
Quality of identified model, using shaft torque
Outputs:
Blade root bending moment
Shaft torque
Rotor in-plane
mode

Blade Edge and Rotor In-Plane Modes
Rotor in-plane mode
Little sensitivity to used output

(blade bending or shaft torque)
Blade edge mode

3 WindTurbineAeroelasticity

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3 WindTurbineAeroelasticity

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Short Course on Wind Energy

- Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity -

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

- Rigid flapping and lagging blade

Basic concepts in aeroelasticity

The rotor as a filter

- Concepts of static stability

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Consider a rigid flapping blade (simplest possible approximation

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Flap stiffness due to centrifugal loading:

Flap stiffness due to gravity:

Restoring moments proportional to flap angle

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

POLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

The Flapping Equation

POLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

The Flapping Equation

Equations of dynamic equilibrium wrt

Moments of inertia wrt hinge H:

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Equations of motion (in components):

Feathering (twist), flap and lag dynamic equilibrium:

Lag moment due to

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Gravity induced stiffness

Non-rotating natural frequency

Hinge offset for a uniform blade:

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

In a vacuum and neglecting gravity, harmonic oscillator (no damping):

Fundamental frequency increased by centrifugal stiffening and hinge

POLI-Wind Research Lab

Response of Second Order Systems

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Forced spring-mass-damper system:

POLI-Wind Research Lab

Response of Second Order Systems

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

POLI-Wind Research Lab

The Flapping Equation

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Typically for a wind turbine blade:

(From Bramwell 2001)

For a hinged blade (null spring):

POLI-Wind Research Lab

Wind Turbine Aeroelasticity

Flapping Equation for an Elastic Blade

Equilibrium of blade segment:

POLI-Wind Research Lab