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Department of Electrical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
Department of Electrical Engineering, Kun Shan University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 28 June 2014
Received in revised form 4 May 2015
Accepted 5 May 2015
Available online 19 May 2015
Keywords:
GaborWigner transform
High-impedance faults
Cross-terms
a b s t r a c t
The GaborWigner transform was adopted in this study to explore the electric signals generated by
high-impedance faults (HIFs). This method excels at detecting non-stationary signals and featuring high
resolutions, while the effects of cross-term problem of Wigner distribution can be meanwhile decreased.
To conrm the feasibility of this method, the approach was tested under different scenarios with comparisons to practical waveforms. Test results support the practicality of the method for the inspection of
high-impedance fault-generated signals.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
High-impedance faults often occur when an overhead ground
wire is broken and falls to a ground with high resistance, such as
a tar road, cement oor, grass, or sand. When this fault occurs,
the magnitude of current is low because impedances of some
grounds are very high. Therefore, it may not be easy to detect such
faults solely by using traditional protection devices. Worst of all, an
electric wire falling on a high-impedance fault may produce arcs,
endangering the personal safety and causing property damages
[15]. From perspectives of public safety and operational reliability, an effective detection of high-impedance faults serves as a very
important topic to study.
In the last decades, several researches have been devoted to this
fault detection study. Some studies were focused on adjusting the
over-current protection devices [6]. Yet, if the device was not
carefully designed, errors may occur due to the short of
signal-discrimination capability. A grounding relay was applied
to detect; however, under an extremely unbalanced load or multiple grounding contacts, a sufcient reliability was hard to reach
[7]. Based on the second-order [8], the third-order [9,10], and the
high-frequency harmonics current [11], the changes in harmonic
currents of feeders were closely tracked, anticipating the features
of high-impedance fault would be better comprehended.
Subsequently, signal processing methods including Kalman lters
[12], articial neural networks (ANNs) [13,14], and decision trees
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 6 2757575x32506; fax: +886 6 234 5482.
E-mail address: clhuang@mail.ncku.edu.tw (S.-J. Huang).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2015.05.010
0142-0615/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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x1t + cos2 x2t will bring the auto terms of cos2 x1t and cos2 x2t
along with the cross terms of cos(x1 + x2)t + cos(x1 x2)t, yet
the frequency of x1 + x2 and x1 x2 is away from that of the
WDt; x
s s
f t f t ejxs ds
2
2
1
1
Proposed method
wsf t sejxs ds
1
where t is a sliding variable of time, x is the frequency, s is the signal function in the time-domain, and w(s) is the window function.
The Gabor transform (GT) can be seen as a type of short-time
Fourier transform, which replaces the window function with
Gaussian function as shown below
GTt; x
r Z
1
1
gsf t sejxs ds
2p 1
GWTt; x GT A t; xWDB t; x
Frequency (Hz)
f t cos6t 0:05t 2
Frequency (Hz)
where g(s) is the Gaussian function and the duration of g(t) window is
2T along with T = 1/60 [s]. This Gabor transform detects the time and
frequency of a non-stationary signal simultaneously, yet its analyzing
performance is easily affected by the window width. A narrow window may hinder from the sufcient resolution to distinguish those
signals with similar frequencies, while a wide window may cause
the difculty of immunity from neighboring high-frequency disturbances [21,22]. Special attentions are suggested to ensure the
Frequency (Hz)
STFTt; x
Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1. The timefrequency spectrum of real signals. (a) GT. (b) Wigner distribution. (c) GWT.
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J.-Y. Cheng et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 73 (2015) 192199
f t ej0:15t
Fig. 3(ac) shows the results by using GT, Wigner distribution and
GWT, where the horizontal axis represents the time and the vertical
axis represents the frequency. Calculated values are displayed by
various shades of colors, where the lighter color is for a larger value
and the deeper color for a smaller one. From this example, the
results of GT does not have cross terms problem, but the resolution
is seen to be the lowest. The Wigner distribution has a higher resolution, yet its cross terms lead to an unexpected line draw. Only the
plot of Fig. 3(c) owns a sufcient resolution while the cross terms
problem is solved as well.
The prime numbers in the complex signals in the GT and the
Wigner distribution are 2.6 and 0.6, respectively. By multiplying
the two functions, GT2.6(t, x)WD0.6(t, x) is obtained. To verify if the
selected prime number is appropriate, smaller prime numbers of
the GT and the Wigner distribution are compared. Fig. 4(a) shows
that when the function in the GWT is GT2.6(t, x)WD0.06(t, x), the
spectrum is inclined toward the GT and has lower resolution.
Fig. 4(b) shows that when the window function is GT0.4(t, x)
WD0.6(t, x), the spectrum is inclined toward the Wigner distribution
and has cross terms problems.
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 2. The effects of the prime number on the GWT. (a) The prime number of the GT is larger. (b) The prime number of the Wigner distribution is larger.
Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3. The timefrequency spectrum of complex signals. (a) GT. (b) Wigner distribution. (c) GWT.
Time (s)
(a)
Time (s)
(b)
Fig. 4. The effects of the prime number on the GWT. (a) The prime number of the GT is greater. (b) The prime number of the Wigner distribution is greater.
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f t ej0:0015t
4 j0:06t 3 j0:3t2 jt
Fig. 5, the waveform of using the GT, the Wigner distribution, and
the GWT are all depicted. The horizontal axis represents time, and
the vertical axis represents frequency. Analyzed values are displayed
by various shades of color. Lighter colors represent greater values,
and darker colors represent lower values. Except from an additional
draw caused by the cross terms as shown in Fig. 5(b), both of Fig.
5(a) and (c) are able to demonstrate the resultant frequency distribution on the time axis; yet the resolution of Fig. 5(c) is a better one.
To verify if the selected prime number is appropriate, a lower
prime number of the GT and a lower prime number of the Wigner
distribution are compared. In Fig. 6(a), when the selected prime
number in GWT is GT2.6(t, x)WD0.06(t, x), the spectrum is inclined
toward the GT function and has a lower resolution. In Fig. 6(b), when
the selected window function is GT0.4(t, x)WD0.6(t, x), the spectrum
is inclined toward the Wigner distribution and has a cross terms
problem.
The examples show that the GWT not only has a higher resolution, but also overcomes the cross terms problem in the Wigner
distribution. It is also worth noting that for a polyharmonic signal
including harmonics of 60 Hz, 120 Hz, 180 Hz, the harmonic of
120 Hz will be still distorted by the cross-term solved with 60 Hz
and 180 Hz harmonics. Although this situation appears very seldom, yet special attentions may need to be paid for such rare cases.
As for the GWT applied for the inspection of high-impedance faults
in this study, it comes with a high suitability when compared to
some published techniques. In the following sections, the GT, the
Wigner distribution, and the GWT will be compared to verify the
applicability of GWT for the HIF investigated in this study.
Detecting process
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Time (s)
(c)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 5. The timefrequency spectrum of complex signals. (a) GT. (b) Wigner distribution. (c) GWT.
Time (s)
(a)
Time (s)
(b)
Fig. 6. Effects of the prime number on the GWT. (a) The prime number of the GT is greater. (b) The prime number of the Wigner distribution is greater.
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wet sand, wet soil, and wet meadow soil). The study [24] indicated
that the HIF current of cement was the lowest followed by the HIF
current of wet sand. The HIF current of wet meadow soil was high.
All experiments consisted of single line-to-ground faults. HIFs in
cement were detected on sunny days. In addition, HIFs in wet sand,
wet soil, and wet meadow soil were detected on rainy days.
Moreover, all of the signals were obtained by conducting actual
measurements, rather than simulations.
30 MVA
100 MVA
161 kV
161 kV / 22.8kV
Overhead feeder
5-kM
Load
HIF Modle
misinterpretation. To verify that the proposed method was appropriate for detecting HIFs, experiments were conducted; these
experiments are discussed in the following section.
Test results
In this section, the experimental results are provided. First, the
HIF signals in cement ooring and arc furnace load switches were
detected and compared. This was set as the baseline and used to
compare HIF and non-HIF signals. Subsequently, because the HIF
electric current in various substances differ [24], this method
was used to detect the HIFs in various substances (i.e., cement,
Fig. 8 shows an HIF single-line diagram of the power distribution system at Southern Taiwan Science Park. In this diagram, a
161 kV bus is used to transfer electricity from a substation containing 161/22.8 kV to an overhead feeder of 5 km, and nally to the
load. HIFs were detected in the overhead feeder (Fig. 8). In this
experiment, the ground was cement, the weather was sunny, and
the temperature was approximately 32 C. The obtained
single-line diagram data is presented in Fig. 8.
The HIF current waveforms in cement are presented in Fig. 9(a).
The horizontal axis represents time [s] and the vertical axis represents electric current (p.u.).
To verify the HIF detection efcacy of the proposed method, the
HIF signal of cement (Fig. 9(a)) was analyzed and computed using
the Gabor transform (GT), Wigner distribution (WD), and the GWT.
Fig. 9(b), (c), and (d) show the timefrequency analysis diagrams
obtained using the GT, WD, and the GWT, respectively. The horizontal axes represent time [s] and the vertical axes represent the
frequency (Hz) of the HIF signals. The second vertical axes represent the amplitude values (per-unit value) obtained by conducting
analysis. When amplitude was high, the frequency spectrum colors
brightened. Conversely, when the amplitude was low, the frequency spectrum colors were dim. The symmetry characteristics
of the Fourier transform were previously introduced in
1
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
Frequency (Hz)
0.8
0.2
Fault Begins
0.1
0
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.3
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
Time (s)
(c)
0.6
0.7
Time (s)
(d)
Fig. 9. The timefrequency diagram of the HIFs in the cement ground: (a) The HIF waveforms in cement; (b) GT timefrequency diagram; (c) WD timefrequency diagram;
and (d) GWT timefrequency diagram.
J.-Y. Cheng et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 73 (2015) 192199
Fault Begins
Time (s)
Fig. 10. The cement HIF amplitude detected using the GWT.
by applying the GT. However, the GWT does not present cross
terms. Hence, the timefrequency diagrams show that noise signals were detected only when the frequency was 60 Hz.
However, because timefrequency diagrams cannot show the
exact time or amplitudes of the HIFs, plotting frequency spectrum
waveforms at 60 Hz was required to exhibit the HIF times and
amplitudes.
The timefrequency diagrams show that compared with the GT
and WD, the GWT is a superior method. Fig. 10 shows the amplitudes of the waveforms presented in Fig. 9(d) at a 60 Hz frequency.
Based on this gure, before 0.04 s (t), the value of the detected current was 0. The current could only be detected after t = 0.04 s.
Additionally, the value exceeded the set threshold value (i.e., 5
cycles) and were thus determined to be HIFs. Moreover, because
of the high impedance in cement, the HIF current was low. At
0.040.14 s, the amplitude value was approximately 0.1 p.u., which
was a low value. This gure shows that the GWT can be used to
accurately detect the occurrence of HIFs, without delaying the
detection of the HIF occurrence intervals. Hence, the proposed
method is suitable for detecting HIFs.
The results of Experiment 1 were used to present the GT, WD,
and GWT differences. In addition to accurately detecting HIF time
of occurrence, the GWT does not misjudge non-HIF signals.
Hence, the GWT is suitable for HIF detection. To further ensure that
the GWT precisely detect HIFs in various substances, switching
events and overhead feeders were used to measure the signals in
wet sand, wet soil, and wet meadow soil. The measurement results
were used to determine whether the GWT could accurately detect
the HIF occurrence times.
Experiment 2: Transient switching events
Under normal system operations, switching events related to
arc furnaces or other transient phenomena may distort the current
waveforms. Therefore, these phenomena must be distinguished
from the HIFs. Fig. 11(a) shows the current waveforms of a 35%
loaded arc furnace that was connected to the system. Based on this
gure, transient switching events occurred at approximately 0.038,
0.08, 0.105, and 0.14 s.
Fig. 11(b) presents the current values obtained using GWT analysis. At 00.14 s, all the amplitude values obtained by applying the
GWT were 0, indicating that the GWT did not erroneously consider
transient switching events as HIFs.
Experiment 3: The HIFs in wet sand
In Experiment 3, the contact ground was wet sand (Fig. 12(a));
the current value began to increase at 0.05 s. This indicated that an
HIF occurred. However, this signal cannot be used to indicate the
differences between the HIFs in wet sand and cement. Therefore,
the GWT was used to distinguish the various substances.
197
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11. Transient switching events: (a) The current waveforms of transient switching events and (b) the amplitude obtained using the GWT.
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J.-Y. Cheng et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 73 (2015) 192199
Fig. 12(b) shows the signal amplitude after the current was analyzed and computed using the GWT. The results indicate that the
GWT could detect when the HIFs began occurring. The signal began
at .05 s and continued for ve cycles, indicating that this was an
HIF signal. In addition, a comparison of wet sand and cement
showed that when t = 0.14 s, the amplitude was 0.3 p.u. Because
the impedance of wet sand was smaller than that of cement, the
HIF current in wet sand was greater than that in cement. The gure
also indicates that the wet sand yielded higher amplitude than that
of cement.
0.05 s, the GWT amplitude was 0 p.u., because HIF was not
detected. At 0.05 s, the HIFs began occurring, as demonstrated by
the increased amplitude in Fig. 13(b). At 0.14 s, the amplitude
was measured at 0.37 p.u. and remained at this level for more than
ve cycles. Hence, this phenomenon was considered to be an HIF. A
previous study [24] indicated that the HIF current in wet soil was
higher than that in cement and wet sand. The amplitude displayed
in this gure was also higher than that for cement and wet sand,
thereby verifying the accuracy of the results.
Fault Begins
Fault Begins
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12. The HIFs of wet sand: (a) The HIF waveforms of wet sand and (b) the currents obtained using the GWT.
Fault Begins
Fault Begins
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13. The HIFs in the wet soil ground: (a) The HIF waveforms of wet soil and (b) the amplitude obtained using the GWT.
Fault Begins
Fault Begins
Time (s)
Time (s)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 14. The HIFs of wet meadow soil: (a) The HIF current waveforms wet meadow soil and (b) the amplitude obtained using the GWT.
J.-Y. Cheng et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 73 (2015) 192199
current value remained elevated for ve cycles after 0.05 s., verifying that the signal was an HIF signal. In addition, at 0.14 s, the HIF
current in the wet meadow soil was 0.7 p.u. Thus, the impedance in
wet meadow soil is lower than that in cement, wet sand, and wet
soil. The results in the gure indicated that the amplitude in wet
meadow soil was also higher than that in cement, wet sand, and
wet soil.
The results of the ve experiments show that the GWT can
accurately detect the HIF occurrence time in various substances.
Additionally, non-HIF signals were not erroneously considered to
be HIF signals. These experimental results verify that in addition
to the mentioned advantages, the GWT can be used to detect HIFs.
Conclusion
This study applied the GWT method for inspecting the
high-impedance fault generated signals. This proposed approach
is proved to be effective to solve the cross-term problems of
Wigner transform as well. Compared with the conventional
Fourier transform, this proposed GWT method owns a potential
of extending to analyze other non-stationary signals so as to forewarn the occurrence of power quality events with a higher efciency. At this time, we are assessing the possibility of
implementing the GWT method through hardware design, anticipating a further enhancement of monitoring performance. The
results will be reported in the near future.
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