Bok:978 94 017 1112 8

COMPUTATIONAL GEOMECHANICS
Theory and Applications of Transport in Porous Media

Series Editor:
Jacob Bear, Technion -Israel Institute ofTechnology, Haifa, Israel
Volume?
The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.
Computational
Geomechanics
by
Arnold Verruijt
Department of Civil Engineering,
Delft University of Technology,
The Netherlands
''
~
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-4532-4
ISBN 978-94-017-1112-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-1112-8
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved

1995 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1995
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1995
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1 Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Theory of Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3
Sea Bed Response to Cyclic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Beams on Elastic Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Sheet Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6 Axially Loaded Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

7 Development of Pile Plug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8 Laterally Loaded Piles ........................................ 122

9 Pile in Layered Elastic Material ................................. 151
10 Waves in Piles ............................................. 167
11 Gravity Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
12 Slope Stability ............................................. 204

13 Finite Elements for Plane Groundwater Flow ........................ 219
14 Finite Elements for Plane Strain Elastostatics ........................ 244
15 Finite Elements for Elasto-Plastic Deformations ...................... 266

16 Finite Elements for One-dimensional Consolidation .................... 280
17 Finite Elements for Two-dimensional Consolidation ................... 291
18 Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

19 Adsorption and Dispersion ..................................... 337
Appendix A. Integral Transforms .................................. 356
Appendix B. Solution of Linear Equations ............................ 365
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
PREFACE
In modern geomechanics computational methods are widely used to predict the behaviour of foundation structures and soil bodies. Because of the complex non-linear
mechanical behaviour of soils simple analytical methods often fail to describe the
detailed behaviour of foundation structures, although for many practical problems
effective approximate methods have been developed by geotechnical engineers.
The advent of computers in recent decades has made it possible to develop models
using realistic non-linear relations to describe the mechanical behaviour of soils.
This has lead to an enormous increase in the number of available computer models,
varying from simple calculation procedures in BASIC to complex packages that
require special courses to obtain familiarity with their use.
This book attempts to present a systematic development of computer models
for most problems of geotechnical engineering, emphasizing the physical (mechanical) background of the basic assumptions used in the models. The book has grown
out of a collection of lecture notes, used at the Department of Civil Engineering of
the Delft University of Technology, especially for final year courses on Numerical
Geomechanics and Offshore Soil Mechanics.
The book is mainly concerned with the development, implementation, and
application of geotechnical models, presenting some analytical methods, but concentrating on numerical methods for the solution of problems of geotechnical engineering. The type of problem ranges from the calculation of the generation and
the dissipation of pore pressures in soils to the analysis of the stability of slopes
of embankments and the analysis of the deformation of sheet pile walls, and the
analysis of the flexibility of axially and laterally loaded piles. Both static problems
of load transfer are considered as well as dynamic problems of wave propagation
during the installation of foundation piles. The physics of stress transfer in soils
due to surface loading is considered in some detail. This leads to problems of
elasticity and elasto-plasticity, and problems of consolidation for fluid-saturated
media.
For the numerical mathematical solution of most one-dimensional problems
the finite difference method is used, because of its mathematical and computational simplicity. For two-dimensional problems the finite element method is
generally preferred, because of the possibilities it offers to solve problems for nonhomogeneous materials. For all these methods the basic principles are presented
as well as the details needed to develop real numerical models and computer programs.
Finite element solutions are presented for problems such as the flow and transport of groundwater, elastic and elasto-plastic deformation problems, and problems of consolidation or poro-elasticity. Problems of transport of pollutants in
moving groundwater are considered in some detail, taking into account the threedimensional aspects of this transport, and secondary phenomena such as adsorpvii
viii
tion and dispersion.

A basic knowledge of the principles of engineering mathematics and mechanics
is assumed, including an understanding of basic soil mechanics. This requires
familiarity with the basic concepts of continuum mechanics, such as the analysis
of stress and strain, and the basic concepts of soil mechanics such as the principle
of effective stress, and the parameters to describe deformations and strength of
granular materials.
For many problems elementary computer programs that execute the procedures
developed in the book are given. Complete listings of 23 programs are presented
in the book, and on the diskette accompanying it. The language used is Turbo
Pascal (as defined ami distributed by Borland International, Inc.), which is a well
defined and widely available language. In order to extend the applicability of these
programs certain extensions and generalizations are suggested in the exercises.
For each computer program at least one example is given in the text, in many
cases described by a dataset defining the parameters of the problem. The usual
naming convention is that the Pascal version of the program is called (for instance)
SLOPE.PAS, the compiled (and executable) version is called SLOPE.EXE, and
the dataset is called SLOPE!. The listing of SLOPE.PAS is given in the book, as
well as the dataset SLOPE!. The diskette also contains the executables, and in
some cases an additional dataset, say SLOPE2. The computer programs may be
used, copied and distributed without restriction. No responsibility for any loss or
damage resulting from use of these programs is accepted, however.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge that many of the numerical models presented
in this book have been developed and tested with the help of undergraduate or
graduate students. A few of them have published their work, and can be found
in the list of references. Others have found their way in the world of applied civil
engineering, where the actual design or realization of engineering works is of more
importance than the publication of papers in academic journals. They all deserve
many thanks.
The book has been prepared using the U.TEJX version (Lamport, 1986) of the
program 'lEX (Knuth, 1986). Most of the figures have been prepared using the
PJClEX macros (Wichura, 1987). It has been a constant delight to discover the
various possibilities of these programs.
Delft, January 1995
Arnold Verruijt
CHAPTER 1
SOIL PROPERTIES
In this chapter the mechanical properties of soils are briefly discussed, emphasizing
the properties of soft soils, for which the variability is the largest.
Soil mechanics is the branch of science concerned with the equilibrium and
movement of soil bodies, where soil is understood to be the weathered natural
material in the upper layers (say the upper 20 to 100 m) of the earth's crust.
This material may be gravel, sand, clay, peat, or some other rather soft and loose
granular medium. The nature of these materials is quite different from artificial
man-made materials such as steel, concrete, etc. These materials usually are
much more consistent than soils, and exhibit relatively simple, linear, mechanical
behaviour, at least if the deformations are not too large.
The mechanical properties of soils are usually strongly non-linear, with the material exhibiting irreversible plastic deformations when loaded and unloaded, even
at low stress levels, and often showing anisotropic behaviour, creep and sometimes
even such typical effects as dilatancy (a volume increase during shear). Another
difficulty is that the structure of a soil often is highly inhomogeneous, due to its
geological history, and it is often not possible to determine the detailed behaviour
of each individual layer or element in the soil by tests in the laboratory or in situ.
The behaviour of soils may be further complicated by the presence of water in the
pores. This relatively stiff fluid in the pores may prevent or at least retard volume
deformations. Although there have been many attempts to describe the relation
between stresses and strains of a soil by one single relation, this relation then is
so complicated, and involves so many parameters, that it is practically impossible
to determine all these parameters, and the complex relation is very difficult to
implement in practical calculations.
For all these reasons the characterization of the mechanical behaviour of soils
is often done in a schematic way only, and itfl form is adapted to the particular
type of problem under consideration. Thus for a problem of long term settlements
of an embankment the relevant soil properties are quite different from those for
a problem of stability of the slopes of the same embankment. Even though these
problems may seem to be closely related, the methods of analysis involve different
concepts, and different parameters. In the case of stability of slopes the strength of
the soil layers is the dominating effect, whereas the settlement of an embankment
is mainly governed by the deformation properties of the soil, such as a creep law.
Thus in soil mechanics the range of applicability of a certain parameter is often
restricted to a limited class of problems. Many properties can not be used outside
their intended field of application. Nevertheless, various properties may all derive
from such common basic phenomena as interparticle friction, or the structure
1
CHAPTER 1
of a granular medium, so that there may well exist good correlations between
certain properties. In this chapter some of these properties are reviewed, and
some correlations are discussed. It should be noted that in engineering practice
nothing can beat the results of experimental determination of the soil parameters
in situ, or in the laboratory. A correlation may at best give a first estimate of the
order of magnitude of a parameter.
1.1
Stiffness
In many problems of soil-structure interaction the soil is modeled by a subgrade

modulus,
p
(1.1)
w= -,
c
where w is the settlement of a foundation element, pis the pressure upon it, and c
is the subgrade modulus. The soil is modeled by a linear spring in this case. One of
Figure 1.1. Linear spring.
the main reasons for the use of this relation may well be the simplicity of a linear
relationship for analytical or numerical calculations. It should be remembered,
however, that this is a very simplistic way of modeling real soil behaviour, taking
into account that in reality soils exhibit various forms of non-linear and irreversible
behaviour. In some cases it may well be justified, however, to use a linear spring
model, as a first approximation.
The flexibility of a plate foundation may be described a little better by modeling the soil as a linear elastic continuum, having a modulus of elasticity E, and
Poisson's ration v. For a rigid circular plate the following relation between pressure
and settlement can be derived, on the basis of Boussinesq's elementary solution
for a point load on an elastic half plane (Timoshenko & Goodier, 1951),
w
1r(1-v )pD
= ---"----'-.:...._2
4E
(1.2)
SOIL PROPERTIES
!U!UU
..
.....................
. . . . . . .... . . ..! ....................
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . !. ...........
.. .
.. ...................
.. .. . ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ...
. . . . ........... ..
....... ..
. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .
... ..
... .... ..
.. ..
.... ..... ......
....
.... ..
.....................
..................................................
...
. . .. . ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ....
... .. ... .... ................
.
.
..
.........
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
................................ . . . . . .. . .. ......................
. .. .. . . . . . . . . .. . . ...
........ ........
. .. . . . . ........... .... ............. ......... .
..
.. .... .... .. ........ ...... .... ... ...... .... ...... .... ..... .. .. .... .. . . .
. .. . . . . ..... ..
.. .. . .. .. . . ..
.. .... ......... ..
.... ..
....
.....................................................
... ................
.. .. ..
. . ..
.... .................... .. .. ...................
.. ..
....
.. ..
.. ..
.... ..
.. ... ... ... .... ................ .......... ... .... ..
..
.. ..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
. ............................
... .. .... ................... .. ..
... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
..
.
..
..
..
......
. .... ... ... ... .... ... .. . .. .. ........................
..
..
.
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..............
.. ..
.... ..
.
..
.
..
..
.
....
. .... ... ... .... ... ... ... ................................................. .............
.. ... ................................
... .......
. ..
.... ..
... .... ... ... .... .. . ... ..........................
.... ..
... ... ................. ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... ... .... ... .......... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... .. . .
Figure 1.2. Foundation on elastic soil.
where Dis the diameter of the plate. A linear relationship between the load p and
the displacement w is obtained, which is of course a consequence of the assumption
that the soil behaves as a linear elastic material. The relation appears to depend
upon the diameter of the plate, however, and it is therefore a little more refined
than the simple subgrade modulus model.
It is interesting to note that a similar relation can be obtained by starting
from the assumption that in the soil the stresses are distributed uniformly over an
area of gradually increasing magnitude, over an angle of say 45 with the vertical
. .... .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.....................
... .... ...... .... ...... .... .. . ... .. ..... .....
.. .. . .. .. .. ..... .... ... ....... ... ... .....
..
.. . .......
... ... ..... .. ..
. ...............
.... ..
... ... ....
....
.......
. .. .. ... .... ..
......
.. ...... ....... ... ... .... ... ... ... . .........
... ....
..........
.............
... .... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ............. .... .
. . . . . . . . . .. .. . .
... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .. . . .. ..........
....... ... ............. . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . ..
.. .... ..
........... ..
.. ................
. . . .. .. . .. ..
.
.. ...... ... . . . .. ..................
..
..
.
..
....
.. .......................
.. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . . . . . . . . .. ..............
. ... .. . .. . . . .
Figure 1.3. Foundation on elastic soil, approximation.
direction, see figure 1.3. This means that at a depth z below the surface the area
carrying the load is
(1.3)
The vertical normal stress at that depth is the total force F = ~7r D 2 p, divided by
the area A,
p
ffv
= (1 + 2z/D) 2
(1.4)
If the medium is assumed to be linear elastic, the vertical strain at this depth
is, ignoring the influence of horizontal stresses (or, in other words, assuming that
v = 0),
CHAPTER 1
P
Uv
(1.5)
c:v=E= E(1+2z/D)2.
Because C:v = dwfdz, where w is the vertical displacement, one now obtains, after
integration from z 0 to z oo,
pD
(1.6)
w= 2E.
Comparison of eq. (1.6) with eq. (1.2) shows that these two formulas are of the
same nature, the only difference being the magnitude of the numerical coefficient.
In general one may write
pD
w = o:E'
(1.7)
where a is now a coefficient indicating the rate of lateral spreading of the stresses
with depth. The magnitude of the coefficient a appears to be in the region between
about 1 and 2.
Comparison of eq. (1.7) with eq. (1.1) shows that the elastic subgrade model
can be brought into full agreement with the elastic continuum model if
o:E
c=n
(1.8)
Thus the apparent subgrade constant is proportional to the modulus of elasticity

of the material, and inversely proportional to the diameter of the foundation plate.
A larger plate appears to have a smaller average stiffness. This can be understood
intuitively by noting that the unloaded soil immediately surrounding the area of
a loaded plate will deform with the material under the plate, and thus exhibit a
vertical displacement that gradually decreases with the distance from the plate.
Only a small amount of extra force is needed to displace a somewhat larger plate.
The modulus of elasticity of a soil may be correlated with the compressibility
constant G in Terzaghi's logarithmic formula
c: = - log(-),
G
Uo
(1.9)
where u 0 is the initial stress, and u is the actual stress, u = u 0 + .6.u. This formula
is often thought to describe the vertical compression of soils much better than a
linear relationship. If the stress increment .6.u is small compared to the initial
stress u 0 one may write
1
c: =- log(1
G
.6.u
.6.u
+ -)
~ -.
U0
If this is compared with the elastic relation c:
= Gu
(1.10)
Guo
= .6.u / E
it follows that
(1.11)
SOIL PROPERTIES
This means that the stiffness of the soil increases linearly with the stress level,
or with the depth below the soil surface. Such an increase in stiffness is indeed
often observed in engineering practice, although the increase is often not so strong
as the linear relation (1.11) suggests. The relation can be used to estimate the
the modulus of elasticity of a soil, if the compressibility C and the stress level u 0
are known. Common values are C 100 to C 500 for sand, and values in the
range from C = 20 to C = 100 for clay. The precise value for a certain soil must
be determined by a compression test. In the laboratory the value of C may be
determined in an unconfined compression test (oedometer test).
It must be noted that the values given above apply to virgin loading of a soil,
under relatively large deformations. When unloading a soil, or reloading it below
the maximum stress ever reached before, the soil is much stiffer, say by a factor
10. Thus in the case of very small deformations a soil may be much stiffer than in
the case of large deformations beyond the pre-consolidation stress level.
It is sometimes considered too complicated to take a sample, determine its
compressibility in the laboratory, and then use this value to calculate the appropriate stiffness for the structure. This procedure requires a very careful handling
of the soil sample, during sampling, transport, and subsequent laboratory testing,
with a large probability of disturbance of the sample. Therefore this procedure
may be replaced by a direct determination of the soil stiffness in situ, for instance
by a plate loading test. Errors due to taking the sample in the field, and those
due to transporting and handling the sample are avoided in this way. The only
problem then remaining is a problem of scaling the results up to the dimensions of
the actual structure. For offshore conditions special equipment has been developed
to perform plate loading tests under water.
1.2
Shear strength
Soils usually cannot transfer shear stresses beyond a certain limit, the shear
strength. The shear strength of soils is usually expressed by Coulomb's relation
between the maximum shear stress rmax and the effective normal stress u',
Tmax
= c + u' tan,
(1.12)
where c is the cohesion and is the friction angle. For sands the cohesion c is
usually negligible, so that the friction angle is the only strength parameter. For
clays it is often most relevant to consider the strength in undrained conditions,
during which the effective stress u' remains practically constant. The undrained
shear strength is usually denoted by Su, and it is often considered irrelevant to
what degree this is to be attributed to cohesion or friction. The shear strength
parameters can be determined in the laboratory, for instance by triaxial testing.
A simple and useful in situ test is the cone penetration test (CPT), in which a
cone is pushed into the ground using hydraulic pressure equipment, while recording
the stress at the tip of the cone, and often also the friction along the lower part of
the shaft. The test is used in The Netherlands as a model test for a pile foundation,
CHAPTER 1
and the results are then used directly to determine the bearing capacity of end
bearing piles, using simple scale rules.
1.2.1
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SAND
The CPT can also be used to estimate the strength of a soil, by using certain
theoretical or empirical correlations. For a penetration test in sand, for instance,
the bearing capacity of the cone qc is, according to Brinch Hansen's formula,
(1.13)
where Sq is a shape factor (for which one may use Sq = 1 +sin), "( 1 is the effective
weight of the overburden, z is the depth, and Nq is a dimensionless constant for
which theoretical analysis has given the value
Nq =
1 +sin
. exp(1r tan).
1-sm
(1.14)
For various types of sand the cone resistance qc, at a depth of 10 m and 20 m,
respectively, is predicted in table 1.1, assuming that "( 1 = 10 kN/m3 . These are
Type of soil
Loose sand
Medium dense sand
Very dense sand
<P
Nq
30
35
40
18.4
33.3
64.2
qc (z = 10 m)
2.8 MPa
5.2 MPa
10.5 MPa
qc (z = 20 m)
5.5 MPa
10.5 MPa
21.1 MPa
Table 1.1. Cone resistance in sand.

values that are indeed often observed for sand layers at 10 m or 20 m depth. They
may also be used inversely: if a certain cone resistance is measured, it is indicative
for a certain type of material.
1.2.2
SHEAR STRENGTH OF CLAY
For a cone penetration test in clay soil the Brinch Hansen formula can be used
to correlate the CPT result to the undrained shear strength. The general Brinch
Hansen formula is
(1.15)
Because the test is performed very quickly, the soil behaviour can be considered
to be undrained, and one may take = 0. The values for the coefficients can then
be taken as Nc 5.14, Nq
1, Sc
1.3, sq
1. Eq. (1.15) now reduces to
qc = 6.7
Su
+ lT~,
(1.16)
SOIL PROPERTIES
where the cohesion c has been interpreted as the undrained shear strength Su.
The undrained shear strength of normally consolidated clays depends upon the
vertical stress u~. A relationship that is often used is the correlation proposed by
Ladd,
Su
= 0.22 0'~,
(1.17)
or the correlation proposed by Skempton,

Su
= 0.11 0'~
+ 0.0037 PI,
(1.18)
where PI is the plasticity index of the clay. Substitution of (1.17) into (1.16) gives
(1.19)
20 kPa, the order of magnitude of the cone resistance

For a soft clay, with Su
would be 220 kPa ~ 0.2 MPa. Such values are indeed often observed. Again they
may also be used to estimate the undrained shear strength from CPT data.
Both Coulomb's formula for sand and the correlation (1.17) for clay express
that the soil strength is proportional to the stress level. As it was seen earlier
that the soil stiffness is also proportional to this stress level, see (1.11), it follows
that the strength and the stiffness of soils are correlated. As a first approximation one might say that the soil stiffness E is about 100 or 200 times the shear
strength. This also means that the strain can be about 1/100 or 1/200 before the
ultimate strength of the soil is reached. Strains of the order of magnitude of 1 %
to reach full plastic deformation are indeed often observed in geotechnical practice.
It should be emphasized that all the relations given in this chapter are of a qualitative and approximative character. They should be used with great care, and
only to estimate the possible range of values of certain parameters. For realistic
quantitative predictions of soil behaviour the local soil should be investigated, in
situ or in the laboratory, using careful sampling.
CHAPTER2
THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION
2.1
Introduction
Soft soils such as sand and clay consist of small particles, and often the pore
space between the particles is filled with water. In mechanics this is denoted as
a s.aturated porous medium. The deformation of such a material depends upon
the stiffness of the porous material, but also upon the behaviour of the fluid in
the pores. In particular, the flow of the pore fluid influences the deformation of
the soil. If the permeability of the material is small, the deformations may be
considerably hindered, and retarded, by the pore fluid, which needs considerable
time to be expelled from the soil. The simultaneous deformation of the porous
material and flow of pore fluid is the subject of the theory of consolidation. In
this chapter the basic equations of this theory are derived, for the case of a linear
material. The theory was developed originally by Terzaghi (1925) for the onedimensional case, and extended to three dimensions by Biot (1941), and it has
been studied extensively since. A simplified version of the theory, in which the soil
deformation is assumed to be strictly vertical, is also presented in this chapter.
The analytical solutions for two simple examples are given. In chapters 16 and 17
the numerical solution of consolidation problems is considered.
2.2
Conservation of mass
Consider a porous material, consisting of a solid matrix or an assembly of particles,

with a continuous pore space. The pore space is filled with a fluid, usually water,
but possibly some other fluid, or a mixture of fluids. The average velocity of the
fluid is denoted by v and the velocity of the solids is denoted by w. The densities
are denoted by Pi and p,, respectively, and the porosity by n.
The equations of conservation of mass of the solids and the fluid can be established by considering the flow into and out of an elementary volume, fixed in
space, see figure 2.1. The mass of fluid in an elementary volume Vis npf V. The
increment of this mass per unit time is determined by the net inward flux across
the surfaces of the element. In y-direction the flow through the left and the right
faces of the element shown in figure 2.1 (both having an area .6.x .6.z), leads to a
net outward flux of magnitude
.6.(npfvy).6.x.6.z =
.6.(npfv )
.6.y Y V,
where the volume .6.x .6.y .6.z has been written as V. Taking into account the flow
in all three coordinate directions, the mass balance equation is
z
Figure 2.1. Conservation of mass of the fluid.
(2.1)
Using vector notation this can also be written as
(2.2)
Similarly, the balance equation for the solid material can be written as
8[(1
~tn)p,] + 'V [(1- n)p,w] = 0,
(2.3)
It is assumed that all deformations of the solid matrix are caused by a rearrange-
ment of the particles. The particles themselves are assumed to be incompressible.

This is a basic principle of soil mechanics, which follows from the notion that deformations of soils, as observed in engineering practice, are an order of magnitude
larger than those that would be expected on the basis of the deformation of the
particles only. Thus it can be assumed that the density Ps of the solids is constant.
In that case eq. (2.3) reduces to
an
-7ft+ 'V [(1- n)w] = 0,
(2.4)
Although the pore fluid is often also practically incompressible this will not be
assumed, in order to have the possibility of studying the effect of a compressible
fluid, for instance water containing a certain amount of small air bubbles. The
density of the pore fluid is assumed to depend upon the fluid pressure by the
following equation of state
PJ =Po exp[,B(p- Po)],
(2.5)
where ,8 is the compressibility of the fluid, p is the pressure, and Po and Po are reference quantities. :for pure water the compressibility is about 0.5 x 10- 9 m 2 /kN.
10
CHAPTER 2
For a fluid containing small amounts of a gas the compressibility may be considerably larger, however. It follows from eq. (2.5) that
{2.6)
The equation of conservation of mass of the fluid, eq. {2.2) can now be written as
follows, when second order non-linear terms are disregarded,
on
op
-+nf3-+"il(nv)=0.
at
at
{2.7)
The time derivative of the porosity n can easily be eliminated from eqs. {2.4) and
{2.7) by adding these two equations. This gives
n(3p +"il[n(v-w)]+"ilw=O.
at
{2.8)
The quantity n(v- w) is the porosity multiplied by the relative velocity of the
fluid with respect to the solids. This is precisely what is intended by the specific
discharge, which is the quantity that appears in Darcy's law for fluid motion. This
quantity will be denoted by q,
q = n(v- w).
{2.9)
If the displacement vector of the solids is denoted by u, the term "il w can also
be written as Of:vol/ot, where f:vol is the volume strain,

f:vol = "il U.
(2.10)
Equation (2.8) can now be written as

_ oc:vol = n(Jop + "il. q.
at
at
{2.11)
This is the storage equation. It is one of the most important equations from the
theory of consolidation. It admits a simple heuristic interpretation: the compression of the soil consists of the compression of the pore fluid plus the amount of
fluid expelled from an element by flow. The equation actually expresses conservation of mass of fluid and solid material, together with some notions about the
compressibilities.
It may be noted that in deriving eq. (2.11) a number of assumptions have
been made, but these are all relatively realistic. Thus, it has been assumed that
the solid particles are incompressible, and that the fluid is linearly compressible,
and some second order terms, consisting of the products of small quantities, have
been disregarded. The storage equation (2.11) can therefore be considered as a
reasonably accurate description of physical reality.
The variation of the porosity can be calculated by noting that eq. {2.4) can
also be written as
on
at
= ( 1 _ n) oc:vol
at '
(2.12)
11
if a small error in a second order term is neglected. This equation admits a simple
heuristic explanation. If the porosity is 0.40, for instance, 1 % volume reduction
results in a new porosity of 0.39/0.99 = 0.394, taking into account that if the
volume changes, only the volume of the pores changes, and the volume of the
solids remains constant. Thus the reduction of the porosity is 0.006 = 0.6 %,
which is indeed a factor (1- n) times the volume change.
2.3
Darcy's law
In 1857 Darcy found, from experiments, that the specific discharge of a fluid in a
porous material is proportional to the head loss. In terms of the quantities used
in this chapter Darcy's law can be written as
K.
q = --(Vp- Pig),
p.
(2.13)
where K. is the (intrinsic) permeability of the porous material, p. is the viscosity of

the fluid, and g is the gravity vector. The permeability depends upon the size of
the pores. As a first approximation one may consider that the permeability K. is
proportional to the square of the particle size.
If the coordinate system is such that the z-axis is pointing in upward vertical
direction the components of the gravity vector are 9:r: = 0, g11 = 0, 9z = -g, and
then Darcy's law may also be written as
K.
ap
K.
ap
q:r: =--;;,ax'
q ---y-
(2.14)
p.ay'
K.
ap
qz =--(-a
+ PJY)
p. z
The product pJ g may also be written as /w, the volumetric weight of the fluid.
In soil mechanics practice the coefficient in Darcy's law is often expressed
in terms of the hydraulic conductivity k rather than the permeability K.. This
hydraulic conductivity is defined as
k
(2.15)
K.PJ9.
p.
Thus Darcy's law can also be written as
ap
q:r:=---,
lw ax
k ap
q ---!1-
/way'
ap
/w
qz =--(-a + lw)
From the above equations it follows that
(2.16)
12
CHAPTER 2
oq., oqy oqz

(k
)
V'. q = - +- +- = -V' -'Vp,
ox
oy
oz
'Yw
(2.17)
if again a small second order term (involving the spatial derivative of the hydraulic
conductivity) is disregarded.
Substitution of (2.17) into (2.11) gives
oc:vol = nf3-op V' ( -'Vp

k
)
--.
ot
ot
'Yw
(2.18)
Compared to eq. (2.11) the only additional assumption is the validity of Darcy's
law. As Darcy's law usually gives a good description of flow in a porous medium,
equation (2.18) can be considered as reasonably accurate.
2.4
One-dimensional consolidation
In order to complete the system of equations the deformation of the solid material
must be considered. In general this involves three types of equations: equilibrium,
compatibility, and a stress-strain-relation. This is rather unfortunate, as the first
basic equation, eq. (2.18) is rather simple, and involves only two basic variables:
the pore pressure p and the volume strain C:vol It would be mathematically most
convenient if a second equation relating the volume strain to the pore pressure
could be found. Unfortunately, this can only be achieved for a class of simple
problems, for instance those in which the deformation is in vertical direction only.
This case of one-dimensional consolidation is considered in this section.
Let it be assumed that there are no horizontal deformations,
Exx
Eyy
= 0.
(2.19)
A volume change can now occur only by vertical deformation,

(2.20)
It can be expected that the vertical strain Czz is mainly determined by the vertical
effective stress. If it is assumed that this relation is linear, one may write
(2.21)
where a is the compressibility of the soil. The minus sign has been introduced
to account for the inconsistent system of sign conventions: strains positive for
extension and stresses positive for compression.
According to Terzaghi's principle of effective stress, the vertical effective stress
is the difference of the total stress and the pore pressure,
(2.22)
It now follows from eqs. (2.20) - (2.22) that
oc:vol _
8t -
-a
(orrzz
op)
Tt- ot .
(2.23)
13
This is the simple second relation between

Substitution into eq. (2.18) finally gives
{)p
{)t
( k
{)uzz
cvol
and p that was being sought.
(a+n,B ) -=a--+Y' -Y'p.

{)t
{w
(2.24)
This is a relatively simple differential equation for the pore pressure p, of the
diffusion type. The first term in the right hand side is assumed to be given from
the loading conditions.
It should be noted that in this section a number of very serious approximations
has been introduced. This means that the final equation (2.24) is much less accurate than the continuity equation (2.18). The horizontal deformations have been
neglected, the influence of the horizontal stresses upon the vertical deformation
has been neglected, and, perhaps worst of all, the stress-strain-relation has been
assumed to be linear. Nevertheless, in soil mechanics practice it is often argued
that the complicated soil behaviour can never fully be accounted for anyway, and
at least the most important effects, vertical equilibrium and vertical deformation,
have been taken into consideration in this simplified theory. As the pore pressures
and the vertical deformations usually are also the most interesting quantities to
calculate, this simplified theory may often be a very valuable first approximation.
For the solution of a particular problem the boundary conditions should also
be taken into account. In many cases this leads to a complicated mathematical
problem. Analytical solutions exist only for simple geometries, such as the consolidation of a horizontal layer with a homogeneous load (this is Terzaghi's classical
one-dimensional problem), or radial consolidation. As an example the solution of
Terzaghi's problem of one-dimensional consolidation will be given here.
2.4.1
TERZAGHI'S PROBLEM
The problem first solved by Terzaghi (1925) is that of a layer of thickness 2h,
which is loaded at time t = 0 by a load of constant magnitude q, applied very
suddenly. The upper and lower boundaries of the soil layer are fully drained, so
Figure 2.2. Terzaghi's problem.

that along these boundaries the pore pressure p remains zero.
The differential equation for this case is the fully one-dimensional form of
eq. {2.24),
(
{)p
OUzz
o2 p
a+n,B) -{) =a-{) + -{) 2 .

t
i
{w Z
{2.25)
14
CHAPTER 2
Here it has been assumed that the ratio kfrw is a constant. The first term in
the right hand side represents the loading rate, which is very large (approaching
infinity) at the moment of loading, and is zero afterwards. In order to study the
behaviour at the time of loading one may integrate eq. (2.25) over a short time
interval At and then assume that At --+ 0. This gives
a
Ap =
{3 A(J'zz
(2.26)
a+n
Thus, if at timet = 0 the vertical stress suddenly increases from 0 to q, the pore
water pressure will increase to a value p0 such that
Po= a+n{Jq.
(2.27)
When the fluid is practically incompressible ({3 --+ 0) the coefficient in the right
hand side approaches 1, indicating that the initial pore pressure equals the external
load. Thus initially the water carries all the load, due to the fact that the water
is incompressible and no water has yet been drained out of the soil, so that there
can not yet have been any deformation.
After the load has been applied the term {)(J'zz/8t is zero, because the load is
constant in time. Eq. (2.25) then reduces to
fJp
fJt
fJ2p
Cv {)z 2 ,
(2.28)
where Cv is the consolidation coefficient, a very important parameter in all problems of consolidation,
Cv
k
.
(a+ nfJ)rw
(2.29)
The initial condition is
= 0:
p=po= a+n{Jq,
(2.30)
and the boundary conditions are
= 0:
z = 2h:
z
p= 0,
(2.31)
p= 0.
(2.32)
The mathematical problem to be solved is completely determined by the equations

(2.28) - (2.32).
SoLUTION
The solution of the problem can be obtained by using the mathematical tools
supplied by the theory of partial differential equations, for instance the method of
separation of variables (see e.g. Wylie, 1960), or, even more conveniently, by the
Laplace transform method (see e.g. Churchill, 1972, or Appendix A). The Laplace
transform of the pore pressure is defined as
15
p=
00
p exp( -st) dt,
(2.33)
where s is a positive parameter. The basic principle of the Laplace transform

method is to multiply the differential equation, in this case eq. (2.28), by the factor
exp( -st), and then integrating the resulting equation from t = 0 to t = oo. This
gives, using partial integration to evaluate the integral over the time derivative,
and also using the initial condition (2.30),
sp- Po
= Cv
d2-
dz;.
(2.34)
The partial differential equation has now been reduced to an ordinary differential
equation. The general solution of this equation is
p= Po +Aexp(z~)+Bexp(-z~).
(2.35)
s
Here A and Bare integration constants, that may depend upon the Laplace transform parameters. They can be determined using the boundary conditions (2.31)
and (2.32). The final result for the transformed pore pressure is
cosh[(h- z)~]
Po
s cosh[hy'S7C;;"]
(2.36)
The inverse transform of this expression can be obtained by the complex inversion
integral (Churchill, 1972), or in a more simple, although less rigorous way, by
application of Heaviside's expansion theorem (Appendix A). This theorem states
that the inverse transform of a function of the form f(s) = P(s)/Q(s), where the
order of the denominator Q(s) should be higher than that of the numerator P(s),
consists of a series of terms, one for each of the zeros of the denominator Q(s).
Each of this terms gives a contribution of the form
p
P(si)
- = Q'( ) exp( -sit).
Po
si
(2.37)
In this case the denominator is the function
Q(s) = s cosh[h~].
(2.38)
The zeros of this function are s = 0, and the zeros of the function cosh[hy'S7C;;"),
which are
2 11"2Cv
s=sj=-(2J-1) 4 h 2
j=1,2, ....
In that case hy'S7C;;" = i(2j -1)11"/2, where i is the imaginary unit (i =..;=I). For
these values the function cosh[hy'S7C;;"] is indeed zero.
It can easily be seen that the values of the numerator P(s) and the derivative
of the denominator Q( s) for s = 0 are both 1, so that the contribution of this zero
cancels the contribution of the first term in the right side of eq. (2.36). The value
of the numerator P(s) for s = Sj is
16
CHAPTER 2
1r
h-
P(s;) = cos[(2j- 1) 2 (-h-)].
(2.39)
and the value of the derivative of the denominator for s = s; is
. [ ~/]
Q'( s; ) = h.jSJC;
smhhys;/cv,
2
or, using that
(2.40)
hViJC;, = i(2j- 1)7r/2,
Q'(s;) = -i(2j- 1) sin[(2j- 1)7r/2] = -i(2j- 1)( -1)i- 1.
(2.41)
The final result now is

E_
Po
= _! E{(-.1)i-1
1r .
J=1
2J - 1
cos[(2j
-1)~(h- z)]
2
x exp [- ( 2J. - 1)2
7r2 Cvt]}
4 h2 .
(2.42)
This is the analytical solution of the problem. It can be found in many textbooks
on theoretical soil mechanics, and also in many textbooks on the theory of heat
conduction, as that process is governed by the same equations. Because it has
been derived here by a method that is mathematically not fully rigorous (strictly
z/h
P/Po
Figure 2.3. Analytical solution of Terzaghi's problem.
speaking Heaviside's expansion theorem applies only to a function consisting of the

quotient of two polynomials), it is advisable to check whether the solution indeed
satisfies all requirements. That it indeed satisfies the differential equation (2.28)
can be demonstrated rather easily, because each term satisfies this equation. It
17
can also directly be seen that it satisfies the boundary conditions (2.31) and (2.32)
0 and for z 2h the function cos[ ... ] in eq. (2.42) is zero. It is
because for z
not so easy to verify that the initial condition (2.30) is also satisfied. A relatively
simple method to verify this is to write a computer program that calculates values
of the infinite series, and then to show that for any value of z and for very small
values oft the value is indeed 1. It will be observed that this requires a very large
number of terms.
The solution (2.42) is shown graphically in figure 2.3. ln calculating the data to
construct this figure the number of terms in the series solution was chosen such that
the argument of the exponential function in the last term was less than -20. This
means that all terms containing a factor exp( -20), or smaller, are disregarded.
The figure also shows that the solution satisfies the boundary conditions, and the
initial condition. It does not show, of course, that it is the correct solution. That
can only be shown by analytical means, as presented above.
For reasonably large values of the time t the series solution will converge very
rapidly, because of the factor (2j - 1) 2 in the argument of the exponential function. This means that for sufficiently large values of time the solution can be
approximated by the first term only,
p
4
71" h - Z
71" 2 Cv t
Po ~; cos[2(-h-)] exp[-4 h2].
(2.43)
This approximation is shown graphically in figure 2.4. It can be seen that for
z/h
P/Po
Figure 2.4. First term of solution.
values of the dimensionless time parameter cvtfh 2 larger than about 0.2, it is
sufficient to use one term only. For very small values of the time parameter the
18
CHAPTER 2
approximation by one single term is of course very bad, as can also be seen from
figure 2.4. Actually for t = 0 the first term is the first term of the Fourier expansion
of the block function that describes the initial values of the pore pressure. In order
to describe such a block well a large number of terms in a Fourier expansion is
needed (Wylie, 1960).
SETTLEMENTS
The progress of the settlement in time can be obtained from the solution (2.42)
by noting that the strain is determined by the effective stress,
(2.44)
The settlement is the integral of this strain over the height of the sample,
w=
-1
2
h
t:dz = 2ahq- a
1
2
(2.45)
pdz.
The first term in the right hand side is the final settlement, which will be reached
when the pore pressures have been completely dissipated. This value will be
denoted by W 00 ,
= 2ahq.
W 00
(2.46)
Immediately after the application of the load q the pore pressure is equal to p 0 , see
eq. (2.30). This means that the immediate settlement, at the moment of loading,
IS
wo
n/3
= 2ahq a+n
f3
(2.47)
(/3 = 0), the initial settlement is zero.

In order to describe the settlement as a function of time it is convenient to
introduce the degree of consolidation U, defined as
If the fluid is incompressible
U=
w- wo
W 00
Wo
(2.48)
This quantity will vary between 0 (at the moment of loading) and 1 (after consolidation has finished). With (2.45), (2.46) and (2.47) this is found to be related to
the pore pressures by
U = __!_ {2h Po - p dz.

2h lo
Po
(2.49)
Using the solution (2.42) for the pore pressure distribution the final expression for
the degree of consolidation as a function of time is
00
2
8 "'""
1
[
.
U = 1- 11" 2 ~ ( 2j _ 1)2 exp -(2J- 1)
J=l
c"t]
"4 -,;_2.
1r
(2.50)
19
0.---~~~~~--~~~~~.---~~~~~----~~~~~
..
!== ! ............ ! !l~~~lll
!! !~= ! ........... ! ... !!!!! ! !
~~l~~~
........ ... ! ... ! !
IIfi , ,.iJ
~ !J ,Ir
F<i
I!
I II
........ ~ ... ~--. ~- --~ .. ~ ..t. ~-~- ........... ~-- ... ~-- --~- .. ~ --~--~- ~-- ............ ~-- ... ~ .... ~ ... ~ -~--1-~- ~- ........... ~- -~-- --~---~--~--~ -~- ~-
0.5 ........ ) ...... :.... :.) .. ).) ............ :...... :.. ..: ... :.. :..:.: ...
0000000000
: ) . . \ . . \ . : . : : : . . \ ) . . \ . . \ . : . : .
........ ~ ... ~-~ ~ ~--~ ~-~ ........... ~- ... ~-- ~- ~ ~--~- ~- ............ ~- 1 .. ~ ~--~--~ -~- ~-
~- -~ ~---~--~--~ -~- ~
:::::::::::l::::::l::::l:::l::l::t:l:l::::::::::::l::::::l::::l:::l::l::l:l::::::::::::::l::::::l::::l:.:U::!Jl::::::::::::l::::::l::::l:::l::l::l:l:l:
0.001
~~~~~~~
0.01
~~~~~~
~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~
0.1
10
Figure 2.5. Degree of consolidation.
Fort-+ oo this is indeed 1. Fort = 0 it is 0, because then the terms in the infinite
series add up to 1r 2 /8. A graphical representation of the degree of consolidation
as a function of time is shown in figure 2.5.
Theoretically speaking the consolidation phenomenon is finished if t -+ oo. For
all practical purposes it can be considered as finished when the argument of the
exponential function in the first term of the series is about 4 or 5. This will be
the case when
c,t
h2~2.
(2.51)
This is a very useful formula, because it enables to estimate the duration of the
consolidation process. It also enables to evaluate the influence of the various
parameters on the consolidation process. If the permeability is twice as large, consolidation will take half as long. If the drainage length is reduced by a factor 2, the
duration of the consolidation process is reduced by a factor 4. This explains the
usefulness of improving the drainage in order to accelerate consolidation. In engineering practice the consolidation process is sometimes accelerated by installing
vertical drains. In a thick clay deposit this may be very effective, because it reduces
the drainage length from the thickness of the layer to the distance of the drains.
As the consolidation is proportional to the square of the drainage length, this may
be extremely effective in reducing the consolidation time, and thus accelerating
the subsidence due to the construction of an embankment.
2.5
Numerical solution
In this section a simple numerical solution of the one-dimensional consolidation

problem for a homogeneous layer is presented. This numerical model is based on
the finite difference method. In chapter 16 a more general model is presented, using
the finite element method. This is better suited for problems of non-homogeneous
layers.
CHAPTER 2
20
The basic equation to be solved is the partial differential equation (2.28),
8p
8t =
Cv
()2p
8z2
(2.52)
The initial condition is
t = 0:
P =Po=
a+ n/3
(2.53)
q,
= 0:
p= 0,
(2.54)
z = 2h:
p= 0.
(2.55)
The principle of the finite difference method is to approximate the partial

differential quotients in eq. (2.52) by finite difference quotients. This equation can
then be written as
p(z,t + ~t)- p(z,t)

~t
p(z + ~z,t)- 2p(z,t)

Cv
(~z)2
+ p(z- ~z,t)
(2.56)
The expression in the left hand side is just the definition of the partial derivative
~t ~ 0 has been omitted. This approximation is called a forward finite difference, because ~tis supposed to be positive.
The expression in the right hand side can be derived by noting that the second
order derivative is the derivative of the first order derivative, and then approximating the first order derivatives in the points z + ~~z and z- ~~z by central
finite differences, see figure 2.6. By writing p(z,t) = p;(t), p(z+ ~z,t) = Pi+ 1 (t)
and p (z- ~z, t) = Pi-l(t), it now follows from eq. (2.56) that
8pf8t, except that the limiting condition
p;(t + ~t) = p;(t)
+ 6 {Pi+l(t)- 2p;(t) + Pi-l(t)},
(2.57)
where
(2.58)
Equation (2.57) is an algorithm that enables to calculate the values of the pore
pressures at time t + ~t if the values at time t are all known. As the initial
condition specifies the values at time t = 0 it follows that now the pore pressures
at all later values of time can be calculated, using a stepwise progressing procedure.
The process is called an explicit finite element procedure.
It should be noted that this simple procedure is a consequence of the fact
that in the right hand member of eq. (2.56) all values have been considered to
be taken at the initial moment of time t. If these had been taken at time t + ~t
a more complex algorithm would have resulted, in which the new values have to
be calculated from a system of linear equations. Such an approach is called an
implicit procedure.
21
~------------------------------~P
Figure 2.6. Finite difference approximation.
If the layer is subdivided into n small sub layers of thickness dz, the explicit
procedure defined by eq. (2.57) enables to calculate the new values at the levels
i = 1, ... , n- 1. The values Po and Pn follow from the boundary conditions (2.54)
and (2.55).
The numerical algorithm (2.57) is stable only if the parameter 6 is small enough.
If this parameter is taken too large, the process will become unstable, leading to
fluctuating values of ever increasing magnitude (see for instance Fox, 1962). The
stability criterion can be derived by considering a state of practically zero pore
pressures, and then requiring that this remains so. If it is assumed that the values
at timet are Pi-1 = , p; =-and Pi+l = , it follows from eq. (2.57) that
p;(t + Llt) = (1- 46).
(2.59)
This is always smaller than provided that 6 > 0, which means that the time
steps must be positive, which is a trivial condition. The value of p; must also be
larger than-, however, if the process is to be stable. This leads to the condition
6 < 0.5.
(2.60)
This means that the time steps must satisfy the condition
dt < (Llz)2.
2 Cv
(2.61)
This is an important condition, which must be satisfied at all times when using
the explicit finite difference algorithm (2.57).
An elementary computer program, in Turbo Pascal, is reproduced below, as
the program NUMCONS. The program applies to a single homogeneous layers,
22
CHAPTER 2
which is subdivided into 20 sublayers. The parameter 6 ts assumed to be about

0.25, which ensures stability of the algorithm.
program numcons;
uses crt;
const
nn=20;
var
z,p,pa:array[O .. nn] of real;tt:array[O .. 8] of real;
i,j,k,nt:integer;d,delta,t,dt,st ep,h,dz,cv,tc:real;a:char;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackgro und(7);textcolor(O);write(' IUMCOIS ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7) ;writeln;
end;
procedure next;
begin
gotoxy(25,25);textbackground(7 );textcolor(O);
write(' Touch any key to continue ');write(chr(8));
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);t extcolor(7);
end;
begin
title;writeln;writeln;
writeln('This is a program for the analysis of one-dimensional');
writeln('consolidation of a homogeneous soil layer by the finite');
writeln('difference method. ');next;
h:=10;cv:=0.1;delta:=0.25;t:=O. O;
dz:=2h/nn;for i:=O to nn do z[i] :=idz/h;
p[O]:=O.O;p[nn] :=O.O;for i:=1 to nn-1 do p[i] :=1.0;
tt[O] :=O.O;tt[1] :=0.01;tt[2] :=0.02;tt[3]:=0.05;tt[4] :=0.1;
tt[5] :=0.2;tt[6] :=0.5;tt[7] :=1.0;tt[8] :=2.0;
for k:=1 to 8 do
begin
dt: =tt [k] -tt [k-1] ;
nt:=round(int(hhdt/(deltadz dz)));if nt<l then nt:=1;
d:=hhdt/(ntdzdz);
for j:=l to nt do
begin
t:=t+dt/nt;tc:=cvt/(hh);
for i:=1 to nn-1 do pa[i]:=p[i]+d(p[i-1]-2p[i]+p[ i+1]);
for i:=1 to nn-1 do p[i]:=pa[i];
end;
title;writeln(' cvt/h-2 = ',t:6:3,', steps= ',nt);writeln;
for i:=O to nn do writeln(' z/h = ',z[i] :6:3,', p/pO = ',p[i] :6:3);
next;
end;
clrscr;
end.
Program NUMCONS.
The program calculates the values of pfp0 for all the values of time shown in
figure 2.3. The number of time steps in each time interval is chosen such that the
stability criterion (2.60) is always met. The layer thickness and the consolidation
coefficient have been given certain values, but these are not relevant, because the
23
program uses the dimensionless parameters z I h and Cv t I h 2 Output consists of a

list of values on the screen. The output data are shown in figure 2.7. Comparison
with figure 2.3 shows that the approximation by the numerical model is excellent,
z/h
p/po
Figure 2.7. Numerical solution of Terzaghi's problem.
even with the relatively small number of subdivisions (20) used. When running the
program the user will note that the program also prints the number of time steps
in each time interval, and that this number of steps appears to be rather large (400
in the last time interval), indicating that this numerical process is perhaps not so
efficient. This is indeed the case. More efficient procedures may be developed
by using an implicit process, in which a backward or central finite difference is
used for the time derivative. This will be done in chapters 16 and 17, using finite
elements rather than finite differences. The use of finite elements also makes it
possible to develop programs for the analysis of consolidation of non-homogeneous
materials.
2.6
Three-dimensional consolidation
The complete formulation of a fully three-dimensional problem requires a consideration of the principles of solid mechanics, including conservation of mass of the
two components (fluid and solid material), the flow of the fluid, and for the solid
material the equations of equilibrium, compatibility and the stress-strain-relations.
In addition to these equations the initial conditions and the boundary conditions
must be formulated. These equations are presented here, for a linear elastic material.
24
CHAPTER 2
The equations of conservation of mass have been considered in earlier sections,

together with Darcy's law for the flow of the fluid. This leads to the storage equation (2.18). The equations describing the general three-dimensional deformation
of the soil are presented below.
The equations of equilibrium can be established by considering the stresses
acting upon the six faces of an elementary volume, see figure 2.8. In this figure
only the six stress components in the y-direction are shown. The equilibrium
z
Uyy
-E-+--
Uyy
+ D.uyy
-r----~
Figure 2.8. Equilibrium of element.
equations in the three coordinate directions are
(2.62)
where fx, /y and fz denote the components of a possible body force. In addition to
these equilibrium conditions there are three equations of equilibrium of moments.
These can be taken into account most conveniently by noting that they result in
the symmetry of the stress tensor,
(J"xy
(J"YX>
(J"yz=(J"zy,
(2.63)
The stresses in these equations are total stresses. They are considered positive for
compression, in agreement with common soil mechanics practice, but in contrast
with the usual sign convention in solid mechanics.
25
The total stresses are related to the effective stresses by the generalized Terzaghi principle,
U:r::r:
= u~:r: + p,
U:r;y
+ p,
= U~z + p,
U:r:y>
I
I
UyyuYY
Uzz
Uyz=Uyz>
Uz:r:
= U~:r:>
U:r;z
Uy:r:
Uzy
= U~z>
(2.64)
Uy:r:>
= Uzy
I
The effective stresses are a measure for the concentrated forces transmitted from
grain to grain in the contact points. It is normally assumed in soil mechanics that
these determine the deformation of the soil. The shear stresses can of course only
be transmitted by the soil skeleton.
The effective stresses are now supposed to be related to the strains by the
generalized form of Hooke's law, as a first approximation. For an isotropic material
these relations are
= -AC::vo/- 2J.LC:::r;:r:
U~y = -AC::
2J.LC::yy,
U~:r: = -2J.LC::y:r; 1
u~z =
u~Y =
U~:r:
110 / -
-AC::vol-
2J.LC::zz,
O:~z = -2J.LC:::r:z,
(2.65)
-2J.LC::zy 1
where A and J.L are the elastic coefficients of the material (Lame's constants).
They are related to the compression modulus (or bulk modulus) K and the shear
modulus G by the relations
A
= K - ~G,
The volume strain

C:vol
C::r;:r;
G=
C::vol
J.L.
(2.66)
in eqs. {2.65) is the sum of the three linear strains,
+ C:yy + Czz
(2.67)
The strain components are related to the displacement components by the compatibility equations
OU:r;
C:::r;:r:
= ox'
c::yy
Czz
OUy
oy,
(2.68)
OUz
{)z ,
This completes the system of basic field equations. The total number of unknowns
is 22 (9 stresses, 9 strains, 3 displacements and the pore pressure), and the total
number of equations is also 22 (6 equilibrium equations, 9 compatibility equations,
6 independent stress-strain-relations, and the storage equatio!l)
26
CHAPTER 2
The system of equations can be simplified considerably by eliminating the

stresses and the strains, finally expressing the equilibrium equations in the displacements. For a homogeneous material (when A and f.l are constant) these equations are
(
oc:vol
A+ f.l ) ----a;-
+ fx
op
OX
= 0,
a:y + f.l'\1 2 uy + /y -
op
oy
(.
) oc:vol
( .
) oc:vol
A+ f.l
+ f.l'\1
A+ f.l ---a;-+ f.l'\1
Ux
Uz
+ fz
op
OZ
o,
{2.69)
= 0,
where the volume strain C:vol should now be expressed as

f:vol
OUx
OX
OUy
oy
OUz
OZ '
{2.70)
and the operator '\1 2 is defined as
2
'\1
02
02
02
= ox2 + oy2 + oz2.
{2. 71)
The system of differential equations now consists of the storage equation {2.18)
and the equilibrium equations {2.69). These are 4 equations with 4 variables: p,
Ux, Uy and Uz. The volume strain f:vol is not an independent variable, see eq. {2.70).
The initial conditions are that the pore pressure p and the three displacement
components are given at a certain time (say t = 0). The boundary conditions must
be that along the boundary 4 conditions are given. One condition applies to the
pore fluid: either the pore pressure or the flow rate normal to the boundary must
be specified. The other three conditions refer to the solid material: either the 3
surface tractions or the 3 displacement components must be prescribed (or some
combination). Many solutions of the consolidation equations have been published
(for a bibliography see Schiffman, 1984), mainly for bodies of relatively simple
geometry {half-spaces, half-planes, cylinders, spheres, etc.).
2. 7
Drained deformations
In some cases the analysis of consolidation is not really necessary because the
duration of the consolidation process is short compared to the time scale of the
problem considered. This can be investigated by evaluating the expression cvtfh 2 ,
where h is the average drainage length, and t is a characteristic time. When the
value of this parameter is large compared to 1, see eq. {2.51), the consolidation
process will be finished after a time t, and consolidation may be disregarded.
In such cases the behaviour of the soil is said to be fully drained. No excess
pore pressures need to be considered for the analysis of the behaviour of the soil.
Problems for which consolidation is so fast that it can be neglected are for instance
the building of an embankment or a foundation on a sandy subsoil, provided that
the smallest dimension of the structure, which determines the drainage length, is
not more than say a few meters.
27
2.8
Undrained deformations
Quite another class of problems is concerned with the rapid loading of a soil of
low permeability (for instance a clay layer). Then it may be that there is hardly
any movement of the fluid, and the consolidation process can be simplified in the
following way. The basic equation involving the time scale is the storage equation
(2.11),
_ Ocvol
at
= nf3ap + \1 . q.
(2.72)
at
If this equation is integrated over a short time interval one obtains
-devol = nf3 Llp +
<1t
(2.73)
\1 q dt.
The last term in the right hand side represents the net outward flow, over a time
interval Llt. When the permeability is very small, and the time step Llt is also very
small, this term will be very small, and may be neglected. If the volume strain
cvol and the pore pressure pare considered to be incremental values, with respect
to their initial values before application of the load, one may now write
Cvol
nf3
(2.74)
-p=-.
This expression enables to eliminate the pore pressure from the other equations,
such as the equations of equilibrium (2.69). This gives
( A*
2
+ J.L )acvol
~ + J.L\1 Ux + fx = 0,
ae:vol
( A* + J.L ) 7iY
+ J.L\1 2 Uy + /y = 0,
( A* + J.L )acvol
----a;-+ J.L\1 2 Uz
+ fz =
(2.75)
0,
where
.A*= .A+ nl/3.
(2.76)
It may be noted that these equations are completely similar to the equations of
equilibrium for an elastic material, except that the Lame constant .A has been
replaced by .A .
Combination of eqs. (2.64) and (2.65) with (2.74) leads to the following relations
between the total stresses and the displacements
Uxx = -.A*e:vol- 2J..Lc,,,
Uxy = -2J.Lcxy 1
Uxz = -2J..Lcxz 1
Uyy = -.A*e:vol- 2J.Lcyy,
Uyz
Uyx
= -2J.Lcyz
= -2J.Lcyx
(2.77)
CHAPTER 2
28
These equations also correspond exactly to the standard relations between stresses
and displacements from the classical theory of elasticity, again with the exception
that A must be replaced by A*. It may be concluded that the total stresses and the
displacements are determined by the equations of the theory of elasticity, except
that the Lame constant A must be replaced by A*. The other Lame constant J.l
remains unaffected. This type of approach is called an undrained analysis.
In terms of the compression modulus !{ and the shear modulus G the modified
parameters are
/{ ._ K'
+~
nf3 '
G* =G.
(2.78)
For an incompressible fluid ({3 = 0) the compression modulus is infinitely large,

which is in agreement with the physical basis of the analysis. The grains and the
fluid have been assumed to be incompressible, and the process is so fast that no
drainage can occur. In that case the soil must indeed be incompressible. In an
undrained analysis the material behaves with a shear modulus equal to the drained
shear modulus, but with a compression modulus that is practically infinite. In
terms of shear modulus and Poisson's ratio, one may say that Poisson's ratio vis
(almost) equal to 0.5 when the soil is undrained.
As an example one may consider the case of a circular foundation plate on a
semi-infinite elastic porous material, loaded by a total load P. According to the
theory of elasticity the settlement of the plate is
(2.79)
where D is the diameter of the plate. This is the settlement if there were no pore
pressures, or when all the pore pressures have been dissipated. In terms of the
shear modulus G and Poisson's ratio v this formula may be written as
w
oo-
P(l-v)
---''----.:...
2GD
(2.80)
This is the settlement after the consolidation process has been completed. At
so that the immediate
the moment of loading the material reacts as if v =
settlement is
!,
wo
= 4GD.
(2.81)
This shows that the ratio of the immediate settlement to the final settlement is
wo
W
00
1
2(1- v)"
(2.82)
Thus the immediate settlement is about 50 % of the final settlement, or more.

The consolidation process will account for the remaining part of the settlement,
which will be less than 50 %.
2.9
29
Uncoupled consolidation
In general the system of equations of three-dimensional consolidation involves solving the storage equation together with the three equations of equilibrium, simultaneously, because these equations are coupled. This is a formidable task, and many
researchers have tried to simplify this procedure. It would be very convenient, for
instance, if it could be shown that in the storage equation
_ 8cvol = nf38p _
8t
8t
'V-(~'Vp).
'Yw
(2.83)
the first term can be expressed as

8cvol
8p
(2.84)
----a:f = a 8t '
because then the equation reduces to the form
(a+ nf3) op = 'V ( ~'Vp),

8t
/w
(2.85)
which is the classical diffusion equation, for which many analytical solutions are
available. The system of equations is then uncoupled, in the sense that first the
pore pressure can be determined from eq. (2.85), and then later the deformation problem can be solved using the equations of equilibrium, in which then the
gradient of the pore pressure acts as a known body force.
For an isotropic material it may be assumed, in general, that the volume strain
c1101 is a function of the isotropic effective stress ub,
1 _
ua-
I
17xx
+ 17yy + 17zz
I
(2.86)
For a linear material the relation may be written as
(2.87)
where K is the compression modulus, and the minus sign is needed because of
the different sign conventions for stresses and strains. The effective stress is the
difference between total stress and pore pressure, and thus one may write
uo- p
= -Kcvol,
(2.88)
Differentiating this with respect to time gives

op _
8uo
7ft- 8t - -
K8cvol
---at
(2.89)
If the isotropic total stress is constant in time, then there indeed appears to be a
relation of the type (2.84), with
1
(2.90)
30
CHAPTER 2
That the isotropic total stress may be constant in certain cases is not unrealistic.
In many cases consolidation takes place while the loading of the soil remains constant, and although there may be a certain redistribution of stress, it may well
be assumed that the changes in total stress will be small. A complete proof is
very difficult (and in fact impossible) to give, however, and it is also difficult to
say under what conditions the approximation is acceptable. Various solutions of
coupled three-dimensional problems have been obtained, and in many cases a certain difference with the uncoupled solution has been found. Sometimes there is
even a very pronounced difference in behaviour for small values of the time, in the
sense that sometimes the pore pressures initially show a certain increase, before
they dissipate. This is the Mandel-Cryer effect (Mandel, 1953; Cryer, 1963), which
is a typical consequence of the coupling effect. When the pore pressures at the
boundary start to dissipate the local deformation may lead to an immediate effect
in other parts of the soil body, and this may lead to an additional pore pressure.
In the long run the pore pressures always dissipate, however, and the difference
with the uncoupled solution then is often not important. Therefore an uncoupled
analysis may be a good first approximation, if it is realized that local errors may
occur, especially for short values of time.
An important class of problems in which an uncoupled analysis is justified is the
case where it can be assumed that the horizontal deformations will be negligible,
and the vertical total stress remains constant. In the case of a soil layer of large
horizontal extent, loaded by a constant surface load, this may be an acceptable set
of assumptions. Actually, the equations for this case have already been presented
above, see the derivation of eq. (2.23). If the horizontal deformations are set equal
to zero, it follows that the volume strain is equal to the vertical strain,
C:vol
(2.91)
Czz
For a linear elastic material the vertical strain can be related to the vertical effective
stress by the formula
(2.92)
see eq. (2.65). Because the effective stress is the difference of the total stress and
the pore pressure it now follows that
(J'zz-
and thus, if the total stress

op
at
(2.93)
=-(A+ 2J.l)czz,
= (A
(J' zz
is constant in time,
2 ) oc:vol
+J.l at'
(2.94)
which is indeed of the form (2.84), with now
a=---.
A+ 2J.l
(2.95)
31
It may be concluded that in this case, of zero lateral deformation and constant
vertical total stress, the consolidation equations are uncoupled. The basic differential equation is the diffusion equation (2.85). If the medium is homogeneous, the
coefficient khw is constant in space, and then the differential equation reduces to
the form
op
Ot =
Cv 'V
(2.96)
p,
where 'V 2 is Laplace's operator,

(2.97)
and
Cv
is the consolidation coefficient,
Cv
(a+ nf3)rw
(2.98)
In the next section a solution of the differential equation will be presented.
2.10
Radial consolidation
One of the simplest non-trivial examples is that of the consolidation of a cylinder,

see figure 2.9. It is assumed that in the cylinder an excess pore pressure p0 has been
Figure 2.9. Cylinder.
generated, and that consolidation occurs due to flow in radial direction, towards
a drainage layer surrounding the cylinder.
In the case of radially symmetric flow it seems natural to use polar coordinates,
and if it is assumed that there is flow only in the plane perpendicular to the axis
of the cylinder, the basic differential equation (2.96) is
op
f)t
op
Cv (
Or 2
+;
op
Or).
(2.99)
A straightforward method of solution of this type of equation is by the Laplace

transform method (see Churchill, 1972; or Appendix A). If the Laplace transform
p of the pressure p is defined as
32
CHAPTER 2
p=
00
p exp( -st) dt,
then the transformed problem is, when the pore pressure at time t
throughout the cylinder,
d2p 1 dp
s_
Po
+--- -p= - - .
dr
r dr Cv
Cv
-2
(2.100)
0 is po,
(2.101)
The general solution of this problem is
p = Po
s
+ Alo(qr) + BKo(qr),
(2.102)
.;arc;
where q =
and 10 (x) and K 0 (x) are modified Bessel functions of order zero
and the first and second kind, respectively. The solution satisfying the boundary
conditions that the pressure is zero along the outer boundary r = a, and that the
pore pressure is not singular in the origin, is
Po
s
Po Io(qr)
s Io(qa)"
p------
(2.103)
The inverse transform of this expression can be obtained by the complex inversion
integral (Churchill, 1972), or in a more simple, although less rigorous way, by application of Heaviside's expansion theorem (Appendix A). The derivation proceeds
in the same way as in the case of one-dimensional consolidation considered above,
see the derivation of eq. (2.42). The result is
p _
Po
~
2 L...J
k=l
Jo(akr/a) exp ( -ark';"

2 __./ 2 )
a ,
ak J1(ak)
(2.104)
where Jo(x) and lt(x) are Bessel functions of the first kind and order zero and
one, respectively, and where the values ak indicate the zeros of J 0 (x). These are
tabulated, for instance, by Abramowitz & Stegun (1964). The solution (2.104)
can be found in many textbooks on the Laplace transform or on heat conduction,
see for instance Churchill (1972).
The pore pressure in the center of the cylinder is shown in figure 2.9 as a
function of time. It may be interesting to mention that the coupled solution
shows a small increase of the pore pressure in the center shortly after the start of
consolidation (De Leeuw, 1964). This is the Mandel-Cryer effect (Mandel, 1953;
Cryer, 1963), which is typical of three-dimensional consolidation. For this case a
physical explanation for the phenomenon is that in the beginning only the outer
ring of the cylinder will be drained. The loss of water in this ring leads to a
tendency for it to shrink, which in its turn leads to a compression of the core
of the cylinder, where no drainage is possible yet. Only after some time can
the draining effect influence the pore pressures in the core, which then also will
dissipate. Comparison of the coupled solution with the uncoupled solution shown
in figure 2.10 shows that in the uncoupled solution the dissipation of the pore
pressures is a little too fast.
33
P/Po
................ " " ' " 7 " " ..., .... : .. , ... : .... 7 ::-:::
r------,--,-....,.~-
. .. . .
. .
.
. . . . ..
.
::::::':::::::
:
;
:
. . .
;
.....-~ .... :... -:-. ~- ~-~ ; ......... -~ ... ~ : ... ~- .. :.... :
.. .
:
:
:::
:
::::::: ::::::
............-~ ...... -~ .... ;... -~ .. ~ .... 'i' ; .~. ........ ..! ...... l .... ~ ... 'i' .. ~ .... -~
0.5 .......... ) ........~ ... L.~ .. ~ .... L~L .......... ' .......;... .:...!... ~ :
...
... ......... -~ ...... -~ .. ~ ... t -~ +~ l ........... ) ..... -~ .... ~ ... -~ . ~

:
:
~ -r ~ t~- t t ~- t ; ~ ; r
..
.
. . .
i .......... t ..... .. i ... j .. ....
............ ...... .. 1 t
~
-~
-~ ~-~
. . . . . . . . ... .. ~ . ; = .. ;
0
0.01
...
0.1
-~
:::::
:
.: .
.:
.:......... ..... .... :. :
~
-~
::-:::
. ..
.
.
.~ .............:: .......;:..... :i... .:

:
...
.
. -
. ....
: : ... -
:
..
;....
. ;.............:.........;...... .
.:.
.
.
.:.......... . .... .... :. .

.:............ -~ ...... -~ .... ;... -~
.
.
.
.; ........... .;....... .........
~
Figure 2.10. Pore pressure in center of cylinder.
The distribution of the pore pressures over the radial distance r is shown, for
various values of the dimensionless time parameter ctfa 2 in figure 2.11. Comparison with the solution for the one-dimensional case, see figure 2.3, shows that in the
beginning the consolidation process is practically the same, but at later times the
radial consolidation goes significantly faster. This can be understood by noting
that in the beginning only the areas close to the draining surface are drained, in
which case the shape of the boundary is not important. In later stages the core of
the sample must be drained, and in the radial case this contains considerably less
material, so that a smaller amount of water is to be drained.
Exercises
2.1 Write a computer program, in BASIC, or in any other language, for the calculation of numerical values of the one-dimensional consolidation problem, see eq. (2.42), and
verify the data shown in figure 2.3.
2.2 Also write a computer program for the calculation of numerical values of the degree of consolidation as a function of time, see eq. (2.50), and verify the data shown in
figure 2.5.
2.3 It is known from Laplace transform theory that an approximation for small values of the time t can often be obtained by taking the transformation parameter s very
large. Apply this theorem to the solution of the one-dimensional problem, eq. (2.36), by
assuming that s is very large, and then determine the inverse transform from a table of
Laplace transforms.
2.4 Apply the same theorem to the solution of the problem of radial consolidation of a
cylinder, by takings very large in the solution (2.103), and then determining the inverse
transform. Note that this leads to precisely the same approximate solution for small
34
CHAPTER 2
r/a
Figure 2.11. Analytical solution of radial consolidation.

values of the time t as in the previous problem.
2.5 An important problem of radial consolidation is the effect of artificial drains. For
a regular pattern of drains the boundary conditions can be considered to be that at a
certain radius (about half the drain distance) there is no flow, and that at a small radius
ro the pore pressure is zero. The solution can be obtained starting from the general
solution {2.102). Derive this solution (Barron, 1958).
2.6 Verify the statement that the program NUMCONS indeed uses dimensionless parameters, by changing the values of h or cv, and showing that the results are always the
same.
2.7 Add a form of graphical output to the program NUMCONS, so that the pore
pressures as a function of depth are shown on the screen.
CHAPTER 3
SEA BED RESPONSE TO CYCLIC LOADS
An application of the theory of consolidation is the determination of the response

of a sea bed to water waves in the sea, see figure 3.1. It is assumed that along
the bottom of the sea the pressure in the water varies sinusoidally, in space as
well as in time, and the problem is now to determine the pore pressures in the
soil below the sea bottom. In the first part of this chapter the soil is assumed
to be a homogeneous linear elastic material, as a first approximation. This is
a straightforward application of the theory of consolidation, as presented in the
previous chapter.
The case of a single harmonic wave propagating along the sea bottom has been
discussed by Yamamoto et al. (1978) and Madsen (1978). In this chapter the
..........................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .............. .... .. .... .... .. .. .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . .
. .. ... ............. .... ...... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . . . .
.... ..
... ........ ..
.........
........................
... .......... ..
.. .... ..
... ....
.. . ... .... ... ... .... ................... .
. . .. ........
Figure 3.1. Waves over a sea bed.
problem will be discussed in terms of a standing sinusoidal wave (Verruijt, 1982).

It may be noted that there is no basic difference between the effects observed in
both types of waves, and that the results of one type of problem can easily be
reformulated in terms of the other problem. Particular attention will be paid to
the limiting cases of very long and very short wave lengths.
A non-linear effect that may have important consequences is the compaction
of the soil due to cyclic shear stresses. In a storm of long duration this effect
may lead to the build-up of pore pressures, even if the pore pressures generated
in a single cycle are very small. A simplified analytical analysis of this problem
is discussed, and a numerical model is presented. In this numerical model pore
pressures are generated by the shear stresses produced by a pressure wave over
the seabed, and these pore pressures are dissipated by consolidation.
35
CHAPTER 3
36
Basic equations
3.1
For the description of the deformations and stresses in a poro-elastic sea bed due
to surface loading the basic equations are the equations of linear consolidation.
These are the storage equation (2.18),
= n(Jop _ \7 ( !_\7p),
_ OC:val
ot
ot
( 3 .1)
'Yw
and the equations of equilibrium (2.69),

ot:val
A+ J.l ) ~
+ J.l\7
oc:val
+ J.L\7
(A+ J.l ) ----a;-+ J.l\7
(A+ J.L)ayot:val
Ux
+ fx
uy
+ /y-
Uz
+ fz
op
OX
= 0,
op
oy
= o,
op
= 0.
OZ
(3.2)
If the water wave considered is independent of the y-direction, it may be assumed

that the soil deforms under plane strain conditions, i.e. Uy = 0. Furthermore the
body force will be disregarded, which means that the stresses due to the weight of
the soil itself are assumed to be included in the initial state of stress. Finally, for
reasons of future simplicity, the material parameters are slightly modified. Instead
of the Lame constant A a dimensionless parameter m will be used, defined by
m
= 1-
2v
A +J.L
= -J.l- =
+ ~G
(3 3)
For an incompressible material the value of m is infinitely large, the smallest

possible value of m is ~.
The influence of the compressibility of the fluid is expressed by a dimensionless
parameter (), defined by
() = nf3J.l.
(3.4)
This parameter expresses the compressibility of the fluid in terms of the shearing
flexibility of the soil. It is zero when the fluid is incompressible.
Furthermore the consolidation coefficient Cv is defined as
Cv
= -J.L(1 + m).
'Yw
The basic equations can now be rewritten as
0 val
( 1 + m )J.l----at
Ot + {) ( 1 + m ) op
oc:val
mJ.l~
0 val
mJ.L----a;-
+ J.l\7
+ J.l\7
Cv
\7 p = 0,
(3.5)
(3.6)
Ux -
op
ox
= 0,
(3.7)
Uz -
op
oz = 0.
(3.8)
37
Boundary conditions
3.2
The region considered is the half plane z > 0, see figure 3.1. On the surface z = 0
a load is applied in the form of a standing wave, in the normal stress and the pore
pressure. Thus the boundary conditions are supposed to be
z = 0:
p =
p exp(iwt)
(3.9)
cos(.Ax),
=0:
CTzz
ij exp(iwt) cos(.Ax),
(3.10)
=0:
CTzx
0.
(3.11)
Because these boundary conditions involve the stresses, the relations between these
stresses and the displacements are also needed. These are
(3.12)
(3.13)
(3.14)
3.3
Solution
The general solution of the problem described by the equations presented in the
previous section, vanishing for z --+ oo, is
!!.. = -{2.AA 1 exp( -.Az) + (1 + m)(a 2 f.l-
Ux
.A 2)A 3 exp( -az)}

x exp(iwt) cos(.Ax),
= {[A2- A1(1 + mB).Az] exp( -.Az) + .AA3 exp( -az)}

x exp(iwt) sin(h),
Uz
(3.15)
(3.16)
= {[A2- A1(1 + 20 + mB)- A1 (1 + mB).Az] exp( -.Az)

+ aA3
exp( -az)} exp(iwt) cos( .Ax),
(3.17)
where a is defined by
a 2 = .A 2
zw
+ -(1 + B+ mB),
Cv
'Re(a) > 0.
(3.18)
The volume strain is

C:voi
= {2MA1 exp(-.Az)- (a 2 -
.A 2)A3 exp(-az)}
x exp(iwt) cos(.Ax),
(3.19)
38
CHAPTER 3
The two stress components needed for the boundary conditions are
= A{[A 2
rrzx
2J-1
A 1 B- A1(1 + mB)Az] exp( -Az)

+ aA 3 exp( -az)} exp(iwt) sin( Ax),
rTzz
2J-1
= A{[A 2
(3.20)
A1(1 + B + mB)- A1(1 + mB)Az] exp( -Az)

+ AA 3 exp( -az)} exp(iwt) cos( Ax), (3.21)
It can be verified without essential difficulties that this solution satisfies the differential equations (3.6) - (3.8). The reader is encouraged to verify this statement.
The three constants A 1 , A 2 and A3 appearing in the solution can be determined
from the boundary conditions (3.9)- (3.11). The result is
A1 =
q(1 + m)(a +A)- 2pA

'
2J-tA[(1 + m)(1 + mB)(a +A)- 2A]
A _ q[(1 + m)(a 2 - A2 )B + 2aA]- 2pA[a(1 + mB) + B(a- A)]

2 2J-tA(a- A)[(1 + m)(1 + mB)(a +A)- 2A]
'
A3 =
p(1+mB)-q
J-t(a- A)[(1 + m)(1 + mB)(a +A)- 2A]
(3 22 )
(3 .23 )
(3 24 )
Again the reader is encouraged to verify that with these values the boundary
conditions are indeed satisfied. Two special cases will be studied in some more
detail below.
3.4
Water waves
The solution given above is for standing waves, as indicated by the factor exp( iwt)
x cos( Ax) in the boundary conditions. They can be transformed with little difficulty into solutions for a propagating wave, by replacing that factor by a factor
cos(wt - AX). A case of particular interest is that of a wave in the water just
above the sea bed. In that case the total stress at the surface is equal to the pore
pressure. In the formulas this can be accomplished by taking q = p. In this case
one obtains
jj[(1 + m)(a +A)- 2A]
2A A =
1
J-1
(1+m)(1+mB)(a+A)-2A '
2
p(1 + m)(a + A)mB
2
J-1( 1 + m)(a -A )A 3 = (1 + m)(1 + mB)(a +A)- 2A'
(3.25)
(3.26)
Substitution of these values into eq. (3.15) gives

p
[(1 + m)(a +A)- 2A] exp( -Az) + (1 + m)(a + A)mBexp( -az)

(1+m)(1+mB)(a+A)-2A
x cos(wt-Ax).
(3.27)
39
In order to further investigate this solution it is useful to reconsider the parameter o: in the solution. According to eq. (3.18) it is defined by
zw
o: 2 = A2 + -(1 + B + mB),
Cv
Re(o:) > 0.
(3.28)
From this it follows that

o: = AV1 + it/J(1 + B + mB),
Re(o:)
> 0.
(3.29)
where now t/J is a dimensionless wave parameter, defined by

w
(3.30)
t/J=~
CvA
In terms of a wave length L ( L = 27r I A) and a period T (T = 27r I w) the definition

of t/J can be written as
L2
- 27rcvT.
tjJ---
(3.31)
The value of this parameter is determined by the consolidation coefficient. A

small wave period (or a large wave length) corresponds to a type of undrained
behaviour, consolidation then cannot have a large influence. The value of t/J then
is very large. In the case of very slow waves (or waves with a very short wave
length) the behaviour of the soil is of a drained character. The value of t/J then is
very small. These special cases will be considered separately.
It may be illustrative to determine what the wave length must be in order to
be considered "long" in the sense of the wave parameter t/J. Average values of the
consolidation coefficient for sand are
Cv
= 0.01 m 2 Is
...
0.1 m 2 Is.
The most important waves on the North Sea have a period of about 10 seconds.
This means that for waves with a wave length longer than 10 m the value of the
wave parameter t/J will be 16 or larger. For clayey soils the consolidation coefficient
will be much smaller, and then the value of t/J will be even larger. It seems that for
the most important sea waves the value of the wave parameter t/J can be assumed
to be much larger than 1.
LONG WAVES
If the wave parameter t/J is very large, the value of the parameter o: is very large
compared to A. The formula (3.27) then reduces to
tP ~ 1
E=
p
exp(-Az)+mBexp(-o:z) cos(wt-h).
l+mB
(3.32)
Because o: is complex, the second term in the numerator will give rise to a phase
shift. The effect of this term will be rapidly attenuated with depth, however,
because the real part of o: is large compared to A.
40
CHAPTER 3
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
Another interesting case is when the fluid is incompressible. In that case () = 0,

and the solution (3.27) reduces to
() = 0 : ~ = exp(-.Az) cos(wt- .Ax).
p
(3.33)
This means that the variations of the pore pressure are simply attenuated with
depth, without any phase shift.
The same approximation (3.33) applies when the wave parameter t/J is very
small, i.e. for short waves. In all these cases the pore pressures satisfy the Laplace
equation \1 2 p = 0.
In this case the volumetric strain is zero, so that the isotropic effective stress
is also zero,
(]'/ =
I
(]'XX
+ (J'zz
I
2
= 0.
(3.34)
This means that the isotropic effective stress in the soil is not affected by the wave.
It should be noted that the effect of the body force (gravity) is supposed to be
incorporated in the initial stresses. These can be assumed to be

u' = 1 + 2Ko,../z
0
3
I
l
(3.35)
where 1' is the submerged volumetric weight,

!'=!-/w,
(3.36)
and Ko is the coefficient of lateral stress.

Another interesting quantity is the maximum shear stress r,
(3.37)
This quantity is now found to be
T
= j).Azexp(-.Az)exp(iwt),
(3.38)
independent of x. The maximum value of this shear stress occurs at a depth for
which .Az = 1. Near the surface the shear stress increases linearly,
.Az
1:
r = p.Azexp(iwt).
(3.39)
For the stability of the sea bed the critical quantity is the ratio of shear stress
to isotropic stress, which should not reach tan</>, where <P is the friction angle of
the soil. Assuming that the initial state of stress is isotropic ( K 0 = 1), one now
obtains
AZ
1:
(3.40)
41
When this ratio approaches tan J the sea bed may become unstable. It should be
noted that this situation may occur over a large depth, when the wave length is
large. It should also be noted that these considerations apply only if the fluid is
completely incompressible. In case of a compressible fluid the formulas are more
complicated, but it can be expected that the influence of the wave will be less
then.
3.5
Approximation of the differential equation
The importance of the wave parameter tf; for the character of the solution can also
be understood by a further investigation of the storage equation (3.1),
8c vol
( 1 + m )P.---at
+ (} ( 1 + m ) 8p
at - c,/il 2p =
0.
(3.41)
If a wave type solution of the form
c vol = l
p
vol exp(iwt-
i>.x),
(3.42)
= pexp(iwt- i>.x),
(3.43)
is substituted, the resulting equation is
itf;(1 + m)p.>. 2 (lvol + n{Jp)-
(d;d2-
>. 2 p)
= 0.
(3.44)
It follows from this equation that if tf; ~ 1 the first terms may be disregarded, and
the pore pressure will satisfy the Laplace equation.
On the other hand if tf; ~ 1 the first terms dominate, and the relation between
pore pressure and volume strain will be
tf; ~ 1 : c val+ n(Jp = 0,
(3.45)
indicating undrained behaviour.
3.6
Pore pressures due to cyclic shear stresses
In the previous sections the behaviour of the soil was considered to be fully elastic,
i.e. reversible. This is often a rather poor approximation of the real behaviour of
soils, as it is well known that soils very often exhibit irreversible (plastic) deformations. In order to study one of the effects due to such plastic deformations a
simplified problem will be considered in this section. The problem again refers to
cyclic loading of a saturated soil, but the properties of the material are assumed
to be such that the density of the soil tends to increase after each cycle of loading.
The basic idea is that the shear deformation of the soil is the result of a rearrangement of the soil particles, with particles sliding and rolling over each other,
and that after a complete cycle some particles will have found a somewhat denser
packing, and that they do not return to their original looser state.
42
CHAPTER 3
tLtl
..........
... .... .
.................
.. ..
..
......
..............................
..
..
.
..
.
. .... ...... ..
..... .
.......................
.
..........
.... .
.. .... ..
...............
....
.....
..
.
.. ... ... ..
....
....
... ...
. ...
... ..
..
.... ..
..
.....
.. ..
....
.
.... ..
..
.
..
..
... ....
........................
... ..
.
.
.... ... ... ... .... .
...
. . . .. .... .
.......................
. ..
...... .................
.... ..
.. .
............ ......... ..
.. .
..................... .......
. . . . .. ..
....
......................
. .. ...... ..
...........
.... .... ...... .....
. .. . .. . . . .
............................
. ..............
.....
....
... ... ... ... .... .
. ..... .
Figure 3.2. Cyclic loading of a column.
The geometry to be considered is that of a column of sand, representing a

column in the seabed, with an impermeable bottom, see figure 3.2. The load
is supposed to be cyclic, with a period T, but its nature is not specified. It is
assumed, however, that the load can be characterized by a maximum shear stress
level r 0 . This shear stress may be generated in the soil due to a vertical load with
a constant horizontal stress (as in triaxial testing) or due to loading by a shear
stress (as in pure shear testing). It may also be produced by water waves over the
surface.
3.6.1
BASIC EQUATIONS
The main new effect to be introduced is the generation of pore pressures in

undrained cyclic shear tests, as noted by Bjerrum (1973). In such tests, or in
undrained cyclic triaxial tests, it is often observed that after each full cycle of
loading a small excess pore pressure remains. This is supposed to be due to the
phenomenon that any soil will tend to show a small volumetric compression after
each full cycle of loading, whatever the type of loading is. In a saturated soil without drainage this tendency is prevented by the water in the pores, with an excess
pore pressure as its result. Although the pore pressure after one cycle usually is
very small, a considerable pore pressure may be built up if the number of cycles
is very large. Following Bjerrum (1973) and Spierenburg (1987) the pore pressure
generation can be considered, at least as a first approximation, to be proportional
to the number of cycles N, and to the applied shear stress r 0 ,
p =BraN,
(3.46)
43
where B is the dimensionless coefficient indicating the ratio of pore pressure to

shear load per cycle. For dense sands it is very small, but values up to 10- 3 have
been reported for loose sands. If the load is written as
. ( 211"t)
r= To sm
T,
(3.47)
the number of cycles can be identified with tjT, so that eq. (3.46) can also be
written as
(3.48)
This means that
ap
Bro
T
at
(3.49)
These elementary exp~rimental findings will first be brought in agreement with

the basic theory of consolidation.
The pore pressure generated in undrained tests can be considered to be caused
by the combination of two types of volumetric deformations: a volume decrease
due to the cyclic shear stresses, and a volume increase due to a decrease of the
effective stress (and thus an increase of pore pressures). These effects can best be
quantified by considering the standard storage equation (3.1),
_ acvol
at
= n{3ap _ V' ( _!_V'p).
at
'Yw
(3.50)
This equation is based on conservation of mass of the particles and the fluid, simple
assumptions regarding the compressibility of the particles (assumed to be incompressible) and the fluid (linear compressibility {3), and Darcy's law. In undrained
conditions the last term in the right hand side vanishes, so that one may write
_ ac vol = n{3ap
at
at
(3.51)
It may also be noted, from the equation of conservation of mass of the solid
particles, eq. (2.4), that the rate of change of the porosity is directly proportiona l
to the total volumetric strain rate,
an = ( 1 - n) ac vol .
at
at
(3.52)
Now considering the deformation of the soil as a mixture of particles and fluid,
with deformations mainly caused by a rearrangeme nt of the particles, the volume
deformation is writ ten as
(3.53)
44
CHAPTER 3
Here the first term represents the linear elastic deformation of the soil, and the
second term represents the cyclic volumetric compression due to shear stresses,
characterized by their amplitude ro, their period T, and a factor A, which must
be related to the coefficient B introduced earlier, see {3.46). If it is assumed that
the total stresses remain constant during deformation, it follows from eq. {3.53)
that
acvol
---=-m
at
ap
Aro
-+-.
vat
T
{3.54)
From the two expressions for the volumetric strain rate, {3.51) and {3.54), it now
follows that in undrained conditions
(3.55)
Comparison with eq. {3.49) shows that the coefficient A can indeed be expressed
into the coefficient B,
A= (mv
+ n{J)B.
(3.56)
For fully drained conditions the volume change can be obtained from eq. {3.54)
by setting the pore pressure p = 0,
_ acvol _ Aro _ (
at -
mv
R)Bro
T .
+ n~-'
(3.57)
The change of the porosity in this case will be, with {3.52),
an
Br
-at = {1- n)(mv + nfl)r0
(3.58)
This means that in drained conditions the assumed relation for the cyclic volume
change results in a decrease of the porosity, which is of course perfectly logical. If
the coefficient B is small, and the number of cycles is limited, a constant decrease
of the porosity, as indicated by eq. {3.58) may be an acceptable assumption.
If the number of cycles is large, however, and if the coefficient B is assumed to
be a constant, eq. (3.58) would indicate that the porosity will continue to decrease
indefinitely, which is not possible. Therefore it seems more realistic to assume that
the porosity will approach some final value after an infinite number of cycles,
n = no - .6-n[l - exp(-at)],
(3.59)
where no is the initial porosity, .6-n represents the final change of the porosity.
The parameter a indicates the time scale. It follows from {3.59) that
an
at = -a .6-n exp( -at).
(3.60)
Comparison with (3.58) shows that these equations can be brought into agreement
at the beginning of the process if
a= (1- no)(mv
Br0
+ nof3)~.
r~n
45
(3.61)
In order to limit the final porosity the terms expressing the cyclic volume change
must be multiplied by a factor exp( -at). The expression for the volume change
(3.54) then becomes
Of: vol
8u'
Bro
- -ot- = m vot
- + (m + n(3)- exp(-at).
v
T
(3.62)
Substitution into the storage equation (3.50) finally gives the generalized form of
the basic differential equation,
op
Bro
2
ot = Cv V' p + T exp( -at).
(3.63)
Here it has been assumed, for reasons of simplicity, that the factor khw 1s a
constant, or, in other words, that the porous medium is homogeneous.
3.6.2
ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
In order to derive an analytical solution for the one-dimensional case of a column

of soil, the basic differential equation (3.63) is reduced to its one-dimensional
form, and the reduction factor will be disregarded, by assuming that a = 0. The
differential equation then is
op
Ot
8 2p
Bro
= Cv oz2 + r
(3.64)
It is also assumed that the shear stress amplitude To is a constant throughout the
column of soil, so that the factor Bro/T is a constant.

The boundary conditions are supposed to be
z = 0 : p
= 0,
(3.65)
and
z
=H
: 8P
oz
= o,
(3.66)
The first boundary condition indicates that the surface of the soil is fully drained,
and the second boundary condition indicates an impermeable layer at a depth H.
Before attempting to solve the partial differential equation (3.64) it is interesting to note that the problem has a steady state solution, which may be reached
after a large number of loading cycles. This steady state solution can be obtained
by assuming that pis independent of time, and then integrating the ordinary differential equation obtained from (3.64) when opfot = 0. If the boundary conditions
are used to determine the integration constants in the solution the final result is
E.. _ z(2H- z)
Po
H2
(3.67)
46
CHAPTER 3
where p 0 is the final pore pressure at the bottom,

Po=
BT0 H 2
2cvT
(3.68)
The steady state pore pressure appears to be of parabolic shape. In this state the
generation of pore pressures due to cyclic loading is balanced by the dissipation
due to the flow.
The non-steady solution can be obtained by solving the differential equation
(3.64). This can be done using the Laplace transform technique, which will give
an exact analytical solution. Without going into the details it may be recorded
here that this analytic solution is
(3.69)
Before presenting some results calculated from this solution an approximate solution will be derived.
3.6.3
APPROXIMATE ANALYTICAL SOLUTION
A simple approximate solution can be found by assuming that the pore pressure
distribution is always parabolic, as suggested by the steady state solution (3.67).
Thus it is assumed that one may write, approximately,
_ F( t ) z (2H-z) .
(3.70)
2c
where the function F(t) is to be determined. The expression (3.70) satisfies both
boundary conditions (3.65) and (3.66), so that the function F(t) must be determined by substitution into the differential equation (3.64). This gives
P-
(3.71)
This equation cannot be satisfied for every value of z, because the left hand side
of the equation is a function of z, and the right hand side is not. Therefore the
condition that the differential equation must be satisfied is relaxed to the condition
that it is satisfied only on the average. Because the average value of the function
z (2H - z) over the interval from z 0 to z H is ~ H 2 it now follows that the
differential equation for F becomes
dF _
3cv F
3BTo
dt - - H 2 + 2H 2T'
(3.72)
with the solution

(3.73)
47
The integration constant C can be determined from the initial condition, which is
assumed to be that the pore pressures are zero at timet= 0. This gives
C =_Bro.
(3.74)
2cvT
The final, approximate, solution for the pore pressure now is

!!_ = z(2H- z) [l _
(- 3cvt)]
Po
H2
exp
H2 .
(3.75)
where Po is given by eq. (3.68).

The approximate pore pressure distribution is parabolic (by assumption), with
its maximum at the impermeable bottom of the layer, z = H. The build-up of
the pore pressure at the bottom (PH) is shown in figure 3.3. The fully drawn
line represents the analytic solution (3.69), and the dashed line represents the
approximate solution (3.75). It appears that the approximate solution agrees
-=;::;.:::::.;:::;.J~ - - - ;
--~-----
........... (.~......... ~ ........................ \........................ ~ ........................ ~
/
0
:
;
L-------~--------~------~--------~----~
1
2
Figure 3.3. Pore pressure build-up.
reasonably well with the exact solution.

It should be noted that in the figure only the pore pressure after complete
cycles is represented. During each cycle there may be an additional cyclic pore
pressure, which is not shown in the figure.
It is interesting to note from formula (3.68) that the final pore pressure depends
upon the ratio of the quantities Bro, which is the pore pressure generated in a
single full cycle, and Cv T / H 2 , which expresses the dimensionless consolidation time
in a cycle. It appears that the pore pressures will be smaller if the permeability is
larger, because then the consolidation coefficient Cv is smaller. This is in agreement
with engineering intuition. In engineering practice the build-up of excess pore
pressures in loose sands can be prevented by compaction of the sand (so that the
value of the coefficient B is reduced) or by the deposition of a gravel bed. Pipelines
are therefore often laid in a trench, which then is filled later with gravel.
48
CHAPTER 3
In order to assess the risk of liquefaction of the soil the maximum hydraulic
gradient at the surface may be evaluated from the steady state solution. This
hydraulic gradient is defined as
1 op
J=--.
'Yw {)z
(3.76)
From eq. (3.67) it follows that

op _ 2po(H- z)
H2
{)z
(3.77)
At the surface (z = 0) this value has its maximum, 2po/ H. The hydraulic gradient
at the surface is, with eq. (3.68),
.
2po
BroHmv
- '"'fwHkT
J----
(3.78)
where the definition of the consolidation coefficient has been used,

Cv
= --.
fflv'"'(w
(3.79)
The hydraulic gradient given by (3.78) will give rise to a linear increase of the
pore pressures near the surface. The effective stresses will decrease by the same
amount, because the total stresses are constant (at least as a first approximation).
Thus this additional hydraulic gradient must be compared to the gradient of the
effective stresses, which can be written as
I
'"'f- 'Yw
'"'fw
= ---,
(3.80)
where'"'( is the volumetric weight of the soil (grains and water), and 'Yw, as before, is
the volumetric weight of the water. A normal value of the effective stress gradient
is j' = 1.0. This means that the hydraulic gradient j, as given by eq. (3.78) must
be larger than 1 for the soil to liquefy.
It may finally be mentioned that throughout this paragraph the generation of
pore pressures has been approximated by the simple linear rule (3.46), in order to
derive an analytical solution. In reality the soil will gradually decrease in volume
due to drainage, which will make the soilless sensitive to cyclic volume changes.
Thus the factor B will in general tend to decrease during the process (this is
called preshearing). The analysis presented in this section can be considered to
be conservative. In reality the pore pressures will be smaller than those shown in
figure 3.3. It can also be expected that after a very long time the drainage effect
will dominate the ever decreasing generation of pore pressures, so that the pore
pressures will ultimately tend towards zero. This can be analyzed by starting from
the more general basic equation (3.63).
3.6.4
49
NUMERICAL SOLUTION
For the more general case, in which preshearing is to be taken into account, as
well as a variable amplitude of the shear stress, it seems appropriate to develop
a numerical model. This can be done on the basis of the finite difference model
NUMCONS presented in chapter 2. The program must be extended to take into
account the additional term in the basic equation (3.63). The one-dimensional
form of that equation is
8p
at = Cv
8 2p
az + TBro
2
exp( -at).
(3.81)
The extension of the numerical program can be made by the introduction of an

additional term in the basic algorithm, to account for the second term in the right
hand side. This has been implemented in the program SEABED, in Thrbo Pascal.
It is printed below. The program uses interactive input, where the user must enter
all data, after being prompted by the program. The program presents the output
data on the screen, in the form of a list of the effective stresses, the pore pressures
and the porosity as a function of depth, and of time.
program seabed;
uses crt;
const
nn=20;
var
z,dp,aa,poro:array[O .. nn] of real;p,pa,ss:array[O .. nn+l] of real;
i:integer;steps:longint;
gamf,gams,lastt,dt,t,dz,alpha,cv,mv,beta,porl,por2,dpor:real;
thick,height,length,period,pi,lambda,sigma,tau,perm,bjerrum:real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' SEABED ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7);vriteln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
gotoxy(26,26);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);
vrite(' Touch any key to continue ');vrite(chr(S));
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);textcolor(7);
end;
procedure input;
begin
title;vriteln;pi:=3.1416926;
vrite('Thickness of layer ................ ');readln(thick);
vrite('Vol. veight of fluid (kl/m3) ...... ');readln(gamf);
vrite('Vol. veight of soil (kl/m3) ....... ');readln(gams);
vrite('Permeability (m/s) ................ ');readln(perm);
vrite('Compressibility of fluid Cm2/kl) ... ');readln(beta);
vrite('Compressibility of soil (m2/kl) ... ');readln(mv);
vrite('Initial porosity .................. ');readln(porl);
vrite('Smallest porosity ................. ');readln(por2);
vrite('Vave height (m) ................... ');readln(height);
50
CHAPTER 3
urite('Wave length (m) ........... ........ ');readln(l ength);

urite('Wave period (s) ........... ........ ');readln(p eriod);
urite('Bjer rum factor ........... ......... ');readln(b jerrum);
urite('lumb er of time steps ........... ... ');readln(s teps);
cv:=perm/( gamf(mv+ poribeta)) ;dz:=thick/ nn;alpha:= 0.25;dt:=al phadzdz/ cv;
lambda:=2 pi/length; lastt:=dtst eps;dpor:= pori-por2;
z[O] :=O;p[O] :=O;p[nn+i] :=O;ss[O] :=O;poro[O] :=pori;
for i:=i to nn do
begin
poro [i] :=pori;
z[i] :=z[i-1]+dz ;sigma:=(g ams-gamf) z[i];p[i] :=O;ss[i] :=sigma;
tau:=0.5he ightgamf lambdaz[i ]exp(-lam bdaz[i]);
dp[i] :=bjerrum taudt/peri od;
aa[i] :=(1-por1) (mv+por1 beta)bjerr umtau/(dp orperiod);
end;
end;
procedure output;
begin
gotoxy(1,2 );uriteln('t ime = ',t/(24360 0):12:3,' days');urit eln;
for i:=O to nn do
uriteln('z = ',z[i]:9:3 ,', s = ',ss[i]:9:3 ,
', p = ',p[i]:9:3 ,', n = ',poro[i]:9 :4);
end;
procedure solve;
var
k:integer; a:real;
begin
t:=O;k:=O ;title;a:=cv dt/(dzdz) ;
uhile (t<lastt) do
begin
for i:=1 to nn do
begin
pa[i] : =p [i] +a (p [i+l] -2p [i]+p [i -1] )+dp [i] exp( -aa [i] t);
poro[i] :=poro[i]+ (1-por1)m v(pa[i]-p[ i])-aa[i]d pordtexp (-aa[i]t);
end;
pa[O] :=O;pa[nn+ 1]:=pa[nn-1 ];for i:=O to nn+1 do p[i] :=pa[i];

t:=t+dt;k:= k+1;if (k=10) then begin output;k:=O ;end;
if (keypressed ) then halt;
end;
end;
begin
title;urite ln;
uriteln('Th is is a program for the analysis of one-dimen sional');
uriteln('co nsolidatio n of a soil layer, in uhich pore pressures' );
uriteln('ar e generated by densificati on of the soil due to');
uriteln('ua ter uaves at the upper surface. ');next;
input;solve ;
end.
Program SEABED.
51
In the program SEABED the shear stress amplitude To has been assumed to
be in accordance with eq. (3.38) for the shear stresses generated by a water wave
over the seabed surface, i.e.
To= 'Ywh.Azexp(-.Az),
(3.82)
where h is the amplitude of the water wave, measured as a length. In hydraulic

engineering the difference between the maximum and minimum water levels is
usually called the wave height. Thus h is one-half of the wave height.
It should be noted that the program SEABED uses the kilonewton as the unit
offorce, the meter as the unit oflength, and the second as the unit of time. When
desired these units may be changed, provided that a consistent system of units is
used.
As an example the case of a layer of 20 m thickness is considered. The soil,
10 kN/m3 , k
fluid and wave properties are supposed to be: 'Y 20 kN/m3 , 'Yw
2
3
2
5
2 X 10- m/s, (3 0.0 m /kN, mv 10- m /kN, n 0 0.40, dn 0.05, h 5 m,
L
100m, T
10 s, B 0.001 (This is called the Bjerrum factor in the program).
These parameters can be considered to apply to a normal type of seawave, over a
seabed consisting of rather loose sand. The maximum pore pressures, as calculated
=
=
50
100
o~~~--~~~~~~--~~------~
...... : ....... : ....... : ....... :....... : ....... : ....... : ....... :....... :...... .
. .
.
. .
. .
.
.
: : .. ::::::.. :
~:~
~~~~
== =======
~-~;
....... ~ ....... 1....... ~ ....... l....... ~ ....... l...... .
:
:
:
.
10
:~~ ~~~'~:
.:
.
:
~!! ;....... ,....... !!!!
:::::::r::::::r::::::r::::::r.:::r::::r::::r:::::r::::::c:::::
....... :; ... : ...... : ... : ..... :...... : .... :....... .; ..... :i...... .
~
20
.
:
~-
-~
-~
.
:
.
:
~~~---~---~-~~~---~---~---~~
z (m)
Figure 3.4. Maximum pore pressure.
by the program SEABED, are shown in figure 3.4. These are the maximum values
occurring at some value of time at various depths. Because of the preshearing
effect the pore pressures are reduced to zero as time continues, when the porosity
has reached its ultimate lowest value. It is left as an exercise for the reader to
compare the numerical model with analytical results.
52
CHAPTER 3
Exercises
3.1 Determine the maximum vertical gradient of the pore pressure, for the case of pore
pressures generated in a semi-infinite linear elastic porous material, see eq. (3.27), or its
approximations (3.32) and (3.33).
3.2
Derive the analytic solution (3.69), using the Laplace transform method.
3.3 Modify the program SEABED such that the shear stress amplitude (tau in the program) is constant, and such that the preshearing effect is eliminated, by setting aa[i] :=0.
This enables to compare the results with those of the analytical solution, presented in
figure 3.3. Verify that the results of the numerical model agree with the analytical solution.
CHAPTER4
BEAMS ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION
In this chapter a numerical method for the solution of the problem of a beam on
an elastic foundation is presented. Special care will be taken that the program can
be used for beams consisting of sections of unequal length, as the program is to
be used as a basis for a sheet pile wall program, and for a program for a laterally
loaded pile in a layered soil.
4.1
Beam theory
Consider a beam, of constant cross section, with its axis in the x-direction, see
figure 4.1. The load on the beam is denoted by f (a force per unit length), and
Figure 4.1. Beam.

the lateral displacement (in z-direction) is denoted by w. The basic equations
from classical beam theory are presented below, very briefly. For a more detailed
presentation the reader is referred to standard textbooks on applied mechanics.
Equilibrium in z-direction, that is the direction perpendicular to the axis of the
beam, see figure 4.2, requires that
dQ = -/,
dx
(4.1)
where Q is the shear force. The sign convention is that a shear force is positive
when the force on a surface with its normal in the positive x-direction is acting in
the positive z-direction.
The second equation of equilibrium is the equation of equilibrium of moments,
which requires that
dM =Q,
dx
(4.2)
53
54
CHAPTER 4
f
M+fiM
..........
..... ...... .... ...
............
... ...
... ......
... Q+liQ
.........
I
E
I
fix
31I
Figure 4.2. Element of beam.

where M is the bending moment. The sign convention is that a positive bending
moment corresponds to a positive stress (tension) on the positive side of the axis
of the beam.
The two equations of equilibrium can be combined to give
(4.3)
This is the first basic equation of the theory of bending of beams.
The second basic equation can be derived from a consideration of the deformations of the beam. When it is assumed that plane cross sections of the beam
remain plane after deformation (Bernoulli's hypothesis), and that the rotation
dwfdx is small compared to 1, one obtains
d2 w
EI dx2 = -M,
( 4.4)
where EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.

The two basic equations (4.3) and (4.4) can be combined to give
d4 w
EI dx4
=f.
(4.5)
This is a fourth order differential equation for the lateral displacement, the basic
equation of the classical theory of bending of beams.
Equation ( 4.5) can be solved analytically or numerically, subject to the appropriate boundary conditions.
4.2
Beam on elastic foundation
For a beam on an elastic foundation the lateral load consists of the external load,
and a soil reaction. As a first approximation the soil reaction is assumed to be
proportional to the lateral displacement. The basic differential equation now is
55
... ... .... ... ... ... ....... .... ... ... ... ........... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ...... ..
.. .... ..
.. . .. . .
...
.. . .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. ........ .........
... .... ..
.... ...... .... ... .
Figure 4.3. Beam on elastic foundation.
(4.6)
where k is the subgrade modulus.
Various analytical solutions of this differential equation have been obtained,
see Hetenyi (1946). The homogeneous equation, obtained iff= 0, has solutions
of the form
w
= C1 exp(x/A) sin(x/A) + C2 exp(x/A) cos(x/A) +

C3 exp( -x/ A) sin(x/ A)+ C 4 exp( -x/ A) cos(x/ A),
(4.7)
where A4 = 4 E I/ k. These solutions play an important role in the theory. It

should be noted that a characteristic wave length of the solutions is 27r A. In a
numerical solution it is advisable to take care that the interval length is small
compared to this wave length.
In this chapter a numerical solution method will be presented. In solving the
differential equation (4.6) by a numerical method it has to be noted that the
bending moment M is obtained as the second derivative of the variable w, and the
shear force Q as the third derivative. This means that, if the problem is solved
as a problem in the variable w only, much accuracy will be lost when passing
to the bending moment and the shear force. As these are important engineering
quantities some other technique may be more appropriate. For this purpose it is
convenient to return to the basic equations as they were derived in the previous
section. Thus the basic equations are considered to be
(4.8)
and
(4.9)
Although this system of two second order differential equations is of course completely equivalent to the single fourth order equation (4.6), in a numerical approach
it may be more accurate to set up the method in terms of the two variables w and
M. This will be elaborated in the next section.
56
CHAPTER 4
4.3
Numerical model
In order to derive the equations describing the numerical model, special attention
will be paid to the physical background of the equations. In this respect it is considered more important, for instance, that the equilibrium equations are satisfied
as accurately as possible, rather than to use a strictly mathematical elaboration
of the differential equations.
4.3.1
BASIC EQUATIONS
Let the beam be subdivided into a number of sections, say n sections. Now consider equilibrium of a single section, see figure 4.4, between the points x; and x;+ 1 .
This section will be denoted as element i+ 1. The element is supposed to be loaded
Figure 4.4. Element of a. beam.

by a distributed load /i+1 and a concentrated force P;, which acts just to the right
of the point x;. The soil reaction is generated by the displacement, and will be of
magnitude -ki+ 1w;+ 1, where ki+ 1 is the subgrade constant in element i + 1, and
wi+ 1 is the average displacement of that element. The length of the element is
supposed to be di+1
Lateral equilibrium of the element requires that
Qi+1- Q; = -P;- /i+1di+1
+ !R;H(w; + Wi+l),
(4.10)
where R;+l = k;+ldi+l. and where it has been assumed that the average displacement of the element is the average of the displacements at the two ends. The
subgrade modulus has been assumed to be constant over the element.
For element i the equilibrium equation can be obtained from eq. ( 4.10) by
replacing i by i - 1. The result is
Q;- Qi-1 = -Pi-1- /;d;
+ !R;(wi-1 + w;).
(4.11)
By adding these two equations one obtains

Qi+1 - Qi-1
= -P;- Pi-1- /i+1di+1 !Riwi-1
/;d;
+ !(R; + R;+!)w; + !Ri+1Wi+l
(4.12)
57
This can, of course, also be considered as the equation of equilibrium of the two
elements i and i + 1 together.
Equilibrium of moments of element i + 1 about its center requires that
(4.13)
Replacing i by i - 1 gives the equation of moment equilibrium for element i,
(4.14)
M;- M;-1 = ~(Q; + Q;_l)d;- V~-1d;.
Elimination of Q; from ( 4.13) and ( 4.14) gives

1
.
1
1
1
--Mi+l- ( - - + -)M; + -M;-1 =
di+l
di+l
d;
d;
HQi+l- Qi-1- P; + P;-1},
(4.15)
or, with (4.12),

1
1
1
1
--Mi+l- ( - - + -)M; + -M;-1
di+l
di+l
d;
d;
-~Ri+lwi+l- t(R; + R;+l)w;- ~R;wi-1 =
-Hdd; + di+di+d- P;.
(4.16)
This is the first basic equation of the numerical model. It is the numerical equivalent of eq. (4.8). All terms can easily be recognized, but the precise value of all
the coefficients is not immediately clear. For this purpose the complete derivation
presented above has to be processed.
The second basic equation must be the numerical equivalent of equation (4.9).
This can be obtained as follows. Consider the two elements to the left and to the
right of point x;. In the element to the left (element i) we have
d2w
< x; : EI dx 2 =-~(Mi-l+ M;),
(4.17)
where it has been assumed that the bending moment in this element is the average
of the values at the two ends. On the other hand we have in element i + 1,
d2 w
x > x; : EI dx 2
= -~(M; + Mi+d
(4.18)
These two equations can be integrated, assuming that the right hand side is constant, to give
x
< x; : Elw
=-~(Mi-l+ M;)(x- x;) 2 +
A(x- x;)
+ Elw;,
(4.19)
CHAPTER 4
58
and
X> Xj
Elw = -~(M; + Mi+!)(x- x;) 2 +

A(x- x;) + Elw;,
( 4.20)
where the integration constants have been chosen such that for x = x; the displacement is always w; and the slope is continuous at that point (namely A/ EI).
Substituting x = x;_ 1 in eq. ( 4.19) and x = x;+ 1 into eq. ( 4.20) gives two expressions for A. After elimination of A one obtains, finally,
EI
EI
EI
EI
- d Wi+1- (-d- + -d )w; + -d Wi-1
i+1
i+1
+~di+1Mi+1 + ~(di+l + d;)M; + ~d;M;-1 = 0.
(4.21)
This is the second basic equation of the numerical model, the numerical equivalent
of the differential equation (4.9). Its form is very similar to the first basic equation,
eq. (4.16). When all the elements have the same size d, and all the coefficients
in the second part of the equation are lumped together, a simplified form of this
equation is
(4.22)
This is a well known approximation of eq. (4.4) by central finite differences. The
refinements in eq. ( 4.21) are due to the use of unequal intervals and a more refined
approximation of the bending moment.
4.3.2
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions must also be expressed numerically. This requires some
careful consideration, as it is most convenient if the two boundary conditions at
either end of the beam can be expressed in terms of w and M in these points.
This is very simple in the case of a hinged support (then w = 0 and M = 0).
For other boundary conditions, such as a clamped boundary or a free boundary,
the boundary conditions must be somewhat manipulated in order for them to
be expressed in the two basic variables. If the left end of the beam is free the
boundary conditions are
Mo = -Mt,
(4.23)
Qo = -Ft,
(4.24)
where Mt is a given external moment, and Ft is a given force. The first boundary
condition can immediately be incorporated into the system of equations, but the
second condition needs some special attention, because the shear force has been
eliminated from the system of equations. In this case equation ( 4.10) gives, with
i = 0.
59
(4.25)
This equation expresses lateral equilibrium of the first element. On the other hand,
the equation of equilibrium of moments of the first element gives, with ( 4.13) for
i = 0,
(4.26)
Elimination of Q 1 from these two equations gives
1
2R1wo
+ 2R1w1 + d 1 Mo-
d 1 M1
= ftdt +2Ft.
(4.27)
In this form the boundary condition (4.24) can be incorporated into the system
of algebraic equations. It gives a relation between the bending moments and the
displacements in the first two points.
If the left end of the beam is fully clamped the boundary conditions are
(4.28)
wo = 0,
X=
ow =0.
ox
0 : -
(4.29)
The first condition can immediately be incorporated into the system of equations.
The second condition can best be taken into account by considering equation (4.22)
fori= 0,
(4.30)
The boundary condition (4.29) can be assumed to be satisfied by the symmetry
condition w_ 1 = w 1 , and thus, because w 0 = 0,
(4.31)
The distance d in this equation must be interpreted as the length of the first element. The condition ( 4.31) can easily be incorporated into the system of algebraic
equations.
The boundary conditions at the right end of the beam can be taken into account
in a similar way as those at the left end.
4.3.3
COMPUTER PROGRAM
An elementary computer program, in Turbo Pascal, is reproduced below, as the

program WINKLER. The program applies to a beam consisting of a number of
sections. Each section can have a different load, and have a different subgrade
constant. In the points separating two sections concentrated loads can be applied.
The two boundaries can be clamped, hinged or free. Output is given in the form
of a list on the screen.
60
program vinkler;
uses crt;
const
ss=20;nn=100;zz=4;
v~
sec,jl,jr:integer;ei,tl,tr:real;
l,k,q:array[1 .. ss] of real;xx,ff,mm:~ray[O .. ss] of real;
x,d,f,r,p,m,v:~ray[O .. nn] of real;
a:array[O .. nn,1 .. zz,1 .. 2,1 .. 2] of real;
pt:~ray[O .. nn,1 .. zz] of integer;
g:array[1 .. 2,1 .. 2] of real;
proceduretitle;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);
vrite(' VIIKLER ');
end;
procedure next;
var
a:ch~;
begin
vrite(' Touch any key to continue ');vrite(chr(8));
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);textcolor(7)
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j,m,n:integer;v,a:real;
begin
title;vriteln;
vrite('This is a program for the analysis of the deflections');
vriteln(' and bending moments');
vrite('in a beam of uniform cross section, supported by an');
vriteln(' elastic foundation.');

vrite('The beam consists of a number of sections, in each of');
vriteln(' vhich the subgrade');
vriteln('coefficient and the distributed load ~e constant.');
vriteln('Concentrated forces may act in the joints.');vriteln;
vrite('Iumber of sections ............. ');readln(sec);vriteln;
if sec<1 then sec:=1;if sec>ss then sec:=ss;
vrite('Flexural rigidity EI (klm2) .... ');readln(ei);vriteln;
ff[O] :=O.O;xx[O] :=O.O;tl:=O.O;tr:=O.O;
for i:=1 to sec do
begin
title;vriteln;vriteln('Section ',i);writeln;
write('
Length (m) .................. ');readln(l[i]);writeln;
write('
Subgrade constant (ki/m2) ... ');readln(k[i]);writeln;
write('
Distributed load (ki/m)
');readln(q[i]);vriteln;
ff[i] :=O.O;xx[i] :=xx[i-1]+l[i];
end;
for i:=1 to sec-1 do
begin
title;vriteln;
vriteln('Joint between sections ',i,' and ',i+1);writeln;
write('
Force (ki) .................. ');
readln(ff[i]);writeln;
CHAPTER4
61
end;
title;vriteln;
vriteln('Boundary condition at left end');vriteln;
vriteln('
1
Fully clamped support');vriteln;
vriteln('
2 : Ringed support');vriteln;
vriteln('
3 : Free end');vriteln;
vrite('Enter option number : ');readln(jl);vriteln;
if jl<1 then jl:=1;if jl>3 then jl:=3;
if jl>2 then
begin
vrite ('
Force (kl) ooooo.... oo .... ooo ');
readln(ff[O]);vriteln;
end;
if jl>1 then
begin
vrite('
Moment (kim)
o
o
readln(tl);vriteln;
end;
title;vriteln;
vriteln('Boundary condition at right end');vriteln;
vriteln('
1
Fully clamped support');vriteln;
vriteln('
2 : Ringed support');vriteln;
vriteln('
3 : Free end');vriteln;
vrite('Enter option number : ');readln(jr);vriteln;
if jr<1 then jr:=1;if jr>3 then jr:=3;
if jr>2 then
begin
write('
Force (kl)
readln(ff[sec]);vriteln;
end;
if jr>1 then
begin
vrite('
Moment (kim) oo o
o o
readln(tr);vriteln;
end;
x[O] :=OoO;p[O]:=ff[O];j:=O;for i:=1 to sec do
begin
v:=xx[i]-xx[i-1];n:=round((v/xx[sec])nn);if n<1 then n:=1;
i f j+n>nn then n:=nn-j;a:=v/n;
for m:=j+1 to j+n do
begin
x[m] :=x[m-1]+a;d[m] :=a;r[m] :=k[i]a;
f[m] :=q[i]a;p[m] :=OoO;
end;
j :=m;p[j] :=ff[i];
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l:integer;a1,a2,b1,b2,c1:real;
begin
for i:=O to nn do for j:=1 to zz do
begin
pt [i,j] :=0;
for k:=1 to 2 do for 1:=1 to 2 do a[i,j,k,l] :=0;
end;
0
00
00
');
');
00
');
00
00
CHAPTER 4
62
for i:=1 to nn-1 do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,2] :=i-1;pt[i,3] :=i+1;pt[i,zz] :=3;
end;
pt[0,1] :=O;pt[0,2] :=1;pt[O,zz] :=2;
pt [nn,1] :=nn;pt [nn,2] :=nn-1 ;pt [nn,zz] :=2;
for i:=1 to nn-1 do
begin
a1:=1.0/d[i+1];a2:=1 .0/d[i];
a[i,1,1,1] :=-a1-a2;a[i,2,1,1]:= a2;a[i,3,1,1]:=a1;
a[i,1,1,2] :=-(r[i]+r[i+1])/4.0; a[i,2,1,2] :=-r[i]/4.0;
a[i,3,1,2] :=-r[i+1]/4.0;
a[i,zz,1,1] :=-(f[i]+f[i+1])/2.0- p[i];
a[i,1,2,2] :=-a1-a2;a[i,2,2,2]:= a2;a[i,3,2,2] :=a1;
a[i,1,2,1] :=(d[i]+d[i+1])/(4.0 ei);
a[i,2,2,1] :=d[i]/(4.0ei);a[i,3 ,2,1] :=d[i+1]/(4.0ei);
end;
a[0,1,1,1] :=1.0;a[0,1,2,2] :=1.0;
if jl=1 then a[0,2,1,2] :=2.0ei/(d[1]d[1]);
if jl=2 then a[0,4,1,1] :=-tl;
if jl=3 then
begin
a[0,4,1,1] :=-tl;a[0,1,2,2]:=0.5 r[1];
a[0,2,2,2] :=0.5r[1];a[0,1,2,1] :=2.0/d[1];
a[0,2,2,1] :=-2.0/d[1];a[0,4,2,2 ] :=f[1]+2.0ff[O];
end;
a[nn,1,1,1]:=1.0;a[nn ,1,2,2]:=1.0;
if jr=1 then a[nn,2,1,2] :=2.0ei/(d[nn]d[nn] );
if jr=2 then a[nn,4,1,1] :=tr;
if jr=3 then
begin
a[nn,4,1,1] :=tr;a[nn,1,2,2] :=0.5r[nn];
a[nn,2,2,2] :=0.5r[nn];a[nn,1,2, 1]:=2.0/d[nn];
a[nn,2,2,1]:=-2.0/d[n n];a[nn,4,2,2] :=f[nn]+2.0ff[sec];
end;
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,k,l,ii,ij,ik,jj,jk, jl,jv,kc,kv,lv:inte ger;
cc,aa:real;
begin
for i:=nn dovnto 0 do
begin
kc:=pt[i,zz];for kv:=1 to 2 do
begin
if a[i,1,kv,kv]=O.O then
begin
vriteln('Error : no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
cc:=1.0/a[i,1,kv,kv];
for ii:=1 to kc do for lv:=1 to 2 do
begin
a[i,ii,kv,lv]:=cca[ i,ii,kv,lv];
end;
a[i,zz,kv,kv] :=cca[i,zz,kv,kv];
for lv:=1 to 2 do if (lv<>kv) then

begin
cc:=a[i,1,1v,kv];
or ii:=1 to kc do or ij:=1 to 2 do
begin
a[i,ii,1v,ij] :=a[i,ii,1v,ij]-cca[i,ii,kv,ij];
end;
a[i,zz,1v,1v]:=a[i,zz,1v,1v]-cca[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
end;
i kc>1 then
begin
or j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];1:=pt[jj,zz];jk:=1;
or j1:=2 to 1 do begin i pt[jj,j1]=i then jk:=j1;end;
or kv:=1 to 2 do or 1v:=1 to 2 do g[kv,1v]:=a[jj,jk,kv,1v];
pt[jj,jk] :=pt[jj,1];pt[jj,1] :=0;
or kv:=1 to 2 do or 1v:=1 to 2 do
begin
a[jj,jk,kv,1v]:=a[jj,1,kv,1v];a[jj,1,kv,1v] :=0;
a[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=a[jj,zz,1v,1v]-g[1v,kv]a[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;pt[jj,zz]:=1;
or ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=O;
or ik:=1 to 1 do
begin
if pt[jj,ik]=pt[i,ii] then ij:=ik;
end;
i ij=O then
begin
1:=1+1;ij:=1;pt[jj,zz] :=1;pt[jj,ij]:=pt[i,ii];
end;
or kv:=1 to 2 do or 1v:=1 to 2 do or jv:=1 to 2 do
a[jj,ij,kv,1v]:=a[jj,ij,kv,1v]-g[kv,jv]a[i,ii,jv,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
or j:=O to nn do
begin
1:=pt[j,zz];i 1>1 then
begin
or k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj :=pt [j ,k];
or kv:=1 to 2 do for 1v:=1 to 2 do
a[j,zz,kv,kv] :=a[j,zz,kv,kv]-a[j,k,kv,1v]a[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=O to nn do
begin
m[i] :=a[i,zz,1 ,1] ;v[i] :=a[i,zz,2,2];
end;
63
CHAPTER 4
64
end;
procedure output;
var
i,j ,k: integer;
begin
k:=O;title;
II') ;vriteln;
1l
X
i
vriteln('
or i:=O to nn do
begin
i k<=20 then
begin
vriteln(i:6,x[i] :13:6,v[i] :13:6,m[i] :13:6);k:=k+1;
end
else i i<nn then
begin
next;k:=O;i:=i-2;title;
ll');vriteln;
x
i
vri teln('
end;
end;
next;
end;
begin
input;
matrix;
solve;
output;
title;
end.
Program WINKLER.
The program runs interactively, and will present information about its operation
and input data automatically. More advanced features, such as graphical output
facilities, may be added by the user.
The program uses a wave front technique to solve the system oflinear equations.
In order to make full use of the banded structure of the system of equations the
non-zero coefficients are stored in a four-dimensional matrix aijkl The system of
equations is written in the form
n
LLaijklUjl
j=l 1=1
b;k,
= 1, 2, ... , n,
= 1,2,
( 4.32)
where Ujl represents the bending moment at node j, and uj 2 represents the displacement at node j. Similarly, b; 1 and b; 2 represent the right hand sides of the
basic numerical equations (4.16) and ( 4.21), respectively. In the computer program the values on the main diagonal (i.e. for j = i) are stored in the first column
of the matrix (a[i, 1 ,k, 1] ), the values to the left of the main diagonal (i.e. for
j = i - 1) are stored in the second column of the matrix (a [i, 2 , k, 1] ) , and the
values to the right of the main diagonal (i.e. for j = i + 1) are stored in the third
column (a[i,3,k,1]). The fourth column of the matrix (a[i,4,k,1]) is used to
store the right hand sides of the equations, bkl By storing the coefficients of the
65
system of equations in this way the program can make use of a standard wave
front algorithm for the solution of the linear equations.
As an example a beam of 20 m length has been considered, with a bending
400 kN/m2 .
100 kNm 2 , on a soil having a subgrade constant k
stiffness EI
The beam is loaded in its center by a load F = 100 kN, and its two ends are free.
In this case the characteristic length is A = 1 m, which is sm~ll compared to the
length of the beam, so that the beam may be considered to be of infinite length.
The analytical solution of this problem is well known (Hetenyi, 1946). This solution indicates that the displacement of the beam in the center is F /2Ak. In this
case this is 0.125 m. The maximum bending moment occurs in the center, under
=:== ..........
:..
:
..
:..
..
====
:
:..
:
.
............... ~ ............................. : ............. . .............: .............. ~ .............. : .............. ~
125
w (mm)
Figure 4.5. Example: displacements.
the point of application of the load. Its magnitude is ~FA = 25 kN m. These

values are indeed obtained, exactly, when running the program WINKLER with
these data. The displacements are shown in figure 4.5.
The numerical model for a beam on elastic foundation can be used as the basis
for a model in which the soil response is non-linear. This is especially useful for
the analysis of sheet pile walls, or laterally loaded piles. In such cases the soil
pressure is restricted between certain limits, the active and passive soil pressure,
and an elasto-plastic model may be used to model the soil response. This will be
elaborated in chapter 5.
Exercises
4.1 Verify that the program WINKLER gives the correct results for some elementary
problems of the theory of bending of beams, such as a beam on two hinged supports
carrying a point load in the center, or carrying a uniform load.
4.2 Verify also that the program WINKLER gives the correct results for a beam with
two free ends on a homogeneous foundation, carrying a uniform load. In this case the
bending moments must be zero, and the displacement must be constant, also if the beam
66
CHAPTER 4
is considered to consist of a number of sections of unequal length.

4.3 Compare the results obtained by the program WINKLER with analytical solutions
for the case of a long beam on a homogeneous elastic foundation, with a force or a moment at its end.
4.4 Modify the program WINKLER so that it shows the deflection curve and the bending moment in the form of a graph on the screen.
CHAPTER5
SHEET PILE WALLS
An interesting application of the theory of beams on elastic support, presented in

the previous chapter, is the analysis of a sheet pile wall. This requires an extension
of the theory to elasto-plastic supporting springs. The analysis is presented in this
chapter, together with a simple computer program.
A sheet pile wall is a steel structure, usually composed of long folded beam
elements, used to separate two areas of different soil levels. If the level difference
is small the wall may be constructed as a cantilever wall, supported by being
clamped into the deep soil. For large differences in soil level the sheet pile wall
is usually anchored, see figure 5.1. Such structures are often used as quay walls
:-:-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-::-:-:-:-::-::::-:-:-::<:-::-:-:-:-:-:-:-:
:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-.....
Figure 5.1. Anchored sheet pile wall.
in harbors or along canals, or as a wall surrounding a building pit. The design

procedure usually consists of several stages, in which geotechnical engineering and
soil mechanics principles play an important role. Conceptually the mechanics of
a sheet pile wall is that it is assumed that at the upper side of the wall active
horizontal soil pressures will act, and that at the lower side passive horizontal soil
pressures will be generated. These assumptions are a logical consequence of the
expectation that the difference in soil level will tend to push the wall towards the
direction of the lower ground level (towards the left in figure 5.1). The length
of the sheet piling must be large enough to ensure that equilibrium between the
active and passive pressures is possible, taking into account the reactive force of
the anchor. Very roughly speaking the structure is a beam loaded by the active
67
68
CHAPTER 5
soil pressure on the right side, with two supports : the anchor and the passive soil
pressure on the lower left side.
The pressure distribution along the wall will give rise to bending moments in
the structure, and the steel profile of the wall must be chosen such that it can
withstand these bending moments. This involves an elementary calculation of
the maximum stresses due to bending, and comparison of these stresses with the
allowable stresses in various steel beam profiles.
The third phase of the design is the choice of the anchor, on the basis of the
force needed to maintain equilibrium. This involves the choice of the distance of
the anchors, the length and depth of the individual anchors and the dimensions of
the anchoring plates.
Various simplified calculation methods have been developed in geotechnical
engineering, such as Blum's method (Blum, 1931). In this chapter a more refined
method of analysis, using the theory of beams on an elasto-plastic foundation, is
presented.
It should be noted that in engineering design an important feature is the use
of safety factors. These will not be considered here.
5.1
Description of the model
A numerical model for the analysis of a sheet pile wall can be developed from the
numerical model for a beam on elastic foundation, as presented in chapter 4. The
soil response on both sides of the sheet pile wall is considered to consist of two
parts : one part proportional to the lateral displacement, and another constant
part. This enables to let the lateral soil pressure increase or decrease with the
lateral displacement, with two limiting values : the active soil pressure as the
lower limit, and the passive soil pressure as the upper limit.
The reaction of the soil is supposed to be elasto-plastic, as illustrated in figure 5.2. This figure represents the soil reaction from the soil to the right of the
R;
~L-------------~~--4-----~--------------~ Vj
~v
Figure 5.2. Elasto-plastic soil response, right side.
sheet pile wall, assuming that the positive direction of the displacements is towards
SHEET PILE WALLS
69
the right. The soil reaction is elastic if the displacement of the wall is small, and
plastic if the displacement exceeds a certain value, generating active earth pressure
if the displacement is to the left, and passive earth pressure if the displacement
is to the right. In repeated loading and unloading the elastic branch of the soil
response is relocated, depending upon the accumulated plastic deformation. In
general the soil response may be written as
o.-S(v-v)+T
,,
z
z z
.lli-
(5.1)
where v; is the displacement of element i, which may be related to the displacements of the nodes by
(5.2)
In eq. (5.1) v; is the accumulated plastic displacement, which must be updated
during the deformation process. The coefficient S; represents the slope of the
response curve, which is zero in the plastic branches. The term T; is zero in the
elastic branch, and may be used to represent the plastic soil response in the plastic
branches.
The maximum lateral earth pressure is the passive earth pressure, for which
elementary soil mechanics gives the value
(5.3)
where u' v is the vertical effective stress, c is the cohesion, and Kp is the passive
earth pressure coefficient, which is related to the friction angle J by the relation
= 1 +sin J
K
P
1- sin J
(5.4)
The minimum lateral earth pressure is the active earth pressure, which is given in
basic soil mechanics texts as
(5.5)
Here Ka is the passive earth pressure coefficient,
Ka
= 1-
sin J
1 +sin J
(5.6)
Usually the active earth pressure is limited from below by requiring that the effective stress cannot be negative,
(j~
2: 0.
(5.7)
The lateral pressure in the case of zero displacement is assumed to be defined by

the coefficient of neutral earth pressure Ko,
(5.8)
70
CHAPTER 5
-R;
I
I
Kpu~
I
I
+ 2cv'J{;:
I
I
I
I
jll
~v :
Figure 5.3. Elasto-plastic soil response, left side.
It should be noted that there is also a response on the other side of the wall.
This is of the same type as the response on the right side, except for the sign,
see figure 5.3. Initially, for very small displacements, the two responses will both
be in the elastic range, and this simply means that the stiffnesses can be added.
After plastic deformations have occurred, however, the response becomes more
complicated, because the transition from the elastic to the plastic branches is
shifted when the plastic deformation accumulates. The description of the wall-soil
interaction can most conveniently be implemented by considering the response
from the two sides of the wall separately.
The slope of the response curve in the elastic branch may be denoted as a
spring constant k. Alternatively, this slope may be characterized by the length of
the elastic branch, the displacement difference between the active and the passive
horizontal earth pressure. This quantity is called the stroke, Llv. It is indicated
in the figures 5.2 and 5.3. The relation between the stroke Llv and the spring
constant k is
= u'p -u'a
Llv
(5.9)
In general the effective stresses increase with depth, about linearly. If the stroke
Llvis constant this would mean that the spring constant k also increases linearly
with depth. As an increase of stiffness with depth is very common in practical soil
mechanics, it may be concluded that the stroke is a better parameter to characterize the soil than the spring constant. The variability of the stroke is probably
much smaller than the variability of the spring constant.
The numerical model must also include the boundary conditions, of course.
These can most conveniently be assumed to be that both ends of the sheet pile
wall are free ends. This type of boundary condition has been considered in detail
in chapter 4.
SHEET PILE WALLS
5.2
71
Computer program

program SPWALL. The program applies to a sheet pile wall in a homogeneous
soil with a single anchor.
program spvall;
uses crt;
const
nn=100;zz=4;ni=100;
var
len,dep,anc,stf,vht,act,pas,neu,coh,stk,ei,ft,dz,cp:real;
n,i,ll,lp,nerr,mp,mq,plast,it:integer;
z,s,d,f,u,q,ul,ur,m,ff:array[O .. nn] of real;
asl,psl,sll,pal,ppl,pnl:array[1 .. nn] of real;
asr,psr,slr,par,ppr,pnr:array[1 .. nn] of real;
p:array[O .. nn,l. .zz,1 .. 2,1. .2] of real;
kk:array[O .. nn,1 .. zz] of integer;
g:array[l. .2,1 .. 2] of real;
tr, tl: array[O .. nn] of integer;
fs,vt:array[0 .. 100] of real;data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' SPVALL ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7);vriteln;vriteln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
end;
procedure input;
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of a sheet pile vall.');
vriteln;
vrite('Length of the vall (m) ........ . ');readln(len);
vrite('Depth of excavation (m) ....... . ');readln(dep);
vrite('Depth of anchor point (m) ..... . ');readln(anc);
vrite('Stiffness of anchor (kl/m) .... . ');readln(stf);
vrite('Unit weight of soil (kl/m3) ... . ');readln(vht);
vrite('Active pressure coefficient ... . );readln(act);
vrite('Passive pressure coefficient
'); readln(pas);
vrite('leutral pressure coefficient .. . ');readln(neu);
vrite('Cohesion (kl/m2) .............. . ');readln(coh);
vrite('Total stroke (m) .............. . ');readln(stk);
vrite('Stiffness EI (klm2) ........... . '); readln(ei);
vrite('lumber of elements (max. 100) .. ');readln(n);
if n<10 then n:=10;if n>nn then n:=nn;
if act>1 then act:=1;if pas<1 then pas:=1;
if neu<act then neu:=act;if neu>pas then neu:=pas;
ft:=O;dz:=len/n;z[O] :=O;u[O]:=O;m[O]:=O;ul[O]:=O;ur[O] :=0;
for i:=1 to n do
72
begin
z[i]:=z[i-1]+dz;d[i]:=dz;tr[i]:=O;tl[i] :=0;
u[i] :=O;m[i]:=O;ul[i] :=O;ur[i] :=0;
end;
end;
procedure constants;
var
szrJszl,e:real;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
e:=0.001;szr:=vht(z[i]-d[i]);if szr<e then szr:=e;
par[i]:=actszr-2cohsqrt(act);if par[i]<O then par[i] :=0;
pnr[i]:=neuszr;ppr[i] :=passzr+2cohsqrt(pas);
i f ppr[i]<par[i]+e then ppr[i] :=par[i]+e;
asr[i] :=(pnr[i]-par[i])stk/(ppr[i]-par[i]);
psr[i]:=(ppr[i]-pnr[i])stk/(ppr[i]-par[i]);
slr[i]:=(ppr[i]-par[i])/stk;
szl:=vht(z[i]-d[i]-dep);if szl<e then szl:=e;
pal[i]:=actszl-2cohsqrt(act);if pal[i]<O then pal[i] :=0;
pnl[i]:=neuszl;ppl[i] :=passzl+2cohsqrt(pas);
if ppl[i]<pal[i]+e then ppl[i] :=pal[i]+e;
asl[i]:=(pnl[i]-pal[i])stk/(ppl[i]-pal[i]);
psl[i]:=(ppl[i]-pnl[i])stk/(ppl[i]-pal[i]);
sll[i]:=(ppl[i]-pal[i])/stk;
end;
end;
procedure springs;
var
i,nr,ll:integer;
um,sp,eps,sx:real;
begin
nerr:=O;plast:=O;eps:=0.000001;11:=0;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
um:=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2;if um-ul[i]>asl[i]+eps then
begin sx:=pal[i] ;sp:=O;nr:=1;plast:=plast+1;end
else i f um-ul[i]<-psl[i]-eps then
begin sx:=ppl[i];sp:=O;nr:=-1;plast:=plast+1;end
else begin sp:=sll[i];sx:=pnl[i]+spul[i];nr:=O;end;
f[i] :=sxd[i];s[i] :=spd[i];
if tl[i]<>nr then begin tl[i]:=nr;nerr:=nerr+l;end;
if um-ur[i]<-asr[i]-eps then
begin sx:=par[i];sp:=O;nr:=1;plast:=plast+1;end
else if um-ur[i]>psr[i]+eps then
begin sx:=ppr[i];sp:=O;nr:=-1;plast:=plast+1;end
else begin sp:=slr[i];sx:=pnr[i]-spur[i];nr:=O;end;
f[i] :=f[i]-sxd[i];s[i] :=s[i]+spd[i];
i f tr[i]<>nr then begin tr[i]:=nr;nerr:=nerr+l;end;
if (z[i]>anc-d[i]/2) and (11=0) then
begin ll:=l;s[i]:=s[i]+stf;end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l:integer;a1,a2,b1,b2,c1:real;
CHAPTERS
SHEET PILE WALLS

begin
for i:=O ton do for j:=1 to zz do
begin
kk[i,j] :=0;
for k:=1 to 2 do for 1:=1 to 2 do p[i,j,k,l] :=0;
end;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
kk[i,1] :=i;kk[i,2] :=i-1;kk[i,3]:=i+1;kk[i,zz]:=3;
end;
kk[0,1] :=O;kk[0,2] :=1;kk[O,zz] :=2;
kk[n,1]:=n;kk[n,2]:=n-1;kk[n,zz ]:=2;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
a1:=1/d[i+1];a2:=1/d[i];
p[i,1,1,1] :=-a1-a2;p[i,2,1,1]:=a2;p[i,3,1 ,1] :=a1;
p[i,1,1,2] :=-(s[i]+s[i+1])/4;p[i,2,1,2] :=-s[i]/4;
p[i,3,1,2]:=-s[i+1]/4;
p[i,zz,1,1] :=-(f[i]+f[i+1])/2;
p[i,1,2,2] :=-a1-a2;p[i,2,2,2]:=a2;p[i,3,2 ,2] :=a1;
p[i,1,2,1] :=(d[i]+d[i+1])/(4ei);
p[i,2,2,1] :=d[i]/(4ei);p[i,3,2,1] :=d[i+1]/(4ei);
end;
p[0,1,1,1] :=1;p[O,zz,1,1]:=0;
p[0,1,2,2] :=1;p[0,2,2,2] :=s[1]/2;
p[0,1,2,1] :=2/d[1] ;p[0,2,2,1] :=-2/d[1];
p[O,zz,2,2] :=f[1];
p[n,1,1,1] :=1;p[n,zz,1,1]:=0;
p[n, 1, 2 ,2] :=s [n] /2 ;p[n, 2,2 ,2] :=s [n] /2;
p[n,1,2,1] :=2/d[n];p[n,2,2,1] :=-2/d[n];
p[n,zz,2,2]:=f[n];
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,k,l,ii,ij,ik,jj,jk,jl,jv,kc,k v,lv:integer;
cc,aa:real;
begin
for i:=n downto 0 do
begin
kc:=kk[i,zz];for kv:=1 to 2 do
begin
if p[i,1,kv,kv]=O then
begin
writeln('Error : no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
cc:=1.0/p[i,1,kv,kv];
begin
p[i,ii,kv,lv]:=ccp[i,ii,kv,lv ];
end;
p[i,zz,kv,kv] :=ccp[i,zz,kv,kv];
begin
cc:=p[i,1,lv,kv];
for ii:=1 to kc do for ij:=1 to 2 do
begin
73
74
p[i,ii,1v,ij]:=p[i,ii,1v,ij]-ccp[i,ii,kv,ij];
end;
p[i,zz,1v,1v]:=p[i,zz,1v,1v]-ccp[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
end;
if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=kk[i,j];1:=kk[jj,zz];jk:=1;
for j1:=2 to 1 do begin if kk[jj,j1]=i then jk:=j1;end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for 1v:=1 to 2 do g[kv,1v]:=p[jj,jk,kv,1v];
kk[jj ,jk] :=kk[jj ,1] ;kk[jj ,1] :=0;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for 1v:=1 to 2 do
begin
p[jj ,jk,kv ,1v] :=p[jj ,1,kv ,1v] ;p[jj ,1,kv ,1v] :=0;
p[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=p[jj,zz,1v,1v]-g[1v,kv]p[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;kk[jj,zz]:=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=O;
for ik:=1 to 1 do
begin
if kk[jj,ik]=kk[i,ii] then ij:=ik;
end;
if ij=O then
begin
1:=1+1; ij :=1;kk[jj ,zz] :=1;kk[jj ,ij] :=kk[i,ii];
end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for 1v:=1 to 2 do for jv:=1 to 2 do
p[jj ,ij ,kv ,lv] :=p[jj ,ij ,kv ,1v]-g[kv ,jv] p[i, ii,jv ,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
for j:=O ton do
begin
1:=kk[j,zz];if 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj :=kk[j ,k];
p[j,zz,kv,kv]:=p[j,zz,kv,kv]-p[j,k,kv,1v]*P[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=O ton do begin m[i] :=p[i,zz,1,1];u[i]:=p[i,zz,2,2];end;
q[O] :=O;ff[O]:=O;for i:=1 ton do
begin
aa:=(m[i]-m[i-1])/d[i];
q[i]:=-q[i-1]+2aa;ff[i]:=(q[i-1]-q[i])/d[i];
end;
end;
begin
CHAPTER 5
75
SHEET PILE WALLS

input;constants;title;springs;it:=o;
repeat
matrix;solve;springs;
vriteln( 'lumber of plastic springs . . . . . . . . . . ',plast);
vriteln('Displacement at the top (m) ........ ',u[O] :8:6);
if plast=2n then begin vriteln('Pile failed');nerr:=O;end;
it:=it+l;if it=ni then
begin
vriteln('Varning : no convergence ');vriteln;nerr:=o;
end;
until nerr=O;
if plast<2n then
begin
title;ll:=Q;
vriteln('
z
Q
u
f');
for i:=O to n do
begin
vriteln(z[i] :8:3,u[i] :10:3,m[i] :10:3,q[i] :10:3,ff[i] :10:3);
ll:=ll+l;if (11=20) then
begin
next;title;ll:=O;
vriteln('
z
Q
u
f');
end;
end;
next;title;
end;
end.
Program SPWALL.
The program runs interactively, and will present information about its operation and input data automatically. The program is a straightforward extension
of the program WINKLER, presented in chapter 4. The main extension is that
the soil reaction consists of reactions on the left side as well as the right side.
It is assumed in the program that the soil is fully homogeneous, and that the
soil surface at the left side is lowered by excavation. The program calculates the
deformations due to this excavation. In the program the parameters tr [i] and
tl[i] indicate the state of the springs in node i at the right side and the left side,
respectively. If its value is 0 the spring is in the elastic range, if its value is + 1 the
spring is in the active state, and if its value is -1 the spring is in the passive state.
Initially all springs are assumed to be in the elastic range. After calculating all
displacements the program checks whether these assumptions were correct, and if
necessary corrects them and repeats the calculations.
The soil response is characterized by the neutral, active and passive soil pressure coefficients, the cohesion, the weight of the material, and a characteristic
displacement, the stroke, which represents the displacement difference between
the states of active and passive lateral stress, see also figures 5.2 and 5.3. Output
consists of a list on the screen of the lateral displacement, the bending moment,
the shear force, and the resultant lateral load, all as a function of depth. More
advanced output features, such as graphical facilities, may be added by the user.
CHAPTER 5
76
EXAMPLE
As an example some results are shown for a sheet pile wall with the following data.
len =
15
10
dep =
anc=
2
st:f = 10000
vht =
20
act = 0.3333
pas
3.0000
neu
1.0000
coh =
0
stk =
0.02
ei
100000
n
100
=
=
Data for example 1.
This example refers to an excavation of 10 m depth in sand. The length of the

sheet pile wall is 15 m, and the anchor is located at a depth of 2 m. The data
for the soil, the sheet piles and the anchor are given in the table. Some of the
results are shown in figure 5.4, in the form of a graph of the resultant horizontal
=-----1,...-0_0-,....---o-r----:---10.,.._0_-.,--_ _2..,..00_--,-_ _3..,..00_~
.:,.:;
.
.
1 (kN jm2)
:ooo;oo;:oo;:
~- .......... ~ .............. j.......................... -~ .......... ~ ............. -~ ............. ~- ........... ~- ............. ~
~--1~ .... ~11~~1
:.............. :.............. :..........................:.............. :.............. :. ............. :. ............. :.............. :
ii-i-5 ......... +1---+i+i

:
i i
f,
I i
1::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::1::::::::~~:::::::::::!::::.:::::::::1::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::1::::::::::::::1
1 ............ l.............. ~... .................... -~ ............. ~ ............. -~ ............. ~ ............. -~ ............. ~

:.............. ::..
~
....... :........................... : ............. :............. : ............. :............. r: ............. :

-~
-~
~- ~+: :::::::::::::L::::::::::::!::::::::::::::!:::::::::::::!:::::
z (m)
Figure 5.4. Resultant horizontal stresses.
stresses acting on the wall. It appears that in the top 10 meters the lateral soil
pressure is the active soil pressure from the right, and below that level the passive
SHEET PILE WALLS
77
pressure from the left starts to dominate, as seems natural. In the top part of
the wall the pressure appears to be somewhat larger. The displacements of the
stiff wall are to the right there, because of the effect of the anchor, so that larger
horizontal pressures are generated. At the lower end of the wall it appears that a
very high pressure from the right side of the wall is generated. Again this must be
due to deformations towards the right. This phenomenon is taken into account in
Blum's simplified method, by an equivalent concentrated force (Blum, 1931). The
occurrence of this force at the bottom of the sheet pile wall in the numerical model
may be considered as a confirmation of the validity of Blum's original assumption.
The program SPWALL may be used as the basis of programs with more advanced features, such as a sheet pile wall with several anchors in a layered soil,
with complex loading and excavation histories. Such programs are distributed by
various companies and institutes.
Exercises
5.1 Run the program SPWALL with the data of example 1, given above. Also run
the program with modified data, for instance by taking a different value for the stroke.
Show that Blum's concentrated force occurs only if the stroke is relatively small, which
indicates a stiff soil.
5.2 Compare the results obtained by the program SPWALL with results obtained by
Blum's method, if this method is available.
5.3 Modify the program SPWALL so that it shows the deflection curve, the bending
moment, the shear force, and the lateral stress in the form of graphs on the screen.
CHAPTER 6
AXIALLY LOADED PILES
The response of a foundation pile to an axial load applied at its top is in general
strongly non-linear, and may involve large irreversible deformations. In this chapter this will be discussed, and solution techniques will be developed. Some simple
analytic solutions will be presented first. In a later section a numerical model will
be developed for problems involving non-linear material behaviour.
Throughout this chapter the behaviour of the soil surrounding the pile will be
characterized by the response of a non-linear spring. The response of this spring
is completely determined by the local displacement of the pile. This means that
all vertical stress transfer in the soil is disregarded. Models to take this effect into
account have been developed (Poulos, 1986) for elastic soils. This enables to also
study the response of a pile in a pile group. In this chapter only single piles are
considered.
6.1
Pile in linear material
Consider a pile of constant cross sectional area A, consisting of a linear elastic

material, with modulus of elasticity E. The circumference of the pile is denoted
by 0. The normal force N in the pile can be related to the friction along the
..................
::::::::::::::::::::::i!i!:::::::::::::r T
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
N +t!J..N
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 6.1. Element of axially loaded pile.

78
79
circumference by the equation of equilibrium

dN
dz
(6.1)
--r0=0.
The normal force N is related to the stress
(1'
by
= (J'A,
and the stress (j is related to the strain c: by Hooke's law for the pile material
(j=Ec:.
Finally, the strain c: is related to the vertical displacement w by the relation
dw
dz
c:= - .
Thus the normal force N is related to the vertical displacement w by the relation
N = EAdw.
dz
(6.2)
Substitution of eq. (6.2) into eq. (6.1) gives

d2 w
EA dz 2
rO = 0.
(6.3)
The further analysis now depends upon the relation between the shear stress r
and the displacement w.
In this section it will be assumed that the shear stress r is proportional to the
vertical displacement w,
T
(6.4)
CW,
where c has the character of a subgrade modulus.

Substitution of eq. (6.4) in (6.3) gives
d2 w
EA dz 2
cOw = 0.
(6.5)
This is the basic differential equation for an axially loaded pile supported by continuous linear springs.
When all the physical and geometrical parameters are constant the differential
equation (6.5) is a linear differential equation of the second order with constant
coefficients. Its general solution is
w
cl exp(z/h) + c2 exp( -z/h),
(6.6)
where h is a characteristic length, defined by

h
= JEA/cO,
(6.7)
80
CHAPTER 6
and where cl and c2 are integration constants, to be determined from the boundary conditions. For a pile of length L, loaded at its top, these boundary conditions
are
z=O:
(6.8)
N=-P,
and
z
= L:
= 0.
(6.9)
Here it has been assumed that there is no point resistance.

Using the boundary conditions the constants C 1 and C 2 can be determined.
The final expression for the vertical displacement then is
w
Ph cosh[(L- z)jh]
= EA sinh(Ljh) .
(6.10)
The corresponding formula for the normal force in the pile is

N
= -P
sinh[(L- z)jh]
sinh(L/h) .
(6.11)
It can easily be seen that this solution satisfies the two boundary conditions. The
solution is shown graphically in figure 6.2, for Ljh = 5.
p
0
.....-:---:--:--:--:---:--:---~,_,.....~
-NIp
=========
........ L... ~ .... ~----~---~----~----~----~-

: : : : : : : : :
. :j::::j::::r:::r:::)::::j::::j::::j::::r:::
=========
z/L
Figure 6.2. Normal force in pile.
The depth of influence of the load at the top is determined by the value of the
parameter h. This parameter also determines how long a pile must be to be
considered infinitely long. Therefore it is interesting to estimate the value of h.
This will be done for an important particular case, namely a tubular steel pile.
Let the diameter of the pile beD and the wall thickness d. Then 0 = 1rD and
A = 7r Dd. Furthermore the sub grade constant can be estimated to be related to
the elasticity of the soil ( E s) by a relation of the type c = E s/D. Thus eq. (6. 7)
becomes
81
h = JEDd/E.
(6.12)
The ratio of the elastic moduli of steel and soil is of the order of magnitude 1000
(or perhaps even more), the radius of the pile may be 1m, and the wall thickness
may be 0.050 m. In that case one obtains h ~ 7 m, indicating that the order of
magnitude of this parameter is 10m, or perhaps more. Thus, if the mechanism of
load transfer considered here is applicable (and it will appea.r that this is certainly
not always the case), a pile longer than say 20 m or 30 m can be considered as
infinitely long.
If L-+ oo the solution (6.10) reduces to
w
Ph
= EA exp( -z/h),
(6.13)
and the formula for the normal force in the pile becomes
= -P exp( -z/h).
(6.14)
It may be noted that in all these cases the shear stress is proportional to the
displacement, see eq. (6.4). Thus the maximum shear stress occurs at the top of
the pile, and the shear stress decreases exponentially with depth. Although this
seems perfectly reasonable under the assumptions made, it may be in conflict with
the shear strength properties of the soil, as will be elaborated in the next sections.
6.2
Pile in cohesive material
For a pile in a cohesive material, such as clay, the shear stress along the shaft
of the pile can not be larger than some limiting value, see figure 6.3. In the
plastic branch the shear stress remains constant, even if the displacement increases.
T
To
L-----~------------------~w
Wo
Figure 6.3. Cohesive material.
The maximum shear stress is denoted by r 0 . Its magnitude will be close to the
undrained shear strength Su of the clay, but is not necessarily the same, because
it may be influenced by the roughness of the pile wall, and by the behaviour of
82
CHAPTER 6
the clay (e.g. dilatant properties). It has also been observed that the maximum
shear stress is larger when the pile is in compression than when it is in tension.
This may be due to the lateral deformation of the pile.
The elastic branch can be characterized by the subgrade modulus, see eq. (6.4).
Another way to characterize the elastic branch is through the maximum shear
stress To and the quake w0 , that is the displacement necessary to generate the
maximum shear stress. Actually, this parameter is often considered more convenient, and easier to estimate. The relation with the subgrade modulus is
_To
C-
wo
(6.15)
The quake may be estimated by noting that the elastic shear deformation of the
soil is limited to say about 1 % or 2 %, and that the deformation will occur around
the pile, in a zone which can be expected to be about as large as the radius of the
pile, see figure 6.4. This means that the order of magnitude of the quake will be
Figure 6.4. Deformation of the soil around the pile.
about 1 % of the pile diameter,
wo
0.01 D.
(6.16)
It may be noted that this means that the subgrade modulus is about c = 100 su/D.
Comparing this to the correlation c = E./ D shows that these correlations are in
agreement if the modulus of elasticity of a clayey soil is about 100 times the
undrained shear strength. This is a relation that is indeed often found in engineering practice.
It may also be noted that in thick deposits of natural clay the shear strength
often increases with depth. Keeping the quake constant in such a material automatically ensures that the stiffness in the elastic branch also increases with depth,
which is in agreement with experimental evidence. All these considerations support the preference for the parameter w 0 , the quake, to characterize the elastic
branch of the response.
83

SOLUTION FOR AN INFINITELY LONG PILE
For an axially loaded pile in a homogeneous cohesive material the distribution

of shear stresses along the pile shaft is shown in figure 6.5, provided that the
load P is large enough to produce sliding of the pile along the soil at the top
p
...-----.....-----~ T
d .............. .
z
Figure 6.5. Shear stress along pile in clay.
part. If it is assumed that the depth over which plastic deformations occur is d,
the problem consists of two parts, one (d < z < I) in which the shear stress is
proportional to the displacement, and another one (0 < z < d) in which the shear
stress is constant. If it is assumed that the pile is long enough to be considered
as infinitely long, the solution in the elastic part is similar to the solution (6.13)
for a pile in a completely elastic material, except that the top is now at the level
z = d,
w
= w0 exp[-(z- d)/h].
(6.17)
The normal force in this part is
EAw 0
N = --h- exp[-(z- d)fh],
(6.18)
which means that the normal force at the top of the elastic part is
Nd = _ EAwo.
h
(6.19)
In the plastic part the differential equation is, with (6.3),

d2 w
EA dz 2 =roO.
(6.20)
84
CHAPTER 6
The solution of this problem will not be given in detail here. It is a relatively
simple differential equation, and the boundary conditions follow immediately from
the given load at the top, and the known force and displacement at the bottom of
the plastic region.
The final solution of the problem in the plastic part is
d- z
roO
2
w=wo(l+-h-)+ 2EA(d-z).
The maximum displacement
(6.21)
Wt
occurs at the top of the pile, of course. Its value
ro0d2
2EA .
(6.22)
lS
Wt
= wo(l +h)+
The normal force in the plastic region is found to be
EAwo
N = - - h - - r0 0(d- z).
(6.23)
The normal force at the top is
EAwo
P = - h - +roOd.
(6.24)
By noting that
h = JEAfcO = VEAwofroO,
(6.25)
the relation between the force at the top (P) and the displacement at the top (Wt)
can be written as
Wt
d2
= wo(l + h + 2h 2 ),
Ph
EA
= wo(l +h).
(6.26)
(6.27)
This is a parameter representation of the force-displacement relation of the pile.

After elimination of the parameter d/ h one obtains
(6.28)
This solution applies only if d > 0, otherwise the relation between Wt and P is
linear, passing through the origin and the point w = w0 , P = EAw0 fh. The
relation between P and Wt is shown in figure 6.6. After a first linear branch the
displacement increases more rapidly with the pile load, as an ever increasing part
at the top of the pile becomes plastic. There is no limit load, as the pile is infinitely
long.
It is left to the reader to solve this same problem for a pile of finite length,
starting from the solution (6.10) for the elastic part. In this case a finite limit load
is found.
85
Wt/Wo
Figure 6.6. Load-displacement curve for pile in clay.
It should be noted that the analysis presented in this section assumes that
the shear stress along the pile shaft is zero when the displacement is zero. This
will be the case if the pile is loaded for the first time, and if there are no initial
normal forces in the pile. After several times of loading to a level at which plastic
deformations are produced, an equilibrium system of stresses may remain in the
pile after unloading. The analysis then is much more complicated, and is best
performed numerically. Such a numerical approach will be presented later.
6.3
Pile in frictional material
For an axially loaded pile in a homogeneous frictional material, such as sand, it

can be expected that the shear stress can not be larger than the maximum value
as given by Coulomb's relation
r1 = u~ tan 8,
(6.29)
where u~ is the effective horizontal normal stress, and 8 is the friction angle between pile and soil. It has been assumed, for reasons of simplicity, that the soil
is cohesionless. The expected distribution of shear stresses along the pile shaft is
shown schematically in figure 6.7. This figure is based upon the notion that the
normal stresses in a soil increase linearly with depth. Using Coulomb's relation
(6.29) it then follows that this is also the case for the maximum shear stresses.
At the top of the pile the displacements may be so large that slip occurs along
the pile-soil interface. At greater depths the displacements will be so small that
the shear stress remains below its maximum value (6.29). In that region the shear
stress is assumed to be linearly dependent upon the displacement.
In the most simple case, of a homogeneous soil under water, one may write for
the vertical effective stresses in the soil
0'~ = 'Y' z'
{6.30)
86
CHAPTER 6
z
Figure 6.7. Shear stress along pile in sand.
where r' is the volumetric weight of the soil under water, i.e.,
I
(6.31)
r =r-rw
Here r is the volumetric weight of the soil as a whole, and "/w is the volumetric
weight of water. Because normal values are r = 20 kN/m3 and 'Yw = 10 kN/m3 ,
it follows that the order of magnitude of r' is 10 kN /m3 .
The horizontal effective stresses are usually considered to be a certain fraction
of the vertical effective stresses,
(6.32)
u~ = Kou~ = Kor'z,
where Ko, the coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest, is supposed to be a

given constant. Usually Ko is somewhat smaller than 1, say K 0 = 0.5 or K 0 =
0.8, depending upon the soil properties and upon the geological and geotechnical
history.
With (6.32) the maximum shear stress, see (6.29), is found to be
r1 = Kotanou~ = Kotanor'z.
(6.33)
The order of magnitude of the product coefficient K 0 tan 6 will be in the range
from 0.2 to 0.4.
As in the case of a cohesive material, the transition from the elastic to the
plastic range will be characterized by the quake wo. This means that the subgrade
coefficient c in the elastic region in this case is
Tj
c=-=
wo
Ko tan or' z
wo
(6.34)
87
In the elastic region the basic differential equation in general is

cO
d2 w
dz 2
EA w
(6.35)
= O,
or, with (6.34),

d2 w _ zw
b3
dz 2
= O.
(6.36)
Here the parameter b is a characteristic length, defined by

b3 =
EAwo
K 0 tanb1'0
(6.37)
The general solution of the differential equation ( 6.36) is

w = C 1 Ai(zjb)
+ C2 Bi(z/b),
(6.38)
where the functions Ai(z) and Bi(z) are Airy functions, see Abramowitz & Stegun
(1964) or the appendix to this chapter (page 105).
For an infinitely long pile the solution vanishing at infinity is

(6.39)
w = C 1 Ai(zjb).
If the load is so small that no plastic region develops, the boundary condition at
the top of the pile is
= d:
dw
(6.40)
N=EA-=- P.
dz
Using the solution (6.39) the integration constant C 1 is now found to be
Pb
(6.41)
C1 =- EA Ai'(O)'
where Ai'(z) is the first derivative of the Airy function Ai(z). The final solution
now 1s
Pb Ai(zjb)
(6.42)
w = - EA Ai'(O) .
The displacement at the top of the pile, denoted by

Wt
Pb Ai(O)
=- EA Ai'(O).
Wt,
is of particular interest,
(6.43)
This solution applies as long as Wt ~ w 0 , otherwise the pile will slip along the soil
interface. If the force for which the soil starts to slip is denoted by Po, it follows
that
88
CHAPTER 6
R __ EA Ai'(O)
0 -
b Ai(O) .
(6.44)
This is a positive value because Ai'(O) is negative.

If the value of the force P at the top of the pile is greater than P0 slip will
occur at the top part of the pile, say over a distance d. Below that level the soil
reaction will be elastic, above it the soil reaction is plastic. In the elastic region
the solution (6.39) applies,
z > d:
= C1Ai(zjb),
(6.45)
but now the boundary condition is
= d:
w = wo,
(6.46)
which enables to determine the constant C1 . The final expression for the displacement in the elastic range is
z
> d:
Ai(zfb)
w = wo Ai(d/b)
(6.47)
In the plastic region, for 0 < z < d, the shear stress is at its maximum value, as
given by eq. (6.33). In that region the differential equation is
d2 w
r1 0
Ko tan 81'0
woz
dz 2 = EA =
EA
z = """[;3
O<z<d:
(6.48)
This differential equation can easily be integrated,

WoZ3
O<z<d:
w= Bb 3 +C3z+C4.
(6.49)
Using the boundary condition at the top of the pile (N = -P), and the continuity
conditions at the interface z = d for the displacement w and the normal force N,
the integration constants can be determined, and a relation to determine the load
P for a given plastic depth dis obtained. It is left to the reader to verify that this
relation between P and d is
w0 d2
EA = b[2b 2
P
Ai'(d/b)
Ai(dfb)],
(6.50)
and that the displacement at the top of the pile is given by

Wt
d3
w0 = 1 + 3b3
d Ai'(dfb)
b Ai(dfb)
(6.51)
Equations (6.50) and (6.51) represent a parameter representation of the loaddisplacement curve in the part where plastic slip occurs. A graphical representation
is shown in figure 6.8. Up toP/ Po= 1 or wtfw0 = 1 the response is linear. Beyond
these values the displacement increases more rapidly than linear, as a result of the
increasing length of the plastic region. Because the pile is infinitely long, there
is no finite limit load. As the load increases the plastic region will increase, but
there always remains an elastic part, although this may be located very deep.
89

P/Po
10
15
;::: .. ::::
.... ~ ... -~ ~ ... -~ .. ... -~ ... ~-. -~ ... ~-.
: : : :
: : : :
:::: ::::
.... l~~~ ... :.... ~---~~
: : : :
. : : :
.... L. .. L. .. L. .. L...... L. L. .. L. .. L. ..
1--.. ~~~ ~: ~-~
.... :.... :.... :.... :........ :.... :... :.... :... .
l~l~
l~
~--~
: : : :
: : . :
Figure 6.8. Load-displacement curve.
6.4
Bearing capacity
The analytic solutions presented in the previous sections may give some insight
into the significance of the various physical parameters. They are also useful
to validate more general numerical solution techniques. The solutions given are
not very useful for civil engineering practice, however, because they are mainly
restricted to piles of infinite length, and in homogeneous soil. Both for clay and
for sand no finite limit load was found, for instance, and such a limit load is of
great importance for the design of pile foundations. Therefore in this section this
limit load will be considered in some detail. It will appear that the price to be paid
then is that no information is obtained about the deformations prior to failure.
The principle of load transfer by a pile is sketched in figure 6.9. Part of the
load is transferred to the soil by friction along the shaft of the pile, and another
part is transferred to the soil below the pile by point bearing. We will write
(6.52)
where P1 is the contribution to the limit load Pc of the friction, and Pq is the
contribution of the point resistance.
There are several approaches possible for the determination of the maximum
load that a pile can carry (the bearing capacity of the pile). This maximum load
may be determined by analytical means, or on the basis of in situ testing. Both
approaches will be considered briefly here.
90
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.9. Load transfer by a pile.
6.4.1
THEORETICAL APPROACH
A theoretical approach to the bearing capacity problem is to determine both components from theoretical considerations.
For the shear stress along the shaft of the pile one may write
T max
= c + u~ tan 6 = c + K o tan 6 u~.
(6.53)
The total contribution of the friction to the bearing capacity of the pile is now
found by integration along the pile shaft,
P1
= 1L(c+K 0 tanou~)Odz.
(6.54)
Thus the value of P1 can be determined if the values of the parameters c, K 0 , 6

and u~ and 0 are known, or can be estimated. Unfortunately, this is not a trivial
matter (except for the circumference 0), and requires careful soil investigation.
The point bearing capacity can be estimated from a theoretical analysis following the theory developed by Prandtl, Terzaghi and Brinch Hansen. The formula
to be used is
(6.55)
The shape factors sc and sq for a square or a circular region are often taken as
Be = 1.2 and sq = 1 +sin 4J. The values of the bearing capacity coefficients Nc and
Nq strongly depend upon the value of the friction angle 4J. For 4J
30 they are
Nc 30 and Nq
18. In order to obtain the total force the limit stress qc should
be multiplied by the area of the pile foot,
(6.56)
Again the estimation of the soil parameters requires considerable effort in field
testing. Moreover, the Brinch Hansen formula ignores effects such as the influence
of the lateral stresses. Thus the theoretical basis of this method is rather weak.
91
Although this theoretical method requires knowledge about a great number

of soil parameters, these may well be estimated, on the basis of experience and
global information about the site. Thus, an experienced engineer may perform a
first estimation on the basis of data from a geological map or survey, and some information about the type of soil. More accurate prediction of the bearing capacity
requires a comprehensive field testing program, and even then the results are not
fully accurate, because of the shortcomings of the theoretical models underlying
the analysis.
6.4.2
CONE PENETRATION TEST
Very valuable information about the soil may be obtained from a cone penetration
test (CPT), Actually, this test was developed in The Netherlands with the explicit
purpose to serve as a model test for a pile. By measuring the point resistance
of a small steel rod that is carefully pushed into the ground, the value of qc is
measured directly. It may be noted that the bearing capacity formulas considered
above provide theoretical support for the CPT-analysis, as the maximum stress qc
is independent of the area of the pile or rod.
The friction can also be measured, by measuring the stress in the cone at two
locations. Thus the maximum shear stress is also measured directly, and this can
immediately be integrated along the shaft of the pile.
Pj =
1L
Tmax
Odz.
(6.57)
Thus the CPT data lead directly to a prediction of the bearing capacity.
6.4.3
STATIC PILE LOADING TEST
In some countries it is required to perform at least one large scale pile loading
test for a pile foundation. Of course this is an excellent method to determine the
bearing capacity, but it requires heavy equipment, and a test pile, so that it is a
rather expensive method.
6.4.4
DYNAMIC PILE LOADING TEST
A modern technique to predict the static bearing capacity of a pile is to use the
information obtained from a dynamic test on a pile. The dynamic test may be the
driving of the pile, or it may be a special test performed after installation of the
pile. The principle of the method is to load the pile by a dynamic pulse (dropping a
weight on its top), and then to measure the response of the pile top, by measuring
the displacement, the velocity or the acceleration. The interpretation of the test is
usually done by comparing the response of the pile with the theoretical response
of a model in which the soil-pile-interaction is taken into account.
The driving formulas that can be found in some early books on foundation
engineering, and that are sometimes still used by experienced engineers, can be
CHAPTER 6
92
considered as an early version of dynamic pile testing. It should be noted that

there is a large variety of driving formulas, which indicates that the correlation is
not so simple as these formulas suggest. The modern way of analyzing dynamic
pile testing is more sophisticated, and at least has a sound theoretical basis.
6.4.5
PLUG IN TUBULAR PILES
In the case of hollow tubular steel piles friction may develop not only with the soil
surrounding the pile, but also with the soil inside the pile. When the force is very
small the pile will not slip along the soil, and the soil in the pile will act as an
internal plug, going down with the pile. At the tip of the pile point resistance will
act on the plug, causing shear stress transfer to the pile. As the point resistance
develops these shear stresses will increase, and may become so large that the soil
l !
+::::: +
:> ~
~ .;.;. ~
! .;.;. !
Figure 6.10. Load transfer by a plug.
slips along the inner pile surface. This will start at the bottom of the plug, and
may gradually extend in upward direction. There are two limiting situations. The
first is that the soil below the pile reaches its limiting bearing capacity. From that
moment on the force at the pile tip can no longer increase. The plug remains fixed
in the pile, and the pile acts as if it were closed at its bottom. Part of the soil
inside the pile (near the pile top) will never reach its maximum shear stress. The
other limiting condition is when the point resistance is so large that the entire
plug slips along the inner pile wall. The point resistance at the bottom of the plug
will then never reach its maximum, but the maximum friction inside the pile will
develop over the entire length of the pile.
The first limiting force is
(6.58)
where Ap is the area of the plug and the pile wall, i.e. the total area of the pile
and the soil inside it. For a circular tube this is Ap = ~71" D 2 , where D is the outer
diameter of the pile.
93
The second limiting force is
P2 =
lL
T maxOi
dz + qcAw,
(6.59)
where 0; is the circumference of the plug. For a circular pile this is 0; = 1r D;,
where D; is the inner diameter of the pile. The point resistance of the steel wall
has been added to the integral of the friction, as this can always develop.
The smallest of the two forces P 1 and P2 may be added to the force representing
the maximum friction of the outer wall to give the total bearing capacity of the
pile.
A positive effect in the case of hollow piles is that the compressive stresses in
the soil plug will result in an increase of the horizontal stresses inside the pile, and
thus in an increase of the maximum possible shear stress. This phenomenon, which
may give a large additional bearing capacity, is usually disregarded in engineering
design practice. In the next chapter it is considered in detail.
6.5
Dynamic effects
One may wonder under what conditions of dynamic loading of a pile inertia effects
have to be taken into account. This problem is considered in this section, concentrating on the dynamic loads of structures such as an offshore platform loaded by
wave action.
The basic differential equation is the extension of eq. (6.5) to the dynamic case,
EA
82 w
az 2
aw
(6.60)
cOw = pA &t 2 ,
where pis the density of the pile"material (steel or concrete). It is now assumed
that the load is periodic, with an angular frequency w, so that the response of the
pile can also be expected to be periodic, with the same frequency. Thus one may
write
w
where
gives
wexp(iwt),
(6.61)
w is assumed to be a function of z
EA dw - c0(1- pAw 2 )w =
dz 2
cO
o.
only. Substitution into eq. (6.60) now
(6.62)
The relative importance of inertia effects of the pile is determined by the value of
the parameter pAw 2 /cO.
For a steel tubular pile the ratio A/0 = d, where dis the wall thickness of the
pile. Furthermore the subgrade coefficient can be estimated to be
Tmax
c= - wo
0.2 0"~
0.01 D
R:: - - - .
(6.63)
94
CHAPTER 6
If the vertical effective stress is evaluated at a depth of one half of the pile length,
one obtains
10 -y' L
c ~ ---
10 p'gL
-....:,-:=--
'
(6.64)
where p' is the density of the soil under water, and g is the gravity constant. The
inertia parameter now becomes
pAw 2
pdDw 2
dDw 2
cO
10 p'gl
gl
--~---~--.
(6.65)
For a typical pile one may estimate D = 1 m, d = 0.05 m, g

L =20m. Then
pAw 2
w2
~ ~ 4000 s- 2
(6.66)
For normal loading conditions of a structure, with dynamic loads due to wave
loading of an offshore platform, for instance, this parameter is always very small.
Typical wave periods are about 10 seconds, and in that case w ~ 0.6 s- 1 . Thus
inertia effects may usually be disregarded. It may be noted that this conclusion
is not true for the dynamic loads occurring during pile driving. These effects are
not considered in the remaining part of this chapter, however.
6.6
Numerical analysis
In this section a numerical model for the analysis of stress transfer from a pile to
the soil is considered. Load transfer takes place through friction along the shaft
of the pile, and at the point by point resistance. The characteristics of both forms
of stress transfer are in general non-linear. A 11imple computer program will be
developed.
6.6.1
BASIC EQUATIONS
Consider a pile of length l, loaded at its top by a force P, see figure 6.11. The
pile is subdivided into n elements, of possibly variable length d; and axial stiffness
EA;. The elements are numbered from i = 1 to i = n, and the nodal points are
numbered from i = 0 to i = n, so that element i is located between the points
i- 1 and i. The normal force in the pile acting at node i is denoted by N;, and the
friction force acting on the side of element i is denoted by ~. This is the resultant
force of the shear stresses.
The basic equations of the numerical model can be derived in the following
way.
The stress in an element is determined by the average normal force, and with
Hooke's law the increment of the length of the element is
W;- Wi-1
d;
N;
+ N;-1
2EA;
(6.67)
95
p
...
..
..
R;
:::::
. tR;
0
N,
~~ ~~~
Figure 6.11. Axially loaded pile.
or
2EA;
---;r-(w;- w;_I) = N; +Ni-l
{6.68)
For the next element the equation is
2EAi+ 1
d
(wi+l- w;) = Ni+l + N;.
i+l
(6.69)
Subtraction of these two equations gives

(6.70)
where
B;
= 2EA;.
(6.71)
d;
The normal forces can be eliminated by considering the equations of equilibrium

of element i and element i + 1,
N;- N;-1
= Ri,
(6.72)
(6.73)

N;+l- N;-1
= Ri+1
+ Ri.
{6.74)
Substituting this result into eq. (6. 70) gives

B;+l Wi+l-
{Bi+l + B;)w; + B;wi-1 = Ri+l + R;.
This is the finite difference form of the differential equation
(6.75)
96
CHAPTER 6
(6.76)
When all element lengths are equal, and the stiffness EA is constant, the finite difference equation (6.75) reduces to the well known standard form, with coefficients
1, -2, 1.
The friction force Ri along element i is determined by the average displacement
(6.77)
The response of the soil to the displacement of the pile is shown, in principle, in
figure 6.12. The response is elastic if the shear stress is smaller than a certain
R,
Figure 6.12. Soil response.
limiting value, and plastic when the shear stress reaches that limit. When the displacement is reversed after some plastic deformation the response is again elastic.
This type of behaviour can be described by a formula of the general form
Ri = S;(v;- v;) + ]i.
(6.78)
Here Vi is the accumulated plastic deformation, Si is the slope of the response

curve (which may be zero), and Ti may have a value in the plastic branches.
In order to include the possibility that the response is different in the different
branches of the response curve in the numerical model, it is most convenient to
use a switch parameter. Let this parameter be denoted by Pi, and let its value
be 0 in the elastic branch, 1 in the positive plastic branch, and -1 in the negative
plastic branch. The precise definition is
if ivI -vi
< v9I
Iif (vi -v;) > vf
if (vi -v;)
< -vf:
= 0,
(6.79)
Pi= 1,
Pi= -1.
(6.80)
(6.81)
p;
In these equations vf is the quake in element i, and v; is the accumulated plastic

strain, which is determined by the loading history of the element. Its value is
assumed to be known.
97
Using the switch parameter Pi, the values of Si and 1i can be defined as follows,
if Pi= -1:
if Pi= 0
if Pi= 1
= 0, 1i=-T;o,
Si = T;o fv?, 1i = 0,
si = 0, 1i = T;o,
si
(6.82)
(6.83)
(6.84)
where T;0 is the maximum shear force on element i, the product of the area Oidi
rP.
and the maximum shear stress

After completion of a loading step the accumulated plastic strain must be
updated,
1f
( Vi - -)
Vi
> Vio
: -Vi = Vi - Vio,
f (Vi - -)
Vi < -vio : -Vi
= v; + vio.
(6.85)
(6.86)
This updating procedure ensures that during unloading after plastic deformation
the response is again elastic, and that in further reloading the response is elastoplastic, as indicated in figure 6.12.
With (6.78) and (6.77) the basic finite difference equation becomes
(6.87)
where
(6.88)
(6.89)
(6.90)
The system of equations (6.87) is the basic system of linear equations that must
be solved. The system of equations is positive-definite, with a dominating main
diagonal, so that its numerical solution should present no difficulties. Unfortunately, the value of the switch parameter is initially unknown, so that an iterative
procedure has to be followed to find the solution. Usually it is most convenient to
start the process by assuming that all soil responses are in the elastic branch, i.e.
Pi = 0, then to determine the displacements Wi by solving the system of equations,
and then to check the switch parameters. If any of these was estimated incorrectly
the process has to be repeated with the improved values of the switches.
Equation (6.87) applies for i = 1, ... , n- 1, and contains n + 1 variables. The
remaining two equations can be obtained by considering the boundary conditions.
PILE TOP
The boundary condition at the top of the pile is that the normal force is given,
N0
-P. In order to incorporate this condition into the system of equations it
should be transformed into a condition in terms of the displacements. For this
purpose Hooke's law for the first element may be used, see eq. (6.68) with i = 1,
CHAPTER 6
98
(6.91)
The normal force N 1 can be eliminated from this equation by using the equilibrium
equation of the first element, that is eq. (6.72) with i = 1,
(6.92)
One now obtains, with N 0 = -P, and using the expressions (6.78) and (6.77),
2EA1
-(~
2EA1
+ 2SI)wo + (~-
1
2Sl)w1
= T1- S1v;- 2P.
(6.93)
This equation can be added to the system of equations. It can be considered as

equation number 0.
PILE POINT
The boundary condition at the point of the pile is supposed to be such that there
is a maximum force Pp, which is reached if the displacement of the last element
of the pile reaches a critical value, the quake of the pile point qp. In general the
expression for the normal force at the foot of the pile can be written as
(6.94)
where cp is a spring constant, cp = Pp/qp in the elastic region, and zero as soon
as the maximum force is reached (the plastic region), or when the force tends to
become negative. The parameter Wp indicates the accumulated plastic deformation, and Fp is either zero, in the elastic region, equal to Pp in the plastic region
in compression, and equal to zero in the plastic region in tension. After each loading step the memory function Wp must be updated, to account for the permanent
plastic deformation.
The boundary condition can be expressed mathematically by first using Hooke's
law for the last element,
2EAn
~(wn- Wn-d
= Nn + Nn-1
(6.95)
The normal force Nn_ 1 can be eliminated by using the equilibrium equation of
the last element,
(6.96)
The final result can be obtained by using the general expressions ( 6. 78) and (6. 77)
and eq. (6.94),
)
1
(2EAn
)
1
2EAn
- ( ~+2cP+2Sn Wn+ ~-2Sn Wn-1=
Tn- Snvn
+ 2Fp.
(6.97)
99
This is the final form of the boundary condition at the pile point. It can be considered as equation number n in the system of equations. Again it is an equation
in terms of the basic variables w;. Because certain coefficients, notably Cp and Fp
depend upon the range of the displacements, an iterative procedure must be used
to solve the system of equations.
The system of n + 1 equations, consisting of {6.87), {6.93) and {6.97) can be
solved by any convenient numerical procedure, for instance Gauss elimination.
6.6.2
COMPUTER PROGRAM

program ALP. The program applies to a homogeneous soil and pile, although certain facilities have been built in which may facilitate generalization of the program
to the more general case of a pile in a layered soil. The program uses interactive
input, and gives output in the form of the displacement of the top for a given
value of the force at the top. The program can easily be modified to give graphical
output, or output on a printer.
program alp;
uses crt;
const
nn=500;zz=4;ni=100;
var
length,stiff,circum,fric,quake,point,quakep:real;
dz,tz,sz,cp,fa,fp,vp:real;
step,n,steps,nerr,mp,mq,plast,it:integer;
z,v,f,d,s,t,vm,ea,ss,ta,tb:array[O .. nn] of real;
qp,qn:array[O .. nn] of real;np,nq:array[O .. nn] of integer;
p:array[O .. nn,t .. zz] of real;pt:array[O .. nn,t .. zz] of integer;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(38,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' ALP ');
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
write(' Touch any key to continue ');vrite(chr(8));
end;
procedure input;
var
i: integer;
begin
title;
vrite('This is a program for the analysis of an axially loaded');
vriteln(' pile. ');vriteln;
vrite('Length of the pile (m) ......... ');readln(length);
vrite('Axial stiffness EA (kl) ........ ');readln(stiff);
vrite('Circumference (m) .............. ');readln(circum);
vrite('Maximum friction (kl/m2) ....... ');readln(fric);
100
vrite('Quake (m) ...................... ');readln(quake);
vrite('Point resistance (kl) .......... ');readln(point);
vrite('Quake of the point (m) ......... ');readln(quakep);
vrite('lumber of elements (max. ',nn,') .. ');readln(n);
vrite('lumber of loading steps ........ ');readln(steps);
if n<10 then n:=10;if n>nn then n:=nn;
dz:=length/n;tz:=dzcircumfric ;
sz:=tz/quake;cp:=point/quakep;z [O] :=0;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
d[i] :=dz;ea[i] :=stiff;ss[i] :=sz;ta[i]:=tz;tb[i] :=tz;
qp[i] :=quake;qn[i] :=quake;z[i] :=z[i-1]+dz;
vm[i] :=O;np[i] :=O;mp:=O;vp:=O;
end;
end;
procedure zeros;
var
i:integer;
begin
mp:=O;for i:=1 ton do np[i]:=O;
end;
procedure initial;
var
i:integer;
begin
cp:=point/quakep;fp:=O;
if mp=1 then begin cp:=O;fp:=point;end;
if mp=-1 then begin cp:=O;fp:=O;end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
s[i] :=ss[i] ;t[i] :=-ss[i]vm[i];
if np[i]=1 then begin s[i]:=O;t[i]:=ta[i];end;
if np[i]=-1 then begin s[i] :=O;t[i] :=-tb[i];end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j:integer;a1,a2,b1,b2,c1:rea l;
begin
begin
pt[i,j] :=O;p[i,j] :=0;
end;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,2] :=i-1;pt[i,3] :=i+1;pt[i,zz]:=3;
end;
pt[0,1] :=O;pt[0,2] :=1;pt[O,zz] :=2;
pt[n,1] :=n;pt[n,2] :=n-1;pt[n,zz] :=2;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
a1:=2ea[i]/d[i];a2:=2ea[i+1]/ d[i+1];b1:=s[i]/2;b2:=s[i+1]/2 ;
p[i,1]:=a1+a2+b1+b2;p[i,2] :=-a1+b1;p[i,3] :=-a2+b2;
p[i ,zz] : =-t [i] -t [i +1] ;
end;
a1:=2ea[1]/d[1];b1:=s[1]/2;
CHAPTER 6

p[0,1] :=a1+b1;p[0,2] :=-a1+b1;p[O,zz]:=2 fa-t[1];
a1:=2ea[n]/d[n];b1:= s[n]/2;c1:=2cp;
p[n,1]:=a1+b1+c1;p[n ,2] :=-a1+b1;p[n,zz]:=-2 fp-t[n];
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,k,l,kc,jj,jk,jl,ii ,ij,ik:integer;c:re al;
begin
for i:=O to n do
begin
kc:=pt[i,zz];if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
if p[i,1]=0.0 then
begin
end;
c :=p[i, j] /p[i, 1]; jj: =pt [i, j];
p[jj,zz]:=p[jj,zz]-c p[i,zz];l:=pt[jj,zz] ;
for jl:=2 to 1 do begin if pt[jj,jl]=i then jk:=jl;end;
pt[jj,jk]:=pt[jj,l];p t[jj,l]:=O;
p[jj,jk] :=p[jj,l] ;p[jj,l] :=O;l:=l-1;pt[jj,zz] :=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=O;for ik:=1 to 1 do
begin
end;
if ij=O then
begin
1:=1+1;ij:=l;pt[jj,z z]:=l;pt[jj,ij]:=pt[i ,ii];
end;
p [jj, ij] : =p[jj, ij] -cp [i, ii];
end;
end;
end;
if p[i,1]=0.0 then
begin
end;
c:=1/p[i,1];for j:=1 to kc do p[i,j]:=cp[i,j];
p[i,zz] :=cp[i,zz];
end;
for i:=O to n do
begin
j:=n-i;l:=pt[j,zz];i f 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj:=pt[j,k];p[j,zz]:= p[j,zz]-p[j,k]p[jj,z z];
end;
end;
end;
f[O]:=-fa;for i:=O ton do v[i]:=p[i,zz];
for i:=1 ton do f[i] :=2ea[i](v[i]-v[i- 1])/d[i]-f[i-1];
101
102
end;
procedure checksprings;
var
i:integer;aa,eps:real;
begin
nerr:=O;plast:=O;eps:=O.OOOOOl;
for i:=l to n do
begin
nq[i] :=O;aa:=(v[i]+v[i-1])/2-vm[i];
i f aa>qp[i]+eps then nq[i]:=l;
if aa<-qn[i]-eps then nq[i]:=-1;
end;
for i:=l to n do
begin
if nq[i]<>np[i] then begin np[i] :=nq[i];nerr:=nerr+l;end;
i f nq[i]<>O then plast:=plast+l;
end;
aa:=v[n]-vp;mq:=O;
if aa>quakep+eps then mq:=1;if aa<-eps then mq:=-1;
if mq<>mp then begin mp:=mq;nerr:=nerr+l;end;
if mq<>O then plast:=plast+1;
end;
procedure update;
var
i:integer;aa:real;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
aa:=(v[i]+v[i-1])/2-vm[i];
if aa>qp[i] then vm[i] :=(v[i]+v[i-1])/2-qp[i];
if aa<-qn[i] then vm[i]:=(v[i]+v[i-1])/2+qn[i];
end;
aa:=v[n]-vp;mq:=O;
if aa>quakep then vp:=v[n]-quakep;if aa<O then vp:=v[n];
end;
begin
input;
for step:=l to steps do
begin
title;it:=O;vriteln('Loading step ',step);vriteln;
vrite('Force at the top (kl) .............. ');readln(fa);vriteln;
zeros;
repeat
initial;matrix;solve;checksprings;
if plast=n then begin vriteln('Pile failed');nerr:=O;end;
it:=it+l;if it=ni then
begin
vriteln('Varning : no convergence ');vriteln;nerr:=O;
end;
until nerr=O;
if plast<n then
begin
vriteln('Displacement at the top (m) ........ ',v[O] :8:6);
vriteln;
vriteln('lumber of plastic springs .......... ',plast);
next;update;
CHAPTER 6
103

end
else step:=steps;
end;
title;
end.
Program ALP.
As an application of the program an example will be presented. The example

applies to a steel tubular pile of 50 m length, having a diameter of 1 m, and a
wall thickness of 0.05 m. This means that the pile area is 0.1492 m 2 , and that the
circumference (considering friction at the outer surface only) is 3.1416 m. The soil
5000
10000
0...----:---:----:---:----,-:---:---:----:---r-~
. . .
. . . .
...... :::
::::
:
: :
: : : :
. .... ......
. : .... ......;...... ...... ;...... ...... ...... ;..... .
~
...... ; ...... = ..... .
.)
.......... )
.... ) ...... ;...... ; .... ~ ....

:
: :
.... )
P (kN)
.... )
.... )
..... .
~~=) ..... .
:
10~~=-~~=~~~~~=~-~
.
.
...... : ...... : ...... : ...... :.......... :.... : ...... :...... :..... .
11-1--1-i .;. 11
l+~1 ~~ 11
. ~: . . +: -~: +: ...........:~ ......:~ ...... :~- . . :~- . ..

0000
2or-~~-~~~-~~-~-~~
w (mm)
Figure 6.13. Example of axially loaded pile.
properties are that the maximum friction force is 50 k:N /m 2 , and that the quake
is 0.01 m. The point resistance is neglected. The load-displacement curve for a
cyclic load, between 0 and 7850 kN, is shown in figure 6.13.
It is interesting to note that plastic deformations start to occur only when the
load is close to the limit load, which is 7854 kN, as can be seen by integrating
the maximum shear stresses along the outer surface of the pile. This is due to
the fact that the pile is so stiff. In order to understand this behaviour better,
one may note that at failure the average force in the pile is 3927 kN, and that
the displacement near the pile point then is 0.01 m, which is the displacement
necessary to let the last spring fail. The elastic deformation of the pile can be
determined from the average normal force, and is found to be 0.00627 m. Thus
the deformation at the top of the pile is 0.01627 m, which is not much larger than
the quake. Actually, the first spring fails at a displacement of 0.01 m (at the
top), and this displacement is reached only for a value of the force of 6000 kN.
All this means that in the beginning (up to a load of 6000 kN) the response is
104
CHAPTER 6
linear, and the number of plastic springs is zero. When the first spring, at the top
of the pile, becomes plastic, the other springs follow very soon. The behaviour
of the pile can be considered as brittle. It should be noted that this behaviour is
a result not only of the large stiffness of the pile, but also of the schematization
of the soil-structure interaction by a bi-linear response curve, in which the linear
elastic branch suddenly passes into the plastic branch, in which the stress remains
constant. Real soils usually show a more gradual transition from the elastic to the
plastic branch.
Another interesting aspect of the response shown in figure 6.13 is that the
behaviour in unloading and reloading is completely elastic. The displacement
difference is less than twice the quake, which is the maximum possible range of
elasticity. In the theory of plasticity this type of behaviour is known as shakedown.
The permanent deformations are such that after certain initial plastic deformations
have occurred, a system of initial stresses is generated in the structure, so that it
is possible that no further plastic deformations occur. Plastic deformations start
to occur again only when the force exceeds the previous maximum.
The user may extend the program ALP to more general cases, such as piles in
layered soils, with variable properties. Also more advanced output features, such
as facilities to produce graphical output on various devices may be added. Such
programs are also available commercially. Of course the soil response can also be
made more general than the simple elasto-plastic model used here. A straightforward generalization is to model the soil response by a series of (parallel) springs,
each with its own stiffness and strength. This enables to model practically every
type of response curve. Another additional feature may be to build degradation of
the soil into the model, by letting the strength decrease after each cycle of loading.
Exercises
6.1 Modify the program ALP such that it reads the input data from a dataset, with a
cyclic variation of the applied load.
6.2
Investigate the influence of the elasticity of the soil on the results of the program
ALP, by running the program for the problem shown in figure 6.13 for three values of
the quake : 0.001 m, 0.01 m and 0.1 m.
6.3 Modify the program ALP such that it applies to a layered soil, and presents output
in graphical form on the screen.
105
6. 7
Appendix : Airy Functions
The differential equation

d2 w
dz2 - zw = 0,
(6.98)
can be solved by assuming solutions in the form of a series

w = ao
+ a1z + a2z 2 + a 3 z3 + ....
(6.99)
By taking convenient combinations of the two elementary solutions an increasing

and a decreasing function can be constructed. These are the Airy functions. The
general solution can be written as
w = C1 Ai(z) + C2 Bi(z),
(6.100)
see Abramowitz & Stegun (1964), p. 446. Numerical values of the two functions
and their first derivatives are given in table 6.1.
z
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
Ai(z)
0.35503
0.32920
0.30370
0.27881
0.25474
0.23169
0.20980
0.18916
0.16985
0.15189
0.13529
0.07175
0.03493
0.01573
0.00659
0.00258
0.00095
0.00033
0.00011
Bi(z)
0.61493
0.65986
0.70546
0.75249
0.80177
0.85428
0.91106
0.97333
1.04242
1.11987
1.20742
1.87872
3.29768
6.48183
14.03796
33.05763
83.85047
227.59384
657.81465
Ai'(z)
-0.25882
-0.25713
-0.25241
-0.24515
-0.23583
-0.22491
-0.21279
-0.19985
-0.18641
-0.17277
-0.15915
-0.07951
-0.03754
-0.01660
-0.00688
-0.00267
-0.00098
-0.00034
-0.00011
Table 6.1. Airy functions.
Bi'(z)
0.44829
0.45151
0.46179
0.48005
0.50728
0.54457
0.59314
0.65440
0.73001
0.82190
0.93243
1.54032
2.89999
5.95841
13.23343
31.62228
80.95951
221.14583
642.09178
CHAPTER 7
DEVELOPMENT OF PILE PLUG
In a hollow tubular foundation pile a soil plug may develop at the bottom of the
pile. This plug consists of soil under a high compressive stress, so that its stiffness
and its strength are very large. During pile driving the formation of such a plug
may result in a very high driving resistance, which may hinder the driving process.
In static conditions the presence of a plug may give a considerable contribution to
the bearing capacity of the pile. In this chapter an elementary numerical model is
developed for the analysis of the stress transfer in a plug. Before presenting that
model two simple analytical models are discussed, one using a linear elastic form
of soil-pile interaction, and one using a fully plastic form of pile-soil interaction.
The numerical model includes both as limiting cases.
7.1
Linear elastic model
For the purpose of reference a simple linear elastic model will be considered first,
even though such a model is not very realistic or useful for engineering practice.
An element of the soil plug is shown in figure 7.1. The plug is supposed to
(1
+ Ll~
I
I
I
Figure 7.1. Element of axially loaded soil plug.
have a constant cross sectional area A, and the material is supposed to have a
constant modulus of elasticity E, and a constant (effective) volumetric weight 1.
The circumference of the plug is denoted by 0. Because the cross section of the soil
plug is circular we may write A = 7f D 2 /4 and 0 = 7f D, where D is the diameter
of the plug. The normal stress u in the soil can be related to the friction along
the circumference by the equation of equilibrium
du
A--r0-1A=O.
(7.1)
dz
106
107
It can be assumed that the stresses due to the weight of the soil plug were already
acting in the soil before installation of the pile. This means that the deformation
of the soil will be determined only by the incremental stresses. These are defined
as
~0"
0"-
(7.2)
/Z.
The equation of equilibrium for the incremental stress now is

d~u
A---r0=0.
dz
The incremental stress
for the soil material
~u
(7.3)
~u
is assumed to be related to the strain by Hooke's law
dw
= -Ec: =-E-.
dz
(7.4)
Here the minus sign is necessary because the stresses have been assumed to be
positive for compression. Substitution of eq. (7.4) into eq. (7.3) gives
d2 w
EA dz 2
+ rO =
0.
(7.5)
The further analysis depends upon the relation between the shear stress r and the
displacement w.
In this section it will be assumed that the shear stress T is proportional to
the relative displacement of the pile and the soil, v - w, where v is the vertical
displacement of the pile. Hence
r=k(v-w),
(7.6)
where k has the character of a subgrade modulus. It will furthermore be assumed,

for reasons of simplicity, that the pile itself is so stiff that the displacement v of
the pile is constant. Substitution of eq. (7.6) in (7.5) gives
d2 w
EA- kO(w- v) = 0.
(7.7)
dz 2
This is the basic differential equation for an elastic plug, with stress transfer from
the pile through linear springs. The general solution of the differential equation
(7 .7) is
w
= v + cl exp(z/h) + c2 exp( -z/h),
(7.8)
where h is a characteristic length, defined by
h = JEA/kO,
(7.9)
and where cl and c2 are integration constants, to be determined from the boundary conditions. For a plug of length l on a rigid base the boundary conditions
are
108
CHAPTER 7
z = 0:
Llu = 0,
(7.10)
z =I:
= 0.
(7.11)
and
The first boundary condition expresses that the top of the plug is free of stress, and
the second one expresses that the bottom of the plug rests on a rigid base. In reality
the soil below the plug will develop resistance only after a certain displacement.
It is assumed here that the soil layer below the plug is very stiff, with the pile
cutting into it.
Using the boundary conditions the constants C 1 and C 2 can be determined.
The final expression for the vertical displacement then is
w
cosh(z/h)
= v- v cosh{l/h)
(7.12)
With eq. (7.4) the corresponding formula for the incremental stress in the soil
column is found to be
Ll _ Ev sinh(z/h)
u- h cosh(l/h)'
(7.13)
and the shear stress is, with (7.6),
_ k cosh(z/h)
v cosh(l/h)
(7.14)
T-
It can easily be seen that this solution satisfies the two boundary conditions. The
actual stress in the soil plug is obtained by adding the initial stress (due to the
weight of the soil) to the incremental stress. The shear stress distribution is shown
graphically in figure 7.2, for the case that 1/h = 2.
0
0
1
: : : : : : : : :
r/kv
~~ ~-~~~~1~
.... : .... : ... = .... : .... : .... : .... : .... : .... : ... .
....~ .... ~ .... : .. 1 .. 1 .. l .. 1 ... 1.... ~ ... .

... -~ ... -~ ~ .. -~- ... ~- -~- ... ~- -~ ... ~-.
:::: i:::: I:::: I:::: I: :.~: : I:::: I::::i:::: I::::
.... ~ .... L... ~ .... L... L. .. :... :.... L... L. ..
z/l
Figure 7.2. Shear stress, elastic springs.
The zone of influence of the force at the bottom of the plug is determined by the
value of the parameter h. Therefore it is interesting to estimate the value of h, see
109
eq. (7.9). The ratio of the modulus of elasticity E and the spring constant k can
be estimated to be of the order of magnitude of the diameter D. This means that
the value of h will be of the order of magnitude of D/2. It may be concluded that
for normal piles (for which the ratio of length to diameter is large), the value of
l/h will be large. In that case the formula for the shear stress distribution (7.14)
can be approximated by
T R::
kvexp[-(l- z)/h].
(7.15)
The shear stresses (and thus the effective part of the plug) will be concentrated
in a zone near the bottom of the pile, with a length of about 2 times the pile
diameter.
Fully plastic model
7.2
The limiting situation, in which the shear stress along the pile shaft has reached
its maximum value everywhere, has been considered by Randolph (1988). The
basic equation is again the equation of equilibrium (7.1),
du
Adz -
(7.16)
0- 1 A= 0.
The shear stress T is now supposed to be at its maximum possible value, which
is determined by a friction factor times the horizontal stress, which in its turn is
related to the vertical normal stress u. The two factors can be combined into one,
by writing
T
= (ju.
(7.17)
Here the parameter (3 can be considered to be the product of the coefficient of

neutral earth pressure Ko and the friction coefficient tan 6,
(3
= Ko tan6.
(7.18)
It should be noted that in this case the actual stress u, which includes the initial
stress due to the weight of the soil, should be used in the analysis, and not the
incremental stress, because in the plastic range the maximum shear stress is determined by the actual stress, and not by the incremental stress. With (7 .17) the
basic equation (7.16) becomes
du
dz =
4(3
Du + 'Y
(7.19)
The solution of this differential equation satisfying the condition that u = 0 at the
top of the pile (z = 0) is
(4(3z)
u = 1D
4(3 {exp D
1} .
(7.20)
The stress at the bottom of the plug is obtained by taking z = 1 in this equation,
110
CHAPTER 7
(7.21)
When the factor 4f31f Dis large compared to 1 (which is to be expected for realistic
pile dimensions) this stress may be very large. It may even be (much) larger than
the bearing capacity of the soil below the pile. In that case the boundary condition
can better be taken at the bottom of the pile, setting the value of the normal stress
equal to the bearing capacity. The top of the plug is then found to be the location
where the normal stress balances the weight of the soil above it.
The shear stress distribution is, with (7.17) and (7.20),
r = !D {exp(4f3z)
For the case that f3

figure 7.3.
-1}.
(7 .22)
= 0.25 and If D = 2 the shear stress distribution is shown in

0
~-~-~---~-~-~-~-~-.--~ T/Tma.x
... :.... :.... :.... :.... :.... :.... :.... :.... :....
: : : : : : : : :
......
~ -~- ~ ... :.... ~~~~ ~- .
.... ~ .... ~ .... ~ .... :.. ~ .... ~ .... L... ~ .... L...
z/l
Figure 7.3. Shear stress, plastic springs, l/ D
= 2.
In practical cases the value of the parameter If D will usually be much larger
than 2. Then the shear stresses are concentrated near the bottom of the plug,
again indicating that the plug develops near the bottom end of the pile. This
behaviour is shown in figure 7.4, for the case that f3 = 0.25 and If D = 20. It
should be noted that in this case the maximum value of the shear stress, at the
bottom of the pile ( r max), is very much larger than in the case shown in figure 7.3.
7.3
Numerical analysis
In this section a numerical model for the analysis of stress transfer from a tubular
pile to the soil in its interior is considered. Load transfer takes place through
friction along the shaft of the pile. The characteristics of this form of stress transfer are in general non-linear, with an elastic branch up to a certain characteristic
displacement, and a plastic branch, with a given shear stress, beyond that displacement. The purpose of this analysis is to extend the two simple models presented
above, and to develop a useful general tool. The linear elastic case and the fully
111

0
0 ,---,,.....-,...,..,.---:---:---:--:--:--:--,---..,
T / T ma.x
::::l::::l::::l::::l::::l::::l::::l::::l::::l::::
.~ ... -~. ~ ... -~ ... ~- -~ ... ~- ~ ... ~- ...
IIIF.IIIr
.l -~ ~ ... -~ ... ~- ... ~- ... ~ -~ ... ~-.

1
l~::t:::l:::t:::l:::t:::(:
: : : . .
. . :
z/l
Figure 7 .4. Shear stress, plastic springs, l/ D = 20.

plastic case can of course be used as validations of the numerical model. The
numerical model will be used to develop a computer program. A complete elastoplastic finite element model has been developed by Leong & Randolph (1991). In
that model the soil inside the pile has elasto-plastic properties, and slip at the
soil-pile interface is modeled by interface elements. In the model presented here
the soil inside the pile is represented as a non-linear elastic material, and slip at
the soil-pile interface is modeled by (non-linear) elasto-plastic springs.
7.3.1
BASIC EQUATIONS
Consider a plug of length l, loaded by shear stresses along its circumference, see
figure 7.5. The plug is subdivided into n elements, of possibly variable length d;
+::::: +
..
::::: ~
I::::: I
t .. t
il:/[: : il
I::::: I
Figure 7.5. Forces on plug.

and axial stiffness EA;. The elements are numbered from i = 1 to i = n, and
the nodal points are numbered from i = 0 to i = n, so that element i is located
112
CHAPTER 7
between the points i - 1 and i. The normal force in the plug acting at node i is
denoted by N;, and the friction force acting on the side of element i is denoted by
T;. This is the resultant force of the shear stresses.
The strain of an element is determined by the average normal stress in the soil
plug, but it should be noted that only the incremental stress, due to the shear
stress transferred from the pile, leads to additional strains. Thus it is convenient
to write
N;
= F; + /Z;.
(7.23)
The stress-strain relation for the soil plug can now be expressed in terms of the
average incremental stress in the element, in the form
Wj-
F; + F;-1
2EA;
Wi-1
d;
(7.24)
or
2EA;
w;_!) = -F;-
~(w;-
Fi-1
(7.25)
For the next element the equation is
2EAi+ 1
d
(wi+1- w;)
i+1
= -Fi+1- F;.
(7.26)
Subtraction of these two equations gives

(7.27)
where
B; = 2EA;.
(7.28)
d;
The normal forces can be eliminated by considering the equations of equilibrium

of element i and element i + 1,
F;- F;-1
= T;,
(7.29)
(7.30)

F;+1- F;-1
Ti+1
+ T;.
(7.31)
Substituting this result into eq. (7.27) gives

-Bi+1wi+1
+ (Bi+1 + B;)w;- B;wi-1 = Ti+1 +T;.
(7.32)
This is the finite difference form of the differential equation

d2 w
EA- =-rO.
dz 2
(7.33)
113
When all element lengths are equal, and the stiffness EA is constant, the finite difference equation (7 .32) reduces to the well known standard form, with coefficients
-1, +2, -1.
It is well known that for normal soils the stiffness increases as the stress increases. This can be taken into account by assuming that the modulus of elasticity
is proportional to the average stress in an element,
(7.34)
where C is a stiffness coefficient. Its value is usually of the order of magnitude of
50, for soft clay, up to 500 for dense sand.
The friction force T; along element i is determined by the average displacement
w;,
(7.35)
The response of the soil to the displacement of the pile is shown, in principle,
in figure 7.6. The response is elastic if the shear stress is smaller than a certain
T;
L-------------------------~~
v;-w;
Figure 7.6. Soil response.
limiting value, and plastic when the shear stress reaches that limit. The limiting
value can best be described in terms of the displacement. Then it can be stated
that the elastic branch applies as long as the relative displacement of the pile
with respect to the soil is smaller than a given value, the quake. It should be
noted that in figure 7.6 it has been assumed that the displacement difference is
always increasing. If the displacement difference would decrease, unloading would
occur, with permanent plastic deformations. The response curve is then more
complicated.
The behaviour can be described by a formula of the general form
T; = S;( v;- w;)
+ T';*.
(7.36)
Here S; is the slope of the response curve, which may be zero, and T;* will have a
value only in the plastic branch.
114
CHAPTER 7
In a numerical model it may be convenient to use a switch parameter to distinguish between the various branches of the response curve. This parameter will be
denoted by Pi, and its value is 0 in the elastic branch, and 1 in the plastic branch.
The precise definition is
< wg1
if (Vi - Wi) > w?
if (vI - w)
I
Pi= 0,
(7.37)
Pi= 1.
(7.38)
In these equations w? is the quake in element i, which is supposed to be given.

Using the switch parameter p;, the values of S; and Tt can be defined as follows
ifp;=O
ifp;=1
S;
S;
= T;0 fw?,
= 0,
T;* = 0,
T;* = T;0 ,
(7.39)
(7.40)
where T;0 is the maximum shear force on element i, the product of the area O;d;
and the maximum shear stress Tp. This maximum shear stress in its turn is
determined by the normal stress in the plug, see eq. (7.17),
(7.41)
The normal stress u; can be calculated by dividing the normal force N; (including
the contribution of the weight of the soil) by the area A. During the development
of the plug the normal stress will increase, and thus the maximum shear stress
will increase. In the present model it is assumed that the quake remains constant,
which then implies that the stiffness of the springs increases when the plug develops. This seems justified by the general observation that the stiffness of a soil
increases with the stress level.
With (7.35) and (7.36) the basic difference equation (7.32) becomes
ci+1 W;+l
+ C;w; + ci-1 Wi-1 = 7i'"+1 + T;* + S;+l VH1 + S;v;,
(7.42)
where
(7.43)
(7.44)
ci-1
2EA;
= -~
+ 2 s;.
(7.45)
The system of equations (7.42) is the basic system oflinear equations that must be
solved. The system of equations is positive-definite, with a dominating main diagonal, so that its numerical solution should present no difficulties. Unfortunately,
the value of the switch parameter is initially unknown, so that an iterative procedure has to be followed to find the solution. Usually it is most convenient to start
the process by assuming that all soil responses are in the elastic branch, i.e. p; = 0,
then to determine the displacements w;, and then to check the switch parameters.
115
If any of these was estimated incorrectly the process has to be repeated with the
improved values of the switches. Because the limiting shear stress depends upon
the stress level its value will increase during the process of displacement. This
means that it will be necessary to apply the load (or the imposed displacement of
the pile) in a large number of small steps.
Equation (7.42) applies fori= 1, ... , n- 1, and cont~.ins n + 1 variables. The
remaining two equations can be obtained by considering the boundary conditions.
PLUG TOP
The boundary condition at the top of the plug is that the normal force is given,
Fo = 0. In order to incorporate this condition into the system of equations it
should be transformed into a condition in terms of the displacements. For this
purpose Hooke's law for the first element may be used, see eq. (7.25) with i = 1,
2EA 1
--(w1- wo)
d1
= -F1- Fo.
(7.46)
The normal force F1 can be eliminated from this equation by using the equilibrium
equation of the first element, that is eq. (7.29) with i = 1,
(7.47)
One now obtains, with F0 = 0, and using the expressions (7.36) and (7.35),
2EA1
2EA1
1
1
(~ + 2Si)wo( ~- 2S1)w1 = T1 + S1v1.
(7.48)
This equation can be added to the system of equations. It can be considered as

equation number 0.
PLUG BOTTOM
The boundary condition at the bottom of the plug is supposed to be that the
displacement of the soil is zero there. Thus this boundary condition is simply
Wn
= 0.
(7.49)
This can be considered as equation number n in the system of equations.

The system of n + 1 equations, consisting of (7.42), (7.48) and (7.49) can be
solved by a convenient numerical procedure, for instance Gauss elimination.
7 .3.2
COMPUTER PROGRAM

program PLUG. The program applies to a homogeneous soil and pile only, although
certain facilities have been built into the program which may facilitate generalization of the program to the more general case of a layered soil and a deformable
pile. The program builds up the stresses and displacements in an incremental way,
116
CHAPTER 7
incremental way, by applying the displacement of the pile in small steps. It is assumed that as soon as one of the springs has reached its maximum (plastic) value,
it remains in the plastic range. Thus the program structure is suitable only for a
continuously increasing load, and cannot be applied for a decreasing load, when a
plastic spring may return to the elastic range.
The program uses interactive input to enter the data, such as the length and
the diameter of the plug, and the relevant soil data. Output is given in the form
of a table, and a graph of the distribution of the shear stresses on the screen. The
limiting values of these stresses for the fully plastic case are also shown on the
screen, for comparison.
program plug;
uses crt ,graph;
const
nn=400;zz=4;
var
maxx,maxy,graphdriver,graphmode,errorcode:integer;xasp,yasp:word;
length,diam,elast,sti,gamma,circum,area,ric,quake:real;
dz,tz,vmax:real;step,n,steps,plast:integer;
z,w,wz,,z,d,s,t,st,sz,v,ea,ss,ta,tb,qq:array[O .. nn] o real;
p:array[O .. nn,l .. zz] o real;pt:array[O .. nn,l .. zz] o integer;
np:array[O .. nn] o integer;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);write(' PLUG ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7);writeln;writeln;
end;
procedure next ;
var
a:char;
begin
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);textcolor(7);
end;
procedure input;
var
i:integer;pi,zm:real;
begin
title;pi:=3.1415926;writeln('Input data :');writeln;
write('Length o the plug (m) ......... ');readln(length);
write('Diameter (m) ................... ');readln(diam);
write(Stiness coeicient .......... ');readln(sti);
write('Volumetric weight (kl/m3) ...... ');readln(gamma);
write('Friction coeicient ........... ');readln(ric);
write('Quake (m) ...................... ');readln(quake);
write('Displacement o pile (m) ....... ');readln(vmax);
write('lumber o elements (max. ',nn,') .. ');readln(n);
write('lumber o loading steps ........ ');readln(steps);
i n<lO then n:=lO;i n>nn then n:=nn;circum:=pidiam;
area:=circumdiam/4;sti:=stiarea;dz:=length/n;plast:=O;z[O]:=O;
or i:=l to n do
begin
d[i] :=dz;z[i] :=z[i-l]+d[i];qq[i] :=quake;zm:=O.S(z[i-l]+z[i]);
DEVELOPMEN T OF PILE PLUG

ea[i]:=stiffgamm azm;ta[i]:=fric circumd[i]gam mazm;
end;
for i:=O to n do
begin
v[i]:=~ax/steps;np[i] :=O;f[i] :=O;fz[i]:=O;sz[ i]:=O;wz[i]:=O;

end;
end;
procedure initial;
var
i:integer;ff,zm ,ss:real;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
zm:=0.5(z[i-1 ]+z[i]);ff:=0.5 (fz[i-1]+fz[i]);
ss:=ff/area+gam mazm;ta[i]:=fr iccircumd[i]s s;
ea[i] :=stiffss;s[i]: =ta[i]/qq[i];t[ i] :=s[i]v[i];
if np[i]>O then t[i]:=O;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j:integer;a1,a 2,b1,b2,c1:real ;
begin
begin
pt[i,j] :=O;p[i,j] :=0;
end;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
end;
pt[0,1] :=O;pt[0,2] :=1;pt[O,zz] :=2;pt[n,1] :=n;pt[n,zz]:=2;

for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
a1:=2ea[i]/d[i] ;a2:=2ea[i+1]/d [i+1];b1:=s[i]/2 ;b2:=s[i+1]/2;
p[i,1]:=a1+a2+b 1+b2;p[i,2]:=-a1 +b1;p[i,3] :=-a2+b2;
p[i,zz] :=t[i]+t[i+1];
end;
a1:=2ea[1]/d[1 ];b1:=s[1]/2;
p[0,1] :=a1+b1;p[0,2] :=-a1+b1;p[O,zz ]:=t[1];
p[n,1] :=1;p[n,2] :=O;p[n-1,3]:=0 ;p[n,zz] :=0;
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,k,l,kc,jj,jk ,jl,ii,ij,ik:inte ger;c:real;a:c har;
begin
for i:=O to n do
begin
kc:=pt[i,zz];if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
if p[i,1]=0.0 then
begin
writeln('Error : no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
117
118
CHAPTER 7
c :=p [i. j] /p[i,1]; jj: =pt [i, j] ;

p[jj,zz]:=p[jj,zz]-cp[i,zz];l: =pt[jj,zz];
for jl:=2 to 1 do begin if pt[jj,jl]=i then jk:=jl;end;
pt[jj,jk] :=pt[jj,l] ;pt[jj,l] :=0;
p[jj ,jk] :=p[jj ,1] ;p[jj,l]: =0 ;1:=1-1 ;pt [jj,zz] :=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=O;for ik:=1 to 1 do if pt[jj,ik]=pt[i,ii] then ij:=ik;
if ij=O then
begin
1:=1+1;ij:=l;pt[jj,zz] :=l;pt[jj,ij]:=pt[i,ii];
end;
p [jj, ij] :=p[jj, ij] -cp [i, ii];
end;
end;
end;
if p[i,1]=0.0 then
begin
~riteln('Error : no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
c:=1/p[i,1];for j:=1 to kc do p[i,j] :=cp[i,j];p[i,zz]:=cp[i,zz];
end;
for i:=O to n do
begin
j:=n-i;l:=pt[j,zz];if 1>1 then
for k: =2 to 1 do p[j ,zz]: =p[j ,zz] -p[j ,k] p[pt [j ,k] ,zz];
end;
f[O]:=O;
for i:=O to n do
begin
~[i] :=p[i,zz];~z[i] :=~z[i]+~[i];
end;
for i:=1 ton do f[i] :=-2ea[i](~[i]-~[i-1])/d[i]-[i-1];
st[O] :=O;for i:=1 ton do st[i] :=(f[i]-f[i-1])/(circumd[i]);
for i:=1 to n do
begin
fz[i] :=fz[i]+f[i];sz[i] :=sz[i]+st[i];
end;
end;
procedure checksprings;
var
i:integer;ff,ss,zm,eps:real;
begin
plast:=O;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
ff:=0.5(fz[i-1]+fz[i]);zm:=0. 5(z[i-1]+z[i]);
ss:=ff/area+gammazm;if (sz[i]>fricss) then np[i] :=1;
if np[i]>O then plast:=plast+1;
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,k:integer;tt:real;
begin
title;k:=O;

w
s
t');
write(' z
writeln('
tmax');
:for i :=0 to n do
begin
write(z[i] :6:3,wz[i]:12:6,:fz[i]/area+gammaz[i]:15:3);
i:f (i>O) then
begin
tt:=0.2Sgammadiam(erp(2:fric(z[i-1]+z[i])/diam)-1);
write(sz[i] :15:3,tt:15:3);
end;
writeln;k:=k+l;
i:f (k>20) then
begin
next;k:=l;title;
write(' z
w
s
t');
writeln('
tmax');
end;
end;
end;
procedure graphinitialize;
begin
graphdriver:=detect;initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode,'');
errorcode:=graphresult;
i:f (errorcode<>grok) then
begin
writeln('Error in graphics :',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
writeln;writeln('Program interrupted.');halt(l);
end;
setcolor(7);setbkcolor(O);setlinestyle(0,0,1);
set:fillstyle(11,7);maxx:=getmaxx;maxy:=getmaxy;
getaspectratio(xasp,yasp);closegraph;
end;
procedure showt;
var
x,xl,x3,y,yl,y3,xa,xb,ya,yb,i:integer;
tm,sx,sy,tt,zz:real;a:char;
begin
tm:=0.3gammadiam(erp(4:friclength/diam)-1);
i:f tm>O then
begin
initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode,'');
xl:=round(O.lmaxx);x3:=maxx-x1;
yl:=round(0.9maxy);y3:=maxy-y1;
line(xl,y3,x3,y3);line(xl,y1+20,xl,y3);
line(x3,y3,x3-8,y3-2);line(x3,y3,x3-8,y3+2);
line(xl,y1+20,x1-2,y1+12);line(xl,y1+20,x1+2,y1+12);
outtextxy(20,10,'Shear stress');
outtextxy(x3-2,y3+8,'t');outtextxy(x1+6,y1+16,'z');
sx:=O.Smaxx/tm;sy:=O.Smaxy/z[n];zz:=O.S(z[O]+z[l]);
xa:=xl+round(sxsz[l]);ya:=y3+round(syzz);
for i:=2 to n do
begin
zz:=O.S(z[i-l]+z[i]);
xb:=xl+round(sxsz[i]);yb:=y3+round(syzz);
line(xa,ya,xb,yb);xa:=xb;ya:=yb;
end;
119
120
CHAPTER 7
zz:=0.5(z[O]+z[l]);tt:=0.25gammadiam(exp(4friczz/di~-1);
for i:=l to n do
begin
zz:=0.5(z[i-1]+z(i]);tt:=0.25gammadiam(exp(4~riczz/diam)-1);
xa:=xl+round(sxtt);ya:=y3+round(syzz);line(xa,ya,xa,ya);
end;
a:=readkey;closegraph;
end
end;
begin
graphinitialize;input;
for step:=l to steps do
begin
title;vriteln( 1 Loading step ....................... 1 ,step:8);vriteln;
vriteln('Displacement of pile (m) ........... ',stepv[O] :15:6);vriteln;
vriteln('Displacement of plug (m) ........... 1 ,vz[O] :15:6);vriteln;
vriteln('Force at the bottom (kl) ........... ',fz[n] :15:6);vriteln;
vriteln('Plastic springs .................... 1 ,plast:8);
initial;matrix;solve;checksprings;
end;
output;shovt;clrscr;
end.
Program PLUG.
The results for a plug of length 5 m, and diameter 1 m, consisting of a soil having
a stiffness coefficient 500, a volumetric weight 10 kN /m3 , a friction factor 0.25
and a quake 0.01 m, are shown in figure 7.7, if the displacement of the pile is
0.025 m. The fully drawn line is the shear stress as calculated by the numerical
~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.-.--~
.... ~ .... L.. -~ .... L... L... L... L... L... ~ ....
r/Tmax
:::i::::i::::i::::i::::i::::i::::i::::i::::i::::
':
: : : : : : : :
,:::::::::
..\:\: .... :: .... :: .... :: .... ::.... :: .... :: .... :: .... :: ....
\ : : : : : : : :
... :l. .. : .... : .... : .... : .... : .... : .... : .... : ....
: ',: : : : : : : :
't'<,,:f:LLI:L
z/L
Figure 7. 7. Shear stress, Numerical solution.
method, taking (J 0.25 and 1/ D 5. The dashed line represents the maximum
shear stresses, as calculated using Randolph's fully plastic model. When a larger
value for the displacement of the pile is introduced into the program, the shear
stress distribution will gradually approach the limiting values of the fully plastic
solution. This can be seen as a validation of the numerical model.
121
Exercises
7.1 An alternative set of boundary conditions for the elastic model considered in section
7.1 is that the top of the plug is free of stress, and that at the bottom the displacement
of the plug is equal to the displacement of the pile. This case would apply to a pile on a
very soft foundation. Derive the elastic solution for this case, and explain the results.
7.2 Run the program PLUG with a very small value for the displacement of the pile,
and show that the elastic solution is approached.
CHAPTERS
LATERALLY LOADED PILES
Although foundation piles usually have as their main purpose to carry axial loads,
they may .also be subject to lateral loads. This is especially the case for offshore
platforms, which may be loaded by large lateral forces due to wind and water
waves. The response of a pile to a lateral load is studied in this chapter. Some
analytic solutions for simplified problems will be presented first. In a later section a
numerical model will be developed, which includes non-linear material behaviour.
Throughout this chapter the response of the soil next to the pile will be assumed
to be determined only by the lateral displacement of the pile at that point. This
means that all load transfer in the soil in vertical direction is disregarded. It
also means that effects of plasticity can only be taken into account by considering
the stresses as functions of the local displacement of the pile. Elastic solutions,
for piles in a linear elastic medium, have been developed by Poulos {1986). A
refined model, in which the soil is modeled as a system of elasto-plastic layers, has
been developed by Kooijman {1989). This model also applies to the analysis of
pile groups, even when the plastic zones of the individual piles in the pile group
overlap. The model also has the feature that a gap between pile and soil may be
develop at the upward side of the pile. A simplified version of this model will be
presented in chapter 9.
8.1
Pile in linear material
Consider a pile consisting of a linear elastic material, with modulus of elasticity

E. The second order moment of the pile cross section in the direction of bending
of the pile is I, so that the bending stiffness is E I. The pile is loaded by a lateral
load /, see figure 8.1. The load f is related to the shear force Q by the equation
of equilibrium in lateral direction
dQ
dz
=-f.
(8.1)
Equilibrium of moments requires that
dM =Q.
(8.2)
dz
From these two equations it follows that
(8.3)
122
123

--------~--~--~------~
f
I
I
Q+~Q
M+4M
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 8.1. Element of laterally loaded pile.
This is the well known relation between the bending moment in a beam and the
distributed load acting upon it.
The second basic equation should describe the deformation of the pile. Using
Bernoulli's assumption that plane normal sections remain plane, this equation is
found to be
d2 u
EI dz2 = -M,
(8.4)
where u is the lateral displacement of the pile, in x-direction. The bending moment
M can be eliminated from eqs. (8.3) and (8.4), to give
(8.5)
This is the well known basic equation of the theory of bending of beams, see any
text on elementary applied mechanics.
In the case of a pile with lateral support, the distributed load is generated
by the lateral displacement u. In the simplest case the load is considered to be
proportional to the displacement,
= -ku,
(8.6)
where k is the subgrade modulus (in kN/m3 ), and the minus sign is needed because
when the displacement is to the right, the soil reaction will be directed to the left.
Assuming that this is the only load on the pile, substitution of (8.6) into (8.5)
gtves
(8.7)
124
CHAPTER 8
or
ct1u
dz4
4u
+ A4
(8.8)
= 0,
where A is a parameter of dimension length, defined as
(8.9)
The general solution of the differential equation (8.8) is
u = C1 exp(z/ A) cos(z/A) + C2 exp(z/A) sin(z/A) +
C3 exp( -z/A) cos(z/A) + C4 exp( -z/A) sin(z/ A).
(8.10)
The constants C1, C2, C3 and C4 must be determined from the boundary conditions. In general both boundaries will give rise to two conditions, so that the four
constants can indeed be determined.
8.1.1
In case of an infinitely long pile one of the boundaries is at z = oo. The terms with
exp(z/A) then must be omitted, by taking C 1 = 0 and C 2 = 0. If it is assumed
that the boundary conditions at the top of the pile are
d2 u
= -EI dz 2 = 0,
=0 :
=0 :
Q = - E I -3 = -P
dz
'
(8.11)
and
d3 u
(8.12)
the final solution becomes

PA 3
u= 2E 1 exp(-z/A)cos(z/A).
(8.13)
This solution is shown graphically in figure 8.2. The displacement at the top of
the pile will be denoted by Ut. Its value is
PA 3
Ut
= 2EI"
(8.14)
The meaning of the parameter A can be seen from figure 8.2. The displacement
is zero if z = 7r A/2, and after the next zero at z = 37r A/2 the displacements are
practically zero. Thus the influence of the load at the top can be felt to a depth
of about 5A. This also means that a pile longer than 5A can be considered as
infinitely long.
It is not surprising to note that the lateral displacement of the top of the
pile Ut is proportional to the lateral load P. This is an immediate consequence
of the linearity of the model used. It can also be seen from the solution (8.14)
125
1
0
0
.......:....... i ..... .
-=- :
:
:
:
:
:
:
-~
-~
7~~~~":"'"'7""'''
.
:
.....;....... j .......;....... j .;... j .......;..... j ;
:
:
-~
...... .:. ...... :...... .:. ............. .:. .......... ,,,_,,, ... :. -
:.
:.
:.
.::
.::
.:: :.:
.:: ..:
:
:
:
...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... .
.
.
.
.:
.. .:
.
.: .:
:
:
:
:
7=7=7=7=7
-~
~~
-~
~~~~~~
......;....... j .......;..... j ;..... j .......;....... j .......;...... .
: : . : : : : : :
...... l ...... L.....i ...... :...... .: ..... -~- ..... l ...... ~ ...... l ..... .
:
:
:
:
: : :
:
: .
.. .. .. ...... ...... ...... ! ...... ...... ...... ...... ...... : ..... .
. .:
:.
.: : .:
~
-~
-~
z/>.
Figure 8.2. Laterally loaded pile in elastic material.
that the displacement is inversely proportional to the parameters k 3 14 and EI 114 .
This suggests that the pile stiffness EI is relatively unimportant, and that the
soil stiffness k is very important for the soil response. It will appear later, when
considering more realistic soil models, that these conclusions are not generally
valid.
A variant of the problem solved in this section is to consider that the sub grade
modulus increases linearly with depth. This may be a realistic assumption, as often
the stiffness of the soil increases with the initial stress, which increases with depth.
The analytical solution of this problem will not be considered here, however. In
the next sections of this chapter a numerical model model will be developed which
includes the possibility of a stiffness increasing with depth.
8.2
Pile in perfectly plastic material
In this section an approximate analytic solution will be presented for the problem
of a pile in a homogeneous material, taking into account the plastic deformations
of the soil.
A fairly realistic assumption for the response of the soil to a lateral displacement
is to consider this to be elasto-plastic, see figure 8.3. In this figure the response is
assumed to be elastic if the displacement is small. It reaches its maximum value
(the passive lateral soil pressure),
(8.15)
CHAPTER 8
126
a'h
~~------------+-L-~-----L--------------~
'
:
~u '
I
Figure 8.3. Elasto-plastic soil response.
when the displacement reaches a certain positive value, and it reaches its minimum
value (the active lateral soil pressure),
(8.16)
when the displacement reaches a certain negative value. If the value obtained from
eq. (8.16) is found to be negative the horizontal effective stress is zero, because
tensile stresses cannot be transferred in a granular material. In the equations
given above cis the cohesion of the soil, and Ka and Kp are the active and passive
pressure coefficients,
K
_ 1- sinljl
1 +sin 1/J'
a-
} , _ 1+sin 1/J
\p -
A.,
1-sm'+'
(8.17)
(8.18)
where 1/J is the friction angle of the soil. The length of the range of elastic displacements (~u in figure 8.3) is called the stroke. This is a similar quantity as the
quake, used in the analysis of axially loaded piles. It represents the displacement
difference between generating active and passive soil pressures, respectively.
The response shown in figure 8.3 will be used in the next section to develop a
numerical model. In the present section a simplified analysis, developed by Blum
(1931), will be presented first. In this analysis it is assumed that the elastic range is
extremely small, see figure 8.4. This is called a perfectly plastic response. As soon
as there is a displacement the response is either at its maximum or its minimum.
If the load on the pile acts towards the right the force on the right side of the pile
is the passive earth pressure, and the force on the left side of the pile is the active
soil pressure. Thus the total force is
f = -(Kp- Ka)Du~- 2cD( Jf{; + ffa ),

or, assuming that the vertical effective stress increases linearly with depth,
(8.19)
127
JKau~-
2c..,(K;.
~~------------~------~L-------------~u
Figure 8.4. Perfectly plastic soil response.
f = -(Kp- Ka)Dr' z- 2cD( Vi<;+ $a),
(8.20)
where r' is the submerged unit weight of the soil.

It is furthermore assumed that the distribution of the soil reaction is as shown
in figure 8.5. The basic idea is that the pile is displaced towards the right by
the applied force, except at the lower end, where a displacement towards the
p
Figure 8.5. Blum's schematization.
left occurs. The soil reaction on this deeper part of the pile, is replaced by a
concentrated force (Blum's Ersatzkraft), further assuming that the pile is clamped
at that depth.
The differential equation now is
d4 u
EI dz 4 = f = -(Kp - Ka)Dr' z- 2cD( Jl{; + $a),
(8.21)

z
= 0:
Q = -P,
(8.22)
128
CHAPTER 8
z = 0:
M=O,
(8.23)
z = h:
u = 0,
(8.24)
z = h:
du _ 0
dz- '
(8.25)
z = h:
M=O.
(8.26)
The value of the parameter h, which is the level at which the pile is considered to
be clamped, is treated as an unknown variable. Thus there are 5 unknown values
(the 4 integration constants, and h). There are also 5 boundary conditions, so
that the problem may be solved analytically. It may seem strange that there are
actually three boundary conditions at the lower end of the pile, whereas in the
theory of bending of beams there are usually two boundary conditions at either
end. A possible reasoning leading to the last three conditions is that the pile is
very well clamped at great depths, so that the displacement u and its first two
derivatives are zero there. The weak point in this argument, at least from the
mathematical side, is that at the depth z = h the third derivative cannot be
zero, because the concentrated force is acting there. It may also be noted that
the assumed soil reaction cannot be in equilibrium with the applied load without
the concentrated force, because then equilibrium of moments is impossible. The
analysis using the assumptions for the pressure distribution as shown in figure 8.5
is an excellent example of the art of engineering, especially since it will appear
later that the results are in excellent agreement with those of more refined models.
The general solution of the differential equation (8.21) is
(Kp- Kah' Dz 5
u =-
120EI
2cD( VJ{;, +$a )z4

24EI
+C1z 3 + C2z 2 + C3z + C4.
(8.27)
Using the boundary conditions the integration constants can be determined. Substitution of these values in the solution (8.27) gives the final solution in the form
u
= (Kp - Kah' D(8h 2 +9hz+ 3z 2 ) (h _

360EI
)3
(VI<;+ VIC )cD(h + z)

12EI
)3
h- z '
(8.28)
where the value of h must be determined from the relation
P = ~(Kp -
Kah' Dh 2 + (-Jl{; + ffa )cDh.
(8.29)
If the force P is given, and the properties of soil and pile are known, the value of h
can be determined from eq. (8.29). Then the displacement can be obtained from
eq. (8.28).
It is of particular interest to consider the relation between the force P at the
top and the displacement of the top of the pile, which will be denoted by Ut. This
will be elaborated for a cohesionless soil (c = 0). This load-displacement relation
is expressed by the equations
129
(8.30)
and
Ut
(}(p- }(a)i'lJh 5
(8.31)
45EI
Equations (8.30) and (8.31) express that the load-displacement relation is not
linear, but of the character Ut = A P 512 , which means that doubling the force
leads to a displacement that is 4v'2 = 5.7 times as large. The pile becomes more
flexible with increasing load.
Figure 8.6 shows the load-displacement relation for a pile in cohesionless soil
in graphical form, for a steel tubular pile of diameter lJ = 1 m, and wall thickness
d = 0.05 m, for which the bending stiffness is EI = 4123000 kNm 2 The soil
parameters have been assumed as }(P
3, }(a
1/3 and 1'
10 kN/m3 . All
these data are representative of piles for an offshore structure on a sandy subsoil.
It can be seen from figure 8.6 that the pile indeed becomes much more flexible as
the load increases. This can be explained by noting that when a certain level of pile
load has been reached, the soil over a certain length near the top of the pile is all
1000
o.-~~~~~~~--~~~--.---~
P (kN)
+~~ ;~~~~~
: : :
: : :
...... f~: ~~: ...... ~
: : : : : : : :
~:
.....;..... j ......;.... j .......;..... ......;....... j .;....
~~~~-~-~~
...... f. ... -~i~t~

: ... ~- ... + .....
.
.
. . .
.
.
. .
.
.
.: .:
:
:
:
:
:
-=-:-=-""';
.
. ...... .;.. ...... .;...... .;.. ..... :...... ..;. ..... .
...... -~ ...... ~ ...... j ...... j...... -~ ...... !...... -~ ..... !...... -~ ..... .
.
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
.......:....... j.......;....... j .......;....... j.......:....... j ;...... .
:.
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
: ...... .:. ...... : ...... .:. ...
.:
.:
.:
.
..
.
.:
.:
.:
.
:
~~~~:~~!T
.....
100~~~~~~---~~---~~~-~
Ut
(mm)
Figure 8.6. Laterally loaded pile in perfectly plastic material.
in the plastic range, and cannot contribute further to the carrying of an additional
load. Thus the additional load will have to be balanced by an increase of the plastic
range at lower depths, and this gives rise to considerable additional displacements.
For a lateral force of 1000 kN the displacement at the top is 109 mm.
When comparing this solution for a perfectly plastic material with the elastic
solution of the previous section it may be noted that here the most important
parameters for the response characteristic are the pile stiffness EI and the soil
130
CHAPTER 8
strength, as expressed by the parameters (Kp- Ka) and c ( .,JK; + ..,fK';,). The
soil stiffness no longer appears in the solution because it has been eliminated from
the model by assuming a perfectly plastic response. At this stage it is a matter
of conjecture, or of engineering intuition, to express a preference for either one of
the two models. Later in this chapter it will appear that the plastic model is the
most realistic one.
8.3
Numerical model
In this section a numerical model for the analysis of lateral displacements of a

pile loaded by a lateral force at its top is presented. Special care will be taken to
ensure that the model can be used for a pile in a layered soil.
8.3.1
BASIC EQUATIONS
In order to develop the numerical model the pile is subdivided into n small elements. A typical element, located between the points Zi- 1 and Zi is shown in
figure 8.7. The points are numbered i = 0, 1, ... , n, and the elements are num---------r--,---~------~
F;
R;
Q;
Figure 8. 7. Element of laterally loaded pile.
bered i = 1, 2, ... , n. The pile element may be loaded by a given force Fi and by
a soil reaction Ri which depends upon the lateral displacements Ui-1 and Ui.
The basic equations can be established by considering the horizontal equilibrium and the moment equilibrium of the elements i and i + 1. The aim of this
analysis is to obtain an equation expressing the bending moments into the lateral
loads. Equilibrium of the horizontal forces acting upon element i requires that
(8.32)
131
Similarly for the next element horizontal equilibrium requires that

{8.33)
Addition of these two equations gives
{8.34)
The equations of equilibrium of moments for the elements i and i + 1 are
M;- Mi-l= (Q;
d;
+ Q;_!)2,
{8.35)
and
{8.36)
From these two equations one may obtain
ai+lMi+l
+ a;M; + a;-lMi-1 =
HQi+l- Q;_!),
{8.37)
where
1
ai+l = - d '
i+l
1
1
a;=-----,
di+l
d;
1
a;-1 = d;.
{8.38)
The shear forces can now be eliminated from eqs. {8.34) and {8.37). This gives
{8.39)
This is the numerical equivalent of the basic differential equation
{8.40)
When all the elements have the same length the finite difference molecule reduces
to the familiar combination {1,-2,1). The derivation given above applies equally
well when the elements have variable lengths, however.
In order to derive the numerical equivalent of the bending equation
d2 u
dz 2
M
EI'
{8.41)
for the case of non-equal intervals, the following approximations are introduced
for the lateral displacements in elements i and i + 1,
Zi-l
and
< Z < Zj
U -
U;
+ 'l'i Z + 21 x:; Z 2 ,
A,
{8.42)
CHAPTER 8
132
z;
< z < z;+l
u -- u;
A.
z + 21 ~~:i+l z 2 .
+ 'T'i
(8.43)
This ensures that the displacement u and its first derivative if> are continuous at
the point z = z;. The curvatures in elements i and i+ 1 may be different, however.
They are denoted by K; and Ki+l
It follows from equations (8.42) and (8.43) that
(8.44)
and
Ui+l
= U; + </J; di+l + ~Ki+l d~+l"
(8.45)
From these two equations the slope >; can be eliminated,

Ui+l -
U;
~~--'di+1
Ui-1 -
d;
U;
1
1
di+1 + 2Ki d;.
= 2Ki+1
(8.46)
The curvatures ~~:; and Ki+ 1 may be related to the average bending moments in
the elements i and i + 1, respectively,
K;
and
=-
M;+Mi-1
2EL
(8.47)
'
(8.48)
It now follows from eqs. (8.46), (8.47) and (8.48) that
(8.49)
where the coefficients a; are the same as before, see (8.39), and where
(8.50)
Equation (8.49) is the numerical equivalent of eq. (8.41). The derivation given
here appears to lead to the same type of equation as for the equilibrium equation
(8.39). The two equations (8.39) and (8.49) are the two basic equations of the
numerical model. The variables in the model are the displacements u; and the
moments M; fori= 0, 1, ... , n. These are 2(n + 1) variables, for which the model
gives 2(n- 1) equations (fori= 1, 2, ... , n- 1). The 4 remaining equations must
be derived from the boundary conditions. It should be noted that the soil reactions
R; must be related to the lateral displacements. In general this will be a non-linear
relation.
133
8.3.2
PILE-SOIL INTERACTION
The reaction of the soil is supposed to be elasto-plastic, as illustrated in figure 8.8.

This figure represents the soil reaction from the soil to the right of the pile, assumR;
..... -+-''-+---'
~~--------L--------L--------------~ v;
Figure 8.8. Elasto-plastic soil response, right side.
ing that the positive x-direction is towards the right. In general the soil response
may be written as
(8.51)
where Vi is the displacement of element i, which may be related to the displacements of the nodes by
(8.52)
In eq. (8.51) v; is the accumulated plastic displacement, which must be updated
during the deformation process. The coefficient S; represents the slope of the
response curve, which is zero in the plastic branches. The term T; is zero in the
elastic branch, and may be used to represent the plastic soil response in the plastic
branches.
It should be noted that there is also a response on the other side of the pile.
This is of the same type as the response on the right side, except for the sign,
see figure 8.9. Initially, for very small displacements, the two responses will both
be in the elastic range, and this simply means that the stiffnesses can be added.
After plastic deformations have occurred, however, the response becomes more
complicated, because the transition from the elastic to the plastic branches is
shifted when the plastic deformation accumulates. The description of the pile-soil
interaction can most conveniently be implemented by considering the response
from the two sides of the pile separately.
The resultant response of the two sides, for the first loading of a pile, is as shown
in figure 8.10. The initial response is that both on the left and the right side of the
pile the springs are in the elastic range. The combined stiffness then is the sum of
the two individual stiffnesses. In one of the springs the stress is decreased until the
active earth pressure is reached. In the other spring the stress is increased until
134
CHAPTER 8
-R;
-=---+---...
Kpu~D + 2cD.Ji(;\
Figure 8.9. Elasto-plastic soil response, left side.
it reaches the passive state. As soon as the first of these two springs reaches its
plasticity limit, the stiffness is reduced, and finally reduced to zero when the other
spring also reaches its plasticity limit. It is interesting to note that a tri-linear
curve as shown in figure 8.10 is given by the American Petroleum Institute in its
recommendations for planning, design and constructing fixed offshore platforms
(API, 1981). The main advantage of the more basic response built up from the
two responses on either side of the pile is that in this way it is conceptually easier
R;
--------L----------~ Vi
Figure 8.10. Resultant soil response.
to describe the behaviour in unloading and subsequent reloading, because the

behaviour of each spring can be followed separately.
8.3.3
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
It is most convenient if the boundary conditions can be expressed as conditions for

the displacement and the bending moment at the pile top and pile tip, respectively.
The physically most realistic boundary condition, however, is that the shear force
and the moment are given at a free end of the pile. The prescribed moment can
easily be incorporated in the system of equations, but it requires some effort to
transform the condition of a prescribed shear force into a condition in terms of
135
the displacement. As an example the boundary condition at the pile top will be
considered. Let this condition be
z = 0:
Qo = -P.
(8.53)
Equilibrium of moments of the first element expresses that
M1- Mo = (Q1
dl
+ Qo)2.
(8.54)
The shear force Q 1 may be eliminated by considering horizontal equilibrium of

this element,
(8.55)
Thus, with Q0 = -Pone obtains
R1
+ d1 (M1 -
Mo) = F 1 + 2P.
(8.56)
Because the soil reaction R1 will depend upon the lateral displacements uo and u1
this can be considered as an equation formulated in terms of the displacement u 0 .
It should be noted that the dependence upon u 0 may vanish if the first element is
in the plastic range. Mathematically, this means that the coefficient on the niain
diagonal of the system of equations representing the coefficient of u 0 may vanish.
The solution technique to be used for solving the system of equations should best
be such that division by this coefficient is avoided. This may be achieved by
eliminating the variables from i n down to i 0.
8.3.4
COMPUTER PROGRAM
An elementary computer program, in Turbo Pascal, is reproduced below, as program LLP. The program applies only to a homogeneous soil and pile, although
many facilities have been built in which may facilitate. generalization of the program to the more general case of a pile in a layered soil. The program uses
interactive input, with all data to be entered by the user after being prompted by
the program. This includes the number of loading steps, which enables to analyze
problems with a variable load. Output is given in the form of the displacement of
the top for a given value of the force and the moment applied at the top of the
pile. The program can easily be modified to give graphical output, or output on
a printer.
program llp;
uses crt;
const
nn=100;zz=4;ni=100;
var
len,vid,vht,act,pas,neu,coh,stk,ei,ft,dz,cp,fa,ma:resl;
step,n,steps,ll,lp,nerr,mp,mq,plast,it:integer;
z,s,d,f,u,q,ul,ur,m,ff:array[O .. nn] of real;
as,ps,sl,pa,pp,pn:array[l .. nn] of real;
136
p:array[O .. nn,l. .zz,l. .2,1. .2] of real;
pt:array[O .. nn,l. .zz] of integer;
g:array[l. .2,1. .2] of real;
np,nq:array[O .. nn] of integer;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(38,1);taxtbackground(7);textcolor(O);writa(' LLP ');
taxtbackground(O);textcolor(7);writeln;writaln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
gotoxy(25,25);taxtbackground(7);textcolor(O);
write(' Touch any kay to continue ');write(chr(8));
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);taxtcolor(7)
end;
procedure input;
var
i:integer;
begin
title;
writa('This is a program for the analysis of a laterally loaded');
writaln(' pile.');vriteln;
writa('Length of the pile(~ ......... ');raadln(lan);
vrita('Vidth of the pile (m) .......... ');raadln(wid);
write('Unit weight of soil (kl/m3) .... ');readln(wht);
write('Active pressure coefficient .... ');raadln(act);
writa('Passiva pressure coefficient
');raadln(pas);
write('leutral pressure coefficient ... ');readln(neu);
write('Cohasion (kl/m2) ............... );readln(coh);
write('Total stroke (~ ............... ');readln(stk);
vrite('Stiffneee EI (klm2) ............ ');readln(ei);
writa('lumbar of elements (max. 100) .. ');r~adln(n);
writa('lumber of loading steps ........ ');raadln(staps);
if n<lO then n:=lO;if n>nn than n:=nn;
if act>l than act:=l;if pas<l then pas:=l;
if neu<act then neu:=act;if neu>pas than nau:=pas;
ft:=O;dz:=len/n;z[O] :=0;
for i:=l ton do begin z[i]:=z[i-l]+dz;d[i] :=dz;and;
for i:=O to n do
begin
u[i] :=O.O;m[i]:=O.O;ul[i] :=O.O;ur[i]:=O.O;
and;
end;
procedure zeros;
var
i:integer;
begin
for i:=l ton do begin np[i]:=O;nq[i] :=O;end;
end;
procedure constants;
var
i:intager;sz,e:real;
begin
for i:=l to n do
CHAPTER 8

begin
e:=O.OOOOOl;sz:=vhtvid(z[i]-d[i]/2);
pa[i] :=actsz-2cohsqrt(act);if pa[i]<O then pa[i]:=O;
pn[i] :=neusz;pp[i]:=passz+2cohsqrt(pas);
if pp[i]<pa[i]+e then pp[i] :=pa[i]+e;
as [i] :=(pn[i] -pa[i])stlt/ (pp[i] -pa[i]);
ps[i] :=(pp[i]-pn[i])stlt/(pp[i]-pa[i]);
sl[i]:=(pp[i]-pa[i])/stlt;
end;
end;
procedure springs;
var
i,nr:integer;um,sp,eps,sx:real;
begin
nerr:=O;plast:=O;eps:=0.000001;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
um:=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2;if um-ul[i]>as[i]+eps then
begin
sx:=pa[i];sp:=O;nr:=1;plast:=plast+1;
end
else i f um-ul[i]<-psli]-eps then
begin
sx:=pp[i];sp:=O;nr:=-1;plast:=plast+1;
end
else
begin
sp:=sl[i];sx:=pn[i]+spul[i];nr:=O;
end;
f[i]:=sxd[i];s[i]:=spd[i];
if np[i]<>nr then
begin
np[i] :=nr;nerr:=nerr+1;
end;
if um-ur[i]<-as[i]-eps then
begin
sx:=pa[i];sp:=O;nr:=1;plast:=plast+1;
end
else i f um-ur[i]>ps[i]+eps then
begin
sx:=pp[i];sp:=O;nr:=-1;plast:=plast+1;
end
else
begin
sp:=sl[i];sx:=pn[i]-spur[i];nr:=O;
end;
f[i] :=f[i]-sxd[i] ;s[i] :=s[i]+spd[i];
if nq[i]<>nr then
begin
nq[i] :=nr;nerr:=nerr+1;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,h,Jt,l:integer;a1,a2,b1,b2,c1:real;
137
138
begin
h:=zz;
begin
pt [i' j] : =0;
end;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,2] :=i-1;pt[i,3]:=i+1;pt[i,zz]:=3;
end;
pt[0,1] :=O;pt[0,2] :=1;pt[O,zz] :=2;
pt [n,1] :=n;pt [n,2] :=n-1 ;pt [n,zz] :=2;
for i:=1 to n-1 do
begin
a1:=1.0/d[i+1];a2:=1.0/d[i];
p[i,1,1,1] :=-a1-a2;p[i,2,1,1]:=a2;p[i,3,1,1] :=a1;
p[i,1,1,2] :=-(s[i]+s[i+1])/4.0;p[i,2,1,2] :=-s[i]/4.0;
p[i,3,1,2] :=-s[i+1]/4.0;
p[i,zz,1,1] :=-(f[i]+f[i+1])/2.0;
p[i,1,2,2] :=-a1-a2;p[i,2,2,2]:=a2;p[i,3,2,2] :=a1;
p[i,1,2,1] :=(d[i]+d[i+1])/(4.0ei);
p[i,2,2,1] :=d[i]/(4.0ei);p[i,3,2,1] :=d[i+1]/(4.0ei);
end;
p[0,1,1,1] :=1.0;p[O,zz,1,1] :=m.a;
p[0,1,2,2] :=s[1]/4.0;p[0,2,2,2] :=s[1]/4.0;
p[0,1,2,1] :=1.0/d[1];p[0,2,2,1]:=-1.0/d[1];
p[O,zz,2,2]:=f[1]/2.0+fa;p[n,1,1,1] :=1.0;
p[n,1,2,2] :=s[n]/4.0;p[n,2,2,2] :=s[n]/4.0;
p[n,1,2,1] :=1.0/d[n];p[n,2,2,1] :=-1.0/d[n];
p[n,zz,2,2]:=f[n]/2.0;
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,h,k,l,ii,ij,ik,jj,jk,jl,jv,kc,kv,lv:integer;
cc,aa:real;
begin
h:=zz;
for i:=n dovnto 0 do
begin
begin
if p[i,1,kv,kv]=O.O then
begin
vriteln('Error :no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
cc:=1.0/p[i,1,kv,kv];
begin
p[i,ii,kv,lv]:=ccp[i,ii,kv,lv];
end;
begin
cc:=p[i,1,lv,kv];
CHAPTER 8

begin
p[i,ii,1v,ij]:=p[i,ii,1v,ij]-cc p[i,ii,kv,ij];
end;
p[i,zz,1v,1v] :=p[i,zz,1v,1v]-ccp[i,zz,kv,kv ];
end;
end;
if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];1:=pt[jj,zz];jk:=1;
for j1:=2 to 1 do begin if pt[jj,j1]=i then jk:=j1;end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for 1v:=1 to 2 do g[kv,1v]:=p[jj,jk,kv,1v];
pt [jj ,jk] :=pt [jj ,1] ;pt[jj ,1]: =0;
begin
p[jj,jk,kv,1v]:=p[jj,1,kv,1v];p [jj,1,kv,1v]:=O;
p[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=p[jj,zz,1v,1v]- g[1v,kv]p[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;pt[jj,zz] :=1;
for ii:=2 to kc.do
begin
ij:=O;for ik:=1 to 1 do
begin
end;
if ij=O then
begin
end;
p[jj,ij,kv,1v]:=p[jj,ij,kv,1v]- g[kv,jv]p[i,ii,jv,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
for j:=O ton do
begin
1:=pt[j,zz];if 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj :=pt [j ,k];
p[j,zz,kv,kv] :=p[j,zz,kv,kv]-p[j,k,kv,1v]p [jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=O to n do
begin
m[i] :=p[i,zz,1,1];u[i] :=p[i,zz,2,2];
end;
q[O]:=-fa;ff[O] :=O;for i:=1 ton do
begin
aa:=(m[i]-m[i-1])/d[i];
q[i] :=-q[i-1]+2aa;ff[i] :=(q[i-1]-q[i])/d[i];
139
CHAPTER 8
140
end;
end;
procedure update;
var
i:integer;aa:real;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
aa:=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2-ul[i];
if aa>=as[i] then ul[i] :=(u[i)+u[i-1])/2-as[i];
if aa<=-ps[i] then ul[i] :=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2+ps[i];
aa:=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2-ur[i];
if aa<=-as[i] then ur[i] :=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2+as[i];
if aa>=ps[i] then ur[i] :=(u[i]+u[i-1])/2-ps[i];
end;
end;
begin
input;constants;zeros;
for step:=1 to steps do
begin
title;it:=O;vriteln('Loading step ',step);vriteln;
vrite('Force at the top (kl) .............. ');readln(fa);vriteln;
vrite('Moment at the top (kim) ............ ');readln(ma);vriteln;
springs;
repeat
matrix;solve;springs;
if plast=2n then begin vriteln('Pile failed');nerr:=O;end;
it:=it+1;if it=ni then
begin
vriteln('Warning : no convergence ');vriteln;nerr:=O;
end;
until nerr=O;
if plast<2n then
begin
vriteln('Displacement at the top (m) ........ ',u[0]:8:6);
vriteln;
vriteln('lumber of plastic springs .......... ',plast);
next;update;
end
else step:=steps;
end;
title;
end.
Program LLP.
In this program the variables np[i] and nq[i] are used to indicate the branch of
the response curve for the springs on the left side and the right side of the pile,
respectively. A value 0 indicates the elastic branch, a value +1 indicates an active
state of stress in the soil, and a value -1 indicates a passive state of stress in the
soil. All values are initially estimated as zero, and then corrected in an iterative
way, until all predictions agree with the values obtained after solving the system
of equations. It may be noted that in checking the springs a small error ( eps)
is tolerated. This is introduced to avoid repeated iterations in the vicinity of a
141
corner point in the stress-strain curve. An essential part of the program is the
procedure update, in which the accumulated plastic deformations are updated for
the latest loading step.
The program works interactively; the user must enter all data describing the
properties ofthe pile and the soil, and then must give a value of the lateral force and
the moment at the top of the pile. The program will calculate the displacements,
iteratively, print the displacement at the top, and ask for a new value of the
force and moment. No other output is given. The user may add facilities to the
program for the presentation of other variables, such as the displacements and
bending moments along the pile shaft, in tabular or graphical form. It may also
be suggested that input and output data are assembled in datafiles, which may
then be used for easy editing, and for presentation purposes. The figures in this
chapter were made by such extended programs.
8.3.5
EXAMPLE
As an application of the program LLP a simple example will be considered. This

example applies to a steel tubular pile of 50 m length, with a diameter of 1 m,
and a wall thickness of 0.05 m, so that the bending stiffness of the pile EI is
4123000 kNm 2 . The active soil pressure coefficient has been taken as 0.333, the
passive coefficient as 3.0, and the neutral coefficient as 0.5. The cohesion has been
assumed to be zero, indicating a sandy soil. The (submerged) weight of the soil
has been assumed to be 10 kN/m3 , and the stroke has been taken as 0.01 m. The
pile is loaded by a force which gradually increases from zero to 1000 kN, is then
reduced to zero, with two subsequent reloading cycles up to 1000 kN. The loaddisplacement curve is shown in figure 8.11. The displacement corresponding to
the full load is about 0.12 m. As this is far beyond the value of the stroke, it can
readily be understood that during unloading plastic deformations occur again, as
can be seen from the figure. It also appears that there is a considerable hysteretic
damping in each cycle.
8.4
Cyclic lateral loading
Damping of energy in laterally loaded piles is an important physical phenomenon,

which is for instance used to great advantage in guard rails along motorways.
During a crash large amounts of energy are absorbed in the plastic deformation
of the soil. As the soil retains its friction, the barrier can easily be restored to its
original form and function.
This hysteretic damping of energy is also of great importance for the behaviour
in cyclic loading of large structures founded on piles. It is essential for this type
of damping that it is generated by dry friction, and is independent of the velocity.
This property is in sharp contrast with viscous damping, as produced by the
behaviour of a fluid, for instance in a dash pot, which is proportional to the velocity.
The effect of a viscous damper is very large when the frequency of the vibrations
is very high, and its influence practically vanishes when the load is applied very
142
CHAPTER 8
0
500
1000
P (kN)
0
i=
; ; ..... j ....
:
:
.:
.:
:
:
:
:
:
t~f
~t
;
.:
.:
.:
.
.:
.
...... ;
.......;..... j ; j . j ........... j ;
:
:
50
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
...... .:.. ...... ::...... .:.: ...... :............ :........... :....... .:.: ..... .
:
.:
.:
.
.
7=7= =7 =-=-
~
:
~
: : ~
~
100
. :
.
...... T.. :T:
:
~-=-~
...... -~ ...... !...... -~ ...... !...... . ..... !......
~~~~
7=7=
::
150
Ut
::
+...... !...... -~ ..... .
~~!~
=-=-=-=-
::
(mm)
Figure 8.11. Laterally loaded pile, Numerical solution.

slowly. This is not the case for a hysteretic, or plastic, damper. Here the effect is
mainly determined by the magnitude of the applied load, and not by the loading
rate. It will appear later, however, that it is still possible to compare the two types
of behaviour, and to determine an equivalent viscosity for the pile-soil system, at
least for certain forms of loading.
In order to further illustrate the effect of hysteretic damping occurring in a
laterally loaded pile, a pile is considered loaded by a cyclic load, varying between
+1000 kN and -1000 kN, see figure 8.12. All properties of the soil and pile are
the same as those for the example in the previous section. The pile length is
50 m, its diameter is 1 m, and its wall thickness is 0.05 m. The corresponding
bending stiffness of the pile is then 4123000 kNm 2 . The submerged unit weight of
the soil is 10 kN/m 3 , the active pressure coefficient is 0.333, the passive pressure
coefficient is 3.0, the neutral pressure coefficient is 0.5, the cohesion is zero, and the
stroke is 0.01 m. The response of the pile-soil system has been calculated using
the numerical program LLP, and is represented in figure 8.12, which shows the
response after three full cycles of loading. It appears from figure 8.12 that there
is very little difference between the behaviour in the various cycles, except in the
first one, during which some additional deformations occur. It seems that in the
143

.:
.......................................
:
:
..
..:
..:
. :
.
. :
.
.
. :
.
::::: :::::
:
: :
:
:
:
:
:
.
-1000 i
P (kN)
:
:
.
. :
. .
::::: ::::
:
: :
:....... : ....... : ....... :....... : .............. : ....... : ....... : .............. .
Ut
(mm)
Figure 8.12. Response to cyclic load.
first loading step an initial state of stress is created, and that thereafter the pile
behaviour is independent of the cycle number. This type of behaviour is known
as shakedown in plasticity theory. In the first cycle of loading a system of initial
stresses is generated in the structure, so that subsequent unloading and reloading
will bring the state of stress back to this initial state. It may be noted that this is
often true only if the maximum load in each cycle is constant.
The displacement of the pile top varies between +0.12 m and -0.12 min each
cycle, which is rather small, as a consequence of the high stiffness of the pile.
8.4.1
INFLUENCE OF SOIL PARAMETERS
In general a numerical model has the disadvantage that it is not immediately

clear in what way the various parameters influence the results. For this purpose
a parameter study has to be performed, in which each parameter is varied independently. In order to investigate the influence of the various parameters on the
damping of a laterally loaded pile, the problem considered above will be taken as
a reference case, and various parameters will be varied. This will appear to give a
good insight into the relative importance of the various soil parameters.
144
CHAPTER 8
SOIL STIFFNESS
First the soil stiffness will be varied, by taking three values for the stroke: 0.001 m,
0.01 m, and 0.1 m, keeping all other parameters constant. Because the strength
of the soil is kept constant, varying the stroke by a factor 10 means a variation of
the stiffness in the elastic branch by a factor 10.
The results of the numerical calculations, using the program LLP, are shown
in figure 8.13. The fully drawn curve corresponds to the reference case, with a
stroke of 0.01 m. The dashed curve is for the 10 times stiffer soil, with a stroke
of 0.001 m, and the dotted curve is for the 10 times softer soil, having a stroke of
0.1 m.
It can be seen from figure 8.13 that in general the influence of the soil stiffness
is very small. A noticeable influence can only be produced by making the soil 10
times softer, which results in an unrealistically large value for the stroke. Making
= 0.01
~u = 0.001
~u
~u
Ut
= 0.1
(mm)
the soil stiffer than the standard value has hardly any effect. The explanation is
that the applied force is large enough for the soil to reach the plastic domain, at
least near the top of the pile, and that the deformation of the pile mainly depends
upon the stresses in this top part, and on the stiffness of the pile itself.
The results also suggest that perhaps the approximate solution based upon
Blum's assumption, which was presented in an earlier section, can be used as
a valuable reference. This approximation can be considered to be based on the
145
assumption that the stroke is zero, which means that the soil stiffness is infinitely
large, but of course restricted to a certain domain, limited by active and passive
soil pressures.
It is recalled, from eqs. (8.30) and (8.31), that the approximate solution is, for
a cohesionless soil,
Ut
(Kp- Kah' Dh 5
(8.57)
45EI
where the value of h must be determined from the relation

(8.58)
In order to test the hypothesis that this approximation may describe the behaviour
of the pile-soil system with reasonable accuracy, the displacements at the top of
the pile are compared first. These displacements, calculated for a lateral force of
1000 kN, are listed in table 8.1. The value recorded for a zero stroke has been
obtained from the approximate formula, the others have been determined using
the numerical model. It appears that the displacements are indeed very close,
except for very large values of the stroke, that is for extremely soft soils. Such
stroke (m)
0.100
0.010
0.001
0.000
Ut
(m)
0.188
0.120
0.105
0.109
Table 8.1. Displacement at the top of the pile.
large values of the stroke seem to be unrealistic, and it may thus be concluded
that the approximate formula indeed gives a good prediction of the displacements
at full loading, provided that the lateral load is reasonably large.
SOIL STRENGTH
The influence of the soil strength on the cyclic response can be expected to be
much larger than the influence of the soil stiffness. This can also be seen from the
approximate formula, in which the soil strength dominates the behaviour. Actually, in this formula, see eqs. (8.57) and (8.58), the strength parameters Kp and Ka
appear such that the displacements are proportional to the factor (Kp - Ka)- 3 12 .
The hypothesis that the relation expressed by eqs. (8.57) and (8.58) is a good
approximation can be tested once more by plotting the displacements using the
predicted proportionality factor (Kp- Ka)- 312 as a scaling factor. The results
of the numerical calculations plotted in this way are shown in figure 8.14, for 3
values of the passive soil pressure coefficient : Kp = 1.5, 3, 6, and using the relation Ka = 1/ Kp to calculate the active soil pressure coefficient in each case. The
146
CHAPTER 8
full line has been obtained using Kp = 3 (the reference value), the dotted line is
for Kp = 6, and the dashed line is for Kp = 1.5. The displacements are plotted
multiplied by a correction factor ck, where
ck
(Kp- Ka)3f2
= (3.o- o.333) 312
859 )
This factor is equal to 1 in the reference case, for Kp = 3. It appears that the
Kp = 3.0
Kp = 1.5
Kp = 6.0
-1000:
: ....... :
P (kN)
.::j
....... : ....... : ....... : .............. : ....... : ....... : ....... : .......
:
Ck
Ut
(mm)
Figure 8.14. Influence of soil strength.

agreement is again rather good, and that the shape of the curve in general is in
good agreement with the hypothesis that the load-displacement relation contains
a factor (Kp- Ka)- 3 12 .
The general conclusion of all these comparisons can be that the approximate
relation, in which the soil behaviour is characterized by the strength only, and in
which the soil stiffness does not appear at all, gives a reasonable representation of
the behaviour of a laterally loaded pile, provided that the lateral load is relatively
large, and the soil is relatively stiff. The approximation does not hold if the load
is so small that the displacements of the pile remain in the elastic range.
APPROXIMATE RESPONSE TO CYCLIC LOAD
The approximate formula only applies to a gradually increasing load, and as such
does not give the possibility to describe the response to a cyclic load. In order to
147
apply the formula also for cyclic loading conditions, however, it may be assumed
that the formula is used to predict the amplitude of the response curve, and that
the shape of the response curve is simply obtained by considering the formula as a
type curve. This means that the behaviour in each loading cycle is taken such that
the displacement in each branch of the response curve is proportional to the load
applied in that branch to the power ~, with the actual numerical values determined
such that the amplitude is obtained from the equations (8.57) and (8.58). Thus
the amplitude of the response curve for a load varying between -1000 kN and
+1000 kN is assumed to be equal to the response to a first loading from 0 up to a
load of 1000 kN.
Figure 8.15 shows a comparison of the response obtained from the numerical
model, using a value of 0.01 m for the stroke, with the response obtained from
:...
............ ...
...... ~ ...... 1 ...... j....... j. ...... ......
. ~ ....... j....... :....... :....... :
.
.
.
.
..
.
:
:
:
~~!~
-~
~ ~~~
: Numerical solution
...... ~ ....... ;....... ~ ....... ~

000
:.:.:;.:_~
' :
... :.,:.: ... :::.: .. :
.. :::::
: 1qoo
-1000
P (kN)
::"'":
: ....... : ....... : ....... :
0
...... :...... :100
....... :............... .~ ....... : ....... ....... .~ ............... .: ....... :...... .

.
:
:
..........................
Ut (mm)
Figure 8.15. Comparison of numerical and approximate solutions.
the adapted approximate model, the dotted line in the figure. It appears that the
approximation is fairly good. Again the approximate formula appears to represent
the case of a very small stroke, that is a stiff soil, with sufficient accuracy.
8.4.2
EQUIVALENT SPRING AND DASHPOT
The availability of an approximate formula, eqs. (8.57) and (8.58), for the relation
between the force and the displacement enables to evaluate the energy dissipated
CHAPTER 8
148
in a full cycle of loading. Actually, one may write for the work done in loading
from -Pm to Pm,
{2Pm
wl = lo
{2Pm
p du =
lo
du
p dh dh.
(8.60)
With (8.57) and (8.58) this gives

20
(8.61)
W1 = 7PmaxUmax
In the unloading branch of the cycle the work done is

8
(8.62)
W2 = -7PmaxUmax,
the complement of the full value obtained by multiplying the total load 2Pm and
the total displacement 2um. Thus the total work done in a full cycle is
(8.63)
It is interesting to compare this result with the one obtained for a simple system
of a spring and a dash pot, in which the damping is of a viscous character, see
figure 8.16. If the spring constant is k and the viscosity of the damper is c the
Figure 8.16. Spring and dashpot.
equation of motion for such a system is

du
c dt
+ ku = P(t),
where P(t) is the applied force. For a cyclic load, P
(8.64)
= Pmax sin(wt) the response
lS
u = Umax sin(wt- 1/J),
(8.65)
where
(8.66)
and
tan'lj;
cw
= y
(8.67)
149
Ut
(mm)
Figure 8.17. Response of spring-dashpot system.
The response of the system is shown graphically in figure 8.17, and compared
with the approximate solution. Although the shape of the response curve is quite
different from the one for an elasto-plastic system, the general behaviour may well
be compared. Actually, the energy dissipated during a full cycle in this case is
= 7rPmaxUmax sin(').
(8.68)
Comparing this with (8.63) shows that the two expressions are equivalent if
1rsin() =
1:(.
(8.69)
It now follows that sin()= 0.54567, and thus= 33, and tan()= 0.65. This
means that the behaviour of a laterally loaded pile can be simulated by a system
of a spring and a dashpot, provided that the viscosity cis taken as
k
c = 0.65 -.
w
(8.70)
Here w is the frequency of the load, which is assumed to be known. The equivalent
spring constant k is defined as
k = 0.84
Pmax'
Umax
(8.71)
150
CHAPTER 8
where the factor 0.84 is obtained when the value cwfk = 0.65 is substituted into
eq. (8.66). The response shown in figure 8.17 has been determined such that the
maximum force and the maximum displacement correspond with those from the
elasto-plastic response, and such that the dissipation of energy in a full cycle is
equal.
In practical applications the maximum load can be considered to be known,
at least approximately. The corresponding maximum displacement can then be
determined from a non-linear analysis, using the approximate solution, eqs. (8.57)
and (8.58), or, better still, a numerical analysis. The equivalent viscosity can
then be estimated from (8.70). A better estimate can again be obtained from a
complete numerical analysis, and then evaluating the area of the response curve
to determine the work done in a full cycle. By comparing this with (8.68) the
value of .,P can be determined. Thus the values of an equivalent spring constant
and an equivalent viscosity may be obtained. These may then be used as input
parameters for a dynamic analysis of the entire structure. If necessary the values
of the spring constant and the viscosity may be updated on the basis of the results
of the analysis (because the assumed maximum load may not have been correct),
and the analysis may be repeated using these updated values.
It may be noted that eq. (8.70) states that the equivalent viscosity is inversely
proportional to the frequency. Thus for a high frequency (rapid variations) the
damping is small, and for a low frequency (slow variations) the damping is high.
In this way the resulting response is made independent of the actual frequency,
which should indeed be the case for damping generated by elasto-plastic elements.
Exercises
8.1 Modify the program LLP such that it reads the input data from a dataset, with a
cyclic variation of the applied load.
8.2 For a pile in a very soft soil the damping is not so large as in the case of stiff soils
considered in the comparison shown in figure 8.17. In order to compute an equivalent
viscosity, first perform a numerical analysis using the program LLP, with a force amplitude of 1000 kN and a stroke of 0.001 m. Then determine the spring constant k and the
viscosity c such that the response curve shows the same stiffness and the same dissipation.
8.3 Modify the program LLP such that it applies to a layered soil, and presents output
in graphical form on the screen.
CHAPTER9
PILE IN LAYERED ELASTIC MATERIAL
In the models presented in the previous chapters the pile-soil interaction has been
represented by a system of linear or non-linear springs. This means that the soil
response at a certain depth is assumed to be determined only by the local displacement of the pile. In that case the actual stress transfer in the soil has no influence
on the interaction of the soil and the pile. In more refined models the soil is represented by an elastic continuum. Examples of this are the models developed by
Poulos (1971), Banerjee & Davis (1978), Randolph (1981) and Verruijt & Kooijman (1989). This latter model, which applies to a laterally loaded pile only, will be
presented in this section. Compared to other models it has the advantage that it
can be generalized to include plastic deformations of the soil and the interaction of
a pile group with the soil (Kooijman, 1989). The model is quasi-three-dimensional,
in the sense that the distribution of stresses and strains is represented by a layered
system of two dimensional problems. Stress transfer between the layers is taken
into account, but in an approximative way only.
9.1
Elastic model
In the elastic version of the Kooijman model the soil is represented by a system of
elastic layers, of constant depth, see figure 9.1. The pile is a cylindrical inclusion in
--------------~//
--------------~'~'-------------------------~lr-1____________
Figure 9.1. Laterally loaded pile in layered elastic material.
a number of layers, at the top of the system. It can be expected that the horizontal
151
152
CHAPTER 9
loading of the soil by the pile will produce mainly horizontal deformations. This
seems to justify the assumption that the vertical deformations can be disregarded,
compared to the horizontal deformations.
The basic differential equations can be obtained by averaging the three-dimensional equations of equilibrium in the two horizontal directions over the thickness
of a layer, neglecting all terms involving the vertical displacement. This leads to
the following equations
au XX
ax
auyx
ax
au xy
ax
auyy
ax
Q _ 0
X
>
Q - 0
y- ,
(9.1)
(9.2)
where Uxx, Uyy and Uxy are the average stresses in a horizontal layer, and Qx and
Qy represent the body forces. These body forces are supposed to be generated by
the interaction with the layers above and below the layer considered,
+ Uzx
_ Uzx-
X-
>
(9.3)
(9.4)
where h is the thickness of the layer, and where the superscripts + and - denote
the values at the bottom and the top of the layer, respectively.
The shear stresses Uzx and Uzy at the top and the bottom of the i-th layer
can be expressed in terms of the shear strains czx and czy by using Hooke's law.
When the vertical displacements are again disregarded, these shear strains can be
expressed into the horizontal displacements only. This gives
Uzx
au
= G az,
(9.5)
(9.6)
where G is the shear modulus of the soil in the layer considered. The partial
derivatives in z-direction can be approximated by finite difference approximations.
If a section from the center of layer i to the center of layer i + 1 is considered, one
may write
au
ui+l- u;
az ~ ~(hi+l + h;),
(9.7)
av
Vi+l- v;
az ~ Hhi+l + h;)
(9.8)
The shear stresses must be continuous across the boundary from layer i to layer
i + 1. If the shear modulus in these two layers is different this requires that
153
(9.9)
(9.10)
Using some elementary finite difference approximations, in which it is assumed

that the displacements in layer i and i + 1 are continuous on their interface, and
satisfy the conditions (9.9) and (9.10), it can be shown that
(9.11)
Vi+l-Vi
( _) -( +)""'
rTzy +l- rTzy ',....., !{hi+r/Gi+l + h;jG;)'
(9.12)
The body forces Qx and Qy , as expressed by eqs. ( 9.3) and ( 9.4), can now be
determined if an estimate or a first approximation of the horizontal displacements
u and v in the various layers is available. This results in equations of the form of a
plane stress problem, as described by eqs. (9.1) and (9.2). Solving these equations,
for each layer, will result in a second approximation of the displacement field in
each layer. This second approximation can then be used to determine a better
estimation for the body forces Q x and Qy. A third approximation can then be
obtained by solving the system of equations (9.1) and (9.2) again, with the updated
values of the body forces, and thus a complete solution can be determined in an
iterative way, in which the displacements in each layer will gradually be improved.
The pile itself is considered as a beam supported by the surrounding soil. The
basic equations for such a beam are the well known equations for a beam on elastic
foundation (Hetenyi, 1946).
d2 M
dz2 =- f
d2 u
dz 2
+ ku,
M
-
EI'
(9.13)
(9.14)
in which M is the bending moment in the pile, f is a given lateral load, k is a

spring constant, u is the lateral displacement of the pile, and EI is the flexural
rigidity of the pile. These equations can be solved numerically by using a finite
difference technique. Even if a very small finite difference is used, so that the
number of numerical equations becomes very large (say 1000), the system is very
well conditioned, with a small band in the matrix. The numerical solution presents
no difficulties, see chapter 5.
The numerical formulation of the interaction between pile and soil is
(9.15)
where F; is the force transmitted to the pile in layer i, and ui is the lateral
displacement of layer j at the pile-soil interface. This equation can also be written
as
154
CHAPTER 9
F; = k;u;
+ F;'",
(9.16)
where F;* represents the contribution of all layers except layer i. Equation (9.16)
is of the form of the right hand side of eq. (9.13), and can thus be used to calculate
the deformations of the pile. The coefficients of the matrix K;i can be calculated
by a finite element analysis of the layered soil system, with a unit displacement in
a single layer.
The final iterative procedure is as follows.
1. First the spring constants of all layers are calculated from a series of finite
element analyses of the layered soil system, with a unit displacement in one
layer, and zero displacement in all the others.
2. A finite difference analysis of the pile is performed, using the spring constants
calculated in step 1, and disregarding the influence of the other layers (i.e.
assuming F;* = 0).
3. Using the displacements of the pile-soil interface as boundary conditions, a
series of finite element calculations is made, in which the displacement field
in each layer is determined.
4. From the finite element results a better approximation of the interaction
coefficients between the soil and the pile can be determined. The analysis
of the pile can now be repeated, resulting in a better estimate of the pile
displacements.
5. The finite element calculations can be repeated, using the latest estimates
of the pile displacements as boundary conditions.
The procedure can be stopped if a given accuracy condition is met, or, more simply,
after a given number of iterations (say 10).
9.2
Computer program
A program that performs the calculations is printed below, as the program PILAT.
Part of the data, namely the data describing the geometry of the mesh of finite
elements, is read from a datafile PILAT.DAT, which must be given by the user.
The other data, such as the length, diameter and wall thickness of the pile, must
be given interactively by the user. The program applies to a homogeneous tubular
pile, of circular cross section. The maximum number of soil layers is 20, 10 layers
adjacent to the pile and 10 layers below it. Below these layers the displacements
are zero, indicating a stiff base layer. In the finite difference analysis of the pile
itself it is subdivided into 80 elements of equal length.
It may be noted that the data of the finite element mesh (as defined in the
datafile PILAT.DAT) are such that node 1 is the origin of the pile, and node 2 is
on the circumference of the pile. All dimensions are scaled by the program such
155
that the correct diameter of the pile is obtained, as defined by the input data of
the main program. It has been assumed that the soil properties are such that the
deformation field is symmetric with respect to the two axes. This means that only
one quarter of the field is needed to represent the soil, together with appropriate
boundary conditions which simulate the symmetry. The outer ring of elements
has been given a reduced stiffness, with a multiplication factor 0.5, in order to
simulate the soil outside the mesh, up to infinity.
When all interactive data have been entered by the user the program reads
the input data of the mesh from the datafile PILAT.DAT. Output data consist of
a list of the displacement, the bending moment, the shear force, and the contact
pressure, as functions of the depth, along the pile.
program pilat;
uses crt;
const
ss=80;zz=4;bb=16;nnn=37;mmm=54;111=20;
var
length,diam,vall,elast,ei,orce,mament,error,dz,dv:real;
nl,np,nm,ns,ni,sb,nn,mm,ll,band,it,il,in:integer;
z,s,m,q,u,:array[O .. ss] o real;
p:array[O .. ss,l. .zz,l. .2,1. .2] o real;
x,y:array[1 .. nnn] o real;xt,yt:array[1 .. nnn] o integer;
ux,uy:array[1 .. nnn,O .. 111] o real;
uq,q,vq,es,ps,gs:array[O .. lll] o real;
r:array[1 .. 2nnn] o real;pp:array[1 .. 2*nnn,1 .. bb] o real;
nj:array[l .. 111111111,1 .. 3] o integer;el,pn,bx,by:array[l .. lllllllll] o rea:!.;
pt: array[O .. ss ,1 .. zz] o integer;g: array[1 .. 2 ,1 .. 2] o real;
data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' PILAT ');
end;
procedure nert;
var
a:char;
begin
write(' Touch any key to continue ');vrite(chr(8));
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j:integer;ro,ri,pi,a,b:real;
begin
title;vriteln;
vriteln('This is a program or the analysis o a laterally loaded');
vriteln('pile in a soil, consisting o elastic layers, vith shear');
vriteln('stress transer between the layers. ');vriteln;
vriteln('General data :');vriteln;
vrite('Length o pile (m) ................... ');readln(length);
vrite('Diameter (m) ......................... ');readln(diam);
vrite('Vall thickness (m) ................... ');readln(vall);
vrite('Modulus o elasticity (GPa) .......... ');readln(elast);
156
elast:=1000elast;elast:=1000elast;
pi:=3.1415926;ro:=diam/2.0;ri:=ro-vall;
ei:=elastpi(rorororo-riririri)l4.0;
vrite('Soil layers next to pile (max. 10) ... );readln(nl);
if (nl<2) then nl:=2;if (nl>10) then nl:=10;np:=nl-1;dv:=lengthlnl;
vrite('Soil layers belov pile (max. 10) ..... ');readln(ns);ns:=ns+1;
if (ns<O) then ns:=O;if (ns>11) then ns:=11;nm:=np+ns;ns:=nm-1;
vrite('Lateral force (kl) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ');readln(force);
vrite('Moment (kim) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ');readln(moment);
vrite('Acceptable error ..................... ');readln(error);
if (error<O) then error:=O.O;if (error>1) then error:=1;
vrite{Kaximum nUIIIber of iterations ......... ');readln(ni);
if (ni<2) then ni:=2;if (ni>100) then ni:=100;
sb:=nlround(int(80.0inl));dz:=lengthlsb;z[O]:=O;s[O]:=O;
for i:=1 to sb do z[i]:=idz;
title;vriteln;
vriteln('Properties of layers next to pile :');vriteln;
for i:=1 to nl do
begin
vrite('Layer ',i:3,'
Modulus of elasticity (kPa) ... ');
readln(es[i]);
Poisson ratio ................. ');
readln(ps [i]) ;
if (ps[i]<O) then ps[i]:=O;if (ps[i]>0.5) then ps[i] :=0.5;
gs [i] :=es [i] I (2 (1 +ps [i])) ;ps[i] : =ps [i] l(1+ps [i]);
es[i]:=2gs[i](1+ps[i]);
end;
title;vriteln;
vriteln('Properties of layers below pile :');vriteln;
for i:=nl+1 to nm do
begin
Modulus of elasticity (kPa) ... >);
read.ln(es[i]);
Poisson ratio ................. );
readln(ps[i]);
if (ps[i]<O) then ps[i]:=O;if (ps[i]>0.5) then ps[i] :=0.5;
gs [i] :=es [i] I (2 (l+ps [i])) ;ps[i] : =ps [i] /(1 +ps[i]);
es[i] :=2gs[i](1+ps[i]);
end;
for i:=1 to nm do
begin
a:=idw;b:=a-dw;
for j:=O to sb do if (z[j]>b) and (z[j]<=a) then s[j] :=es[i]dz;
end;
end;
procedure pilematrix;
var
i,j,k,l:integer;a1,b1,b2,c1:real;
begin
a1:=1ldz;
for i:=O to sb do for j:=1 to zz do
begin
pt[i,j] :=0;
end;
for i:=1 to sb-1 do
CHAPTER 9

begin
end;
pt[0,1] :=O;pt[0,2] :=1;pt[O,zz] :=2;
pt[sb,1]:=sb;pt[sb,2] :=sb-1;pt[sb,zz] :=2;
for i:=1 to sb-1 do
begin
p[i,1,1,1] :=-2a1;p[i,2,1,1] :=a1;p[i,3,1,1]:=a1;
p[i,1,1,2] :=-(s[i]+s[i+1])/4;p[ i,2,1,2] :=-s[i]/4;
p[i,3,1,2] :=-s[i+1]/4;p[i,zz,1, 1] :=O;p[i,1,2,2] :=-2a1;
p[i,2,2,2] :=a1;p[i,3,2,2] :=a1;p[i,1,2,1] :=dz/(2ei);
p[i,2,2,1] :=dz/(4ei);p[i,3,2,1 ] :=dz/(4ei);
end;
p[0,1,1,1] :=1;p[0,1,2,2] :=s[1]/4;p[0,2,2,2] :=s[1]/4;
p [0, 1, 2, 1] : =a1; p [0, 2, 2, 1] : =-a1 ;
p[O,zz,1,1]:=~oment;p[O,zz,2,2] :=force;
p[sb,1,1,1]:=1;p[sb,1 ,2,2] :=s[sb]/4;p[sb,2,2,2] :=s[sb]/4;
p[sb,1,2,1]:=a1;p[sb ,2,2,1] :=-a1;p[sb,zz,2,2]:=0 ;
end;
procedure pilesolve;
var
i,j,k,l,ii,ij,ik,jj,jk, jl,jv,kc,kv,lv:inte ger;
cc,aa:real;
begin
for i:=sb dovnto 0 do
begin
begin
if (p[i,1,kv,kv]=O) then
begin
vriteln('Error :no equilibrium possible');halt;
end;
cc:=1.0/p[i,1,kv,kv];
begin
p[i,ii,kv,lv]:=ccp[ i,ii,kv,lv];
end;
begin
cc:=p[i,1,lv,kv];
begin
p[i,ii,lv,ij] :=p[i,ii,lv,ij]-ccp [i,ii,kv,ij];
end;
p[i,zz,lv,lv]:=p[i,zz ,lv,lv]-ccp[i,zz,kv, kv];
end;
end;
if (kc>1) then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];l:=pt[jj, zz] ;jk:=l;
for jl:=2 to 1 do begin if (pt[jj,jl]=i) then jk:=jl;end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for lv:=1 to 2 do g[kv,lv]:=p[jj,jk,kv ,lv];
pt[jj,jk] :=pt[jj,l];pt[jj,l] :=0;
157
158
CHAPTER 9
begin
p[jj,jk,kv,1v]:=p[jj,1,kv,1v];p[jj,1,kv,1v] :=0;
p[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=p[jj,zz,1v,1v]-g[1v,kv]p[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;pt[jj,zz]:=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=O;
for ik:=1 to 1 do
begin
if (pt [jj,ik]=pt [i, iil> then ij :=ik;
end;
if (ij=O) then
begin
end;

p[jj,ij,kv,1v] :=p[jj,ij,kv,1v]-g[kv,jv]p[i,ii,jv,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
for j:=O to sb do
begin
1:=pt[j,zz];if (1>1) then
begin
:for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj:=pt[j,k];
:for kv:=1 to 2 do :for 1v:=1 to 2 do
p[j,zz,kv,kv]:=p[j,zz,kv,kv]-p[j,k,kv,1v]*P[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
:for i:=O to sb do
begin
m[i] :=p[i,zz,1,1] ;u[i] :=p[i,zz,2,2];
end;
q[O]:=-force;ff[O] :=0;
for i:=1 to sb do
begin
aa:=(m[i]-m[i-1])/dz;q[i] :=-q[i-1]+2aa;
ff[i]:=q[i]-q[i-1];
end;
end;
procedure meshinput;
var
i,j,k:integer;aa,c2,tc:real;name:string;
begin
name:='PILAT.DlT';
assign(data,name);reset(data);readln(data,nn,mm);11:=2nn;
for i:=1 to nn do readln(data,x[i],y[i],xt[i],yt[i]);
aa:=diam/(2x[2]);
for i:=1 to nn do begin x[i]:=aax[i];y[i]:=aay[i];end;
for j:=1 to mm do readln(data,nj[j,1],nj[j,2],nj[j,3],e1[j]);
159

close(data);
for i:=1 to nn do for j:=1 to nm do begin ux[i,j] :=O;uy[i,j]:=O;end;
band:=O;for j:=1 to mm do
begin
k:=abs(nj[j,1]-nj[j,2]);if (k>band) then band:=k;
end;
band:=2(band+1);
if (band>bb) then
begin
vriteln('Band vidth too large.');vriteln;halt;
end;
end;
procedure pileoutput;
var
i,l,i1,i2:integer;
begin
l:=O;i1:=0;vhile 1=0 do
begin
title;
vriteln('
i
z
u
K
vriteln;i2:=i1+20;if (i2>sb) then i2:=sb;
for i:=i1 to i2 do
begin
vriteln(i:10,z[i] :14:6,u[i]:14:6,m[i]:14:6,q[i] :14:6);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if (i1>=sb) then 1:=1;
end;
clrscr;
end;
procedure soilmatrix(layer:integer;it:integer);
var
i,j,k,ia,ib,iu,iv,ka,ku,kv,kk,kl,km:integer;
d,aa,dd,ee,em,gm,pn,dg,a1,a2:real;xx,yy,b,c:array[1 .. 3] of real;
pa,qa,sa:array[1 .. 3,1 .. 3] of real;
begin
for i:=1 to 11 do
begin
r[i]:=O;for j:=1 to band do pp[i,j] :=0;
end;
vrite(' Layer ',layer:2,' : ');
for j:=1 to mm do
begin
em:=es[layer]el[j];gm:=el[j];pn:=ps[layer];
i f (layer<=nl) then
begin
k:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do if (nj[j,i]=1) then k:=1;
if (k=1) then begin em:=em1000;gm:=O;end;
end;
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=nj [j, i] ;n[i] :=x[k] ;yy[i] :=y[k];
end;
b [1] : =yy [2] -yy [3] ; b [2] : =yy [3] -yy [1] ; b [3] : =yy [1] -yy [2] ;
c [1] : =n [3] -u [2] ; c [2] : =u [1] -u [3] ; c [3] : =xx [2] -u [1] ;
Q');
CHAPTER 9
160
d:=abs(xx[l]b[l]+xx[2]b[2]+xx [3]b[3]);gm:=gmd/(6dvdv);
dd:=em/(4d(l+pn));ee:=2*Pn/(1 -2pn);aa:=2+ee;
for i:=l to 3 do for k:=l to 3 do
begin
pa[i,k]:=dd(aab[i]b[k]+c[i] c[k]);
qa[i,k]:=dd(eeb[i]c[k]+c[i] b[k]);
sa[i,k]:=dd(aac[i]c[k]+b[i] b[k]);
end;
for i:=l to 3 do
begin
ia:=nj[j,i] ;iu:=2ia-1;
for k:=l to 3 do
begin
ka:=nj[j,k];ku:=2ka-iu;if (ku>O) then
begin
kv:=ku+l;pp[iu,ku] :=pp[iu,ku]+pa[i,k];
pp[iu,kv] :=pp[iu,kv]+qa[i,k];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=l to 3 do
begin
ia:=nj[j,i];iv:=2ia;
for k:=l to 3 do
begin
ka:=nj[j,k];ku:=2ka-iv;kv:=ku +l;if (kv>O) then
begin
pp[iv,kv]:=pp[iv,kv]+sa[i,k];
if (ku>O) then pp[iv,ku] :=pp[iv,ku]+qa[k,i];
end;
end;
end;
if (it>l) then
begin
for k:=l to 3 do
begin
i:=nj[j,k];ib:=2i;ia:=ib-l;
if (xt[i]<l) then
begin
dg:=gmgs[layer];if (layer<nm) then
begin
dg:=2gmgs[layer+l]gs[layer] /(gs[layer+l]+gs[layer]);
r[ia] :=r[ia]+dgux[i,layer+l];
end;
pp[ia,l] :=pp[ia,l]+dg;
if (layer>l) then
begin
dg:=2gmgs[layer-l]gs[layer] /(gs[layer-l]+gs[layer]);
r[ia] :=r[ia]+dgux[i,layer-l];pp[ia, l] :=pp[ia,l]+dg;
end;
end;
if (yt[i]<l) then
begin
dg:=gmgs[layer];if (layer<nm) then
begin
dg:=2gmgs[layer+l]gs[layer] /(gs[layer+l]+gs[layer]);

r[ib]:=r[ib]+gmuy[i,1ayer+1];
end;
pp[ib,1]:=pp[ib,1]+gm;
i (1ayer>1) then
begin
dg:=2gmgs[1ayer-1]gs[1ayer]/(gs[1ayer-1]+gs[1ayer]);
r[ib] :=r[ib]+dg*uy[i,1ayer-1];pp[ib,1]:=pp[ib,1]+dg;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
or i:=1 to nn do
begin
k:=2i-1;i xt[i]>O then
begin
pp[k,1]:=1;i k>1 then
begin
kk:=k-band+1;kl:=k-1;i kk<1 then kk:=1;
or j:=kk to kl do pp[j,k-j+1]:=0;
end;
or j:=2 to band do pp[k,j]:=O;
end;
k:=2i;i yt[i]>O then
begin
pp[k,1]:=1;kk:=k-band+1;i kk<1 then kk:=1;
kl:=k-1;
or j:=kk to kl do pp[j,k-j+1] :=0;
i k<11 then or j:=2 to band do pp[k,j] :=0;
end;
end;
end;
procedure soilso1ve(1ayer:integer;it:integer;1:integer);
var
i,j,k,11,lm,jj,mm,nc,iz,ii:integer;
a1,a2,a3,aa:real;
begin
or i:=l to 1 do
begin
11:=band;lm:=1-i+1;i (11>lm) then 11:=lm;
or j:=1 to 11 do
begin
a1:=pp[i,j];pp[i,j]:=1;jj:=j-1;mm:=band-jj;i (mm>i) then mm:=i;
vhile mm>1 do
begin
k:=i~+1;a2:=pp[k,mm];a3:=pp[k,mm+jj];a1:=a1-pp[k,1]a2a3;
mm:=mm-1;
end;
pp[i,j] :=a1/pp[i,1];
end;
end;
r[1] :=q[1ayer]/(4dv);
nc:=band-1;or i:=2 to 1 do
begin
a1:=r[i];k:=i-nc;i (k<1) then k:=1;
iz:=i-1;or j:=k to iz do a1:=a1-pp[j,i-j+1]r[j];
161
162
r[i]: =al;
end;
or i:=l to 1 do r[i] :=r[i]/pp[i,l];
or ii:=2 to 1 do
begin
i:=l-ii+l;al:=r[i];iz: =i+nc;i (iz>l) then iz:=l;
k:=i+1;or j:=k to iz do a1:=a1-pp[i,j-i+l]r [j];
r[i]: =al;
end;
aa:=1;i (it=1) and (layer<=nl) then aa:=uq[layer]/r[l];
or i:=l to nn do
begin
k:=2i;j:=k-1;ux[i,la yer]:=aar[j];uy[i,la yer]:=aar[k];
end;
r[l]:=aar[l];vriteln ('u = ',r[1]:12:6);
end;
procedure pilereactionl;
var
i,j,k:integer;a,b:rea l;
begin
or i:=1 to nm do begin uq[i] :=O;q[i] :=O;end;
uq[l]:=u[O];
or i:=1 to nl do
begin
a:=idv;b:=a-dv;k:=O ;i (i=l) then k:=l;
or j:=O to sb do
begin
i (z[j]>b) and (z[j]<=a) then
begin
q[i] :=q[i]+[j];uq[i] :=uq[i]+u[j];k:=k+1;
end;
end;
uq[i]:=uq[i]/k;
end;
end;
procedure pilereaction2;
var
i,j,k:integer;a,b,c,d ,aa:real;
begin
d:=0.000001;
or i:=1 to nl do
begin
a:=idv;b:=a-dv;k:=O; c:=O;q[i]:=O;
i (i=l) then begin k:=1;c:=p[O,zz,2,2];e nd;
or j:=O to sb do
begin
i (z[j]>b) and (z[j]<=a) then
begin
q[i]:=q[i]+[j];c: =c+p[j,zz,2,2];k:=k+ 1;
end;
end;
c:=c/k;i (abs(uq[i])<d) then aa:=c/d else aa:=c/uq[i];
or j:=1 to nn do
begin
ux [j, i] : =aaux [j, i] ; uy [j, i] : =aauy [j , i] ;
end;
CHAPTER 9
163
end;
end;
procedure update;
var
i,j,k:integer;a,b,d,rs:real;
begin
d:=0.000001;
for i:=1 to nl do
begin
a:=iadv;b:=a-dv;if (abs(uq[i])<d) then uq[i] :=d;
rs:=abs(fq[i]/(dvauq[i]));
for j:=O to sb do
begin
if (z[j]>b) and (z[j]<=a) then s[j]:=rsadz;
end;
end;
end;
procedure test(var fin:integer;it:integer);
var
a,b,c,d:real;i:integer;
begin
a:=abs(erroravq[1]);c:=O;
for i:=1 to nl do begin d:=abs(erroravq[i]);if (d>a) then a:=d;end;
for i:=1 to nl do
begin
b:=abs(uq[i]-vq[i]);uq[i] :=vq[i];if (b>c) then c:=b;
end;
fin:=1;if (c>a) and (it<ni) then fin:=-1;
if (it=1) then fin:=-1;
end;
begin
input;meshinput;title;vriteln;fin:=-1;it:=O;
vhile (fin<O) do
begin
it:=it+1;title;vriteln('lteration ',it);vriteln('Analysis of pile');
pilematrix;pilesolve;
i (it=l) than pilereactionl elsa pi1araaction2;
vriteln('Analysis of soil');
for il:=1 to nm do
begin
soilmatrix(il,it);soilsolve(il,it,ll);vq[il]:=r[1];
end;
test(fin,it);update;
end;
pilaoutput;
end.
Program PILAT.
The meaning of the input data describing the datafile PILAT.DAT, which are read
by the procedure meshinput, is given in table 9.1. The type indicators xt [i] and
yt [i] are used to distinguish between interior nodes in the mesh, for which the
force is prescribed as zero, and nodes on the boundary, for which one or both displacement components may be prescribed. On the outer boundary this prescribed
displacement is zero, but on the inner boundary, this prescribed displacement is
164
CHAPTER 9
nn
mm
x[i]
y[i]
xt[i]
Number of nodes
Number of elements
x-coordinate of node i
y-coordinate of node i
indicator for the type of node i
if xt[i] > 1 : ux[i] prescribed
if xt[i] < 1 : fx[i] = 0
if yt[i] > 1 : uy[i] prescribed
if yt[i] < 1 : fy[i] = 0
first node of element j
second node of element j
third node of element j
multiplication factor for elasticity modulus in element j
yt[i]
nj[i,1]
nj[i,2]
nj[i,3]
el[i]
Table 9.1. Input parameters for mesh.
the displacement of the pile, which is calculated by the deformation analysis of

the pile. The multiplication factor el[j] defines the modulus of elasticity of an
element, together with the value es [i] , which must be entered interactively. The
value of the modulus of elasticity of element j in layer i is es [i] *el [j] . This
enables to introduce variable properties in each layer. Actually, in the example it
has been used to reduce the stiffness of the elements along the outer boundary by
a factor 0.5, in order to better represent the deformations of the material up to
infinity.
As an example a mesh of finite elements in each layer, as defined by the datafile
PILAT.DAT, is shown in figure 9.2. The number of elements is 37, and the number
of nodes is 54. Part of the datafile is reproduced below.
37
54
0.000
3.000
2.828
2.120
1.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
2.120
2.828
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
2
0.000
2
43.000
2
90.000
2
90.000
2
90.000
2
1.0
3
4
1.0
5
1.0
6
1.0
7
1.0
2
2
2
2
2
.......................
. . .. .. . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . ..
. . .. .. . . . . .. . .. . .. .. . . .
90.000
90.000
90.000
43.000
0.000
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
2
3
165
Figure 9.2. Finite element mesh.
00
. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . .. . ..
32
32
30
30
30
34
35
32
36
31
35
36
36
37
37
00
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Datafile PILAT.DAT.
Some results for an example are shown in figure 9.3. The example concerns a
steel pile in a soil consisting of 10 layers, with the elastic stiffness of layers 3 and
4 being 10 times smaller than that of the other layers. The length of the pile is
20 m, its diameter is 1 m, and its wall thickness is 0.04 m. The soil properties
are E = 5000 kPa and 11 = 0.0, except in layers 3 and 4, in which the stiffness is a
factor 10 smaller, E = 500 kPa. The lateral force at the pile top is 1000 kN, and
the moment applied at the top is zero. The required accuracy has been taken as
0.01, and the maximum number of iterations as 100.
The shear force distribution calculated by the program is shown in figure 9.3.
It can be seen that in the weaker section the shear force is practically constant,
which indicates that the lateral force (the derivative of the shear force) is indeed
very small in the layers 3 and 4. The number of iterations necessary to reach the
required accuracy of 1 % appears to be 7.
A more advanced model (LPG) has been developed by Kooijman (1989). In
this model the soil layers have elasto-plastic properties, and the geometry in the
horizontal plane is more general, so that a group of closely spaced piles can be
represented. This makes it possible to include the mutual influence of the piles on
their displacements, even in the case of overlapping plastic zones. In Kooijman's
model it is also possible to take into account the possible development of a gap in
166
CHAPTER 9
z
Figure 9.3. Shear force distribution.
the wake of each pile, if the tensile strength of the soil is exceeded. The gap may
later be closed again, if the force is reversed.
Exercises
9.1 Run the program PILAT for a pile in a homogeneous soil, and compare the results
with those shown in figure 9.3.
9.2 Extend the program PILAT with facilities for graphical output, showing the bending moment, the shear force, and the displacement on the screen.
9.3 In the program PILAT the outer ring of elements has been given a reduced stiffness,
in order to simulate the flexibility of the material outside the mesh, up to infinity. This
is realized by the factor 0.5 for the parameter el [j] for the last 8 elements in the datafile
PILAT.DAT. Investigate the importance of this feature, by running the program with a
modified datafile, in which this factor is set equal to 1.0.
CHAPTER 10
WAVES IN PILES
In this chapter the problem of the propagation of compression waves in piles is

studied. This problem is of importance when considering the behaviour of a pile
and the soil during pile driving, and under dynamic loading. Because of the onedimensional character of the problem this is also one of the simplest problems
of wave propagation in a mathematical sense, and therefore it may be used to
illustrate some of the main characteristics of dynamics. Several methods of analysis
will be used : the Laplace transform method, separation of variables, the method
of characteristics, and numerical solution.
Basic equation
10.1
Consider a pile of constant cross sectional area A, consisting of a linear elastic

material, with modulus of elasticity E. If there is no friction along the shaft of
N
..............
. .. .. . .. .. . . .
..
... ... .... ... .......... ......
N+!:::..N
the pile the equation of motion of an element is
aN
a2 w
8z = pA at2
(10.1)
where p is the mass density of the material, and w is the displacement in axial
direction. The normal force N is related to the stress by
N = uA,
and the stress is related to the strain by Hooke's law for the pile material
= Ec:.
Finally, the strain is related to the vertical displacement w by the relation
c: = awjaz.
167
168
CHAPTER 10
Thus the normal force N is related to the vertical displacement w by the relation
N
= EA 0azw .
(10.2)
Substitution of eq. (10.2) into eq. (10.1) gives
82 w
f)z2
82w
= p /}t2 .
(10.3)
This is the wave equation. It can be solved analytically, for instance by the Laplace
transform method or by the method of characteristics, or it can be solved numerically. All these techniques are presented in this chapter. The analytical solution
will give insight into the behaviour of the solution. A numerical model is particularly useful for more complicated problems, involving friction along the shaft of
the pile, and non-uniform properties of the pile and the soil.
Solution by Laplace transform method
10.2
Many problems of one-dimensional wave propagation can be solved conveniently by

the Laplace transform method (Churchill, 1972). Some examples of this technique
are given in this section.
10.2.1
PILE OF INFINITE LENGTH
The Laplace transform of the displacement w is defined by
w(z,s)
00
w(z,t) exp(-st)dt,
(10.4)
where s is the Laplace transform parameter, which can be assumed to have a

positive real part. Now consider the problem of a pile of infinite length, which is
initially at rest, and on the top of which a constant pressure is applied, starting
at timet = 0. The Laplace transform of the differential equation (10.3) now is
d2 w
dz2
s2
c2
w,
{10.5)
where c is the wave velocity,
c=
VEfP.
(10.6)
The solution of the ordinary differential equation (10.5) which vanishes at infinity
IS
w = Aexp( -szjc).
(10.7)
The integration constant A (which may depend upon the transformation parameter
s, but not on z) can be obtained from the boundary condition. For a constant
pressure p 0 applied at the top of the pile this boundary condition is
169
WAVES IN PILES
aw = -po.
z = 0, t > 0 : E az
(10.8)
The Laplace transform of this boundary condition is

d:fiJ
Po
dz
z=O: E-=--.
(10.9)
With (10.7) the value of the constant A can now be determined. The result is
pc
(10.10)
A= Es2'
so that the final solution of the transformed problem is
pc
= Es 2 exp( -szfc).
(10.11)
The inverse transform of this function can be found in elementary tables of Laplace
transforms, see for instance Abramowitz & Stegun (1964) or Churchill (1972). The
final solution now is
_ pc(t- zfc) H(
/ )
E
t-zc,
(10.12)
W-
where H(t- t 0 ) is Heaviside's unit step function, defined as
H(t _to)= { 0, ~f t < t 0 ,

1, tft>to.
(10.13)
The solution (10.12) indicates that a point in the pile remains at rest as long as
t < zfc. From that moment on (this is the moment of arrival of the wave) the
point starts to move, with a linearly increasing displacement, which represents a

constant velocity.
It may seem that this solution is in disagreement with Newton's second law,
which states that the velocity of a mass point will linearly increase in time when a
constant force is applied. In the present case the velocity is constant. The moving
mass gradually increases, however, so that the results are really in agreement with
Newton's second law: the momentum (mass times velocity) linearly increases with
time. Actually, Newton's second law is the basic principle involved in deriving the
basic differential equation (10.3), so that no disagreement is possible, of course.
10.2.2
PILE OF FINITE LENGTH
The Laplace transform method can also be used for the analysis of waves in piles
of finite length. Many solutions can be found in the literature (Churchill, 1972;
Carslaw & Jaeger, 1948). An example will be given below.
Consider the case of a pile of finite length, say h, see figure 10.2. The boundary
z 0 is free of stress, and the boundary z h undergoes a sudden displacement,
at time t
0. Thus the boundary conditions are
= 0,
aw
> 0 : Bz
= 0,
(10.14)
170
CHAPTER 10
1:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1
Figure 10.2. Pile of finite length.
and
z
= h,
t>0 : w
= wo.
(10.15)
The general solution of the transformed differential equation

d2 w
s2
-d2=2w,
z
c
(10.16)
w =A exp(szfc) + B exp( -szfc).
(10.17)
lS
The constants A and B (which may depend upon the Laplace transform parameter
s) can be determined from the transforms of the boundary conditions (10.14) and
(10.15). The result is
wo cosh(szfc)
w - -
-..,......;.--:-'--:--:-
(10.18)
s cosh(shfc)
The mathematical problem now remaining is to find the inverse transform of this
expression. This can be accomplished by using the complex inversion integral
(Churchill, 1972), or its simplified form, the Heaviside expansion theorem, see
Appendix A. This gives, after some mathematical elaborations,
W
wa
4 ~ ( -1)k
7rZ]
7rCt
=1+; ~( 2 k+ 1 ) cos[(2k+1) 2h cos[(2k+1)2J;-J.
As a special case one may consider the displacement of the free end
is found to be
W
4 ~
wo = 1 +;
(-1)k
7rCt
~ ( 2k + 1) cos[(2k + 1)2h].
(10.19)
z
= 0. This
(10.20)
This expression is of the form of a Fourier series. Actually, it is the same series
as the one given in the example in Appendix A, except for a constant factor and
some changes in notation. The summation of the series is shown in figure 10.3.
It appears that the end remains at rest for a time hjc, then suddenly shows a
displacement 2w0 for a time span 2h/c, and then switches continuously between
zero displacement and 2w0 . The physical interpretation, which may become more
clear after considering the solution of the problem by the method of characteristics
in a later section, is that a compression wave starts to travel at time t = 0 towards
the free end, and then is reflected as a tension wave in order that the end remains
free. The time hfc is the time needed for each wave to travel through the pile.
171
WAVES IN PILES
'I'
w/wo
r~
................... ................... ................... ................... ................... .. ....... .

:
:
l
l
:.
:.
1 l +
~
................... l l"''''''
:
:
~
0~----~------~=----~~-----=------~--~.~~
ct
h
Figure 10.3. Displacement of free end.
10.3
Separation of variables
For certain problems, especially problems of continuous vibrations, the differential equation (10.3) can be solved conveniently by separation of variables. Two
examples will be considered in this section.
10.3.1
SHOCK WAVE IN FINITE PILE
As an example of the general technique used in the method of separation of variables the problem of a pile of finite length loaded at time t = 0 by a constant
displacement at one of its ends will be considered once more. The differential
equation is
()2w
c2
()t2 -
()2w
(10.21)
()z2'
with the boundary conditions
= 0,
ow
= 0,
(10.22)
z = h, t > 0 : w = wo.
(10.23)
t > 0 : oz
and
The first condition expresses that the boundary z = 0 is a free end, and the second
condition expresses that the boundary z = h is displaced by an amount wo at time
t = 0. The initial conditions are supposed to be that the pile is at rest at t = 0.
The solution of the problem is now sought in the form
w=
Wo
+ Z(z)T(t).
(10.24)
172
CHAPTERIO
The basic assumption here is that solutions can be written as a product of two
functions, a function Z(z), which depends upon z only, and another function T(t),
which depends only on t. Substitution of (10.24) into the differential equation
(10.21) gives
(10.25)
The left hand side of this equation depends upon t only, the right hand side depends
upon z only. Therefore the equation can be satisfied only if both sides are equal
to a certain constant. This constant may be assumed to be negative or positive.
If it is assumed that this constant is negative one may write
2_ d2Z
Z dz 2
= -A2
(10.26)
'
where A is an unknown constant. The general solution of eq. (10.26) is
Z =A cos(Az) + B sin(Az),
(10.27)
where A and B are constants. They can be determined from the boundary conditions. Because dZ/dz must be 0 for z = 0 it follows that B = 0. If now it is
required that Z = 0 for z = h, in order to satisfy the boundary condition (10.23) it
follows that either A= 0, which leads to the useless solution w = 0, or cos(Ah) = 0,
which can be satisfied if
(10.28)
On the other hand, one obtains for the function T
_!_d2T - - 2A2
T dt 2
(10.29)
'
with the general solution
T = Acos(Act)
+ Bsin(Act).
(10.30)
The solution for the displacement w can now be written as
L
00
w = wa +
[Ak cos(Akct) + Bk sin(Akct)] cos(Akz).
(10.31)
k=O
The velocity now is
~~ =
[-AkAkcsin(Akct)
+ BkAkccos(Akct)]
cos(Akz).
(10.32)
k=O
Because this must be zero for all values of z (this is an initial condition) it follows
that Bk = 0. On the other hand, the initial condition that the displacement must
also be zero for t = 0, now leads to the equation
173
WAVES IN PILES
L Ak cos(Akz) = -w
()()
(10.33)
0,
k=O
which must be satisfied for all values of z in the range 0 < z < h. This is the
standard problem from Fourier series analysis, see Appendix A. It can be solved
by multiplication of both sides by cos( Aj z), and then integrating both sides over
z from z = 0 to z =h. The result is
A - i
wo
(-1)k
k-7r(2k+1)
.
(10.34)
Substitution of this result into the solution ( 10.31) now gives finally, with Bk = 0,
W
4 ~ ( -1)k
11"Z]
11"Ct
wo =1+; ~( 2 k+ 1 ) cos[(2k+1) 2h cos[(2k+1)v;:-)
(10.35)
This is exactly the same result as found earlier by using the Laplace transform
method, see eq. (10.19). It may give some confidence that both methods lead to
the same result.
The solution (10.35) can be seen as a summation of periodic solutions, each
combined with a particular shape function. Usually a periodic function is written
as cos(wt). In this case it appears that the possible frequencies are
7rC
w=wk=(2k+1) 2 h,
k=0,1,2, ....
(10.36)
These are usually called the characteristic frequencies, or eigen frequencies of the
system. The corresponding shape functions
1/Jk(z)=cos[(2k+1);~),
k=0,1,2, ... ,
(10.37)
are called the eigen functions of the system.
10.3.2
PERIODIC LOAD
The solution is much simpler if the load is periodic, because then it can be assumed
that all displacements are periodic. As an example the problem of a pile of finite
length, loaded by a periodic load at one end, and rigidly supported at its other
end, will be considered, see figure 10.4. In this case the boundary conditions at
Figure 10.4. Pile loaded by periodic pressure.
the left side boundary, where the pile is supported by a rigid wall or foundation,
IS
=0
: w
= 0.
(10.38)
174
CHAPTER 10
The boundary condition at the other end is
h:E~: =
-po sin(wt),
(10.39)
where h is the length of the pile, and w is the frequency of the periodic load.
It is again assumed that the solution of the partial differential equation (10.3)
can be written as the product of a function of z and a function of t. In particular,
because the load is periodic, it is now assumed that
w = W(z) sin(wt).
(10.40)
Substitution into the differential equation (10.3) shows that this equation can indeed be satisfied, provided that the function W(z) satisfies the ordinary differential
equation
cPW
dz2
w2
= -~W,
(10.41)
JETP,
the wave velocity.

where c =
The solution of the differential equation (10.41) that also satisfies the two
boundary conditions (10.38) and (10.39) is
W(z) =_poe sin(wz/c).

Ew cos(whjc)
(10.42)
This means that the final solution of the problem is, with (10.42) and (10.40),
w(z, t)
poe sin(wzjc) .
sm(wt).
= --Ewcosw
( h/ c)
(10.43)
It can easily be verified that this solution satisfies all requirements, because it
satisfies the differential equation, and both boundary conditions. Thus a complete
solution has been obtained by elementary procedures. Of special interest is the
motion of the free end of the pile. This is found to be
w(h, t) = w0 sin(wt),
{10.44)
where
Poe
wo =- Ew tan(wh/c).
{10.45)
The amplitude of the total force, Fo = -poA, can be written as
EA
w
Fo = - c tan (w h/ c) wo.
(10.46)
It may be interesting to consider in particular the case that the frequency w is

equal to one of the eigen frequencies of the system,
W
= Wk = {2k + 1) 2'lrCh,
= 0, 1, 2, ....
{10.47)
WAVES IN PILES
175
In that case cos(whjc) = 0, and the amplitude of the displacement, as given by

eq. (10.45), becomes infinitely large. This phenomenon is called resonance of the
system. If the frequency of the load equals one of the eigen frequencies of the
system, this may lead to very large displacements, indicating resonance.
In engineering practice the pile may be a concrete foundation pile, for which
the order of magnitude of the wave velocity c is about 3000 m/s, and for which a
normal length h is 20 m. In civil engineering practice the frequency w is usually
not very large, at least during normal loading. A relatively high frequency is say
w = 20 s- 1 . In that case the value of the parameter whjc is about 0.13, which is
rather small, much smaller than all eigen frequencies (the smallest of which occurs
for wh/c = Tr/2). The function tan(whjc) in (10.46) may now be approximated by
its argument, so that this expression reduces to
whjc~1:
EA
Fo::::::hwo.
(10.48)
This means that the pile can be considered to behave, as a first approximation,
as a spring, without mass, and without damping. In many situations in civil
engineering practice the loading is so slow, and the elements are so stiff (especially
when they consist of concrete or steel), that the dynamic analysis can be restricted
to the motion of a single spring.
It must be noted that the approximation presented above is is not always
justified. When the material is soft (e.g. soil) the velocity of wave propagation
may not be that high. And loading conditions with very high frequencies may also
be of importance, for instance during installation (pile driving). In general one
may say that in order for dynamic effects to be negligible, the loading must be so
slow that the frequency is considerably smaller than the smallest eigen frequency.
Solution by characteristics
10.4
A powerful method of solution for problems of wave propagation in one dimension

is provided by the method of characteristics. This method is presented in this
section.
The wave equation (10.3) has solutions of the form
w
= h(z- ct) + h(z + ct),
are arbitrary functions, and c is the velocity of propagation of
v'E/P.
(10.50)
where / 1 and
waves,
c=
(10.49)
In mathematics the directions z = ct and z = -ct are called the characteristics.

The solution of a particular problem can be obtained from the general solution
(10.49) by using the initial conditions and the boundary conditions.
A convenient way of constructing solutions is by writing the basic equations in
the following form
CHAPTER 10
176
(10.51)
au= Eav
az'
at
(10.52)
where v is the velocity, v = awjat, and u is the stress in the pile.

In order to simplify the basic equations two new variables ~ and 'TJ are introduced, defined by
~
= z- ct,
'TJ=z+ct.
(10.53)
The equations (10.51) and (10.52) can now be transformed into
au
au
au
au
av
av
a~ + a'TJ = pc(- a~ + a"')'

av
av
a~ -a"'= pc(a~ +a"'),
(10.54)
(10.55)
from which it follows, by addition or subtraction of the two equations, that
a(u- Jv)
a'TJ
=0
a(u + Jv) = 0
{)~
(10.56)
'
(10.57)
'
where J is the impedance,
J = pc=
JEP.
(10.58)
In terms of the original variables z and t the equations are
-=a(..:.,.u_-_J_v.,.:..) _ 0
a(z + ct) - '
(10.59)
a(u + Jv)
a(z- ct)
(10.60)
= 0.
These equations mean that the quantity u-Jv is independent of z+ct, and u+Jv
is independent of z- ct. This means that
= ft(z-
ct),
(10.61)
u + Jv = h(z + ct).
(10.62)
u- Jv
177
WAVES IN PILES
These equations express that the quantity u - J v is a function of z - ct only,

and that u + J v is a function of z + ct only. This means that u - J v is constant
when z - ct is constant, and that u + Jv is constant when z + ct is constant.
These properties enable to construct solutions, either in a formal analytical way,
or graphically, by mapping the solution, as represented by the variables u and J v,
onto the plane of the independent variables z and ct.
As an example let there be considered the case of a ;free pile, which is hit at
its upper end z = 0 at time t = 0 such that the stress at that end is -p. The
other end, z = h, is free, so that the stress is zero there. The initial state is such
that all velocities are zero. The solution is illustrated in figure 10.5. In the upper
figure, the diagram of z and ct has been drawn, with lines of constant z - ct and
lines of constant z +ct. Because initially the velocity v and the stress u are zero
-p
r-----~------------~------------~.-~--
........ ...
r-------------~------------~-.~..---------------~
Jv
Figure 10.5. The method of characteristics.
throughout the pile, the condition in each point of the pile is represented by the
point 1 in the lower figure, the diagram of u and Jv. The points in the lower
left corner of the upper diagram (this region is marked 1) can all be reached from
points on the axis ct = 0 (for which u = 0 and Jv = 0) by a downward going
characteristic, i.e. lines z- ct = constant. Thus in all these points u- Jv = 0.
At the bottom of the pile the stress is always zero, u = 0. Thus in the points in
region 1 for which z = 0 the velocity is also zero, J v = 0. Actually, in the entire
region 1 : u = Jv = 0, because all these points can be reached by an upward going
characteristic and a downward going characteristic from points where u = Jv = 0.
The point 1 in the lower diagram thus is representative for all points in region 1
CHAPTERIO
178
in the upper diagram.

For t > 0 the value of the stress u at the upper boundary z = 0 is -p, for all
values oft. The velocity is unknown, however. The axis z = 0 in the upper diagram
can be reached from points in the region 1 along lines for which z + ct = constant.
Therefore the corresponding point in the diagram of u and Jv must be located on
the line for which u + J v = constant, starting from point 1. Because the stress u
at the top of the pile must be -p the point in the lower diagram must be point
2. This means that the velocity is J v p, or v pI J. This is the velocity of the
top of the pile for a certain time, at least for ct = 2h, if h is the length of the pile,
because all points for which z = 0 and ct < 2h can be reached from region 1 along
characteristics z + ct = constant.
At the lower end of the pile the stress u must always be zero, because the pile
was assumed to be not supported. Points in the upper diagram on the line z = h
can be reached from region 2 along lines of constant x- ct. Therefore they must
be located on a line of constant N - J v in the lower diagram, starting from point
2. This gives point 3, which means that the velocity at the lower end of the pile
is now v = 2pI J. This velocity applies to all points in the region 3 in the upper
diagram.
In this way the velocity and the stress in the pile can be analyzed in successive
steps. The thick lines in the upper diagram are the boundaries of the various
regions. If the force at the top continues to be applied, as is assumed in figure 10.5,
~------~----------------------------------~
ct
Figure 10.6. Velocity of the bottom of the pile.
the velocity of the pile increases continuously. Figure 10.6 shows the velocity of
the bottom of the pile as a function of time. The velocity gradually increases
with time, because the pressure p at the top of the pile continues to act. This
is in agreement with Newton's second law, which states that the velocity will
continuously increase under the influence of a constant force.
10.5
Reflection and transmission of waves
An interesting aspect of wave propagation in continuous media is the behaviour

of waves at surfaces of discontinuity of the material properties. In order to study
this phenomenon let us consider the propagation of a short shock wave in a pile
consisting of two materials, see figure 10.7. A compression wave is generated in the
179
WAVES IN PILES
II................
....................... .
Figure 10.7. Non-homogeneous pile.
pile by a pressure of short duration at the left end of the pile. The pile consists of
two materials : first a stiff section, and then a very long section of smaller stiffness.
The solution of the basic equations in the first section can be written as
(10.63)
(10.64)
where p1 is the density of the material in that section, and c1 is the wave velocity,
c1 = JEd p1 . It can easily be verified that this solution satisfies the two basic
differential equations (10.51) and (10.52).
In the second part of the pile the solution is
(10.65)
(10.66)
where P2 and c2 are the density and the wave velocity in that part of the pile.
At the interface of the two materials the value of z is the same in both solutions,
say z = h, and the condition is that both the velocity v and the normal stress u
must be continuous at that point, at all values of time. Thus one obtains
(10.67)
-p1cd1(h- c1t) + P1cd2(h + c1t) =
-p2c2g1(h- c2t) + p2c2g2(h + c2t).
(10.68)
If we write
!I (h- c1t) = F1 (t),
(10.69)
= F2(t),
(10.70)
g1(h- c2t) = G1(t),
(10.71)
g2(h + c2t) = G2(t),
(10.72)
h(h + C!t)
then the continuity conditions are

(10. 73)
(10.74)
CHAPTER 10
180
In general these equations are, of course, insufficient to solve for the four functions.
However, if it is assumed that the pile is very long (or, more generally speaking,
when the value of time is so short that the wave reflected from the end of the pile
has not yet arrived), it may be assumed that the solution representing the wave
coming from the end of the pile is zero, G 2 (t) = 0. In that case the solutions F 2
and G 1 can be expressed in the first wave, F 1 , which is the wave coming from the
top of the pile. The result is
(10.75)
(10.76)
This means, for instance, that whenever the first wave F 1 (t) = 0 at the interface,
then there is no reflected wave, F 2 (t) = 0, and there is no transmitted wave either,
G 1 (t) = 0. On the other hand, when the first wave has a certain value at the
interface, then the values of the reflected wave and the transmitted wave at that
point may be calculated from the relations (10.75) and (10.76). If the values are
known the values at later times may be calculated using the relations (10.69) (10.72).
The procedure may be illustrated by an example. Therefore let it be assumed
that the two parts of the pile have the same density, p1 = p 2 , but the stiffness in
the first section is 9 times the stiffness in the rest of the pile, E 1 = 9E2 . This means
that the wave velocities differ by a factor 3, c1 = 3c2 . The reflection coefficient
and the transmission coefficient now are, with (10.75) and (10.76),
(10.77)
(10.78)
The behaviour of the solution is illustrated graphically in figure 10.8, which
shows the velocity profile at various times. In the first four diagrams the incident
wave travels toward the interface. During this period there is no reflected wave,
and no transmitted wave in the second part of the pile. As soon as the incident
wave hits the interface a reflected wave is generated, and a wave is transmitted into
the second part of the pile. The magnitude of the velocities in this transmitted
wave is 1.5 times the original wave, and it travels a factor 3 slower. The magnitude
of the velocities in the reflected wave is 0.5 times those in the original wave.
The stresses in the two parts of the pile are shown in graphical form in figure 10.9. The reflection coefficient and the transmission coefficient for the stresses
can be obtained using the equations (10.64) and (10.66). The result is
Ru
= _ P1C1 PlCl
P2C2
+ P2C2
= -0. 5,
(10.79)
WAVES IN PILES
181
=a:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
vh
vt I
vt
vt
vt
vt
vt
vt-,
I
,. z
,. z
I
I
,. z
"' z
c:dJ
I
:o
D
D
,. z
,. z
;. z
,. z
Figure 10.8. Reflection and transmission (velocity).

Ta =
2p2c2
= 0.5.
+ P2C2
PlCl
(10.80)
where it has been taken into account that the form of the solution for the stresses,
see (10.64) and (10.66), involves factors pc, and signs of the terms different from
those in the expressions for the velocity. In the case considered here, where the
first part of the pile is 9 times stiffer than the rest of the pile, it appears that
the reflected wave leads to stresses of the opposite sign in the first part. Thus a
compression wave in the pile is reflected in the first part by tension.
It may be interesting to note the two extreme cases of reflection. When the
second part of the pile is so soft that it can be entirely disregarded (or, when the
pile consists only of the first part, which is free to move at its end), the reflection
coefficient for the velocity is R, = 1, and for the stress it is Ra = -1. This
means that in this case a compression wave is reflected as a tension wave of equal
magnitude. The velocity in the reflected wave is in the same direction as in the
incident wave.
If the second part of the pile is infinitely stiff (or, if the pile meets a rigid
foundation after the first part) the reflection coefficient for the velocity is Rv = -1,
and for the stresses it is Ra = 1. Thus, in this case a compression wave is reflected
as a compressive wave of equal magnitude. These results are of great importance
in pile driving. When a pile hits a very soft layer, a tension wave may be reflected
from the end of the pile, and a concrete pile may not be able to withstand these
tensile stresses. Thus, the energy supplied to the pile must be reduced in this case,
CHAPTER 10
182
-uh
-ut
- u
.. z
t.___ __,_D_....J....--:------~.. z
t._____.~....D_-!-------Jio z
u t._____..---in_,______~,. z
- u
- u t'---------r----,c::::::J,..----'-1-..______ _
:n
)oz
-ut
- u
c::::::J
b'---,c::::::Jr----r--~...L-JD'-------..: :
tt
Figure 10.9. Reflection and transmission {stress).
for instance by reducing the height of fall of the hammer. When the pile hits a
very stiff layer the energy of the driving equipment may be increased without the
risk of generating tensile stresses in the pile, and this may help to drive the pile
through this stiff layer. Of course, great care must be taken when the pile tip
suddenly passes from the very stiff layer into a soft layer. Experienced pile driving
operators use these basic principles intuitively.
It may be noted that tensile stresses may also be generated in a pile when an
upward traveling (reflected) wave reaches the top of the pile, which by that time
may be free of stress. This phenomenon has caused severe damage to concrete
piles, in which cracks developed near the top of the pile, because concrete cannot
withstand large tensile stresses. In order to prevent this problem, driving equipment has been developed that continues to apply a compressive force at the top
of the pile for a relatively long time. Also, the use of prestressed concrete results
in a considerable tensile strength of the material.
The problem considered in this section can also be analyzed graphically, by
using the method of characteristics, see figure 10.10. The data given above imply
that the wave velocity in the second part of the pile is 3 times smaller than in
the first part, and that the impedance in the second part is also 3 times smaller
than in the first part. This means that in the lower part of the pile the slope
of the characteristics is 3 times smaller than the slope in the upper part. In the
figure these slopes have been taken as 1:3 and 1:1, respectively. Starting from the
knowledge that the pile is initially at rest (1), and that at the top of the pile a
183
WAVES IN PILES
z
-p
2
!-----+-------
. . :.:. )a
11!:'.:::.;.<_
..._---::-"---------~ v
.....
4
Figure 10.10. Graphical solution using characteristics.

compression wave of short duration is generated (2), the points in the v, a--diagram,
and the regions in the z, t-diagram can be constructed, taking into account that
at the interface both v and u must be continuous.
10.6
The influence of friction
In soil mechanics piles in the ground usually experience friction along the pile
shaft, and it may be illuminating to investigate the effect of this friction on the
mechanical behaviour of the pile. For this purpose consider a pile of constant
cross sectional area A and modulus of elasticity E, standing on a rigid base,
and supported on its shaft by shear stresses that are generated by an eventual
movement of the pile, see figure 10.11.
The basic differential equation is
82 w
EA oz 2
Cr = pA
82 w
ot 2 ,
(10.81)
where C is the circumference of the pile shaft, and T is the shear stress. It is
assumed, as a first approximation, that the shear stress is linearly proportional to
the vertical displacement of the pile,
r= kw,
(10.82)
where the constant k has the character of a subgrade modulus. The differential
equation (10.81) can now be written as
184
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.11. Pile in soil, with friction.
cPw
8z 2
w
-
H2
1 82 w
c2 8t 2 '
(10.83)
where H is a length parameter characterizing the ratio of the axial pile stiffness
to the friction constant,
H2= EA
kG'
(10.84)
and c is the usual wave velocity, defined by

c2
= Efp.
(10.85)
z = 0 : N = EA ~: = -P sin(wt).
z
= L : w = 0,
(10.86)
(10.87)
The first boundary condition expresses that at the top of the pile it is loaded by
a periodic force, of amplitude P and circular frequency w. The second boundary
condition expresses that at the bottom of the pile no displacement is possible,
indicating that the pile is resting upon solid rock.
The problem defined by the differential equation (10.83) and the boundary
conditions (10.86) and (10.87) can easily be solved by the method of separation
of variables. In this method it is assumed that the solution can be written as the
product of a function of z and a factor sin(wt). It turns out that all the conditions
are met by the solution
185
WAVES IN PILES
PH sinh(a(L- z)/ H]
- cosh(aL/H)
=EAa
. ( )
sm wt,
(10.88)
where a is given by
(10.89)
The displacement at the top of the pile,
written as
Wt
is of particular interest. If this is
= ; sin(wt),
the spring constant

K
Wt,
!{
(10.90)
appears to be
= EA
.
aL/H
L tanh( aL /H)
(10.91)
The first term in the right hand side is the spring constant in the absence of
friction, when the elasticity is derived from the deformation of the pile only.
The behaviour of the second term in eq. (10.91) depends upon the frequency w
through the value of the parameter a, see eq. (10.89). It should be noted that for
values of w H/ c > 1 the parameter a becomes imaginary, say a = i/3, where now
(10.92)
The spring constant can then be written more conveniently as
w
HI c > 1
: /\
EA
= -L
/3L/H
tan (/3 L IH )
(10.93)
This formula implies that for certain values of w H / c the spring constant will be
zero, indicating resonance. These values correspond to the eigen values of the
system. For certain other values the spring constant is infinitely large. For these
values of the frequency the system appears to be very stiff. In such a case part
of the pile is in compression and another part is in tension, such that the total
strains from bottom to top just cancel.
The value of the spring constant is shown, as a function of the frequency, in
figure 10.12, for H/L = 1.
It is interesting to consider the probable order of magnitude of the parameters
in engineering practice. For this purpose the value of the subgrade modulus k
must first be evaluated. This parameter can be estimated to be related to the
soil stiffness by a formula of the type k = Es/ D, where E. is the modulus of
elasticity of the soil (assuming that the deformations are small enough to justify
the definition of such a quantity), and D is the width of the pile. For a circular
concrete pile of diameter D the value of the characteristic length H now is, with
(10.84),
H 2 = EA = ED 2
2E, .
kG
(10.94)
186
CHAPTER 10
KL/EA
8 ::: :::. ::
7 .......... ) ...........
~
l........... t........ ..l. .......... t........... l........... t .......... l......... ) ...........;

~
6 :!: !:!: !::

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
5 t;t !t;t ;t~
4 '''''''''''T
: ' ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ':l ' ' " ' ' " ' ' ' ::" ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' : ' ' ' ' ' " ' ' ' T: ' " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' l:' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' T: ' ' ' ' ;:oo:
:
:
:
~
0
-1
t+tj t++ jj!
:::;::::::t:::::::::l::::::::::t:::::::::::l::::.::::l:::::::::::r::::::::::t:::::::.::j:::::::::::i:::::::::::l
3 4 :
7 : 9 1D
:
t-:-- t--(: ~t t:
wLfc
-2 :! t-!:!:--!::
-3 ~!
~!~ !~! ~~
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
-4 ~~
~~~
~~~
~~
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
=:
FI FI
Ill
_ 8 ........... l ........... L.......... :........... :........... l .......... L.......... l. .......... L........ l ........... :
Figure 10.12. Spring constant (H/L
= 1).
Under normal conditions, with a pile being used in soft soil, the ratio of the elastic
moduli of concrete and soil is about 1000, and most piles have diameters of about
0.40 m. This means that H ~ 10m. Furthermore the order of magnitude of
the wave propagation velocity c in concrete is about 3000 m/s. This means that
the parameter w HI c will usually be small compared to 1, except for phenomena
of very high frequency, such as may occur during pile driving. In many civil
engineering problems, where the fluctuations originate from wind or wave loading,
the frequency is usually about 1 s- 1 or smaller, so that the order of magnitude of
the parameter w HI c is about 0.0 1. In such cases the value of a will be very close
to 1, see eq. (10.89). This indicates that the response of the pile is practically
static.
If the loading is due to the passage of a heavy train, at a velocity of 100 kmlh,
and with a distance of the wheels of 5 m, the period of the loading is about 116 s,
and thus the frequency is about 30 s- 1 . In such cases the parameter wHic may
not be so small, indicating that dynamic effects may indeed be relevant.
INFINITELY LONG PILE
A case of theoretical interest is that of an infinitely long pile, L ~ oo. If the

frequency is low this limiting case can immediately be obtained from the general
solution (10.91), because then the function tanh( aLl H) can be approximated by
its asymptotic value 1. The result is
WAVES IN PILES
187
{10.95)
This solution degenerates when the dimensionless frequency wHjc = 1, because

then a = 0, see (10.89). Such a zero spring constant indicates resonance of the
system.
For frequencies larger than this resonance frequency the solution (10.93) can
not be used, because the function tan(f3L/ H) continues to fluctuate when its
argument tends towards infinity. Therefore the problem must be studied again
from the beginning, but now for an infinitely long pile. The general solution of
the differential equation now appears to be
w
= [C1 sin(f3z/H)+ C2 cos(f3z/ H)] sin(wt)

+[C3 sin(f3z/ H)+ C4 cos((3zj H)] cos(wt),
(10.96)
and there is no combination of the constants cl' c2' c3 and c4 for which this
solution tends towards zero as z--+ oo. This dilemma can be solved by using the
radiation condition, which states that it is not to be expected that waves travel
from infinity towards the top of the pile. Therefore the solution (10.96) is first
rewritten as
w
= D1 sin(wt- (3zj H)+ D2 cos(wt- (3z/ H)
+D3 sin(wt + (3zj H)+ D4 cos(wt + (3zj H).
(10.97)
Written in this form it can be seen that the first two solutions represent waves
traveling from the top ofthe pile towards infinity, whereas the second two solutions
represent waves traveling from infinity up to the top of the pile. If the last two
are excluded, by assuming that there is no agent at infinity which generates such
incoming waves, it follows that C3 = C4 = 0. The remaining two conditions can
be determined from the boundary condition at the top of the pile, eq. (10.86). The
final result is
w
;~
sin(wt- f3z/H).
(10.98)
It should be noted that this solution applies only if the frequency w is sufficiently
large, so that wH jc > 1. Or, in other words, if the frequency is larger than the
eigen frequency of the system. The phase shift indicates that now the pile-soil
system cannot be represented by a spring only, but that there is damping in the
system (radiation damping).
10.7
Numerical solution
In order to construct a numerical model for the solution of wave propagation problems the basic equations are written in a numerical form. For this purpose the
pile is subdivided into n elements, all of the same length ~z. The displacement
w; and the velocity v; of an element are defined in the centroid of element i, and
the normal forces N; is defined at the boundary between elements i and i + 1,
188
CHAPTER 10
F;
see figure 10.13. The friction force acting on element i is denoted by F;. This
particular choice for the definition of the various quantities either at the centroid
of the elements or at their boundaries, has a physical background. The velocity
derives its meaning from a certain mass, whereas the normal force is an interaction
between the material on both sides of a section. It is interesting to note, however,
that this way of modeling, sometimes denoted as leap frog modeling, also has distinct mathematical advantages, with respect to accuracy and stability.
The equation of motion of an element is
N . _ N
-1
'
F _
+ '-
A A v;(t
p uz
+ 6.t)- v;(t)
6.t
'
(i = 1, ... , n).
(10.99)
It should be noted that there are n + 1 normal forces, from N 0 to Nn. The force
N 0 can be considered to be the force at the top of the pile, and Nn is the force at
the bottom end of the pile.
The displacement w; is related to the velocity v; by the equation

Vj
w;(t + ~t)- w;(t)

~t
'
(i = 1, ... , n).
(10.100)
The deformation is related to the normal force by Hooke's law, which can be
formulated as
N; = EA Wi+l - Wj,
(i = 1, ... , n- 1). (10.101)
6.z
Here EA is the product of the modulus of elasticity E and the area A of the cross
section.
The values of the normal force at the top and at the bottom of the pile, N 0
and Nn are supposed to be given by the boundary conditions.
Example
A simple example may serve to illustrate the numerical algorithm. Suppose that
the pile is initially at rest, and let a constant force P be applied at the top of the
pile, with the bottom end being free. In this case the boundary conditions are
189
WAVES IN PILES
N 0 = -P,
(10.102)
Nn =0.
(10.103)
and
The friction forces are supposed to be zero.

At timet= 0 all quantities are zero, except N 0 . A new set of velocities can now
be calculated from equations (10.99). Actually, this will make only one velocity
non-zero, namely vi, which will then be
VI=
Pl:!it
pA/!!iz.
(10.104)
Next, a new set of values for the displacements can be calculated from equations
(10.100). Again, in the first time step, only one value will be non-zero, namely
(10.105)
Finally, a new set of values for the normal force can be calculated from equations
(10.101). This will result in NI getting a value, namely
NI =
-EA~ = _pc2(!::it)2
l:!iz
(!:!iz) 2
(10.106)
This process can now be repeated, using the equations in the same order.
An important part of the numerical process is the value of the time step used.
The description of the process given above indicates that in each time step the
non-zero values of the displacements, velocities and normal forces increase by 1 in
downward direction. This suggests that in each time step a wave travels into the
pile over a distance ~z. In the previous section, when considering the analytical
solution of a similar problem (actually, the same problem), it was found that waves
travel in the pile at a velocity
c=
VE/P.
(10.107)
Combining these findings suggests that the ratio of spatial step and time step
should be
l:!iz
= cl:!it.
(10.108)
It may be noted that this means that equation (10.104) reduces to
p
VI=--.
pAc
(10.109)
The expression in the denominator is precisely what was defined as the impedance
in the previous section, see (10.58), and the value P/ J corresponds exactly to what
was found in the analytical solution. Equation (10.105) now gives
190
CHAPTER 10
W1
Pflt
pAc
= --,
(10.110)
and the value of N 1 after one time step is found to be, from (10.106),
(10.111)
Again this corresponds exactly with the analytical solution. If the time step is
chosen different from the critical time step the numerical solution will show considerable deviations from the correct analytical solution.
All this confirms the propriety of the choice (10.108) for the relation between
time step and spatial step. In a particular problem the spatial step is usually
chosen first, by subdividing the pile length into a certain number of elements.
Then the time step may be determined from (10.108).
It should be noted that the choice of the time step is related to the algorithm
proposed here. When using a different algorithm it may be more appropriate to
use a different (usually smaller) time step than the critical time step used here
(Bowles, 1974).
A program in Thrbo Pascal that performs the calculations described above is
reproduced below. The program uses interactive input, in which the user has to
enter all the data before the calculations are started. The program will show the
forces in the elements of the pile on the screen, in tabular form. Other forms
of output, such as the presentation of the displacements and the velocities, or
graphical output, may be added by the user.
program impact;
uses crt;
const
mm=20;
var
length,elasto,rho,c,dz,dt,time:real;
step,m,steps,i:integer;
v,w,s:array[O .. mm] of real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);write(' IMPACT ');
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
end;
procedure input;
begin
title;
writeln('This is a program for the analysis of axial waves in a pile.');
writeln;
writeln('At t = 0 the pile is hit at its top by a force, generating a');
191
WAVES IN PILES
vriteln('unit stress in the pile.');vriteln;
vrite('Length o the pile (m) .......... ');readln(length);
vrite('Kodulus o elasticity (kl/m2) ... ');readln(elasto);
vrite('Kass density (kg/m3) ............ ');readln(rho);
vrite('lumber o elements (max. 20) .... ');readln(m);
vrite('lumber o time steps ............ ');readln(steps);
i m<10 then m:=10;i m>mm then m:=mm;
dz:=length/m;c:=sqrt(elasto/rho);dt:=dz/c;time:=O.O;
or i:=O to m do
begin
s[i] :=O.O;v[i]:=O.O;v[i]:=O.O;
end;
s[O]:=l.OOO;
end;
procedure solve;
begin
or i:=l tom do v[i]:=v[i]+(s[i]-s[i-1])/(rhoc);
or i:=l tom do v[i]:=v[i]+v[i]dt;
or i:=l to m-1 do s[i]:=elasto(v[i+l]-v[i])/dz;time:=time+dt;
clrscr;vriteln('Time : ',time:12:6);vriteln;
or i:=O tom do vriteln(s[i]:12:6);nert;
end;
begin
input;
or step:=1 to steps do solve;
title;
end.
Program IMPACT.
When running the program it will be seen that indeed a wave travels through the
pile, in agreement with the analytical solution of the previous section.
10.8
A simple model for a pile with friction
When there is friction along the shaft of the pile, this can be introduced through
the variables Fi. It is then of great importance to know the relation between the
friction and variables such as the displacement and the velocity. A simple model
is to assume that the friction is proportional to the velocity, always acting in the
direction opposite to the velocity. The program FRJCTION, presented below will
perform these calculations.
program riction;
uses crt;
const
-=1000;
var
length,area,circ,elasto,rho,orce,temp,ric,c,dz,dt,time,,aa,bb:real;
step,m,steps,i:integer;
v ,v,s :array[O .. mm] o real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackground.(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' FRICTIDI ');
192
CHAPTER 10
textbackground(O);textcolor(7 );vriteln;vriteln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a: char;
begin
a:=readkey;textbackground(O);t extcolor(7)
end;
procedure input;
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of axial vaves in a pile.');
vriteln;
vriteln('At the top of the pile a force is applied, for a given time.');
vriteln;
vrite('Length of the pile (m) .......... ');readln(length);
vrite('Area of cross section (m2) ...... ');readln(area);
vrite('Circumference (m) ............... ');readln(circ);
vrite('Kodulus of elasticity (kl/m2) ... ');readln(elasto);
vrite('Kass density (kg/m3) ............ ');readln(rho);
vrite('lumber of elements (max. 20) .... ');readln(m);
vrite('Force at the top (kl) ........... ');readln(force);
vrite('Duration of force (s) ........... ');readln(temp);
vrite('Friction (kl/m2 per m/s) ........ ');readln(fric);
vrite('lumber of time steps ............ ');readln(steps);
if m<10 then m:=10;if m>mm then m:=mm;
dz:=length/m;c:=sqrt(elasto/rho );dt:=dz/c;time:=O.O;
for i:=O to m do
begin
s[i] :=O.O;v[i] :=O.O;v[i] :=0.0;
end;
fric:=fricdzcirc;
end;
procedure solve;
begin
s[O] :=O.O;if time<temp then s[O]:=-force;
for i:=1 tom do v[i]:=v[i]+(s[i]-s[i-1]-fricv[ i])/(rhoareac);
for i:=1 tom do v[i]:=v[i]+v[i]dt;
for i:=1 to m-1 do s[i]:=elastoarea(v[i+l]-v[i]) /dz;
time :=time+dt;
clrscr;vriteln('Time : ',time:12:6);vriteln;vriteln(s[ 0]:18:6);
for i:=1 tom do vriteln(s[i] :18:6,v[i]:18:6,v[i]:18:6);next ;
end;
begin
input;
for step:=1 to steps do solve;
title;
end.
Program FRICTION.
The variable fric in this program is the shear stress generated along the shaft
of the pile in case of a unit velocity (1 m/s). In professional programs a more
sophisticated formula for the friction may be used, in which the friction not only
WAVES IN PILES
193
depends upon the velocity but also on the displacement, in a non-linear way. Also
a model for the resistance at the point of the pile may be introduced, and the
possibility of a layered soil.
Exercises
10.1 A free pile is hit by a normal force of short duration. Analyze the motion of the
pile by the method of characteristics, using a diagram as in figure 10.5.
10.2 Extend the diagram shown in figure 10.10 towards the right, so that the reflected
wave hits the top of the pile, and is again reflected there.
10.3 As a first order approximation of eq. {10.46) the response of a pile may be considered to be equivalent to a spring, see eq. {10.48). Show, by using an approximation of
the function tan(wh/c) by its first two terms, that a second order approximation is by a
spring and a mass. What is the equivalent mass?
10.4 Modify the program IMPACT such that it will print the velocity of the pile,
and verify that the analytical solution is correctly reproduced. Also verify that by using
a time step different from the one used in the program, the approximation is not so good.
10.5
Run the program FRICTION using the following parameters :

length=20,
area=1,
circ=1,
elasto=20000000,
rho=2000,
nel=20,
force=100,
temp=1,
fric=1000,
steps=5000.
Show that the pile comes to rest after such a large number of time steps.
10.6 Verify some of the characteristic data shown in figure 10.12. For instance, check
the values for wL/c = 0 and wL/c = 1, and check the zeros of the spring constant.
CHAPTER 11
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
For the foundation of large offshore platforms in deep water a suitable type of
foundation is a gravity foundation. This is a large and heavy concrete structure,
usually consisting of a series of cells, see figure 11.1, with a number of towers on
which the actual platform is built. The basic structural principle of this type of
foundation is that the large weight of the structure results in large vertical stresses
Figure 11.1. Gravity structure.
below the foundation, which enable to withstand the large horizontal shear stresses
that are generated by the wave loading during storms. The structure may be built
onshore, for instance in a dockyard, and then floated to its offshore location, where
it is placed by submerging a number of cells. Later the structure is completed by
adding the topside facilities.
There are a number of soil mechanics problems associated with these structures: the stability of the structure during wave loading, settlements during and
after placement, and settlement due to oil or gas production. These problems are
addressed in this chapter.
194
195
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
11.1
Bearing capacity
The over-all stability of a gravity structure is usually analyzed by considering

the bearing capacity of the soil. This is a well known problem of classical soil
p
Figure 11.2. Bearing capacity.
mechanics, based upon the theory of plasticity. The solution for the simplest case
has been obtained by Prandtl. It was generalized later by Terzaghi and Brinch
Hansen. For a homogeneous soil the maximum load that can be carried by a strip
footing can be written as
(11.1)
where q is the soil pressure next to the foundation, c is the cohesion of the soil, 1
is the volumetric weight of the soil, and B is the width of the foundation strip.
The coefficients Nq, Nc and N-y in eq. (11.1) are functions of the friction angle
. The coefficients Nq and Nc have been determined by Prandtl, from analytical
solutions of the plasticity problem.
Nq =
1 +sin
. exp(1rtan),
1-sm
Nc = (Nq- 1) cot.
(11.2)
(11.3)
For the value of the coefficient N-y various investigators have proposed expressions,
based upon approximate calculations, for instance
N-y = 2(Nq- 1) tan.
(11.4)
A short table of values of the bearing capacity factors is given in table 11.1.
The formula {11.1) applies to a strip foundation carrying a vertical load. For
a foundation of different shape, and for an inclined load, correction factors have
been derived by Brinch Hansen. The generalized formula then is
(11.5)
CHAPTER 11
196
q,
Nq
Nc
N-r
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1.000
1.568
2.471
3.941
6.399
10.662
18.401
33.296
64.195
5.142
6.489
8.345
10.977
14.835
20.721
30.140
46.124
75.313
0.000
0.099
0.519
1.576
3.930
9.011
20.093
45.228
106.054
Table 11.1. Bearing capacity factors.

where the coefficients i are inclination factors, indicating the effect of an inclined
load, and the coefficients s are shape factors, indicating the effect of the shape of
the foundation. The values of the correction factors cannot be determined in a
rigorous way. Acceptable values are
.
Zc
= 1-
c + ptan
(11.6)
(11.7)
(11.8)
B
1 + 0.2,
(11.9)
= 1 + ~ sin,
(11.10)
Be=
sq
(11.11)
where B is the width of the rectangular foundation plate, and L is its length,
assuming that L ~ B.
For foundations on land the third term in eq. (11.1) is usually very small,
because 1 B is usually small compared to the surcharge q. In the case of an
offshore gravity foundation the width B is very large, however, and the surcharge q
is practically zero. Thus the gravity term becomes very important. Unfortunate ly
the theoretical basis of this term is not so very sound, compared to that of the
other two terms. Therefore the determinatio n of the bearing capacity must be
viewed with caution.
It is illustrative to consider an example, for a square gravity foundation on
sand. If there is no surcharge (q = 0), and the sand is cohesionless (c = 0), the
formula for the bearing capacity reduces to
197
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
(11.12)
with
(11.13)
The value of the shape factor has been taken as 0.7, in agreement with eq. (11.11).
In eq. (11.13) a is the inclination of the load (tana = tjp). It follows from
eq. (11.12) that the influence of the inclination of the load is very large. If= 30
and a= 10 the value of the inclination factor is as small as i-y = 0.3351, see also
table 11.2. Because offshore structures may be subject to very large horizontal
0'
1-y
50
100
15
20
25
30
1.0000
0.6108
0.3351
0.1539
0.0505
0.0071
0.0000
oo
Table 11.2. Inclination factor.
loads, this means that it is very important to pay much attention to a careful
analysis of this type of loading.
It must be noted that all the stresses in the formulas presented above are
effective stresses. In the most simple case this can be taken into account by
considering the volumetric weight 1 as the weight of the soil under water, i.e. 1 /w. It may also happen, however, that excess pore pressures are generated below
the foundation. It appears that this may have a large influence on the stability
of the structure, because the inclination factor then becomes much smaller. This
effect will be considered in the next section.
Another aspect that deserves attention is that the Brinch Hansen formula (11.5)
applies only to a homogeneous soil. In many cases the sea bottom will consist of
layers of variable properties. For such cases the simple analysis using the bearing
capacity formulas is not applicable. A more refined analysis is then necessary, for
instance using a numerical method. This also enables to taken into account the
soil behaviour in a more realistic way.
11.2
Pore pressures
Under a gravity foundation pore pressures may be generated by the loads on

the structure. These will be gradually dissipated, because an excess pore water
pressure will lead to a flow of the groundwater to the draining boundaries. This
process is called consolidation, see chapter 2. The duration of the consolidation
process can in general be estimated by a formula of the type
198
CHAPTER 11
(11.14)
where Lis the (average) length of the drainage path, and c11 is the consolidation
coefficient,
k
fflv'Yw
(11.15)
Cv=--.
Here k is the permeability coefficient of the soil, m 11 its compressibility, and 'Yw
is the volumetric weight of the pore fluid (water). Because gravity structures are
usually placed on relatively stiff sands, the properties of sand will be used as reference values. For sand typical values of the permeability and the compressibility
are
k = 10- 5 m/s ... 10- 4 m/s,
m 11
= 10- 5
m 2 /kN . . . 10- 4 m 2 /kN.
Because 'Yw = 10 kN /m3 the order of magnitude of the consolidation coefficient is,
approximately,
C11
= 0.01 m2 /s ... 0.1 m2 /s.
Assuming a drainage length L = 50 m one now obtains that the consolidation time
is, approximately,
tc = 50
103
500
103 s.
This is about 1 to 10 days, which means that the pore pressures generated during
installation of the platform will be dissipated in a few days. Consolidation is not
much of a problem during placement of the structure, but it may be a problem if
the process occurs as a result of a storm, because the duration of the storm may
be of the same order of magnitude as the consolidation time.
It should be noted that in a clay soil the consolidation time may be several
orders of magnitude longer, because of the very low permeability. In such a soil
the settlements of the platform after installation may be time dependent because
of consolidation.
PORE PRESSURE GENERATION
In this section the generation of pore pressures due to the cyclic loading conditions
in a storm are considered.
In the theory of consolidation a prominent role is played by the storage equation. This equation expresses that a volume change of the soil can only occur if
either the pore fluid is compressed, or if the pore fluid is expelled from the soil,
_ acvol
at
= nf3ap
at
+ V. q
'
(11.16)
199
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
where c: val is the volume strain of the soil, p is the excess pore pressure, and q is
the flow rate of the fluid. The first term in the right hand side is the compression
of the fluid in the pores, where {3 is the compressibility of the fluid. The second
term represents the loss of water in a unit volume due to the flow. It has been
assumed, following standard soil mechanics practice, that the soil particles are
incompressible. This is acceptable when considering soft and loose soils.
A volume change of the soil skeleton may be produced in various ways. The
most elementary form is when the isotropic component of the effective stress is
modified. This is the classical case of compression, which is governed by the bulk
modulus K,
C: val
u'
Cl
= - K = -
u-p
(11.17)
Here u' is the isotropic effective stress, u is the isotropic total stress, and p is the
pore pressure. All these stresses should be interpreted as incremental to the initial
state.
A second form of volume change is the one which may accompany shear deformations. This is an important feature of many soils. In its simplest form it means
that a loose soil will show a tendency to reduce its volume (contraction), and t4at
a dense soil will show a tendency to expand (dilatancy). In the case of offshore
structures the main effect is that the shear deformations are cyclic, because of the
cyclic nature of the wave loads. Soil testing has shown that the volume change
due to shear practically disappears after a full cycle, but in many cases a small
volume reduction remains. This effect can readily be imagined: during shear the
soil particles move with respect to each other, and a particle that has found a convenient niche will not give that up when the load is reversed. Thus there may be a
certain cyclic volume change. As a first approximation this cyclic volume change
can be assumed to be proportional to the number of cycles, and proportional to
the load. If the load is symbolically denoted as
r=
. ( T,
211"t)
T0 Sln
(11.18)
where T is the period of the load, the permanent component of the volume change
that can be expected is
(11.19)
where D is a stiffness parameter.
Substitution of the sum of (11.17) and (11.19) into (11.16) gives, assuming that
the isotropic total stress is constant in time (this will be the case during a storm,
at least on average),
(11.20)
200
CHAPTER 11
Here the coefficient n{:JK, which is the relative compressibility of the pore fluid
compared to the compressibility of the soil, may be very small when the soil is
saturated with water.
In order to obtain some more insight into the parameter 6 it is convenient to
consider the experimental results obtained by Bjerrum (1973), and others. On the
basis of undrained cyclic simple shear tests Bjerrum proposed a relation for the
pore pressure generated in these tests due to cyclic loading of the form
(11.21)
where N is the number of cycles, which may be identified with the ratio t/T, used
previously. The dimensionless parameter B indicates the sensitivity of the soil to
pore pressure generation. Its value may be practically zero for very dense soils, up
to values of 10- 5 or even 10- 3 for looser materials.
In undrained conditions the term due to the flow ofthe pore fluid in eq. (11.20)
vanishes. This equation then reduces to
8p
at -
Kro
(1 + n[:JK)DT.
(11.22)
Comparison of eqs. (11.21) and (11.22) shows that they are equivalent if
(1 + n{:JK)B
{11.23)
In terms of Bjerrum's parameter B the basic differential equation (11.20) can be

written as
8p
at + 1 + n{:JK
\J.
_ BT0
q- T .
(11.24)
In this way the effect of cyclic generation of pore pressures may be incorporated
into a deformation model.
ESTIMATION OF PORE PRESSURES
In order to estimate the order of magnitude of the pore pressures the basic equation (11.24) may be averaged over the entire domain (Verruijt, 1980). If the average
pore pressure p is defined as
p=
~ [pdV,
(11.25)
the result is, using Gauss' divergence theorem,

dp
dt
+V
} A qn dS
Br0
= T.
(11.26)
Along impermeable boundaries the flow rate qn vanishes. Along the remaining
drained part of the boundary Ad the flow rate may be estimated to be
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
201
k op
k 315
= --ron = --,
r L
(11.27)
qn
where Lis the drainage length, which may be estimated to be L = V/Ad. The
factor 3 in eq. (11.27) has been obtained by assuming that the pore pressure varies
parabolically from zero along the boundary to a value ~pat a distance L. The
average value then is p and the slope at the boundary is 3pfL. Eq. (11.26) now
becomes
dp
dt
where
C11
Bro
3c11 _
+v:p= T'
is the consolidation coefficient, in this case defined as
kK
Cv
(11.28)
= (1 + n(3K)rw .
(11.29)
The solution of the differential equation (11.28) is, assuming that the initial value
of the pore pressure is ~ero,
6t
p =Po {1- exp(--)},
te
(11.30)
where te is the consolidation time, defined earlier as
L2
te = 2-,
Cv
and
(11.31)
Po is the ultimate pore pressure,

_
Brote
Po = ---e;r-
(11.32)
This maximum of the pore pressure is reached when the time t approaches the
consolidation time tc. At that time the generation of pore pressures due to cyclic
loading is balanced by the dissipation due to flow. The pore pressures are shown as
a function of time in figure 11.3. The fully drawn line is the average pore pressure,
as given by eq. (11.30). In reality the cyclic variation due to consolidation in
each individual cycle should be added to the average pore pressure. This is shown
schematically in figure 11.3 by the dashed line.
It can be seen from eq. (11.32) that the maximum pore pressure can be reduced
by reducing the parameter B, which may be accomplished by artificial densification
of the soil. In the case of the storm surge barrier in the Eastern Scheidt this
has indeed been done. Another very effective way to reduce the pore pressures
is to reduce the consolidation time. This may be accomplished by improving
the drainage possibilities, for instance by the installation of gravel packs. If the
drainage length can be reduced by a factor 2 the consolidation time is shortened
by a factor 4, and thus the maximum pore pressure is also reduced by a factor 4.
Nature itself also provides a mechanism for improvement. A not too large
storm may result in some pore pressure generation, and subsequent consolidation.
By this effect the density of the soil increases, and thus the value of the parameter
CHAPTER 11
202
P/Po
. ;(~~- --E'i. ~i',I'l
.I\ "'I
,,,,........., :: ......... :: ......... :: ......... :: ......... ::......... ::......... ::......... ::......... ::......... ::
' :
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
'
l
~
l
j
l
l
l
~
l
0
I
~4
Figure 11.3. Pore pressures, including cyclic variation.
B is reduced. Of course this pre-shearing effect works only if the major design
storm is not the first one to attack the platform, and it may therefore be considered
too much of a risk to count upon it.
It is to be noted that all the calculations in this chapter are of an approximative
character, and merely give some insight into the phenomena involved. They should
not be considered as design rules. For the complete design of a gravity foundation
it is necessary to perform a detailed analysis of these phenomena. This should
include a thorough exploration of the local soil profile, a determination of the
soil parameters by in situ or laboratory testing, and detailed calculations of the
bearing capacity and the pore pressures.
11.3
Settlements
During placement of a gravity platform a large settlement of the sea bottom, and
thus of the foundation, can be expected, because of the very high stresses. After
completion of the platform additional settlements may occur due to consolidation,
creep, and extraction of gas and oil from the reservoir.
11.3.1
CoNSOLIDATION
Consolidation settlements must be taken into account only in case of clay deposits.
They can be calculated in the usual way, by determining the consolidation properties of the clay layers, and then using the consolidation theory to predict the
behaviour as a function of time. In most cases it is not really necessary to use
three-dimensional consolidation theory. A one-dimensional approach is usually
sufficiently accurate.
GRAVITY FOUNDATIONS
11.3.2
203
CREEP
Creep settlements of the layers near the sea bottom surface can be taken into
account by assuming the usual logarithmic time dependence of these settlements,
c:
= C:p + c:,log(tfto)
(11.33)
The parameters C:p and c:, must be determined from laboratory tests. They depend
in a non-linear way upon the stresses. Therefore the most effective procedure is
to determine their value by simulating the in situ stress path in the laboratory.
In general this must be done for the soil at various depths beneath the structure,
taking into account the variation of the stresses with depth, and the variability
of the soil. In order to determine the actual settlements the strains in each layer
must be multiplied by the layer thickness, and then summed over all layers.
11.3.3
DEFORMATIONS OF THE RESERVOIR
The purpose of most offshore operations is to extract gas or oil from deep reservoirs. In this process gas or oil is produced out of the pores of a porous rock,
usually by reducing the pressure in these pores. This leads to an increase of the
effective stresses in the rock, and thus to deformations. These deformations can be
predicted by Biot's theory of consolidation (see chapter 2), using the appropriate
values for the compressibility of the reservoir. One of the most important parts
of such calculations is the prediction of surface subsidence. For large gas or oil
fields, from which large amounts of fluid are extracted, with a large reduction of
the pore pressures, this surface subsidence may be of great importance.
CHAPTER 12
SLOPE STABILITY
In this chapter Bishop's method (Bishop, 1955) for slope stability analysis is presented, together with a simple program. The usual procedure in the analysis of
stability of slopes is to calculate the safety factor of various assumed slip surfaces,
and then to regard the slip surface having the smallest safety factor as critical. If
the safety factor is smaller than 1 the slope is considered to be unstable. In normal
conditions the design of such a slope is rejected. In the design of dikes and dams
it is usually required that the smallest safety factor is greater than 1, say 1.2 or
1.3.
An unstable slope may be considered acceptable if the unstable condition occurs
only in exceptional circumstances, such as in the event of a severe earthquake,
coinciding with a high water level. In such cases it may be necessary to predict
the deformations that the unstable slope will undergo. If these are small enough
the design may still be adequate. In case of a water retaining dam the freeboard
will be reduced by the failure, but it is possible that the deformations are so
small that the dam keeps its function as a water retaining structure. For this case
an estimation of the deformations of an unstable slope will be presented in this
chapter, on the basis of a modification of Bishop's method.
12.1
Bishop's method
Bishop's simplified method is based upon a consideration of moment equilibrium

of the soil mass above an assumed circular slip surface, see figure 12.1.
The soil mass is subdivided into a number of vertical slices, of width b and
height h. The average volumetric weight in a slice is denoted by 'Y, so that the
weight of each slice is 1bh. The maximum shear stress acting at the lower boundary
of a slice is related to the local cohesion c and the normal effective stress u' by
Coulomb's relation
TJ
= c + u' tan,
(12.1)
where <P is the angle of internal friction.

It is now assumed that the actual shear stress acting upon the lower boundary
of a slice is TJ / F, where F is a certain constant, the stability factor, or safety
factor. Hence
1
(12.2)
r= F(c+u'tan).
It is assumed that the factor F is the same for all slices.
204
SLOPE STABILITY
205
__,.,
: a
Figure 12.1. Slip circle method.
Equilibrium of moments with respect to the center of the slip circle can be
expressed by equating the sum of the moments of the weight of each slice with
respect to the center of the circle to the sum of the moments of the shearing
forces at the bottom of the slices. Because the horizontal distance from a slice to
the center is Rsin a and the area of the bottom section of a slice is b/ cos a, this
equilibrium condition can be expressed as
'1hbR sin a = 'L, rbR .

cos a
(12.3)
If all slices have the same width, it follows from (12.2) and (12.3) that
= 'L,[(c + u' tan)/ cos a]_

'L, 1 h sin a
(12.4)
This formula is the basis of several methods, such as those developed by Fellenius
(1927) and Bishop (1955). Because Bishop's method has been validated against solutions for various particular cases and has been used extensively with satisfactory
results it will be presented below.
In Bishop's method it is assumed that the forces transmitted between adjacent
slices are strictly horizontal. It then follows from the vertical equilibrium of a slice,
see figure 12.2, that
1h = u' + p + r tan a.
(12.5)
By using the expression (12.2) for the shear stress r one now obtains
u'(1
tan a tan
c
F
) = 1h- p- F tan a.
(12.6)
206
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.2. Forces on a slice.
Substitution of this expression into equation (12.4) for the stability factor F now
gives, finally,
(12.7)
This is the basic formula of Bishop's method. Because the stability factor F also
appears in the right hand side of the equation, its value must be determined iteratively, starting with an initial estimate. Experience has shown that the method
usually converges very fast, and that the initial estimate can be taken as F = 1.0.
It should be noted that in the formula (12.7) the factor 'Yh denotes the total
weight of a slice of soil. In an inhomogeneous soil this may be the sum of the
weight of a number of sections consisting of different types of soil, from the top of
the slice to its bottom. The upper sections of the slice may consist of dry soil, and
the lower parts (below the water table) may consist of saturated soil. The shear
strength parameters c and apply to the slip surface, that is the bottom of the
slice. In an inhomogeneous soil the values for c and should of course be taken
at the bottom of the slice.
12.2
Koppejan's modification
The maximum shear stress acting at the bottom of a slice is given by
c+ ('Yh- p)tan
TJ
(12.8)
= 1 +tan a tan/F"
If F
1 this shear stress becomes infinitely large for a
- ~11", because then
tan a tan = -1. Such a value for the angle a may occur near the lower end of the
slip circle, if the circle is deep, and the friction angle is large. For larger negative
values of a the shear stress is negative, which would mean that the shear stress is
not acting against the direction of slip. This may lead to unrealistic values for the
stability factor, and therefore it has been suggested by A.W. Koppejan of Delft
Geotechnics that the value of a to be used in the expression for the shear stress
be cut off at ~- :l-1r, which is one half of the critical value. This is called the
SLOPE STABILITY
207
modified Bishop method. In most cases the cut-off value is not reached, but it is
a refinement that avoids unrealistic values for deep slip circles. This modification
has been implemented in the programs used at Delft, and in the program to be
presented below.
12.3
Computer program
A computer program that performs the calculations described above is reproduced

below. It applies to the situation sketched in figure 12.3. This represents an
embankment on an existing homogeneous soil deposit. The groundwater table
----~
Figure 12.3. Stability of an embankment slope.
inside the embankment may be different from the water table at the downstream
slope. The soil properties of the embankment material may be different from those
of the subsoil. The slip circles to be investigated are defined by the location of 25
possible centers in a window, and a given lower depth of the slip circles.
program slope;
uses crt,graph;
const
nx=100;mx=4;my=4;
var
maxx,maxy,graphdriver,graphmode,errorcode:integer;
xasp,yasp:vord;xa,ya,xb,yb,dx,dy,sx,sy:real;
l,h,hl,h2,gv,gdl,gnl,ccl,phil,gd2,gn2,cc2,phi2,xl,yl,x2,y2,y0 :real;
s,p:array[l. .nx] of real;ff:array[O .. mx,O . .my] of real;data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' SLOPE ');
end;
begin
208
graphdriver:=detect;initgraph(g raphdriver,graphmode,'');
if (errorcode<>grok) then
begin
vriteln('Error in graphics :',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
vriteln;vriteln('Program interrupted.');halt(l);
end;
setcolor(7);setbkcolor(O);setl inestyle(0,0,1);
setfillstyle(11,7);maxx:=getmaxx ;maxy:=getmaxy;
getaspectratio(xasp,yasp);close graph;
end;
procedure dots(xl,yl,x2,y2:integer);
var
i,x,y,nr:integer;dx,dy,dr,xa,y a:real;
begin
xa:=xl;dx:=x2-xl;ya:=yl;dy:=y2- y1;
if dx<O then begin xa:=x2;ya:=y2;dx:=-dx;dy:=-dy;e nd;
if (xl=x2) and (dy<O) then
begin
xa:=x2;ya:=y2;dx:=-dx;dy:=-dy;
end;
dr:=(sqrt(dxdx+4dydy))/4;
if (dr>O) then begin dx:=dx/dr;dy:=dy/dr;end;
nr:=trunc(dr);
for i:=O to nr do
begin
x:=round(xa);y:=round(ya);
line(x,y,x,y);xa:=xa+dx;ya:=ya+ dy;
end;
end;
procedure input;
var
name:string;
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of the stability');
vriteln('of a slope, using the Bishop method.');vriteln;
vrite('lame of input datafile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,name);reset(data); readln(data,l,h,h1,h2,gv);
readln(data,gdl,gnl,ccl,phil);re adln(data,gd2,gn2,cc2,phi2);
readln(data,xl,yl,x2,y2,y0);
if (yl<h) then yl:=h;if (y2<y1+0.005) then y2:=y1+0.005;
if (x2<x1+0.005) then x2:=x1+0.005;
if (h2>h) then h2:=h;if (hl>h) then hl:=h;
if (hl<O.O) then hl:=O.O;if (h2<0.0) then hl:=h2;
close(data);title;
end;
procedure stability;
var
i,j,k,kk,ia,ib,ja,jb:integer;
xc,yc,xl,yl,xr,yr,r,f,fa,pi,cc, ph,tf,a,b,bb:real;
dx,x,x3,x4,y,yb,yt,yn,co,si,ta ,tb,e,pl,p2,p3:real;
begin
clrscr;
xa:=-l;xb:=2l;ya:=-h;yb:=h;
if (xl<xa) then xa:=xl;if (xl>xb) then xb:=xl;
CHAPTER12
SLOPE STABILITY
i (y1<ya) then ya:=y1;i (y1>yb) then yb:=y1;
i (x2<xa) then xa:=x2;i (x2>xb) then xb:=x2;
i (y2<ya) then ya:=y2;i (y2>yb) then yb:=y2;
i (yO<ya) then ya:=yO;i (yO>yb) then yb:=yO;
dx:=xb-xa;dy:=yb-ya;sx:=maxx/dx;sy:=(yasp/xasp) . .axy/dy;
i sy<sx then sx:=sy;sy:=xaspsx/yasp;
pi :=3.1415926;
or i:=O to mx do
begin
xc:=x1+i(x2-x1)/mx;
or j:=O to my do
begin
initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode, 11 ) ;
ia:=O;ib:=round(sx(xb-xa));ja:=maxy-round(-syya);jb:=ja;
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
ia:=round(-sxxa);ib:=round(sx(l-xa));
ja:=jb;jb:=maxy-round(sy(h-ya));line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
ia:=ib;ib:=round(sx(xb-xa));ja:=jb;line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
or k:=O to mx do
begin
x:=x1+k(x2-x1)/mx;ia:=round(sx(x-xa));ib:=ia;
ja:=maxy-round(sy(y1-ya));jb:=maxy-round(sy(y2-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
or k:=O to my do
begin
y:=y1+k(y2-y1)/my;ja:=maxy-round(sy(y-ya));jb:=ja;
ia:=round(sx(x1-xa));ib:=round(sx(x2-xa));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
i (h2<0.0) then
begin
ia:=O;ib:=round(sx(xb-xa));ja:=maxy-round(sy(h2-ya));jb:=ja;
dots(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end
else
begin
ia:=O;ib:=round(sx(h1*1/h-xa));ja:=maxy-round(sy(h1-ya));jb:=ja;
dots(ia,ja,ib,jb);
ia:=round(sx(h21/h-xa));ib:=round(sx(xb-xa));
ja:=maxy-round(sy(h2-ya));jb:=ja;dots(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
yc:=y1+j(y2-y1)/my;r:=yc-y0;
p1:=1+hh/(ll);p2:=-2xc-2ych/l;p3:=xcxc+ycyc-rr;
xr:=(-p2+sqrt(p2p2-4.0*P1p3))/(2p1);yr:=xrh/l;
i (xr>l) then
begin
yr:=h;xr:=xc+sqrt(rr-(yc-yr)(yc-yr));
end;
xl:=(-p2-sqrt(p2p2-4.0p1p3))/(2p1);yl:=xlh/l;
i (xl<O) then
begin
yl:=O.O;xl:=xc-sqrt(rr-(yc-yl)(yc-yl));
end;
i (yl<hl) then
begin
209
CHAPTER12
210
yl:=hl;Xl:=xc-sqrt(rr-(yc-yl) (yc-yl));
end;
dx:=(xr-xl)/nx;
ia:=round(sx(xc-xa));ja:=maxy -round(sy(yc-ya));
x:=xl;yb:=yc-sqrt(rr-(x-xc)(x -xc));
ib:=round(sx(x-xa));jb:=maxy- round(sy(yb-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
for k:=1 to nx do
begin
x:=xl+(k-O.S)dx;yb:=yc-sqrt(r r-(x-xc)(x-xc));
ia:=ib;ja:=jb;ib:=round(sx(x-x a));
jb:=maxy-round(sy(yb-ya));li ne(ia,ja,ib,jb);
ta:=(x-xc)/(yc-yb);co:=sqrt(1. 0/(1.0+tata));si:=cota;
yt:=xh/l;if (x<O.O) then yt:=O.O;if (x>l) then yt:=h;
if (h2<0.0) then yn:=h2 else
begin
x3:=h11/h;x4:=h21/h;
yn:=xh/1;
if (x<x3) then yn:=hl;if (x>x4) then yn:=h2;
end;
p[k] :=O.O;if (yn>yb) then p[k]:=gv(yn-yb);
s[k] :=O.O;if (yb>O.O) then
begin
if (yn>yb) then
begin
if (yt>yn) then s[k] :=gn1(yn-yb)+gd1(yt-yn)
else
begin
if (yt>yb) then s[k] :=gnl(yt-yb)+gv(yn-yt)
else s[k] :=gv(yn-yb);
end;
end
else i~ (yt>yb) then s[k]:=gdl(yt-yb);
end
else
begin
if (yn>O) then s[k] :=gn2(0.0-yb) else
begin
if (yn>yb) then s[k] :=gn2(yn-yb)+gd2(0.0-yn)
else s[k] :=gd2(0.0-yb);
end;
if ((yt=O.O) and (yn>O)) then s[k]:=s[k]+gvyn;
if (yt>O.O) then
begin
if (yn>O.O) then
begin
if (yt>yn) then s[k] :=s[k]+gn1yn+gd1(yt-yn)
else s[k] :=s[k]+gnlyt+gv(yn-yt);
end
else s[k]:=s[k]+gdlyt;
end;
end;
end;
x:=xr;yb:=yc-sqrt(rr-(x-xc)(x -xc));
ia:=ib;ja:=jb;ib:=round(sx(x-x a));
jb:=maxy-round(sy(yb-ya));li ne(ia,ja,ib,jb);
211
SLOPE STABILITY
ia:=round(sx(xc-xa));ja:=mary-round(sy(yc-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
f:=l.O;e:=l.O;
vhile (e>0.001) do
begin
a:=O.O;b:=O.O;
for k:=l to nx do
begin
x:=xl+(k-0.5)dx;
yb:=yc-sqrt(rr-(x-xc)(x-xc));
ta:=(x-xc)/(yc-yb);co:=sqrt(1.0/(1.0+tata));si:=cota;
yt:=xh/l;if (x<O.O) then yt:=O.O;if (x>l) then yt:=h;
cc:=O.O;ph:=O.O;
if (yb<O.O) then begin cc:=cc2;ph:=phi2;end
else if (yb<yt) then begin cc:=ccl;ph:=phil;end;
tb:=sin(0.5ph-0.25*Pi)/cos(0.5ph-0.25pi);
if (ta<tb) then ta:=tb;co:=sqrt(1.0/(1.0+tata));
ph:=piph/180.0;tf:=sin(ph)/cos(ph);
a:=a+(cc+(s[k]-p[k])tf)/(co(l+tatf/f));
b:=b+s[k]si;
end;
fa:=a/b;e:=abs(f-fa);f:=fa;
end;
ff[i,j]:=f;closegraph;
end;
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,j:integer;
begin
title;
Stability factors :');
vriteln;vriteln('
y
vriteln('
I >;
for j:=O to my do
begin
vrite(y2-j(y2-y1)/my:9:3,' I);
for i:=O to mx do vrite(ff[i,my-j]:9:3);vriteln;
end;
vriteln('
x
=);for i:=O to mx do vrite(x1+i(x2-x1)/mx:9:3);
vrite('
vriteln;vriteln;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
stability;
output;
end.
----------------------------------------------------);
Program SLOPE.
The program reads data from a datafile, the name of which must be supplied by
the user. This datafile must be prepared before, for instance using a word processing program. The meaning of the input parameters is shown in table 12.1. Any
CHAPTER 12
212
h
hl
h2
gw
gdl
gnl
eel
phil
gd2
gn2
cc2
phi2
xl
yl
x2
y2
yO
Length of the slope

Height of the slope
Water level on the left side
Water level on the right side
Volumetric weight of water
Volumetric weight of soil in embankment, when dry
Volumetric weight of soil in embankment, when saturated
Cohesion of soil in embankment
Friction angle of soil in embankment (in degrees)
Volumetric weight of soil in subsoil, when dry
Volumetric weight of soil in subsoil, when saturated
Cohesion of soil in subsoil
Friction angle of soil in subsoil (in degrees)
Lower left corner of window of centers
Lower left corner of window of centers
Upper right corner of window of centers
Upper right corner of window of centers
Deepest point of slip circles
Table 12.1. Input parameters program SLOPE.
consistent system of units may be used, for instance meters for length, and kilonewtons for forces. The volumetric weights then are in kN /m3 , and the cohesion
is in kN jm 2 . The friction angles must be given in degrees.
For each center the program first determines the location of the slip circle, by
determining the extreme points, at the right and the left end. This is done by
first assuming that the slip circle intersects the slope, and then correcting this
assumption if the intersection point is to the right of the upper corner, or to the
left of the lower corner. If the water level on the left side is above the soil surface
(as in figure 12.3) the slip circle extends to the water surface. The sliding soil
mass, above the slip circle, is subdivided into 100 slices. The program determines
the lowest point of every slice (yb), the location of the soil surface (yt), and the
location of the water table (yw). This then enables to calculate the total stress and
the pore pressure at the bottom of the slice. The stability factor F is determined
iteratively, until the difference between successive values is less than 0.001.
A sample dataset is shown in table 12.2. This dataset applies to a clay dam
10.000
16.000
16.000
2.000
5.000
20.000
20.000
9.000
1.000
20.000
0.000
4.000
4.000
0.000
30.000
11.000
10.000
-1.000
Table 12.2. Dataset SLOPEl.
213
SLOPE STABILITY
(c = 20 kPa, <P = 0), on a sandy subsoil (c = 0 kPa, <P = 30). During the calculations the slip surfaces considered are shown on the screen, in graphical form.
After completion of all calculations output from the program is presented in the
form of a table of the stability factors, see table 12.3. In general the calculations
y
11.000
10.500
10.000
9.500
9.000
X
Stability factors :
1.295
1.303
1.309
1.324
1.345
1.275
1.277
1.279
1.288
1.300
1.271
1.270
1.269
1.273
1.279
1.282
1.278
1.276
1.276
1.279
1.308
1.302
1.299
1.296
1.296
2.000
2.500
3.000
3.500
4.000
Table 12.3. Output of computer program SLOPE.
should be repeated with a different set of centers until the lowest stability factor
is clearly inside the window, and not at one of its boundaries. The deepest point
of the slip surfaces should also be varied until the most dangerous slip surface, i.e.
the circle with the lowest factor of safety, is obtained.
The program contains a small number of statements to prevent certain inconsistent or impossible situations, such as a groundwater table above the top of the
embankment. It does not warn for other errors, however. If a circle does not
intersect the soil surface, for instance, the program will accept the data, and then
fail during the calculations.
The user may extend the program SLOPE to more general cases, such as
embankments of more complicated shape, with variable water levels, and consisting
of many soil layers, with variable properties. Programs with such facilities, and
with facilities to produce graphical output on various devices, are distributed by
various companies and institutes.
12.4
Deformations
The classical slip circle analysis does not give any information about the deformations that will occur when a slope is unstable (F < 1.000). In order to obtain a
first order estimation of these deformations one may consider the development of
the stability factor F when the slope slides along the slip circle, see figure 12.4.
When the soil mass above the slip circle rotates about the center of the slip
circle (this is the only form of motion that is kinematically admissible) it can be
expected that the driving force is reduced. The moment of the weight with respect
to the center is reduced by the movement, which will tend to improve the stability
of the soil mass. It should be noted that there is also a negative effect, because
at the lower end of the slip circle some soil will loose contact with the base. The
analysis of the stability factor after a certain rotation can be performed as follows.
214
CHAPTER 12
: .
Figure 12.4. Rotation of sliding soil mass.
The general formulas for the displacements due to a rotation over an angle (3
with respect to the point Zc, Yc can be derived by expressing the coordinates of a
point in polar coordinates before and after the rotation. This gives
+ {z- zc)cos/3 + (y- Yc)sin/3,

y' = Yc + (y- Yc)cos/3- {z- Zc)sin/3.
z' = Zc
{12.9)
{12.10)
These formulas can be used to determine the coordinates of the points in the
sliding soil mass after rotation.
The basic equation of equilibrium of moments, equation {12.3), now becomes
L:1hb(z~- Zc) =
L: rbR,
COSO!
(12.11)
where z~ is the z-coordinate of the center of mass of a slice (after rotation) and
Zc is the z-coordinate of the center of the slip circle. Using the angle a to denote
the original position of the slice one may write
z~- Zc =
R[sin a cos (3 +
(Yo~ Yc) sin (3],
(12.12)
where Yo is the (original) y-coordinate of the center of mass of the slice. The
stability factor F can now be expressed as
F =
L:[(c + u' tan>)/ cos a]

L:!h[sinacos/3+ (Yo- Yc)sin/3/R]
(12.13)
It is assumed, in analogy with the standard Bishop method, that the interaction
forces between the slices are horizontal, so that their contribution to the equation
of vertical equilibrium vanishes. The equation of vertical equilibrium of a slice (see
figure 12.5) now is
SLOPE STABILITY
215
Jr._
~~.
ip~\
Figure 12.5. Forces on a slice after rotation.
)cos(a-,8)
sin(a-,8)
+p
(12.14)
+r
.
cos a
cos a
Here it has been assumed that the thickness of the slice is constant during the
rotation. Using the expression (12.2) for the shear stress r one now obtains
I h
'[
= (u
u cos a-
,8)
+ sin(a-,B)tan]
F
=
1hcosa- pcos(a- ,8)-; sin(a- ,8).
(12.15)
Substitution ofthis expression into equation (12.13) leads to the following formula
for the stability factor after rotation
(12.16)
It can easily be seen that for ,8
--+ 0 this formula reduces to the standard form

(12.7).
It should be noted that the summation in the numerator should be extended
only over those slices that remain in contact with the subsoil. The summation
in the denominator, which expresses the moment of the gravity forces, should be
extended over all slices, except in case of a water retaining slope. In the latter case
it is assumed that the water level is unaffected by the rotation. In case of a slope
above groundwater, as shown in figure 12.4, the summation in the denominator
extends over all slices.
In case of a non-homogeneous soil it is not immediately clear what values of
the soil strength parameters c and should be used : those below the slip circle
CHAPTER 12
216
or those above it, or perhaps the average. In the program used to demonstrate
the procedure presented in this chapter the values above the slip circle have been
chosen, rather arbitrarily.
12.5
Implementation
The extension described above has been implemented into the program STABIL
of the Geotechnical Laboratory of the Delft University of Technology. The general
idea is that in case of an unstable slope (F < 1) a value of the angle (3 is chosen,
such that the stability factor increases to the value 1.000. This must be done
iteratively. The final value of the angle (3 can be used as a measure, or first
estimate, of the deformations that can be expected during failure of the slope.
As a first example one may consider an embankment in dry soil, having a
slope 1:1, with a rotation of the soil mass above the slip circle over an angle of
45, see figure 12.6. Irrespective of the soil properties the stability factor now is
.+.
______ ......................................................................... .
..../.
F = 999.999
Figure 12.6. Example 1.
found to be practically infinite (as indicated by the maximum value in the program
F = 999.999), which is in agreement with the fact that the driving moment now
vanishes. The procedure leads to an intuitively correct answer in this case.
A second example is shown in figure 12.7. The height of the embankment in
this case is 8.00 m, and the slope is 1:1. The soil is purely cohesive ( <P = 0),
with a cohesion c = 12 kPa, a dry volumetric weight of 16 kN /m3 and a saturated
volumetric weight of 20 kN /m3 . The water level is 7 m above base level. The
stability factor in this case is found to be F = 0.792, indicating that the slope is
indeed unstable. By trial and error it can be found that by rotating the sliding
soil mass over an angle (3 = 2.85 the stability factor is increased to F = 1.000,
see figure 12.8. Because the radius of the slip circle in this case is 14 m, it now
217
SLOPE STABILITY
....... + .......... .
= 0.792
Figure 12.7. Example 2, unstable slope .
....... + ....... .
= 1.000
Figure 12.8. Example 2, stable slope after failure.
218
CHAPTER 12
follows that the maximum vertical displacement is about 0.67 m. This may well be
acceptable if the probability of occurrence of this situation, with the parameters
used in the calculations, is small. It may be, for instance, that the actual strength
of the soil is greater, say c = 20 kPa, and that the smaller value of c = 12 kPa
occurs only after an earthquake, during which the strength of the clay is reduced
(This is called degradation of the soil). The embankment appears to be unstable
after the earthquake, and will have to be repaired, but the failure is perhaps not
catastrophic. Actually, it can be seen from figure 12.8 that after the deformation
of the embankment some freeboard remains. In order to verify the outcome of
these calculations one may compare them with the results obtained by taking the
base level 0.65 m higher, and the level of the embankment 0.65 m lower. In that
case the stability factor is found to be F = 1.000, which provides some support
for the applicability of the deformation analysis presented above.
It can be concluded that the procedure presented in this section leads to reasonable results, and gives a first order estimation of the deformations that can
be expected when an unstable slope fails. It should be noted that the method is
based on various simplifying assumptions, so that the numerical values should be
considered as not more than an indication of the order of magnitude of the real
displacements.
Exercises
12.1 Show that the program SLOPE leads to a safety factor close to F = 1.000 for an
embankment in a homogeneous friction material (c = 0) ifthe slope angle is equal to the
friction angle r/J of the material.
12.2 In a purely cohesive dry material (r/J = 0) the maximum height of a vertical cutoff
is about 3.83 c/-y, where cis the cohesion and 'Y is the volumetric weight. Show that the
program SLOPE confirms this result.
CHAPTER 13
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR

PLANE GROUNDWATER FLOW
In this chapter the finite element method for the solution of groundwater flow
problems is described. The presentation will be kept as simple as possible. More
general presentations, using the Galer kin method or the method of weighted residuals, can be found in the literature, see for instance Bear & Verruijt (1987).
13.1
Basic equations
Consider the steady flow of groundwater in an aquifer, with infiltration and leakage, see figure 13.1. The groundwater head in the upper aquifer, the main aquifer
of the problem, is denoted by 1/J, and the groundwater head in the lower aquifer
is denoted by 1/J'. It is assumed that this head t/J' is given, and is independent
of the flow in the main aquifer. Leakage from the lower aquifer into the upper
one occurs due to the difference in head t/J' - t/J. It is assumed that the vertical
.!.. !.!.. !.!.. !.!~ .! .!.. ! .

. .. .. . .. .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . ..
:~:~:::::::::::~:~:::::-:-:-:-::::~::~::::~:<:;.:. :.:. :.~. :. :. :
: . : . : . :. : . : . : . : . :. :. : . : . : . : . : . : . : . : . :. :J: . : . :. :. : . :
i;>fzizfz(zfzi\LZizfz:
.
. .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
Figure 13.1. Problem definition.
component of the flow in the upper aquifer is so small compared to the horizontal
components that it can be assumed that in this aquifer the groundwater head is
independent of the vertical coordinate (this is the Dupuit approximation). Then
one only has to consider the flow components in horizontal direction, and conservation of mass of an element in the horizontal plane, taking into account the inflow
due to infiltration and leakage.
The flow in the horizontal plane is governed by Darcy's law,
219
220
CHAPTER 13
(13.1)
(13.2)
where k is the hydraulic conductivity (the permeability) of the material. It has
been assumed here that the aquifer is isotropic, i.e. that it has the same permeability in all directions.
In the case of steady flow of an incompressible fluid conservation of mass requires that
o(llqx)
ox
o(llqy) _I L
oy - + '
(13.3)
where I is the infiltration, L is the leakage, and ll is the effective thickness of

the aquifer, actually the thickness of the water. In a confined aquifer this is the
entire thickness of the aquifer, so that it can be considered as a given parameter.
In an unconfined aquifer, such as the one illustrated in figure 13.1, the value of ll
is actually equal to the unknown head r/J. In such a case an iterative procedure is
needed, in which an initial value is assumed for the thickness, which is updated
in subsequent cycles on the basis of the values of the head rjJ calculated. In each
cycle of calculation the thickness can be considered as known.
The infiltration I in eq. (13.3) is considered as a given quantity. The leakage
is governed by Darcy's law for the flow in vertical direction through the clay layer
below the aquifer. This gives
= k' r/J'- rP = r/J'- rP,
(13.4)
d
c
where k' is the hydraulic conductivity of the clay layer (the aquitard), d is its
thickness, and c is the resistance, defined as c = d/ k'.
Substitution of eqs. (13.1), (13.2) and (13.4) into (13.3) gives
L
~(T 0 r/J) + ~(T 0 r/J) +I- rP- r/J' =

ox
ox
oy
oy
0,
(13.5)
where T is the product of the hydraulic conductivity and the effective thickness,
the transmissivity of the aquifer,
T = kll.
(13.6)
The boundary conditions are
rP = /,
or/J
T-=g,
on
(13.7)
(13.8)
where S1 and S2 are two disjoint parts of the boundary, together forming the
entire boundary, and where f and g are given functions on the respective parts of
the boundary.
It is assumed that the solution of the problem defined by equations (13.5),
(13.7) and (13.8) exists, that it is unique, and that it can be denoted by r/J* (x, y).
221
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR GROUNDWATER FLOW
Variational principle
13.2
The variational principle corresponding to the problem defined by equations (13.5)

- (13.8) is expressed in terms of the functional U defined by
U=
~1{T(aa;) 2 +T(aa;) 2 -2I;+

y
rjJ
2rjJrjJ'}dxdy- { grjJdS,
ls2
(13.9)
where rjJ is an arbitrary function except for the constraint

P E s1:
(13.10)
r/J=f.
The variational principle is that U has an absolute minimum if rjJ = ;*. This
theorem can be proved as follows.
Let the value of the functional U for rjJ = ;* be denoted by U*. Any other
acceptable function rjJ can be written as rjJ* + f tf;, where now tf; must satisfy the
homogeneous form of the constraint,
t/J
P E s1:
= 0.
(13.11)
For this function rjJ the value of the functional U can be written as
u = u + EC1 + f 2 c2,
(13.12)
where
C1 = 1 {T( a; )(at/;)+ T( a; )(at/;)- I t/J + (;* - r/J')tf;} dx dy
c
ay ay
ax ax
R
- f
ls2
and
C2 = 21
1{
R
at/J
T(-a ) +T(-a )
y
gtf;dS,
2}
dxdy.
+C
(13.13)
(13.14)
The second integral, eq. (13.14) is positive, because the transmissivity T and the
resistance c cannot be negative for physical reasons, and the integrand consists of
quadratic terms only. Hence
(13.15)
The first integral can be rewritten as
orfJ*
a
orfJ*
a
C1= 1R{ 0 x(tf;T 0 x)+ 0 Y(tf;T 0Y)}dxdy
1
R
a
ax
or/J*
ax
a
oy
a;
oy
{t/J[-(T-) + - ( T - ) +I-
;* - ;'
- f
]} dx dy
ls2
g tf;dS.
(13.16)
222
CHAPTER 13
The second integral in this expression is zero, because the function * satisfies
the differential equation {13.5), and thus the term between square brackets in the
integrand vanishes. The first integral can be transformed into a line integral along
the boundary by using the divergence theorem of Gauss. If this surface integral is
and s2 respectively, the result is
separated into two parts, over
sl
Ct =
Js
{ti;T 88*} dS +
Js
{ti;(T 88* -g)} dS.
{13.17)
The first. of these integrals is zero because on S 1 the function 1/J vanishes, see
{13.10), and the second integral is also zero because on S2 the function* satisfies
the second boundary condition, see {13.8). Hence
c1 = o
{13.18)
Because C 2 has already been shown to be positive, it now follows that the value
of U, as expressed in the form {13.12), is always greater than U*,
U ~ U*.
{13.19)
This completes the proof of the theorem.

The variational principle can be used to obtain approximate solutions, by considering a variety of functions, and then selecting the function that leads to the
smallest value of the functional U as the best approximation of the true solution. When using analytic expressions, however, it is often very difficult to find
a reasonably large class of functions that always satisfies the constraint. This
is particularly difficult when the shape of the boundary is complex. Thus this
method of solving boundary values problems, which was developed around 1900
by Ritz, was not used very frequently before the introduction of modern computers. The development of the finite element method, which can be based upon this
variational principle, has lead to a considerable increase of interest in this way of
solving problems.
13.3
Finite elements
In the finite element method the region R is subdivided into a large number of
small sub-regions {the elements), see figure 13.2. The simplest possible choice is to
use a mesh of triangular elements. These can easily cover a region of complicated
shape, and the mesh can easily be refined locally, in order to increase the local
accuracy. Formally one may write
{13.20)
where m is the number of elements. Similarly the functional U can now be written
as a summation of integrals over each element,
223
Figure 13.2. Mesh of triangular elements.

m
u =:Lui+ v,
{13.21)
j=l
where now
U = 1
'
JR.
{T( 0) 2 + T( 0 ) 2
ax
oy
21 + 2 - 2'} dx dy,
c
(13.22)
and Vis the surface integral in eq. (13.9),
V =-
ls,
gdS.
(13.23)
One of the basic principles of the finite element method is to approximate the
fundamental variable (in this case the groundwater head ) in each element by
some simple interpolation formula. In the case of triangular elements a convenient
interpolation is linear interpolation between the values in the three corner points
ofthe element (the nodes), see figure 13.3. This ensures that the function is continuous, and practically all variations can be simulated, provided that the elements
are small enough. The surface (x, y) is now approximated by a diamond-shaped
surface, which is piecewise flat, element by element. Formally one may write the
approximation as
(13.24)
If the node numbers of the element Rj are denoted as 1, 2 and 3, the conditions
for the function to be an interpolation between the values in the three nodes are
1 = P1X1 + P2Yl + P3,

2 = P1X2 + P2Y2 + P3,
3 = P1X3 + P2Y3 + P3,
(13.25)
CHAPTER 13
224
.............. t - - - - - - Y
Figure 13.3. Linear interpolation.
This is a system of three linear equations in the parameters p 1 , p 2 and p 3 . By

inverting the system these parameters can be expressed in the fundamental parameters 1/Jt, ljJ 2 and J3 , the values of the head in the three nodes,
+ b21/J2 + bai/Ja)/A,
P2 = ( c11/J1 + c21/J2 + cai/Ja)/ A,
Pl = (b11/J1
Pa = (d11/J1
+ d21/J2 + dai/Ja)/A,
(13.26)
where
b1 = Y2- Ya,
b2 = Ya- Yl,
ba = Y1- Y2,
c1 = xa- x2,
c2 = x1- xa,
ca = x2- xl,
(13.27)
and where A is the determinant of the system of equations,

(13.28)
It may be noted that the quantities bi, Ci, di and A can easily be calculated if the
coordinates of the nodes are known.
By substitution of the interpolation formula (13.24) for 1/J into the functional
(13.22), it is found that the resulting integrals are of a rather simple type, namely
integrals over a triangle of a constant value, or of a linear or quadratic function
of x and y. These integrals can easily be evaluated, using the following standard
integrals.
(13.29)
}Ri
xdxdy=O,
(13.30)
225
ydxdy = 0,
(13.31)
x 2 dx dy = / 2 (xi + x~ + x~)A,
(13.32)
Y2
+ Y~ + Y~)A,
(13.33)
xy dx dy =
jRi
jRi
}Ri
}Ri
dx dy =
112 (yr
1; (x1Y1
+ X2Y2 + x3y3)A.
(13.34)
Here it has been assumed that the centroid of the triangle is also the origin of the
coordinate system. If this is not the case it can of course be achieved by a simple
shift of the coordinate system. The integrals (13.29) - (13.34) can be derived by
standard mathematical procedures. Their derivation can be found in handbooks
on the finite element method, see e.g. Zienkiewicz (1977). Using these integrals
the various parts in the expression for Uj, see (13.22) can be evaluated.
The first term of the integral is, if it is assumed that the transmissivity T is
constant throughout the element,
T
Uj-1
= 41~1 {; ~(hbl + CkCI)JkJl.
(13.35)
The second term is, if the surface supply I due to infiltration is assumed to be
constant over the element,
Uj -2
= - 21~1
+ +
L dkJk.
3
(13.36)
k=1
Because x1 x2 X3 = 0 and Y1
d3 = ~6., so that one may write
Ui-2 =- Ij
~6.1
+ Y2 + Y3
= 0 it can be shown that
Jk
d1
d2
(13.37)
k=1
This expression could also have been obtained from a physical reasoning. The
integrand of the integral is the infiltration rate I multiplied by the groundwater
head f/J. If the infiltration rate is constant, the integral over the groundwater head,
which is assumed to vary linearly over the element, will be equal to the average
value of the head (the sum of the three values divided by 3), multiplied by the area
of the triangle. This area is ~16.1, and in this way the result is also the expression
(13.37).
The third part of the integral (13.22) is, if the resistance c is assumed to be
constant throughout the element,
Uj-3
16.1 3 3
""'""'[Zxxbkbl
4c L.....t L.....t
= -
+ Zxy(bkCI + Ckbl) + ZyyCkCI
J k=1 1=1
+dkdzllfJk(lfJI- 2f/JD,
(13.38)
226
CHAPTER 13
where the coefficients Zxx, Zxy and Zyy are defined by

(13.39)
(13.40)
Z yy --
1 ( 2
12 Y1
+ Y22 + Y32)
(13.41)
By adding the three expressions (13.35), (13.37) and (13.38) one obtains the following expression for Uj
3
Uj = ~
E EU1, + Rtc,)tPJ,1- E E Rtc,k;- E Qkk.

k=11=1
k=11=1
(13.42)
k=1
where
.
P/.1
.
.R11
T.
= 21 ~ 1 (bkbl + CJ:C/ ),
1
= 2Cj lill [Zxxbkbl
(13.43)
+ Zxy(bkC/ + Ckbl) + ZyyCJ:C/ + dkd,],
Q{ = Iilill.
(13.44)
(13.45)
Now the contributions of all elements must be added, see eq. (13.21), and the
contribution of the surface integral (13.23) must be determined. Contributions to
this surface integral are only obtained from parts of the boundary 8 2 where the
supply function g is unequal to zero. If it is assumed that this supply is constant
over an element side, say between nodes 1 and 2, then the contribution of such a
form of water supply is
(13.46)
where
(13.47)
where Yi is the water supply along the part of the boundary considered, and Lj
is its length. The quantity gjLj represents the total discharge of water supplied
along this boundary, and it appears that the two nodes on that boundary share
this water equally.
After addition of all contributions to the functional U one finally obtains an
expression of the following form
u=
~ LL(Pkl +Rkl)k1- EERklk;- LQkk.

k=1 1=1
k=1 1=1
k=1
(13.48)
227
where the summation now is over all nodes, assuming that there are n nodes,
and where the matrices P and R, and the vector Q are composed of sub-matrices
and sub-vectors of the form (13.43), (13.44), (13.45) and (13.47). The generation
of these matrices in a computer program is a simple matter. It can be done by
generating the sub-matrices for each individual element, and then storing the result
in the appropriate places in the matrices P and R. All that is required is a little
bookkeeping of the node numbers in each element.
The best approximation of the groundwater heads <P~c is the series of values
that gives the smallest value of U. This can be obtained by setting the derivatives
with respect to an arbitrary value <Pi equal to zero, for all i = 1, ... , n. The result
is ~he following system of equations
n
k=l
k=l
(i=1, ... ,n).
(13.49)
This is a linear system of equations, with the right hand side being completely
known. The solution of this system of equations is a standard problem from linear
algebra. Convenient methods of solution are Gauss-Seidel iteration or the method
of conjugated gradients. These are both iterative methods, in which the solution
is obtained by a process of iterative updating of a certain initial estimate. These
methods are very well suited for the analysis of sparse systems of equations, in
which a large number of the coefficients is zero. All operations on these coefficients
can be avoided.
It may be noted that the constraint of the problem, the boundary condition
(13.7), has not yet been considered at all. However, it is very simple to take this
condition into account. It simply means that not all values of the groundwater
head <P are unknown. Thus the system of equations {13.49) must be modified
for certain values of the counter i, so that the relevant equations are replaced by
conditions of the type <Pi = fi. It will appear that this is most conveniently done
by a small modification of the computer program, namely by simply omitting the
updating of the values of the head for the nodes in which the head is given.
13.4
Computer program
A computer program that performs the calculations described in the previous

chapter, is reproduced below. The program uses some special features to make
it more efficient. One of these is that it uses quadrangular elements rather than
triangular elements. The quadrangular elements are actually composed of four
triangles, see figure 13.4, but this is hidden from the user. Quadrangular elements
are preferable to triangular ones because they avoid the asymmetry of a network
of triangles. As the area is actually covered twice by the four triangles the soil
properties must be divided by two.
For the solution of the system of equations the program uses the simple GaussSeidel method. In this method the solution of the system of equations (13.49) is
obtained in an iterative way, by updating an estimated solution using the algorithm
228
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.4. Quadrangular element.
(13.50)
Here R is the overrelaxation factor, which must be taken between 1 and 2,
1 ~ R < 2.
(13.51)
When R = 1 the algorithm (13.50) expresses that the i-th equation is used to
update the value of;. By taking R somewhat larger than 1, the iteration process
converges faster.
Of course when the groundwater head is given, as it is on the part S 1 of the
boundary, the value of; is given, and the updating process must be skipped. If
the algorithm (13.50) has been applied once for all nodes all the values ; have
been updated, but updating a value disturbs the other equations. Therefore the
updating process must be repeated a large number of times. Experience has shown
that usually sufficient convergence can be obtained if the number of iterations is
taken equal to the number of nodes.
The banded structure of the system of equations is used by introduction of
a pointer matrix, which contains the node numbers of the nodes that appear in
one element with a particular node. As it can be expected that a node will be in
contact with at most 9 nodes (including itself) the width of the matrices can be
restricted to 9. The last column of the pointer matrix is used to store the actual
width of each row, so that this matrix is 10 columns wide.
The calculations are performed in the program GWF, reproduced below.
program gvf;
uses crt;
const
nn=300;mm=250;zz=10;
var
x,y,f,fa,q,u,v,v:array[1 .. nn] of real;ip:array[1 .. nn] of integer;
tr,cc,pp:array[l. .mm.] o:f real;np:array[l. .-,1. .4] o:f integer;
p,r:array[l. .nn,1 .. zz-1] of real;pt:array[l. .nn,1 .. zz] o:f integer;
xj,yj:array[1 .. 4] of real;b,c,d:array[1 .. 3] of real;
ks : array [1 .. 4 ,1. . 3] of integer;
n,m,ni:integer;rx:real;data:text;

procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackgr ound(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' GVF ');
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j,k:integer;c2,tc:real;name:s tring;
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of plane groundwater');
vriteln('flov by the finite element method. ');vriteln;
assign(data,name);reset(data);r eadln(data,n,m,ni,rx);
for i:=1 ton do readln(data,x[i],y[i],ip[i] ,fa[i],q[i]);
for j:=1 tom do
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j, 2] ,np[j ,3] ,np[j ,4], tr[j] ,pp[j] ,cc [j]);
close(data);title;for i:=1 ton do f[i] :=fa[i];
for i:=1 to 4 do for j:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=i+j-1;if k>4 then k:=k-4;ks[i,j] :=k;
end;
end;
procedure pointer;
var
i,j,k,l,kk,ll,ia,ii,kb:integer;
begin
title;vriteln('Generation of pointer matrix');vriteln;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz do pt[i,j]:=O;
for i:=1 ton do begin pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,zz]:=1;end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 4 do
begin
kk:=np[j,k];for 1:=1 to 4 do
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:=O;
for ii:=1 to pt[kk,zz] do if pt[kk,ii]=ll then ia:=1;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1;
if kb=zz then
begin
vriteln('Pointer vidth too small.');vriteln;halt;
end;
pt[kk,zz]:=kb;pt[kk,kb]:=ll;
end;
end;
229
230
CHAPTER 13
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,1,kv,kw,ii,kk,11:integer;
zx,zy,dd,ee,dp,dr,xx,xy,yy,aa: real;
begin
write1n('Generation of system matrix');writeln;ee:=0.000001;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
q[i] :=0;
for j:=1 to zz-1 do begin p[i,j] :=O;r[i,j] :=O;end;

end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for kw:=1 to 4 do
begin
zx:=O;zy:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,ks [kw, i]] ;xj [i] :=x[k] ;yj[i] :=y[k];
zx:=zx+x[k];zy:=zy+y[k];
end;
zx:=zx/3;zy:=zy/3;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
xj[i]:=xj[i]-zx;yj[i] :=yj[i]-zy;
end;
b[1] :=yj[2]-yj[3] ;b[2] :=yj[3]-yj[1];b[3] :=yj[1]-yj[2];
c [1] : =xj [3] -xj [2] ; c [2] : =xj [1] -xj[3]; c [3] : =xj [2] -xj [1] ;
d[1] : =xj [2] yj [3] -xj [3] yj [2]; d[2] :=xj [3] yj [1] -xj [1] yj [3] ;
d[3]:=xj[1]yj[2]-xj[2]yj[1];dd :=abs(d[1]+d[2]+d[3]);
if dd>ee then
begin
dp:=tr[j]/(4dd);dr:=1/(4cc[j] dd);
xx:=(xj[1]xj[1]+xj[2]xj[2]+x j[3]xj[3])/12;
xy:=(xj[1]yj[1]+xj[2]yj[2]+x j[3]yj[3])/12;
yy:=(yj[1]yj[1]+yj[2]yj[2]+y j[3]yj[3])/12;
for k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j,ks[kw,k]];ii:=pt[kk,zz ];
for 11:=1 to ii do
begin
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
kv:=ks[kw,1];if np[j,kv]=pt[kk,11] then
begin
p [kk,ll] : =p[kk,ll] +dp(b [k] b [1]+c [k] c [1]);
aa:=xxb[k]b[1]+xy(b[k]c[1]+ b[1]c[k]);
aa:=aa+yyc[k]c[1]+d[k]d[1];
r[kk,11]:=r[kk,11]+draa;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to 3 do
231
begin
k:=np[j ,ks [ltv, i]] ;q[k] :=q[k]+ddpp[j] /12;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure so1vegs;
var
it,i,j,1:integer;
aa:rea1;
begin
vrite1n('So1ution of equations');vriteln;
for it:=1 toni do for i:=1 ton do if ip[i]<O then
begin
aa:=q[i];for j:=1 to pt[i,zz] do
begin
1:=pt[i,j];
aa:=aa-(p[i,j]+r[i,j])f[1]+r[ i,j]fa[1];
end;
f[i] :=f[i]+rxaa/p[i,1];
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
q[i] :=O;for j:=1 to pt[i,zz] do
begin
1:=pt[i,j];
q[i]:=q[i]+(p[i,j]+r[i,j])f[1 ]-r[i,j]fa[1];
end;
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,1,i1,i2:integer;
begin
1:=0;i1:=1;vhi1e 1=0 do
begin
tit1e;vriteln('
i
x
y
f
q');
vriteln;i2:=i1+19;if i2>n then i2:=n;
for i:=i1 to i2 do
begin
vrite1n(i:4,x[i] :9:3,y[i] :9:3,f[i] :9:3,q[i]:9:3);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if i1>n then 1:=1;
end;
clrscr;
end;
begin
input;
pointer;
matrix;
so1vegs;
output;
end.
Program GWF.
The program reads data from a dataset, the name of which must be supplied by
CHAPTER 13
232
the user, and which must have been prepared before. In the dataset the values of n
and m denote the number of nodes and the number of elements, respectively. The
maximum values are 300 and 250. The parameter zz is the width of the pointer
matrix, mentioned above. The number of iterations in the Gauss-Seidel procedure
is ni, and rx is the overrelaxation factor. The variables x[i] and y[i] denote
the coordinates of node i. The parameter ip [i] is a switch parameter, which
defines whether the groundwater head or the discharge in node i is prescribed. If
ip(i) > 0 the groundwater head f [i] is given. If ip(i) < 0 the discharge q[i] is
given. The values off [i] and q[i] are read from the datafile for all nodes. When
they are not given, an estimate can be entered. The actual values of the estimates
are irrelevant, so that these may be chosen as zero. After reading the data of
the nodes the program reads the data of the elements. The 4 nodes constituting
element j are np [j , 1] , np [j , 2] , np [j , 3] and np [j , 4]. The transmissivity in
that element is tr[j], the infiltration rate is pp[j], and the resistance of the
clay layer is cc [j]. The input parameters of the program GWF are listed in
n
m
m
rx
x[i]
y[i]
ip[i]
f(i]
q[i]
np[i,1]
np[i,2]
np[i,3]
np[i,4]
trli]
ppli]
ccli]
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of iterations
Overrelaxation factor
if ip[i] > 0 : f[i] prescribed
if ip[i] < 0 : q[i] prescribed
Groundwater head in node i
Discharge supplied in node i
First node of element j
Second node of element j
Third node of element j
Fourth node of element j
Transmissivity in element j
Infiltration rate in element j
Resistance in element j
Table 13.1. Input parameters program GWF.

table 13.1. Output from the program is presented on the screen, in the form of a
list of the groundwater head and the local discharges. These are calculated after
the system of equations has been solved. They may include the nodal equivalent
of the infiltration rate.
As an example the data will be given for the problem shown in figure 13.5.
This example refers to a strip of land 100m long and 10m wide, with a uniform
infiltration of 0.010 m/d. The transmissivity of the aquifer is 1 m 2 /d, and the
head at the two boundaries at the left and right side is 0 = 10 m. There is no
233
...........
. ......................
. .
. ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................. .. .. .. .
. .. . . . .
. . . . ...... . . . . . . . . . . .
. ..... .
Figure 13.5. Example.
leakage from below, which can be achieved by taking a very large value for the
resistance of the clay layer. The exact solution of this problem is
.+. _ .+.
' I ' - 'i'O+
Ix(l- x)
2T
'
{13.52)
where l is the length of the strip {l = 100 m).

For the numerical solution the strip has been subdivided into 22 nodes and 10
elements. The dataset is reproduced below.
22
0.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
80.000
90.000
100.000
0.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
80.000
90.000
100.000
1 12
2 13
3 14
4 15
5 16
6 17
7 18
8 19
10
100
0.000 1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 1
10.000 1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 -1
10.000 1
13
2
3
14
15
4
16
5
17
6
18
7
19
8
20
9
1.5
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
234
9
10
CHAPTER 13
20
21
21
22
10
11
1.000
1.000
0.010 1000000000.000
0.010 1000000000.000
Dataset GWFl.
The numerical results are compared with the analytical solution in table 13.2. It
X
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Exact solution
10.000
14.500
18.000
20.500
22.000
22.500
22.000
20.500
18.000
14.500
10.000
Numerical solution
10.000
14.500
18.000
20.500
22.000
22.500
22.000
20.500
18.000
14.500
10.000
Table 13.2. Comparison of exact and numerical solution.
appears that the numerical results and the exact solution are identical, at least to
the third decimal.
13.5
Non-steady flow
The finite element method can easily be extended to non-steady problems, as will
be shown in this section.
The basic differential equation for non-steady flow in a single aquifer, in the
absence of leakage, is
(13.53)
where Tis the transmissivity of the aquifer, and Sits storativity. For an unconfined
aquifer the storativity is about equal to the porosity. For a confined aquifer it is
usually much smaller, and depends upon the deformability of the aquifer, see for
instance Bear & Verruijt (1987). The differential equation (13.53) is an immediate
extension of the basic equation (13.5) for steady flow, with the term on the left
hand side representing the amount of water stored per unit volume and per unit
time by the increase of the groundwater head.
=/,
81/J
T-=g,
an
(13.54)
(13.55)
235
where sl and s2 are two disjoint parts of the boundary, together forming the
entire boundary, and where f and g are given functions on the respective parts of
the boundary.
In non-steady problems an initial condition is also required. This is supposed
to be
t = 0 :
=<Po,
(13.56)
where 0 is given throughout the domain of flow.

The complication due to occurrence of the time derivative 8/ in the differential equation can most conveniently be taken into account by integrating the basic
differential equation over a short time interval, from t
t 1 tot
t2
t 1 + !1t.
This gives
ot
= =
(13.57)
where~ is the average value ofthe groundwater head in the time interval from t 1 to
t 2 , and J is the average infiltration during that interval. The average groundwater
head ~ can be expressed as
(13.58)
where is an interpolation parameter, which can be assumed to vary between 0

and 1,
O<c<l.
(13.59)
If the groundwater head would vary linearly between the values at times t 1 and t 2
the average value ~ would be ~ = ( 1 + 2 )/2, indicating a value = 0.5. If the
time dependent process is such that the final (steady flow) values are approached
Figure 13.6. Interpolation in time.
at an ever slower rate, see figure 13.6, it can be expected that < 0.5, because
the average value is then closer to the final value 2. In the limiting case = 0
236
CHAPTER 13
the final value completely determines the average value. This can be considered
to be equivalent to the use of a backward finite difference. The other limiting
case, c = 1, is equivalent to the use of a forward finite difference. It seems most
appropriate to use a value for c equal to or slightly smaller than 0.5.
Using the relation (13.58) one may write
- tPl
tP2- tPl = -1-c
-,
(13.60)
so that eq. (13.57) may be written as
~(Ta) + ~(Ta) +I-
ax ax
ay ay
- tPl
(1- c)Llt/S
o.
(13.61)
Apart from some unimportant differences in notation, this is exactly the same
equation as the basic differential equation for steady flow with infiltration and
leakage, eq. (13.5). Thus the finite element program used for the solution of that
equation can easily be adapted to a program for non-steady flow. All that is
needed is to replace the variable c (the resistance of the aquitard) by (1-c)Llt/S.
Furthermore it must be noted that the dependent variable in eq. (13.61) is the
average head . Once this value has been calculated the value tjJ 2 at the end of
the time interval can be calculated using the relation (13.60),
- tPl
tP2 = tPl + -1--.
-c
(13.62)
It now follows that a slightly modified finite element program can be used to
determine the groundwater head at the end of a time interval oflength Llt, provided
that the values at the beginning of the time interval (t/Jd are known. Using the
initial values t/Jo as starting values the behaviour in time can now be calculated in
successive time steps.
An elementary program (NSF, for Non-Steady Flow) is presented below.
program ns;
uses crt;
const
nn=300;mm=250;zz=10;tt=100;
var
x,y,,0,q,qt,u,v,v:array[1 .. nn] o real;
ip: array [1 .. nn] o integer;
tr,st,pp:array[1. .111111] o real;
np:array[1 .. mm,1 .. 4] o integer;
p,r:array[1. .nn,1. .zz-1] o real;
pt:array[1 .. nn,1. .zz] o integer;
xj,yj:array[1 .. 4] of real;
b,c,d:array[1 .. 3] o real;
t:array[O .. tt] o real;
ks:array[1 .. 4,1 .. 3] o integer;
n,m,nt,i,out:integer;eps,step:real;data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' ISF ');

textbackground(O);textcolor(7);~riteln;~riteln;
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j,k:integer;c2,tc:real;name:string;
begin
title;
~riteln('This is a program for the analysis of non-steady plane');
~riteln('ground~ater flo~ by the finite element method.');~iteln;
~rite('lame of input datafile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,name);reset(data);readln(data,n,m,nt,eps,out);
for i:=1 ton do readln(data,x[i],y[i],ip[i],fO[i],q[i]);
for j:=1 tom do
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j ,2] ,np[j ,3] ,np[j ,4], tr[j] ,st [j] ,pp[j]);
t[O]:=O.O;for k:=1 to nt do readln(data,t[k]);
close(data);title;for i:=1 ton do f[i]:=fO[i];
begin
k:=i+j-1;if k>4 then k:=k-4;ks[i,j]:=k;
end;
end;
procedure pointer;
var
begin
title;~riteln('Generation of pointer matrix');~riteln;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz do pt[i,j]:=O;
for i:=1 ton do begin pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,zz]:=1;end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 4 do
begin
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:=O;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1;
if kb=zz then
begin
~riteln('Pointer ~idth too small.');~riteln;halt;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l,kv,k~,ii,kk,ll:integer;
zx,zy,dd,ee,dp,dr,xx,xy,yy,aa:real;
begin
ee:=0.000001;
for i:=1 to n do
237
238
begin
qt [i] :=q[i] ;fO[i] :=f[i];
for j:=1 to zz-1 do begin p[i,j] :=O;r[i,j] :=O;end;
end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for kv:=1 to 4 do
begin
zx:=O;zy:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j ,ks[kv,i]] ;xj [i] :=x[k] ;yj [i] :=y[k];
zx:=zx+x[k];zy:=zy+y [k];
end;
zx:=zx/3;zy:=zy/3;fo r i:=1 to 3 do
begin
xj[i]:=xj[i]-zx;yj[i] :=yj[i]-zy;
end;
b[1] : =yj[2] -yj [3];b[2] : =yj [3] -yj [1] ;b [3] :=yj [1] -yj [2] ;
c [1] : =xj [3] -xj [2] ; c [2] : =xj [1] -xj [3] ; c [3] : =xj [2] -xj [1] ;
d[1]:=xj[2]yj[3]-xj[ 3]yj[2];d[2] :=xj[3]yj[1]-xj[1]y j[3];
d[3] :=xj[1]yj[2]-xj[2]y j[1];dd:=abs(d[1]+d[ 2]+d[3]);
if dd>ee then
begin
dp:=tr[j]/(4dd);dr:= st[j]/(4step(1-eps) dd);
xx:=(xj[1]xj[1]+xj[ 2]xj[2]+xj[3]xj[3]) /12;
xy:=(xj[1]yj[1]+xj[ 2]yj[2]+xj[3]yj[3]) /12;
yy:=(yj[1]yj[1]+yj[ 2]yj[2]+yj[3]yj[3]) /12;
for k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j,ks[kv,k]];i i:=pt[kk,zz];
for 11:=1 to ii do
begin
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
kv:=ks[kv,1];if np[j,kv]=pt[kk,11] then
begin
p[kk,11]:=p[kk,11]+d p(b[k]b[1]+c[k]c[1 ]);
aa:=xxb[k]b[1]+xy (b[k]c[1]+b[1]c[k]) ;
aa:=aa+yyc[k]c[1]+ d[k]d[1];
r[kk,11]:=r[kk,11]+d raa;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,ks[kv,i]];qt[ k] :=qt[k]+ddpp[j]/12;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure so1vecg;
var
it,i,j,1,iv:integer;
ee,uu,cc,vv,wv,aa,bb :real;
CHAPTER 13
239
begin
ee:=0.000001;ee:=eeee;it:=1;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
iv:=pt[i,zz];u[i]:=O;if ip[i]<O then
begin
u[i] :=qt[i];for j:=1 to iv do
begin
cc:=r[i,j];l:=pt[i,j];
u[i] :=u[i]-(p[i,j]+cc)f[l]+ccfO[l];
end;
end;
v[i]: =u[i];
end;
uu:=O;for i:=1 ton do uu:=uu+u[i]u[i];
while (it<n) and (uu>ee) do
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
v[i]:=O;iv:=pt[i,zz];for j:=1 to iv do
begin
v[i] :=v[i]+(p[i,j]+r[i,j])v[pt[i,j]];
end;
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+v[i]v[i];
aa:=uu/vv;for i:=1 to n do if ip[i]<O then
begin
f[i]:=f[i]+aav[i];u[i] :=u[i]-aav[i];
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+u[i]u[i];
bb:=vv/uu;for i:=1 ton do v[i]:=u[i]+bbv[i];
uu:=vv;it:=it+1;
end;
for i:=1 ton do f[i] :=fO[i]+(f[i]-fO[i])/(1-eps);
end;
begin
input;
pointer;
title;
vriteln('lode ',out,', x = ',x[out]:9:3,', y = ',y[out]:9:3,' :');
vriteln;vriteln('t = ',t[O] :9:3,', f = ',f0[out]:9:3);
for i:=1 to nt do
begin
step:=t[i]-t[i-1];
matrix;
solvecg;
vriteln('t
end;
end.
',t[i]:9:3,', f = ',f[out]:9:3);
Program NSF.
Again the program reads data from a dataset, the name of which must be entered
by the user. Compared to the program GWF the solution procedure (Gauss-Seidel
iteration) has been replaced by the conjugated gradient method. This is also an
240
CHAPTER 13
iterative method, but its convergence is often much faster, and actually guaranteed to occur after a number of iterations equal to the number of nodes (Reid,
1971). The procedures solvecg and solvegs are interchangeable, but the procedure sol vegs requires values for the number of iterations and the overrelaxation
factor. Another difference is the input data in the first line. In the program NSF
these represent the number of nodes (n), the number of elements (m), the number
of time steps (nt), the value of c: ( eps), and the node for which output will be
presented on the screen (out). This last input parameter is introduced to avoid
large amounts of output. The user may, of course, replace the output statements
by some other form of printed or graphical output. The input data for the elements are also slightly different from those of the program GWF, because now the
values of the storativity must also be given. At the end of the datafile the values
of time after each time step must be given. The input parameters of the program
n
m
nt
eps
out
x[i]
y[i]
ip[i]
fO[i]
q[i]
np[i,1]
np[j,2]
np[i,3]
np[i,4]
tr[i]
st[i]
pp[i]
t[k]
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of time steps
Interpolation parameter
Node number for output
Indicator for the type of node i
if ip[i] > 0 : f[i] prescribed
if ip[i] < 0 : q[i] prescribed
Initial groundwater head in node i
Transmissivity in element j
Storativity in element j
Infiltration rate in element j
Time after step k
Table 13.3. Input parameters program NSF.
NSF are listed in table 13.1.

As an example the data for a non-steady version of the previous example are
given below.
22
0.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
10
20
0.000 1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.000 -1
0.500
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
6
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000

40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
80.000
90.000
100.000
0.000
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
80.000
90.000
100.000
1 12
2 13
3 14
4 15
5 16
6 17
7 18
8 19
9 20
10 21
10.0
20.0
30.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
750.0
1000.0
1500.0
2000.0
2500.0
3000.0
4000.0
5000.0
10000.0
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
13
2
3
14
15
4
16
5
17
6
18
7
19
8
20
9
21 10
22 11
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
10.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
0.400
241
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
0.010
Dataset NSFl.
The numerical results are shown in figure 13.7. After about 2000 days the steady
state level of 22.50 m is reached, which indicates that the non-steady program
indeed tends to the correct steady state solution for large values of time. Another
verification is possible by considering the behaviour in the first time step. In the
242
CHAPTER 13
................................................................,................................... .
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
---~---~---~---~----~--.
.
.
.
.
20.0 ........... ~ ........... :...... .~ ........... :........... .: .......... .
:
.
.
:
...
..:
..
.
:
:
.
........ .;............ j ............;........... j .........;
...
10.0 ........... ~ ........... :........... ~ ........... : .......... .,. ...................... c ........... ,

:
~
~
~
~
;
:
:
:
.
.
.
:
:
:.
:
:
:.
~!~!~
:
:
:.
~:
1000
2000
Figure 13.7. Groundwater level in the center.
beginning of the process there is very little or no flow in the center of the aquifer,
because all the water levels are still practically equal. Therefore the rise of the
groundwater level can be determined from the simplified equation
of/J
sat~
I.
(13.63)
In this case this would give that rp must be 10.250 m after the first time step of
10 days. This value is indeed obtained when running the program.
An important aspect of time-dependent problems is the magnitude of the time
step. The time step should not be taken too small, to avoid that the groundwater
level hardly changes in one time step, and not too large to avoid instabilities. A
practical suggestion is to take the first time step such that
Tt:..t
S(t:..x)2 ~
(13.64)
For a more general discussion of stability the reader is referred to textbooks on the
numerical solution of partial differential equations, see e.g. Fox (1962). In practical
applications it is usually most convenient to use the value suggested by eq. (13.64)
as a first estimate, and then to take smaller time steps when the process appears
to be unstable, and perhaps try to use larger time steps if the process appears to
proceed too slowly.
Exercises
13.1 Run the program GWF with the dataset GWFl. Explain why the sum of the
discharges is not zero.
13.2 Run the program GWF with a modification of the dataset GWF1, in which the
values of the resistances are a factor 1000000 larger, so that there will be practically no
leakage. Is the sum of the discharges now zero?
243
13.3 Write a program that will generate a basic dataset for a rectangular mesh of
quadrangles, using as input variables the length and the height of the mesh, and the
number of elements in the two directions. As default values assume that all groundwater
heads and discharges are zero, and that the transmissivities, the infiltration rates and the
resistances are all equal. Such a basic dataset can later be edited by a word-processing
program, defining boundary values and variable soil properties, in order to describe real
problems.
13.4 Extend the programs GWF and NSF such that it will draw the mesh on the
screen, together with contours of the groundwater head.
13.5 In the case of an unconfined aquifer the basic differential equation (13.5) is modified such that the transmissivity, is T = k>, where > is the unknown groundwater head.
Modify the program GWF so that it gradually updates the transmissivity. The calculations must be repeated a number of cycles, with the transmissivity in each cycle being
determined by the value of the head calculated in the previous cycle.
13.6 For non-steady flow in unconfined aquifers the program NSF can be modified by
simply updating the value of the transmissivity after each time step, provided that the
groundwater head does not change too much in each step. Perform this modification.
13.7 Show that the program NSF becomes unstable if the interpolation parameter c: is
taken close to 1 (suggesting a forward finite difference), and using time steps larger than
the suggestion (13.64).
CHAPTER 14
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR

PLANE STRAIN ELASTOSTATICS
In this chapter the finite element method for the solution of problems of isotropic
plane strain elasticity is presented. The elements used are as simple as possible :
triangular elements, with constant strain and stress in each element.
14.1
Basic equations
Let there be given an isotropic linear elastic body, deforming under plane strain
conditions. In the plane of deformation the region occupied by the body is denoted
by R, and its boundary is denoted by S. The displacement components of a point
in R in the direction of the cartesian coordinates x and y are denoted by u and v,
and the stress components are denoted by u :c:z:, u yy and u xy .
The stresses must satisfy the equations of equilibrium
OCTz;z;
OCTyz;
ax + oy +
OCTz;y
8x
OCTyy
8y
f - 0
:t:-
(14.1)
'
f - 0
Y-
(14.2)
'
where fx and /y are the components of the body force, a force per unit volume.
When the material is isotropic, the stresses are related to the strains by the
isotropic form of Hooke's law,
(14.3)
CTyy
= A vol + 2J.Lcyy,
(14.4)
(14.5)
where A and J.L are the Lame constants of the material, and where c vol is the
volume strain,
vol
= Cz;z; + yy
(14.6)
It may be noted that the Lame constants are related to the compression modulus
K and the shear modulus G by the relations

(14.7)
J.L=G.
244
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR ELASTOSTATICS
245
In soil mechanics it is often preferred to use the compression modulus I< and
the shear modulus G to characterize the properties of a material, because these
properties are more fundamental to soil deformation characteristics, and easier to
measure. It may also be noted that from considerations of elementary continuum
mechanics it follows that both I< and G must be non-negative,
I< 2: 0,
G 2:0.
(14.8)
In the sequel the Lame parameters A and 11 will be used in the theoretical derivations, in order to conform to the general use in most textbooks, whereas in the
practical examples the compression modulus I< and the shear modulus G will be
used.
If it is supposed that the first order derivatives of the displacement components
with respect to x and y are small compared to 1, the strain components C:xx, C:yy
and C:xy are related to the displacement components by the equations
(14.9)
ov
c:yy
= ay'
(14.10)
(14.11)
All the above equations must be satisfied throughout the domain R.

Substitution of the expressions for the strains (14.9) - (14.11) into those for the
stresses, ( 14.3) - (14.5), and of these expressions into the equations of equilibrium,
(14.1) and (14.2), gives the equations of equilibrium in terms of the displacements
(the Navier equations),
8
au
OV
8
au
8x[(A+ 211 )ax +Aoy]+ oy[p,(oy
ov
+ ox)]+fx
=O,
(14.12)
8
ov
au
8
au ov
oy [(A+ 211 ) oy +A ox]+ ox [p,( oy + ox)]+ /y
= O.
(14.13)
The boundary conditions are supposed to be that on one part of the boundary
(S!) the surface tractions are prescribed, and that on the remaining part (S2 ) the
displacements are prescribed. Formally this can be expressed as follows.
(14.14)
and
(14.15)
246
CHAPTER 14
where sl and s2 are disjoint parts of the boundary s, together forming the entire
boundary. On S 1 the surface tractions t:c and t 11 are prescribed, and on S 2 the
displacement components are prescribed, as u 0 and v 0 .
It is assumed without further investigation that the shape of the boundary and
the nature of the boundary conditions ensure the existence of a unique solution of
the problem defined by the equations (14.1)- (14.15).
14.2
The Galerkin method
There are various methods to develop numerical methods for the approximate
solution of the equations presented in the previous section. A powerful method is
the finite element method, in which the region is subdivided into a large number
Figure 14.1. Mesh of triangular elements.
of small elements, and the numerical equations are obtained by assuming a certain
simplified variation of the basic variables (the displacements) in each element. In
this chapter the elements will be assumed to be of triangular shape, see figure 14.1.
and simple linear interpolation functions will be used.
The numerical equations will be derived using the Galerkin method, which is
a special case of the method of weighted residuals. It is assumed that the basic
parameters, the displacement components u and v, can be approximated by
n
u = LN;(x,y)u;,
i=l
v = LN;(x,y)v;,
(14.16)
i=l
where n is the number of nodes in the mesh of finite elements, and u; and v; are
the approximate values of u and v at node i. The functions N;(x, y) are shape
functions. The value of the function N; ( x, y) in node j, with coordinates x = x j
and y = Yi is defined by the relations
N;(xj,Yj)= 1, ifj=i,
(14.17)
247
N;(x, y)
Figure 14.2. Shape function.
Furthermore the value of the shape function is determined by linear interpolation

in each element, see figure 14.2.
The basic differential equations cannot be satisfied identically by the approximations (14.16). A good approximation can probably be obtained, however, by requiring that the equations are satisfied "on the average" , using appropriate weight
functions. In the Galerkin method the weight functions are chosen in the form of
the shape functions Ni(x, y). This gives, with (14.1) and (14.2),
{ { [OUxx
OUyx
}R
& + 7iiJ
+ fx ] Ni } dx dy
= 0,
{ { [OUxy
OUyy
}R
& + 7fi/
+ /y ] Ni } dxdy =
(14.18)
(14.19)
0.
These equations should be satisfied for all i = 1, ... , n. This leads to a system
of 2n equations with 2n variables, Ui and v;. The first of the equations will be
elaborated below.
Because
[OUxx + OUyx]Ni =
ax
ay
8
a
aNi
aNi
l[rrxxN;] + l[rryxN;]- Uxx--;;-- Uyx--;;-,
ux
uy
ux
uy
(14.20)
equation (14.18) can be written as
Jl
+ h + J3 =
0,
(14.21)
where
(14.22)
CHAPTER 14
248
aN;
f{
aN;} dxdy,
h =- jR Uxx ax + Uyx ay
Ja =
(14.23)
(14.24)
{fxN;} dxdy.
Each of these integrals will be elaborated separately.

The first integral, h, can be transformed into a surface integral by Gauss'
divergence theorem. This gives
J1 =
is
UnxNi dS =
Xl
L ~txL,
(14.25)
where tx is the average of the surface stress Unx on an element side on the boundary
S (a boundary segment), and L is the length of that boundary segment. The
summation must be over all element sides along the boundary which contain node
i. The factor ~ occurs because the average value of the shape function N; over a
boundary segment containing node i is ~- It appears that the total force on the
boundary segment is distributed homogeneously over its two nodes.
The second integral, h, may be elaborated by using Hooke's law in the form
au
av
Uxx =(A+ 2JJ) ax +A ay,
(14.26)
(14.27)
The continuous displacements u and v in these equations may be expressed in

terms of the local variables u; and v; with the help of equations (14.16). The
integral h can now be written as
(14.28)
The integral is over the entire area R, which can be considered as the sum of all
(triangular) elements,
m
(14.29)
where Rp is a typical element, and m is the number of elements. The integral
(14.28) can now be written as
m
h =- LL(P~u; +Qf;v;),
p=l j=l
(14.30)
249
where now
P!'.
'1
1{(.A +
2 )aN; aNi
aX
J.1.
Rp
aX
aNi} d d
+ J.l. aN;
ay ay
x y,
(14.31)
and
Qfi
I {.A aaN; aaNi + J.l. aaN; aaNi } dx dy.
~P
(14.32)
Because the shape functions are linear they may be written as

N;
= p;x + q;y + r;,
(14.33)
where the coefficients p;, Pi etc., are constants. The three nodes of a typical
element Rp are now denoted by j, k and I (where i may be either j, k or I or any
1 in node j, and Ni 0 in nodes k and I. Hence
other node). Then Ni
+ qiYi + ri = 1,
PiXk + qiYk + rk = 0,
Pi X!+ qiYl + r1 = 0.
Pi Xi
(14.34)
This is a system of three linear equations with three unknowns : Pi, qi and ri .
The solution of this system is
b
p - J
i - D'
q- ...1...
J - D'
(14.35)
where
b, = Yi- Yk,
(14.36)
(14.37)
(14.38)
(14.39)
The quantity D is the determinant of the system of equations (14.35). The other
quantities are sub-determinants of the system. It can be shown that the area of
the triangle formed by the nodes j, k and I is just ~ IDI.
For the evaluation of the integrals (14.31) and (14.32) the following derivatives
are needed, which follow from the definitions (14.33),
aN;
ax
= p;'
aNi
ax
= Pi'
aN;
ay
= q;'
aNi
ay
= qi.
(14.40)
In the expressions (14.31) and (14.32) the integrands are constant throughout the
element, if it is assumed that the material properties .A and J.l. are constant in each
element. Because the area of the element is just ~IDI, the resulting expressions
are
CHAPTER 14
250
p~
Qfj =
21 ~ 1 {(A+ 2j.t)b;bj + J.lCiCj },
(14.41)
21~1 {Ab;Cj + J.LC;bj }.
(14.42)
Because similar expressions are obtained for all elements the integral J 2 , as given
by (14.30), can be written formally as
n
h =- L(P;jUj + Q;jVj),
(14.43)
j=l
where the matrices P;j and Q;j are composed of a summatio n of elementar y 3 x 3
sub-matric es P~ and Qfj. This summatio n can easily be performed in a computer
program by a repeated calculation of the sub-matrices, the coefficients of which
are then added to the values of the complete matrices, at the correct location.
This requires some book-keeping of the node numbers, but presents no essential
difficulties.
The third integral h consists of an integral of the body force over the region
R, multiplied by the shape function N;, see (14.24). Only the elements which
contain node i contribute to this integral, and for such elements the average value
of the shape function is ~, because there are three nodes, and in only one of them
the value of the shape function is 1. Thus the integral consists of elementary
contributi ons of the form
Js =
Xl
L tiDifx,
(14.44)
p=l
where again use has been made of the knowledge that the area of a triangular
element is ~ IDI. The index i in this expression indicates that contributi ons are
obtained only from elements which contain node i. The body force multiplied by
the area of the element represents the total force exerted upon the element by the
body forces in that element. It appears that each node of the element receives a
contributi on of one-third of that force, which seems perfectly unbiased.
Finally, by adding the expressions found for J 1 , hand ]s, see (14.25), (14.43)
and (14.44), the equation of horizontal equilibrium can be written in the form
n
L {P;jUj + Q;jVj} =
Xl + Xl.
(14.45)
j=l
The right hand side in this equation represents the total force acting upon node
1, either from a stress along the boundary, or from a body force.
The second equation is the equation of vertical equilibrium. This equation can
be derived from (14.19) in the same way as was done for the first equation. The
result is
n
L { Qj;Uj
j=l
+ S;jVj} = Y/ + Y/,
(14.46)
251
where Qij is the same as in (14.45), and

matrices Sfi of the form
Sij
is composed of a summation of sub-
(14.47)
The forces Y/ and Y? are the y-components of the forces on the boundary, and
the total body force, as acting upon node i. As in the case of the x-components,
each force must be distributed homogeneously over the two or three nodes which
together form a boundary segment or an element.
The equations (14.45) and (14.46) constitute a system of 2n equations with
2n variables. This system can be solved by any of the many numerical methods
available for solving systems of linear algebraic equations, for instance by LOUdecomposition.
It must be noted that the boundary conditions for the displacements, equations
(14.15), have been completely ignored so far. This can easily be corrected, however,
if it is understood that in the numerical equations the equations for Ui or Vi will
be ignored if this displacement is known from a boundary condition. In such a
case the equations from the system (14.45) and (14.46) are simply replaced by
equations of the type
z. E S 2 . {
where u? and
boundary s2.
14.3
ui = u?,
o
Vi
=vi,
(14.48)
v? are the given values of the displacement in a node located on the
Computer program

section, is reproduced below. It uses LOU-decomposition for the solution of the
system of equations. This method makes use of the banded structure of the system
of equations. If the necessary band width exceeds the memory reserved in the
program a warning is given, and the program stops.
program elasto;
uses crt;
const
nn=150;mm=250;zz=26;
var
x,y,fx,fy,ux,uy:array[1 .. nn] of real;xt,yt:array[1 .. nn] of integer;
cm,sm,bx,by:array[1. .mm] of real;s:array[1. .-,1. .3] of integer;
p:array[1 .. 2nn,1 .. zz] of real;r:array[1 .. 2nnl of real;
n,m,l,v:integer;data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' ELASTO ');
end;
252
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
gotory(25,25);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);
end;
procedure input;
var
begin
title;
writeln('This is a progrma ~or the analysis o~ plane strain');
writeln('elasticity by the ~inite element method.');vriteln;
write('lmae o~ input datafile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,nmae);reset(data);readln(data,n,m);l:=2n;
~or i:=1 ton do readln(data,x[i],y[i],xt[i],yt[i],~x[i],~y[i]);
~or j:=1 tom do
readln(data,s [j ,1] ,s[j ,2] ,s [j ,3] ,cm[j] ,sm[j] ,bx[j] ,by[j]);
close(data) ;title;
~or i:=1 ton do begin ux[i]:=~x[i];uy[i]:~y[i];end;
w:=O;~or j:=1 tom do
begin
k:=abs(s[j,1]-s[j,2]);i~ k>w then w:=k;
end;
w:=2(w+1);
i~ (w>zz) then
begin
vriteln('Band width too large.');vriteln;halt;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,ia,ib,iu,iv,ka,kn,kv,kk,kl,km:integer;
d,aa,dd,ee,a1,a2:real;
xx,yy,b,c:array[1 .. 3] o~ real;
pa,qa,sa:array[1 .. 3,1 .. 3] o~ real;
begin
~or i:=1 to 1 do
begin
r[i]:=O;~or j:=1 tow do p[i,j]:=O;
end;
writeln('Generation o~ matrix');writeln;
~or j:=1 tom do
begin
~or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=s[j ,i] ;u[i] :=x[k] ;yy[i] :=y[k];
end;
b[1] :=yy[2] -yy[3] ;b[2] :=yy[3]-yy[1] ;b[3] :=yy[1]-yy[2];
c[l] :=u[3]-u(2] ;c(2] :=xx[1]-u[3] ;c[3] :=u[2]-u[1];
d:=abs(xx[1]*b[1]+xx[2]b[2]+xx[3]b[3]);
dd:=sm[j]/(2d);ee:=cm[j]/sm[j]-2/3;aa:=ee+2;
CHAPTER 14

i:=1 to 3 do ~or k:=1 to 3 do
begin
pa[i,k] :=dd(aab[i]b[k]+c[i]c[k]);
qa[i,k]:=dd(eeb[i]c[k]+c[i]b[k]);
sa[i,k] :=dd(aac[i]c[k]+b[i]b[k]);
end;
~or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
ia:=s[j,i];iu:=2ia-1;
~or k:=1 to 3 do
begin
ka:=s[j,k];ku:=2ka-iu;i~ ku>O then
begin
kv:=ku+1;p[iu,ku]:=p[iu,ku]+pa[i,k];
p[iu,kv] :=p[iu,kv]+qa[i,k];
~or
end;
end;
end;
~or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
ia:=s[j,i];iv:=2ia;
~or k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kv>O then
begin
p[iv,kv]:=p[iv,kv]+sa[i,kl;
i~ ku>O then p[iv,ku] :=p[iv,ku]+qa[k,i];
end;
end;
end;
al:=bx[j]d/6;a2:=by[j]d/6;
~or k:=1 to 3 do
begin
i:=s[j,k];ib:=2i;ia:=ib-1;
r[ia]:=r[ia]+al;r[ib]:=r[ib]+a2;
end;
ka:=s[j,k];ku:=2ka-iv;kv:=ku+1;~
end;
i:=l to n do
begin
k:=2i-1;i~ xt[i]<1 then r[k] :=r[k]~x[i] else
begin
r[k]:=ux[i];p[k,l]:=l;i~ k>l then
begin
kk:=k-v+l;kl:=k-l;i~ kk<1 then kk:=l;
~or j:=kk to k1 do
begin
km.:=k-j+1 ;r[j] :=r[j]-p[j ,km.]ux[i] ;p[j ,km.] :=0;
end;
end;
kk:=k+1;kl:=k+v-1;i~ kl>l then kl:=l;
~or j:=kk to kl do
begin
km.:=j-k+l ;r[j]: =r[j] -p[k,km.]ux[i];
end;
~or j:=2 to v do p[k,j] :=0;
end;
~or
253
254
CHAPTER 14
k:=2i;if yt[i]<1 then r[k] :=r[k]+fy[i] else

begin
r[k]:=uy[i];p[k,1]:=1;if k>1 then
begin
kk:=k-v+1;kl:=k-1;if kk<1 then kk:=1;
for j:=kk to kl do
begin
km:=k-j+1 ;r[j] :=r[j]-p[j ,km]uy[i] ;p[j ,km] :=0;
end;
end;
if k<l then
begi'Il
kk:=k+1;kl:=k+v-1;if kl>l then kl:=l;
for j:=kk to kl do
begin
km:=j-k+1 ;r[j] :=r[j]-p[k,km]uy[i];
end;
for j:=2 to v do p[k,j]:=O;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j,k,ll,lm,jj,mm,nc,iz,ii:integer;
a1,a2,a3:real;
begin
vriteln('Solution of equations');vriteln('
Elimination');
for i:=1 to 1 do
begin
ll:=v;lm:=l-i+1;if ll>lm then ll:=lm;
for j:=1 to 11 do
begin
a1:=p[i,j];p[i,j]:=1;jj:=j-1;mm:=v-jj;if mm>i then mm:=i;
vhile mm>1 do
begin
k:=i~+1;a2:=p[k,mm];a3:=p[k,mm+jj];a1:=a1-p[k,1]a2a3;
mm:=mm-1;
end;
p[i,j] :=a1/p[i,1];
end;
end;
nc:=v-1;for i:=2 to 1 do
begin
a1:=r[i];k:=i-nc;if k<1 then k:=1;
iz:=i-1;for j:=k to iz do a1:=a1-p[j,i-j+1]r[j];
r[i]:=a1;
end;
for i:=1 to 1 do r[i]:=r[i]/p[i,1];
vriteln('
Back substitution');
for ii:=2 to 1 do
begin
i:=l-ii+1;a1:=r[i];iz:=i+nc;if iz>l then iz:=l;
k:=i+1;for j:=k to iz do a1:=a1-p[i,j-i+1]r[j];
r[i]:=a1;
end;
255

for i:=1 to n do
begin
k:=2i;j :=k-1;ux[i] :=r[j] ;uy[i] :=r[k];
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,j,k,l,i1,i2,ii:integer;
b,c:array[1 .. 3] of real;
d,aa,u,v,v,sxx,syy,sxy:real;
begin
begin
title ;vriteln('
i
x
y
ux
for i:=i1-to i2 do
begin
vriteln(i:4,x[i]:12:6,y[i] :12:6,ux[i]:12:6,uy[i] :12:6);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if i1>n then 1:=1;
end;
begin
title;vriteln('
i
lodes
sxx
syy
vriteln;i2:=i1+19;if i2>m then i2:=m;
for ii:=i1 to i2 do
begin
i:=s[ii,l];j:=s[ii,2];k:=s[ii,3];
b[l] :=y[j]-y[k] ;b[2] :=y[k]-y[i] ;b[3] :=y[i]-y[j];
c[1] :=x[k]-x[j] ;c[2] :=x[i]-x[k] ;c[3] :=x[j]-x[i];
d:=x[i]b[1]+x[j]b[2]+x[k]b[3];
d:=sm[ii]/d;aa:=cm[ii]/sm[ii]-2/3;
u:=b[1]ux[i]+b[2]ux[j]+b[3]ux[k];
v:=c[1]uy[i]+c[2]uy[j]+c[3]uy[k];
v:=b[1]uy[i]+b[2]uy[j]+b[3]uy[k];
v: =v+c [1] *UX [i] +c [2] *UX [j] +c [3] ux [k] ;
sxx:=d(aa(u+v)+2u);syy:=d(aa(u+v)+2v);sxy:=dv;
vriteln(ii:4,i:6,j:4,k:4,sxx:12:6,syy:12:6,sxy:12:6);
end;
next;il:=i1+20;if il>m then 1:=1;
end;
clrscr;
end;
begin
input;
matrix;
solve;
output;
end.
uy');
sxy');
Program ELASTO.
The program ELASTO reads data from a dataset, the name of which must be
supplied by the user. The dataset itself must be prepared beforehand, for instance
by a word processing program. In the dataset the values of n and m denote the
number of nodes and the number of elements, respectively. The maximum values
256
CHAPTER 14
are n=150 and m=250. The variables x[i] and y[i] denote the coordinates of
node i. The parameters tx[i] and ty[i] are switch parameters, which describe
whether the displacement or the force in node i is prescribed. If tx[i]>1 the
displacement in x-direction is given. If tx [i] <1 the force in x-direction is given.
The prescribed values are read as fx [i] and fy [i] . In internal nodes of a mesh
the forces will usually be zero, so that the switch parameters and the given values
can all be set equal to zero. After reading the data of the nodes, the program will
read the data of the elements. The 3 nodes constituting element j are s [j, 1],
s [j , 2] and s [j , 3]. The compression modulus in that element is em [j] , and the
shear modulus is sm [j]. The body forces in element j are denoted by bx [j] and
by[j]. The input data of the program are listed in table 14.1.
n
m
x[i)
y[i]
tx[i)
ty[i)
fx[i]
fy[i)
s[j,1]
s[i,2]
s[j,3]
cm[i)
sm[i)
bx[j]
by[j)
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Switch parameter for the type of node i
if tx[i] > 1 : ux[i] prescribed
if tx[i) < 1 : fx[i] prescribed
if ty[i) > 1 : uy[i] prescribed
if ty[i) < 1 : fy[i) prescribed
Prescribed force or displacement in node i
Compression modulus in element j
Shear modulus in element j
Body force in element j
Body force in element j
Table 14.1. Input parameters program ELASTO.
As an example the dataset will be given for a simple problem, see figure 14.3. In
this example a rectangular region is loaded by two horizontal forces of magnitude
1 at the right end. At the left side boundary both nodes are completely fixed. The
modulus of elasticity of all elements is 1000, and Poisson's ratio is 0, so that the
compression modulus is 333.3, and the shear modulus is 500. The dimension of all
elements in horizontal and vertical directions is 1. The dataset is as follows.
6 4
002200
0 1 2 0 0 0
100000
110000
257
Figure 14.3. Example.

2 0 0 0 1 0
210010
1 2 3 333.3
2 3 4 333.3
3 4 5 333.3
4 5 6 333.3
500.0
500.0
500.0
500.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dataset ELAST01.
Output from the program is presented on the screen, in the form of a list of the
displacements of the nodes, and a list of the stresses in the elements. In the case
of the example the stresses in all elements appear to be Uxx = 2, Uyy = 0, and
Uxy = 0. The displacements at the right end are 0.004, which is in agreement with
elementary calculations for this case.
Professional programs for elastic analysis by the finite element method are
widely available. Various programs for the analysis of non-elastic (e.g. elastoplastic) materials have also been developed.
14.4
Anisotropic elasticity
One of the advantages of the Galerkin method to derive the basic numerical
equations is that they can easily be extended to more general cases, such as an
anisotropic material. This will be elaborated in this section. In order to obtain
the most general form of the equations no symmetry relations will be assumed, in
contrast with classical anisotropic elasticity.
A generalized version of Hooke's law for plane strain deformations is
(14.49)
(14.50)
(14.51)
258
CHAPTER 14
where the coefficients E 11 , E 12 , etc., are the elastic coefficients. The factor 2 has
been introduced into the third set of coefficients for future convenience.
Using these expressions for the stresses the only difference in the derivation of
the equations is the elaboration of the integral h, see (14.23). The final result is
that the system of equation is
n
I:{
PijUj
+ QijVj} = Xl + Xl,
(14.52)
j=l
I:{~jUj +
SijVj}
Y/ + Jli2 ,
(14.53)
j=l
where the matrices are composed of summations of sub-matrices of the form

(14.54)
(14.55)
(14.56)
(14.57)
The incorporation of these generalized relations into a computer program is a
relatively simple matter. One of the main differences is that for every element
now 9 elastic coefficients must be introduced. Furthermore, the generation of the
matrix must be modified to take into account the modified form of the coefficients,
as defined by (14.54), (14.55), (14.56) and (14.57). Finally the possible asymmetry
must be taken into account in the solution procedure. It must be noted that in the
program ELASTO the symmetry of the stiffness matrix was used to restrict the
storage requirements. If the matrix is no longer symmetric this must be relaxed,
which requires a different solution procedure.
14.5
Computer program

section, is reproduced below. It uses Gaussian elimination with a wave front
method for the solution of the system of equations. This method makes use of
the banded structure of the system of equations, but allows for asymmetry of the
matrix. If the necessary band width exceeds the memory reserved in the program
a warning is given, and the program stops.

program anisel;
uses crt;
canst
nn=100;mm=140;zz=20;
var
data:text;n,m:integer;
x,y,ux,uy,x,y:array[1 .. nn] o real;
tx,ty:array[1 .. nn] o integer;np:array[1 .. mm,1 .. 3] o integer;
e11,e12,e13,e21,e22,e23,e31,e32 ,e33:array[1 .. mm] o real;
pt:array[1 .. nn,1 .. zz] o integer;
aa:array[1 .. nn,1 .. zz,1 .. 2,1 .. 2] o real;
procedure title;
begin
~lrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);write(' AIISEL ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7) ;writeln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
write(' Touch any key to continue ');write(chr(S));
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j:integer;name:string;
begin
title;writeln;
writeln('This is a program or the analysis o two-dimensional');
writeln('anisotropic elasticity problems by the inite element method.');
writeln;
write('lame o input dataile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,name);reset(data);r eadln(data,n,m);
or i:=1 to n do
begin
readln(data,x[i] ,y[i] ,tx[i] ,ty[i] ,x[i] ,y[i]);
ux[i] :=:fx[i] ;uy[i] :=y[i];
end;
or j:=1 tom do
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j ,2] ,np[j ,3],
e11[j] ,e12[j] ,e13[j] ,e21[j] ,e22[j] ,e23[j] ,e31[j],e32[j] ,e33[j]);
close(data);
end;
procedure pointer;
var
i,j,k,kb,kk,l,ll,ia,ii:integer;
begin
writeln;writeln('Generation o pointer matrix');writeln;
or i:=1 to n do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;or j:=2 to zz-1 do pt[i,j] :=O;pt[i,zz] :=1;
end;
or j:=1 tom do
begin
or k:=1 to 3 do
259
CHAPTER 14
260
begin
kk:=np[j ,k];
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:= O;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1 ;
if kb=zz then
begin
vriteln('Too many connections');h alt;
end;
pt[kk,zz]:=kb;p t[kk,kb]:=ll;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l,ii,jj,kk ,ll:integer;
a1,ap,bb,bc,cb, cc,dd:real;
xj,yj,b,c:array[ 1 .. 3] of real;
a: array[l. .3, 1. . 3, 1. . 2, 1 .. 2] of real;
begin
vriteln('Genera tion of matrix');vriteln ;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz do
for k:=1 to 2 do for 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j, i];xj [i]: =x[k] ;yj [i] :=y[k];
end;
b[1] :=yj[2] -yj [3];b[2] :=yj[3]-yj [1] ;b[3] :=yj [1]-yj[2];

dd:=abs(xj[1]b [1]+xj[2]b[2]+ xj[3]b[3]);
if (dd>O.O) then
begin
ap:=1/(2dd);
for k:=1 to 3 do for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
bb:=b[k]b[l];b c:=b[k]c[l];
cb:=c[k]b[l];c c:=c[k]c[l];
a[k,l,1,1] :=ap(e11[j]bb+ e13[j]bc+e31[j] cb+e33[j]cc);
a[k,l,1,2] :=ap(e12[j]bc+ e13[j]bb+e32[j ]cc+e33[j]cb);
a[k,l,2,1] :=ap(e31[j]bb+ e33[j]bc+e21[j] cb+e23[j]cc);
a[k,l,2,2] :=ap(e32[j]bc+ e33[j]bb+e22[j ]cc+e23[j]cb);
end;
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
jj: =np[j, i]; ii: =pt [jj ,zz];
for k:=1 to ii do for 1:=1 to 3 do
if np[j,l]=pt[jj,k] then
for kk:=1 to 2 do for 11:=1 to 2 do

aa[jj,k,kk,ll]:=aa[jj,k,kk,ll]+a[i,l,kk,ll];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
if (tx[i]<1) then aa[i,zz,1,1] :=aa[i,zz,1,1]+fx[i]
else
begin
for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,l,l]:=O;
aa[i,1,1,1] :=1;aa[i,zz,1,1] :=ux[i];
end;
if (ty[i]<1) then aa[i,zz,2,2] :=aa[i,zz,2,2]+fy[i]
else
begin
for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,2,1]:=0;
aa[i,1,2,2] :=1;aa[i,zz,2,2]:=uy[i];
end;
end;
end;
procedure vavefront;
var
cc:real;
i,ia,ii,ij,ik,j,jj,jk,jv,k,kc,kv,kk,l,lv:integer;
f:array[1 .. 3,1. .3] of real;
begin
vriteln('Solution of equations');vriteln('
Elimination');
for i:=1 to n do
begin
kc:=pt[i,zz];
for kv:=1 to 2 do
begin
cc:=1/aa[i,1,kv,kv];
aa[i,ii,kv,lv]:=ccaa[i,ii,kv,lv];
aa[i,zz,kv,kv] :=ccaa[i,zz,kv,kv];
for lv:=1 to 2 do if lv<>kv then
begin
cc:=aa[i,l,lv,kv];
aa[i,ii,lv,ij] :=aa[i,ii,lv,ij]-ccaa[i,ii,kv,ij];
aa[i,zz,lv,lv] :=aa[i,zz,lv,lv]-ccaa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
end;
if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];l:=pt[jj,zz];jk:=1;ik:=O;
vhile ik=O do
begin
jk:=jk+l;if pt[jj,jk]=i then ik:=1;
end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for lv:=1 to 2 do
f[kv,lv]:=aa[jj,jk,kv,lv];
pt[jj,jk]:=pt[jj,l];pt[jj,l]:=O;
261
262
CHAPTER14
for kv:=l to 2 do for lv:=l to 2 do
begin
aa[jj,jk,kv,lv] :=aa[jj,l,kv,1v];
aa[jj,1,kv,1v]:=O;
aa[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=aa[jj,zz,1v,1v]-f[1v,kv]aa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;
pt[jj,zz] :=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=-1;
for ik:=1 to 1 do if pt[jj,ik]=pt[i,ii] then ij:=ik;
if ij=-1 then
begin
1:=1+1;
i f 1=zz then
begin
vriteln;vriteln( 1 Too many connections 1 );halt;
end;
ij:=1;pt[jj,zz]:=1;pt[jj,ij] :=pt[i,ii];
end;
aa[jj ,ij ,kv ,1v] :=aa[jj ,ij ,kv ,1v]-f[kv ,jv] aa[i, ii,jv ,lv];
end;
end;
end;
end;
vriteln('
Back substitution');vrite1n;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
j:=n-i+1;1:=pt[j,zz];
i f 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj:=pt[j,k];
aa[j,zz,kv,kv]:=aa[j,zz,kv,kv]-aa[j,k,kv,1v]aa[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
vriteln;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
ux[i] :=aa[i,zz,1,1];uy[i] :=aa[i,zz,2,2];
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,j,k,1,i1,i2,ii:integer;
d,aa,bb,bc,cb,cc,sxx,syy,sxy:rea1;
begin
1:=0;i1:=1;vhile 1=0 do
begin
tit1e;vriteln( 1
i
x
uy');
263

for i:=i1 to i2 do
begin
vriteln(i:4,x[i] :12:6,y[i]:12:6,ux[i]:12:6,uy[i] :12:6);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if i1>n t~en 1:=1;
end;
begin
title;vriteln('
i
lodes
sxx
SJJ
vriteln;i2:=i1+19;if i2>m then i2:=m;
for ii:=i1 to i2 do
begin
i:=np[ii,1];j:=np[ii,2];k:=np[ii,3];
b[1] :=y[j]-y[k] ;b[2] :=y[k]-y[i] ;b[3] :=y[i]-y[j];
c[1] :=x[k]-x[j] ;c[2] :=x[i]-x[k] ;c[3] :=x[j]-x[i];
d:=x[i]b[1]+x[j]b[2]+x[k]b[3];
bb: =(b [1] *UX[i]+b[2] *UX[j]+b[3] *UX[k] )/d;
cc :=(c [1]*Uy[i]+c [2]*Uy[j]+c[3]*Uy[k] )/d;
be :=(b[1] uy[i]+b[2]uy[j]+b[3]*Uy[k] )/d;
cb :=(c [1] *UX[i]+c[2] *UX[j]+c[3] *UX[k] )/d;
sxx:=e11[ii]bb+e12[ii]cc+e13[ii](bc+cb);
syy:=e21[ii]bb+e22[ii]cc+e23[ii](bc+cb);
sxy:=e31[ii]bb+e32[ii]cc+e33[ii](bc+cb);
vriteln(ii:4,i:6,j:4,k:4,sxx:12:6,syy:12:6,sxy:12:6);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if i1>m then 1:=1;
end;
clrscr;
end;
begin
title;
input;
pointer;
matrix;
wavefront;
output;
end.
sxy');
Program ANISEL.
The program ANISEL reads data from a dataset, the name of which must be
supplied by the user. The dataset itself must be prepared beforehand, for instance
by a word processing program. The meaning of the data is the same as in the
program ELASTO, presented in a previous section, except that there are now 9
elastic parameters, see also table 14.2. The input data of the program are listed in
table 14.1. The dataset for the simple problem of figure 14.3 is reproduced below.
6 4
002000
0 1 2 2 0 0
100000
1 1 0 0 0 0
200010
210010
264
CHAPTER 14
Number of nodes
Number of elements
x-coordina.te of node i
y-coordina.te of node i
if xt[i] > 1 : ux[i] prescribed
if xt[i] < 1 : fx[i] prescribed
if ty[i] > 1 : uy[i] prescribed
if ty[i] < 1 : fy[i] prescribed
Elastic coefficient in element j
n
m
x[i]
y[i]
tx[i]
ty[i]
fx[i]
fy[i]
sfj,1]
sfj,2]
sfj,3]
ellfj]
e12fj]
e13fj]
e21fj]
e22fj]
e23fj]
e31fj]
e32fj]
e33fj]
Table 14.2. Input parameters program ANISEL.
1
2
3
4
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
6
1000
1000
1000
1000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1000
1000
1000
1000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
500
500
500
500
Dataset ANISELl.
Actually, the data in this dataset are chosen such that the material has isotropic
properties, with a shear modulus equal to 500, and a Poisson's ratio equal to
0. The user may verify that the program gives a uniform strain of the correct
magnitude, and that the stresses are U:c:s: = 2, Uyy = 0, and Uxy = 0, as they
should be.
Exercises
14.1 Write a. program that will generate a. basic dataset for a. rectangular mesh of triangles, using as input variables the length a.nd the height of the mesh, a.nd the number
of elements in the two directions. As default values assume that a.ll forces are zero, that
the modulus of elasticity is constant (say 10000), a.nd that Poisson's ratio is zero. Such a.
265
basic dataset can later be edited by a word-processing program, defining boundary values
and loads, in order to describe real problems.
14.2 Consider the problem of a beam of length 10 m and height 2 m, clamped at one
edge and loaded at the other end by a vertical force. In this case the deflection at the
free end should be F L 3 /3El, according to classical beam theory. Check whether the
program ELASTO gives that result, or at least comes close.
14.3 Extend the program ELASTO such that it will draw the deformed mesh on the
screen.
CHAPTER 15
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR

ELASTO-PLASTIC DEFORMATIONS
In the previous chapter the finite element method for the solution of problems of
isotropic and anisotropic plane strain elasticity has been presented. It appeared
that the method allows for each element to have different material properties. This
makes it possible to extend the finite element method to problems involving plastic
deformations, because the material properties can be adjusted as a function of the
applied load. A simple method will be developed and presented in this chapter.
The plastic material property will be very simple, representing a cohesive strength
only (and no friction). Again the elements used are also the simplest possible :
triangular elements, with constant strain and stress in each element.
15.1
Basic equations
The basic equations of elasto-plasticity in the context of finite element modeling

can be found in many textbooks, see e.g. Zienkiewicz (1977), Bathe (1982), Smith
(1982). They are presented here only very briefly.
The considerations will be restricted to two-dimensional problems, of plane
strain deformation. In that case the only non-vanishing strain components are
C::c:c, C:yy and C::cy On the other hand, the stresses in the plane of deformation,
which are supposed to characterize the complete state of stress, are U:c:c, Uyy and
U:cy It will appear to be convenient to represent the strains and the stresses by
vectors c: and u, each with three components,
(15.1)
and
(15.2)
The first basic idea now is that the strains C:i can be considered as a summation
of small incremental strains, or, in the limit, as an integration of the strain rates
ii. Furthermore, it is assumed that the incremental strains can be separated into
two contributions, an elastic one and a plastic one,
(15.3)
266
267
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR ELASTO-PLASTICITY
where if is the elastic strain rate and if is the plastic part of the strain rate.
In the finite element method the load is usually applied in small steps, with the
stresses and the strains calculated for each loading step. The total stresses and the
total strains are then calculated by adding the contributions of all loading steps.
The strains in a particular step will be denoted by the notation i;, even though,
strictly speaking, this is not a strain rate (a time derivative of strain), but a strain
increment.
The elastic strain increments in each step are supposed to be related to the
incremental stresses in that step by an isotropic elastic relation. This relation is
written as
. = E ii c;,
e
(15.4)
u;
where summation over the dummy index j is implied by the repetition of that
index. Written out in full this relation is
(15.5)
Here the factor 2 has been introduced to account for the fact that actually four
equations, with four stress components and four strain components, have been
condensed into three equations, using the symmetry of the stress and strain tensors
(uyx = Uxy and cyx = f:xy).
For an isotropic elastic material the elastic matrix is
2~)
(15.6)
where -\ and J.t are the Lame constants.

Because the elastic strain increments are the difference between the total strain
increments and the plastic strain increments, see eq. (15.3), eq. (15.4) may also be
written as
(15.7)
The plastic strains can be evaluated as follows. It is assumed that plastic deformations occur only when the actual stresses acting in the material have reached
such a level that they satisfy the yield condition. This condition is assumed to be
F(u;,c) = 0,
(15.8)
where F is the yield function, and cis the strength of the material. The existence
of a yield function is a fundamental concept from the theory of plasticity (Prager,
1959; Fung, 1965). If the value of this function is less than 0, then no plastic
deformations occur. Plastic deformations occur only ifF= 0. Values ofF larger
than 0 are impossible. Here it has been assumed, for reasons of simplicity, that
the yield function involves only a single parameter, the cohesive strength c, to
268
CHAPTER 15
determine yield. In general the yield function may be more complicated, and may
involve not only several strength parameters (including friction, for instance), but
also certain hardening parameters, which may depend upon the strain history.
When plastic deformations occur their relative magnitude is assumed to be
determined by the plastic potential G,
"'"" =
Ci
ac ,
K.-a
0';
(15.9)
where K is an as yet undetermined coefficient. For certain materials (in particular

metals) the plastic potential can be identified with the yield function. In the theory
of plasticity this is called associated plasticity. Certain useful general results may
then be deduced for such materials. For soils it is generally acknowledged that
association of the plastic potential and the yield function is not justified, and
therefore in this chapter they will be considered as distinct functions. The yield
function F governs the eventual occurrence of plastic deformations, and the plastic
potential G determines the direction of plastic flow.
Equation (15.9) specifies the magnitude of the plastic strain rates, except for
the factor K. This is usually interpreted in the sense that the direction of the
plastic strain rate is perpendicular to the surface of the plastic potential G, but
that its magnitude is not determined by the flow rule. The value of the parameter
K can be determined, at least as long as the soil mass is not failing completely,
by requiring that during plastic deformation the yield condition remains satisfied.
Mathematically this means that
if
K. # o :
8F
8 O'i
u; = o.
(15.10)
With (15.7) and (15.9) this gives

if
K.
#o:
aaF
0';
u; =
aaF E;;i; 0';
K.
E;; aac aaF =

0';
O'j
o.
(15.11)
From this it follows that

K
E;; (8Ff8u;)
.
e
E;; (8Gf8u;)(8Ff8u;) 1
This determines the proportionality coefficient

Substitution into eq. (15.7) now gives
(15.12)
K
whenever it is unequal to zero.
(15.13)
or
iT;= Ei;i; = (E;; +Ef;)i;,
(15.14)
where now
El!. _ _ E., Eki (8Ff8uk) (8Gf8u,)

'3 Ekl (8Ff8uk) (8Gf8u,)
(15.15)
269
These equations express the incremental stresses ir; into the incremental strains
i; by a linear relationship, although the coefficients in the relationship {15.14)
depend upon the actual stresses u;. Thus the incremental stresses and strains
may be determined by a linear elastic computation, using the matrix Eij as the
elasticity matrix.
15.2
Plasticity of soils
In soil mechanics the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is widely used. In its most
elementary form this can be formulated, for two-dimensional problems, by stating
that plastic deformations will occur if the radius of the Mohr circle touches the
Coulomb envelope, i.e. if
.
,/,
Sln'f'
= ccot T + uo ,
{15.16)
where r denotes the radius of the Mohr circle,
_ j((jl- U2)2 +u32 -_ j(Uxx- l7yy)2 +u,

2
2
2
xy
T-
{15.17)
and where u 0 is the isotropic stress,
_ (ul +u2) -_ (Uxx+Uyy) .

2
2
ua-
{15.18)
The yield criterion {15.16) is illustrated in figure 15.1. It is now assumed, for
Figure 15.1. Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion.
reasons of simplicity, that the friction angle of the material is zero, = 0, which
CHAPTER 15
270
indicates that the material is purely cohesive. It will also be assumed that the
plastic potential is identical to the yield function. For cohesive materials this
assumption, which implies, for instance, that there are no plastic volume changes,
is often considered as justified by experimental evidence. In this case the yield
condition is simply r = c, and the yield function may be written as
2_ c2.
F-G-(ul-u2)2+
0"3
2
-
(15.19)
In this case we have

(15.20)
and
Eu =A+ 2J.L,
E21 =A,
E31 = 0,
E12 =A,
E22 =A+ 2J.L,
E32 = 0,
E13 = 0,
E23 = 0,
E33 = J.l
(15.21)
The plastic part of the incremental elastic matrix, as defined by (15.15), is now
found to be
+2uau3
-2uau3
(15.22)
+2u~
where
(15.23)
and where r is defined by eq. (15.17), i.e.
(15.24)
15.3
Computer program
In the previous chapter a program has been presented (ANISEL) for plane strain
elastic deformations of a material with general anisotropic elastic properties. Because it has been found that elasto-plastic deformations can be described with an
elastic matrix, see eq. (15.14), a program for elasto-plastic deformations can be
constructed on the basis of the program ANISEL for anisotropic elasticity. Such a
computer program is reproduced below, as the program PLASTO. The program
reads its input data from a datafile that must be prepared beforehand by the user,
using a text editing program. A sample datafile is given later.
program plasto;
uses crt;
const
nn=120;mm=200;zz=15;
var

fac,disp,el1,el3,dx,dy:real;da ta:text;it,n,m,tt,node,dir:integ er;
x,y,ux,uy,vx,vy,fx,fy:array[1 .. nn] of real;
tx,ty:array[1 .. nn] of integer;np:array[1 .. mm,1 .. 3] of integer;
vv,cm,sm,ch,sxx,syy,sxy:array[1 .. mm] of real;
pp: array [1 .. mm] of integer;pt: array[l. .nn,l. .zz] of integer;
aa:array[1 .. nn,1 .. zz,1 .. 2,1 .. 2] of real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackgr ound(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' PLASTO ');
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j:integer;name:string;xa,ya,x b,yb:real;
begin
title;vriteln;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of tva-dimensional elasto-');
vriteln('plastic deformation problems by the finite element method.');
vriteln;vrite('lame of input datafile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,name);reset(data); readln(data,n,m,tt);
xa:=O;xb:=O;ya:=O;yb:=O;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
readln(data,x[i] ,y[i] ,tx[i] ,ty[i] ,fx[i] ,fy[i]) ;vx[i] :=O;vy[i] :=0;
if (x[i]<xa) then xa:=x[i];if (x[i]>xb) then xb:=x[i];
if (y[i]<ya) then ya:=y[i];if (y[i]>yb) then yb:=y[i];
end;
dx:=xb-xa;dy:=yb-ya;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j ,2] ,np[j ,3] ,vv[j] ,cm[j] ,sm[j] ,ch[j]);
sxx[j]:=O;syy[j] :=O;sxy[j] :=O;pp[j] :=0;
end;
readln(data,node,dir);close(da ta);
end;
procedure pointer;
var
i,j,k,kb,kk,l,ll,ia,ii:integer;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;for j:=2 to zz-1 do pt[i,j] :=O;pt[i,zz] :=1;
end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j ,k];
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:=O;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1;if kb=zz then
begin
271
272
vriteln('Too many connections);halt;
end;
pt[klt,zz] :=kb;pt[klt,kb] :=11;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j ,k,l,ii,jj ,kk,ll: integer;
a1,a2,a3,a4,b1,b2,ap,bb,bc,cb,cc,dd,eps:real;
e11,e12,e13,e21,e22,e23,e31,e32,e33:real;
xj,yj,b,c:array[1 .. 3] o~ real;
a:array[l. .3,1. .3,1. .2,1. .2] o~ real;
begin
~or i:=1 ton do ~or j:=1 to zz do
~or k:=1 to 2 do ~or 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O;
~or j:=1 tom do
begin
~or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,i] ;xj[i] :=x[k] ;yj[i] :=y[k] i
end;
b[1] :=yj [2]-yj [3] ;b[2] :=yj[3]-yj[1] ;b[3] :=yj [1]-yj [2] i
c [1] : =xj [3] -xj [2]; c [2] :=xj [1] -xj [3] ; c[3] : =xj [2] -xj [1] ;
dd:=abs(xj[1]b[1]+xj[2]b[2]+xj[3]b[3]);
eps:=0.000001ch[j];
a1:=0.5Csxx[j]-syy[j]);a2:=sxy[j];a4:=a1a1+a2a2;
~ (pp[j]=1) then a4:=sm[j]/a4 else a4:=0;
a3:=a4a2a2;a2:=a4a1a2;a1:=a4a1a1;
b1:=cm[j]+4.0sm[j]/3.0;b2:=b1-2sm[j];
e11:=b1-a1;e12:=b2+a1;e13:=-a2;i~ (e11<0) then ell:=O;
e21:=b2+a1;e22:=b1-al;e23:=a2;i~ (e22<0) then e22:=0;
e31:=-a2;e32:=a2;e33:=sm[j]-a3;i~ (e33<0) then e33:=0;
~ (dd>O .0) then
begin
ap:=1/C2dd);
~or k:=l to 3 do ~or 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
bb:=b[k]b[l];bc:=b[k]c[l];
cb:=c[k]b[l];cc:=c[k]c[l];
a[k,l,1,1] :=apCe11bb+e13bc+e31cb+e33cc);
a[k,l,1,2]:=apCe12bc+e13bb+e32cc+e33cb);
a[k,l,2,1]:=apCe31bb+e33bc+e21cb+e23cc);
a[k,l,2,2]:=apCe32bc+e33bb+e22cc+e23cb);
end;
~or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
jj :=np[j ,i]; ii :=pt [jj ,zz];
~or k:=1 to ii do ~or 1:=1 to 3 do
i~ np[j,l]=pt[jj,k] then
~or kk:=1 to 2 do ~or 11:=1 to 2 do
aa[jj,k,kk,ll]:=aa[jj,k,kk,ll]+a[i,l,kk,ll];
end;
~ Cit=O) then
CHAPTER 15

begin
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
jj:=np[j,i];aa[jj,zz,2,2]:=aa[jj,zz,2,2]-ww[j]dd/6.0;
end;
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
if (tx[i]<1) then aa[i,zz,1,1] :=aa[i,zz,1,1]+facfx[i]
else
begin
for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,1,1]:=0;
aa[i,1,1,1] :=1;aa[i,zz,1,1]:=0;
end;
if (ty[i]<1) then aa[i,zz,2,2] :=aa[i,zz,2,2]+facfy[i]
else
begin
for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 2 do aa[i,j,2,1] :=0;
aa[i,1,2,2] :=1;aa[i,zz,2,2]:=0;
end;
end;
end;
procedure wavefront;
var
cc:real;i,ia,ii,ij,ik,j,jj,jk,jv,k,kc,kv,kk,l,lv:integer;
f:array[l. .3,1. .3] of real;
begin
for i:=l to n do
begin
kc:=pt[i,zz];
for kv:=1 to 2 do
begin
for lv:=l to 2 do if lv<>kv then
begin
cc:=aa[i,1,lv,kv];
aa[i,ii,lv,ij] :=aa[i,ii,lv,ij]-ccaa[i,ii,kv,ij];
aa[i,zz,lv,lv] :=aa[i,zz,lv,lv]-ccaa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
end;
if kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];l:=pt[jj,zz];jk:=1;ik:=O;
while ik=O do
begin
jk:=jk+1;if pt[jj,jk]=i then ik:=1;
end;
for kv:=1 to 2 do for lv:=1 to 2 do
273
274
CHAPTER 15
[kv,1v]:=aa[jj,jk,kv,1v];
pt[jj ,jk] :=pt [jj ,1] ;pt [jj ,1] :=0;
or kv:=1 to 2 do or 1v:=1 to 2 do
begin
aa[jj,jk,kv,1v]:=aa[jj,1,kv,1v];
aa[jj,1,kv,1v]:=O;
aa[jj,zz,1v,1v]:=aa[jj,zz,1v,1v]-[1v,kv]aa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;
pt[jj ,zz] :=1;
or ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=-1;
or ik:=1 to 1 do i pt[jj,ik]=pt[i,ii] then ij:=ik;
if ij=-1 then
begin
1:=1+1;if 1=zz then
begin
vriteln;vrite1n('Too many connections');ha1t;
end;
ij :=1;pt[jj,zz] :=1;pt[jj,ij] :=pt[i,ii];
end;
aa[jj,ij,kv,1v] :=aa[jj,ij,kv,1v]-f[kv,jv]aa[i,ii,jv,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
j:=n-i+1;1:=pt[j,zz];
if 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj:=pt[j,k];
aa[j,zz,kv,kv]:=aa[j,zz,kv,kv]-aa[j,k,kv,1v]aa[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
ux[i] :=aa[i,zz,1,1] ;uy[i] :=aa[i,zz,2,2];
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,j,k,1,i1,i2,ii,jj:integer;d,aa,bb,bc,cb,cc,eps:real;
a1,a2,a3,a4,b1,b2,e11,e12,e13,e21,e22,e23,e31,e32,e33:rea1;
begin
jj:=O;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
vx[i] :=vx[i]+ux[i];vy[i] :=vy[i]+uy[i];
275
if (vx[i]>dx) or (vx[i]<-dx) then jj:=l;

if (vy[i]>dy) or (vy[i]<-dy) then jj:=l;
end;
if (jj=l) then
begin
title;vriteln('Load factor
: ',it/tt:13:6);
vriteln('Displacaaents exceed mesh size.');halt;
end;
if (dir=O) then disp:=vx[node] else disp:=vy[node];
for ii:=l to m do
begin
eps:=O.OOOOOtch[ii];
a1:=0.5(sxx[ii]-syy[ii]);a2:=sxy[ii];a4:=atat+a2a2;
if (pp[ii]=l) then a4:=sm[ii]/a4 else a4:=0;
a3:=a4a2a2;a2:=a4ata2;a1:=a4ata1;
b1:=cm[ii]+4.0sm[ii]/3.0;b2:=b1-2sm[ii];
e11:=b1-a1;e12:=b2+a1;e13:=-a2;if (e11<0) then e11:=0;
e21:=b2+a1;e22:=b1-a1;e23:=a2;if (e22<0) then e22:=0;
e31:=-a2;e32:=a2;e33:=sm[ii]-a3;if (e33<0) then e33:=0;
i:=np[ii,1];j:=np[ii,2];k:=np[ii,3];
b[l] :=y[j] -y[k] ;b[2] :=y[k]-y[i] ;b[3] :=y[i]-y[j];
c[l] :=x[k] -x[j] ;c[2] :=x[i]-x[k]; c [3] :=x[j]-x[i];
d:=x[i]b[1]+x[j]b[2]+x[k]b[3];
bb:=(b[1]ux[i]+b[2]ux[j]+b[3]ux[k])/d;
cc:=(c[t]uy[i]+c[2]uy[j]+c[3]uy[k])/d;
bc:=(b[1]uy[i]+b[2]uy[j]+b[3]uy[k])/d;
cb:=(c[1]ux[i]+c[2]ux[j]+c[3]ux[k])/d;
sxx[ii] :=sxx[ii]+e11bb+e12cc+e13(bc+cb);
syy[ii] :=syy[ii]+e21bb+e22cc+e23(bc+cb);
sxy[ii] :=sxy[ii]+e31bb+e32cc+e33(bc+cb);
a1:=0.5(sxx[ii]-syy[ii]);a2:=sxy[ii];a4:=sqrt(a1a1+a2a2);
if (a4<ch[ii]) then pp[ii]:=O else pp[ii] :=1;
end;
title;
vriteln( 'Step
',it:6);
vriteln('Load factor
',it/tt:13:6);
vritaln('Displacamant
',disp:13:6);
end;
begin
title;
input;
for it:=O to tt do
begin
pointer;
if (it=O) then fac:=O.O else fac:=l.O/tt;
matrix;
wavefront;
output;
end;
readln;clrscr;
end.
Program PLASTO.
The meaning of the input data can be observed by inspecting the procedure input
of the program. They are very similar to those used in the programs given in the
276
CHAPTER 15
previous chapter for elastic problems. The load is applied in a number of equal
steps (tt steps in total), during which plastic deformations may gradually develop,
if the failure envelope is reached. As output the program will give the load factor
(the actual load divided by the maximum load as defined in the dataset) and the
horizontal or vertical displacement of a certain node. This node is identified by the
variable node in the program. The variable dir is a switch indicating the direction
of the displacement; if dir=O the horizontal displacement is printed, if dir=1 the
vertical displacement is printed. The input data are listed in table 15.1.
n
m
tt
x[i]
y[i]
tx[i]
ty[i]
fx[i]
fy[i]
q[i]
np[i,1]
np[i,2]
np[i,3]
np[i,4]
ww[i]
cm[i]
sm[i]
ch[i]
node
dir
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of loading steps
if tx[i] > 1 : ux[i] = 0
if tx[i] < 1 : fx[i] prescribed
if ty[i] > 1 : uy[i] = 0
if ty[i] < 1 : fy[i] prescribed
Prescribed force in node i
Prescribed force in node i
Body force (unit weight) in element j
Cohesion in element j
Node for which output is given
Direction switch for output
if dir = 0 : ux printed
if dir = 1 : uy printed
Table 15.1. Input parameters program PLASTO.
A sample dataset (PLAST01) is reproduced below, for the problem of biaxial

loading of a rectangular sample, see figure 15.2. The length of the sample is 8
(length units), and its height is 4. It is supported at its right end boundary in
such a way that the horizontal displacements are zero all along that boundary,
and that the vertical displacement is zero in the center. The elastic moduli of
the material are 2000 (stress units) for the compression modulus and 3000 for the
shear modulus; the shear strength is 1.
277
Figure 15.2. Problem PLASTOl.

8 100
0.000
0.000
0.000
4.000
4.000
4.000
8.000
8.000
8.000
4
5
1
2
5
1
5
6
2
2
3
6
7
8
4
5
8
4
5
8
9
5
6
9
0
2
9
0.000 0
2.000 0
4.000 0
0.000 0
2.000 0
4.000 0
0.000 2
2.000 2
4.000 2
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
4.000
8.000
4.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
2000.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
3000.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
Dataset PLASTOl.
The horizontal displacement of node 2 is used as the output variable. The sample
is loaded at its left end boundary by a compressive stress of magnitude 4. This
will result in a stress state such that Uxx = 4, Uyy = 0, and Uxy = 0. Because the
maximum shear stress is 1, it now follows that the sample should fail at a load
factor 0.50, because then Uxx- Uyy = 2c.
If the program is run with the dataset PLAST01 it will indeed be observed
that the sample fails if the load factor exceeds 0.50. Actually, the displacements
are very small (and elastic) up to a load factor 0.50, and then suddenly all elements
will exhibit plastic deformations of very large magnitude.
Although in the case of the dataset PLAST01 excellent results are obtained,
this may not be the case in other applications. As a second example one may
therfore consider the case of a strip load on a homogeneous layer. For this case
the limit load is known to be Pmax = 5.14 c from the analytical solution due to
Prandtl (1920). A possible mesh of finite elements is shown in figure 15.3. It
will be observed that in this case the results of numerical calculations with the
program PLASTO are not so good, see figure 15.4. The dashed line in this figure
represents the failure load according to the analytic solution.
278
CHAPTER 15
Figure 15.3. Problem PLAST02.
pfc
7
6 ........... :...................... ,........... ,....................... ..
-~---~---~---~---~---~---~
......... ,........... ,........... ,........... ,........... ,........... ,
5 ........ +:
I.
I
I
:
:
:
:
4 ......... :........... :........... :........... ~ ........... ( ........ :---.... .

3 .......... :........... :........... :........... ~"""""'('"'"'"(""""':
:
2
1
:====
:
:
. . . . +. . . . . :. . . . . .:. . . . . .
u
Figure 15.4. Results for problem PLAST02.
279
It is generally experienced that the simple elements used in this chapter (constant strain triangles) lead to an overestimation of the strength. More accurate
results can be obtained if higher order elements are used, see e.g. De Borst &
Vermeer (1984).
Exercises
15.1 Write a program that will generate a basic dataset for a rectangular mesh of triangles, using as input variables the length and the height of the mesh, and the number
of elements in the two directions. As default values assume that all forces are zero, that
the modulus of elasticity is constant (say 10000), and that Poisson's ratio is zero. Such a
basic dataset can later be edited by a word-processing program, to define the boundary
conditions and the loads of a particular problem.
15.2 Create a dataset for the problem of a square sample loaded in pure shear (a homogeneous shear stress along the boundaries). Run the program PLASTO with that
dataset, and show that failure indeed occurs when the shear stress reaches the shear
strength c.
15.3 As an alternative to equation (15.19) the yield function may be defined as F =
T- c, where Tis given by eq. (15.17). Derive the plastic deformation matrix EP for this
case, using eq. (15.15).
CHAPTER 16
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
In this chapter the finite element method for the solution of problems of onedimensional consolidation is presented. The purpose is to develop a method for
the analysis of consolidation of a soil consisting of several layers having different
properties.
16.1
Basic equation
The basic equation of one-dimensional consolidation is

(16.1)
where pis the excess pore pressure, and where n is the compressibility of the soil,
k is the hydraulic conductivity (or permeability), and 'Y is the volumetric weight
of the fluid. The initial condition is
t
=0
(16.2)
: p =Po,
and the boundary conditions are supposed to be

z
=0 :
= 0,
(16.3)
ap
(16.4)
z = h : az = 0.
This means that the upper boundary z = 0 is supposed to be fully drained, and
the lower boundary z =his impermeable. As an alternative the lower boundary
may also be drained, in which case the excess pore pressure p is zero for z = h.
In order to eliminate the time derivative the differential equation (16.1) is
integrated over a small time intervalll.t. This gives
n(p+- p-) = ll.t
.!!._( ~ dp),
(16.5)
dz 'Y dz
where p- is the value of p at the beginning of the time interval, p+ is the value
at the end of the interval, and p is the average value during that interval. It is
assumed that this average value can be expressed as
(16.6)
280
281
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR 1-D CONSOLIDATION
see figure 16.1. The interpolation parameter c should be limited by the conditions
O<c<l.
(16.7)
The parameter c can be used to simulate various interpolation schemes. A value

c 0 indicates backward interpolation, because then the value during the entire
~------~------~----------~~t
Figure 16.1. Interpolation.
interval is determined by the value at the end of the interval (p+). A value c = 1
indicates forward interpolation, because then the value during the entire time
step is determined by the value at the beginning of the interval (p-). Linear
interpolation corresponds to c = ~. As the physical process will usually be such
that the variations of the pore pressure with time will gradually become smaller,
see figure 16.1, it can be expected that the best results may be obtained by taking
a value somewhat smaller than c = ~.
The differential equation (16.5) can also be written as
(16.8)
If this ordinary differential equation can be solved, subject to the boundary conditions (16.3) and (16.4), and assuming that the initial values p- are known, it
means that the average value during the interval is known. Then the values at the
end of the time interval can be obtained from (16.6). These can then be used as
the initial values for the next time step, and so on.
A finite element technique for a solution procedure can be derived by reformulating the problem defined by equation (16.8) as a variational problem.
16.2
The minimum principle corresponding to the differential equation (16.8) is that

the following functional must have a minimum,
1
fh { k
U = 2 Jo
dp
r(d) + (1-c).6.t (p - 2PP ) dz,
(16.9)
282
CHAPTER 16
where p is an arbitrary continuous function of z, except that it is required that
=0
: p = 0.
(16.10)
It can easily be shown that the minimum value of U occurs if p =

the solution of the differential equation (16.8).
p, where p is
16.3 Finite elements

When using a finite element subdivision of the total soil layer, each of the elements
will give a contribution to the two terms of the functional U. Each of these
contributions will be evaluated in this section.
Consider a typical element Rj, between two points z z1 and z z 2. In this
element the pore pressure is approximated by a linear interpolation formula,
p = az + b,
(16.11)
where
(16.12)
b
= d1P1 + d2P2 ,
z2 -
(16.13)
zl
and where
c1
= -1,
C2
= +1,
(16.14)
(16.15)
The interpolation formula (16.11), together with the definitions of the coefficients,
ensures that p = P1 if z = z1 and p = P2 if z = z2.
Because dp / dz = a one now obtains for the contribution of the first part of the
integral in (16.9)
u1 =
where
k 1
~- ~
r
L ~:::>iCjPiPj,
(16.16)
i=l i=l
is the length of the interval,

(16.17)
For the evaluation of the second part of the integral in (16.9) one may note that
(16.18)
Furthermore it can be assumed that the initial pressure p- can be approximated
by a formula similar to (16.11), i.e.
283
(16.19)
where
(16.20)
b- = dlPt + d2P"2 ,
z2- zl
(16.21)
and where the coefficients c1 , c2 , d 1 and d2 have the same meaning as before, see
(16.14) and (16.15).
The evaluation of the second part of the integral now requires to integrate
expressions of the form (16.18) over the space interval. Without loss of generality
it can be assumed, at least temporarily, that the origin z = 0 coincides with the
centroid of the element (this requires a temporary change of coordinates). Then
{ dz = Ll,
}Ri
1
Ri
zdz = 0,
(16.22)
(16.23)
(16.24)
Using these integrals the second part of the integral becomes, after some elementary calculations,
(16.25)
After adding the results (16.16) and (16.25) the contribution of element Rj to the
functional can be written as
(16.26)
where
1 k 1
R---cc
J - 2 'Y Ll J ,
(16.27)
(16.28)
CHAPTER 16
284
Here the summation symbols have been omitted. Summation over the variables i
and j is implied by the repetition of the indices.
After summation over all elements the final expression for the functional U will
be of the general form (16.26), except that now the summation must be over all
nodes.
Finally the minimum value of the functional U must be determined. This
minimum can be found by requiring that
au
auk.
=O,
(16.29)
for all values of k where the pore pressure p is not prescribed by the constraint
(16.10). Because the matrices P;j and ~j are symmetric this leads to the following
equations
n
L(P;i
j=l
+ ~i )Pi = L ~iP}
(16.30)
j=l
From this system of linear algebraic equations the values of p; may be determined.
This then completes the solution in a single time step. By stepping forward in
time the values of the pore pressures can be obtained as functions of time. The
system of linear equations can be solved by one of the many available algorithms,
for instance by Gauss elimination. For large systems, involving many points, it
is worthwhile to take into account the banded structure of the matrices P and R
in this process. This avoids storing many variables that are always equal to zero,
and it also avoids arithmetic operations with such variables.
16.4
Computer program

section is reproduced below. The program uses interactive input, in which the
user must supply all data. Output consists of a simple list of data on the screen.
the
Because the numerical process is unconditionally stable (provided that e: ~
magnitude of the time step is increased after each step.
t)
program consolld;
uses crt;
const
nn=lOO;
var
z,f,fa,g:array[O .. nn] of real;dz,kg,a:array[l .. nn] of real;
p,q,r:array[O .. nn,l .. 2] of real;
n:integer;e,fo,gam,tend,dt,t:real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(35,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);write(' COISOLlD ');
textbackground(O);textcolor(7);writeln;
end;
procedure next;

var
a:char;
begin
end;
procedure input;
var
i:integer;
begin
title;vriteln;
vriteln('This is a program or the analysis o one-dt.ensional');
vriteln('consolidation o a layered soil stratum.');vriteln;
vrite('lumber o layers (2- ',nn,') ..... ');readln(n);vriteln;
vrite('Interpolation actor (O<e<1) ... ');readln(e);vriteln;
vrite('lnitial pressure (kl/m2) ....... ');readln(o);vriteln;
vrite('Vol. veight o luid (kl/m3) ... ');readln(gam);vriteln;
vrite('Stop at tt.e (d) ............... ');readln(tend);vriteln;
i (n<2) then n:=2;i (n>nn) then n:=nn;
i (e<O.O) then e:=O.O;i (e>0.999) then e:=0.999;
z[O]:=O;or i:=1 ton do
begin
title;vriteln;vriteln('Layer ',i);vriteln;
vrite('Thickness (m) .................. ');readln(dz[i]);vriteln;
vrite('Permeability (m/d) ............. ');readln(kg[i]);vriteln;
vrite('Compressibility (m2/kl) ........ ');readln(a[i]);vriteln;
z[i] :=z[i-1]+dz[i];kg[i] :=kg[i]/gam;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l,kk,ll:integer;aa,zm,z1,z2:real;
c,d:array[1 .. 2] o real;
begin
or i:=O ton do for j:=1 to 2 do
begin
q[i,j] :=O;r[i,j] :=0;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
z1:=z[i-1];z2:=z[i];zm:=(z1+z2)/2;z1:=z1-zm;z2:=z2-zm;
c[1] :=-1;c[2] :=1;d[1]:=z2;d[2] :=-z1;
or k:=1 to 2 do or 1:=1 to 2 do
begin
kk:=i+k-2;11:=1-k+1;if (11>0) then
begin
q[kk,ll] :=q[kk,ll]+kg[i]c[k]c[l]/dz[i];
aa:=a[i](d[k]d[l]+dz[i]dz[i]c[k]c[l]/12)/((1-e)dz[i]);
r[kk,ll]:=r[kk,ll]+aa;
end;
end;
end;
a[0]:=0;[0] :=O;or i:=1 ton do a[i]:=o;
dt:=0.5dz[1]dz[1]a[1]/kg[1];or i:=2 ton do
begin
285
286
CHAPTER16
aa:=0.5dz[i]dz[i]a[i]/kg[i];if aa<dt then dt:=aa;

end;
end;
procedure solve;
var
i,j ,k: integer;

begin
for i:=O to n do
begin
for j:=1 to 2 do p[i,j]:=q[i,j]+r[i,j]/dt;
g[i] :=r[i,1]fa[i]/dt;
k:=i+1;if k<=n then g[i] :=g[i]+r[i,2]fa[k]/dt;
k:=i-1;if k>=O then g[i] :=g[i]+r[k,2]fa[k]/dt;
end;
p[0,1] :=1;p[0,2] :=O;g[O]:=O;
for i:=O to n-1 do
begin
g[i+1]:=g[i+1]-p[i,2]g[i]/p[i,1];
p[i+1,1] :=p[i+1,1]-p[i,2]p[i,2]/p[i,1];
end;
f[n] :=g[n]/p[n,1];for i:=O to n-1 do
begin
j: =n-i;f [j] :=(g[j] -p[j ,2] f [j+1]) /p[j '1];
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
f[i] :=fa[i]+(f[i]-fa[i])/(1-e) ;fa[i] :=f[i];
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i,1,i1,i2:integer;
begin
l:=O;i1:=0;vhi1e 1=0 do
begin
tit1e;vriteln('time = ',t:12:6);vriteln;
i2:=i1+20;if i2>n then i2:=n;
for i:=i1 to i2 do
begin
vriteln('i = ',i:4,', z = ',z[i]:12:6,', p = ',f[i] :12:6);
end;
next;i1:=i1+20;if i1>=n then 1:=1;
end;
c1rscr;
end;
begin
input;
matrix;
t:=O;vhile t<tend do
begin
solve;
t:=t+dt;dt:=1.2dt;
output;
end;
end.
Program CONSOLlD.
FINITE ELEMENT S FOR 1-D CONSOLIDATION
287
The program uses interactive input, in which the user is prompted by the program to enter all physical data. The soil is supposed to consist of a number of
layers (maximum 100), for each of which the user must specify the thickness, the
permeabil ity and the compressibility.
Exampl e 1
As a first example the case of consolidation of a homogeneous layer will be considered. The total thickness of the layer is 2 m, and the soil properties are such
Figure 16.2. Example 1, numerical solution.
that the consolidation coefficient is Cv = 0.1 m 2 /d. The soil sample is loaded at
time t = 0 by a uniform and constant load, such that all initial values of the pore
pressures are 1 kPa. The layer is fully drained at the top, so that the pore pressure
there is always zero. The bottom of the layer is completely impermeable. For the
numerical solution the layer is subdivided into 20 layers each of 0.1 m thickness,
and the interpolati on parameter c: has been given the value 0.5. The results of the
numerical solution, are shown in figure 16.2, for various values of time, namely
after 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 days. Because the program CONSOL1D
generates the time steps in the program itself, the data for the constructi on of
figure 16.2 have been obtained using a slightly modified form of the program, in
which the values of time can be entered by the user. Actually, about 30 time
steps, gradually increasing in duration, were used to produce the data shown in
figure 16.2.
288
CHAPTER 16
The results of the numerical calculations may be compared with the analytical
solution, which can be represented in the form of an infinite series. This is a
standard problem from theoretical soil mechanics, the solution of which can be
found in most textbooks, see e.g. Terzaghi (1940). It has been derived in chapter
2 of this book. This solution is
.!!_
Po
= .!
1r
f { -_1)i-1
(
i=l
2J - 1
cos[(2j-
1)~( h- z )]
2
x exp [-(2J - 1)2
71"2 Cvt]}
4 h2 .
(16.31)
The analytical solution is shown in graphical form in figure 16.3, on the same
scale, and using the same values of time. The agreement between the numerical
and the analytical results appears to be excellent.
The power of the numerical method is, of course, that it can also be used for
non-homogeneous layers. Although analytical solutions for systems consisting of a
number of layers can be derived, at least in principle, their mathematical complexity practically prohibits their application. In a numerical method the variation of
soil parameters is much more simple to introduce, and therefore numerical models
are widely used in engineering practice. Even non-linear properties, such as the
dependence of the permeability or the compressibility on the pore pressure, can be
introduced without too many difficulties. The most simple method to introduce
Figure 16.3. Example 1, analytical solution.
such non-linearities is to let the properties be determined by the results of the

previous time step. A more refined way is to use an iterative process, in which
289
the properties are first estimated and then later updated on the basis of a first
calculation. All such refinements are left to the reader.
Example 2
As a second example one may consider the problem of consolidation of a nonhomogeneous layer. It is assumed that the permeability in the lower half of the
layer is 10 times smaller than in the upper half. For this problem the results of the
numerical calculations are shown in figure 16.4. It appears that first in the upper
Figure 16.4. Example 2.
half of the layer the pore pressures are reduced by the surface drainage. The lower
half is drained much slower. Of course such a behaviour is to be expected. The
smaller permeability in the lower half of the layer retards the consolidation in this
part.
The program CONSOLlD may be used as a basis for more advanced programs.
As it is presented here the boundary conditions are that the upper surface is fully
drained, and that the lower boundary is impermeable. This may be generalized by
the user. Also, interactive input, as used in the program, is not always considered
the most effective form of input, because it requires all data to be entered by the
user at run time, without the possibility of checking the input data, or of correcting
typing errors. For the purpose of presentation, however, the use of interactive
input statements is convenient, because the meaning of the input variables used
in the program can easily be illustrated in the program itself. If desired, the input
290
CHAPTER 16
procedures may be modified, of course, by the user such that the data are read
from a dataset. Examples of this are shown in other programs in this book.
Exercises
16.1 Check that the program CONSOL1D becomes unstable when e approaches 1.0,
which is indicative for a forward time step.
16.2 Modify the program CONSOL1D, so that both the lower boundary and the upper
boundary are drained, and run the program for a non-homogeneous layer.
16.3 Modify the program CONSOL1D so that it will give graphical output, for instance
in the form as shown in the figures 16.2 and 16.4.
CHAPTER17
FINITE ELEMENTS FOR

TWO-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
In this chapter the finite element method for the solution of problems of isotropic
plane strain consolidation is presented. The elements used are as simple as possible : triangular elements, with constant strain and stress in each element.
17.1
Basic equations
The basic differential equations for consolidation of an isotropic linear elastic

porous medium, of which the pores are filled with a linearly compressible fluid,
have been given in chapter 2, for the general three-dimensional case. They are recalled here, but written in a different form, using index notation, which facilitates
the analysis.
The first basic equation is the storage equation, see (2.18),
fJc: vol
ap
----rit + n(J at
- \7. (lwk \i'p) = o,
(17.1)
where t: val is the volume strain of the solid material, p is the pressure in the fluid,
n is the porosity, (3 is the compressibility of the pore fluid, k is the permeability
of the porous material, and /w is the volumetric weight of the fluid.
The cartesian coordinates are now denoted by x 1 , x 2 and x 3 , and the displacement components in these directions are u 1 , u2 and u 3 . The volume strain can
now be written as
f:vol
aul
au2
au3
UX!
UX2
UX3
~+ ~+ ~
'""' au;
L...J~
i=l UXj
Ui,i
(17.2)
Here partial differentiation of a quantity (say a) with respect to x; has been denoted by a,; and the summation symbol has been omitted, in the understanding
that summation is implied whenever an index appears twice in an expression. The
storage equation (17.1) can now also be written as
au.
ap
a; + n(J at- (/w P,;),i = 0.
(17.3)
Another important set of equations in the theory of consolidation is formed by the

equations of equilibrium, see (2.62). Using index notation these equations may be
written as
l1"ij,i -
/j = 0,
(17.4)
291
292
CHAPTER 17
where fi is the body force component in the direction of Xj, and u;i denotes the
total stress. It must be noted that the sign convention in soil mechanics is that
compressive stresses are considered positive.
The total stresses may be decomposed into the effective stresses and the pore
pressure according to Terzaghi's principle,
(17.5)
where D;j is the Kronecker delta symbol, denoting
i:
Uij
1,
0'
ifi=j,
"f z..,..
. -J. J..
(17.6)
This means that the pore pressure only contributes to the transfer of normal
stresses, and not to the transfer of shear stresses.
The effective stresses are related to the displacement components by Hooke's
law, see (2.65). Using index notation these equations can be written as
(17.7)
where A and J.L are the Lame constants of the porous medium.
Substitution of the stress-strain-relations (17.7) into the equations of equilibrium (17.4) gives, with (17.5),
(Au;,;),;+ [J.t(u;,;
+ u;,;)],;- P,i + /j = 0.
(17.8)
Now the equations of equilibrium have been expressed in the displacements. Together with the storage equation in the form (17.3) a system of 4 differential
equations with 4 unknown variables has been obtained. It may be noted that in
(17.8) the soil properties A and J.L have not been assumed to be constant in space.
In order to fully describe a problem of three-dimensional consolidation the
initial conditions and the boundary conditions must also be specified. The initial
conditions are supposed to be that all quantities are initially zero,
=0
t =0
t
= 0,
U; = 0.
(17.9)
(17.10)
(17.11)
(17.12)
on Sa
on
s4
p = g,
(17.13)
(khw)p,;n; = h,
(17.14)
293
where 51 and 52 are disjoined parts of the boundary, together just forming the
entire boundary, and similarly for 5 3 and 5 4 . The quantities in the right hand
sides of eqs. (17.11)- (17.14) are supposed to be given for all t > 0. Equation
(17.11) expresses that on 51 the displacement is given, whereas on 52 the surface
traction is prescribed. Equations (17.13) and (17.14) express that on 5 3 the pore
pressure is given, and that on 5 4 the flux into the porous medium is prescribed.
It is assumed that the problem defined by the equations (17.3) and (17.8),
together with the initial conditions and the boundary conditions, has a unique
solution.
17.2
Time step
The problem will be solved by calculating the values of the pore pressure p and the
displacements u; after a (small) time step D.t, and then considering the values at
the end of the first time step as the initial values for the second time step, etcetera.
In order to obtain the equations governing the behaviour in a typical time step
equation (17.3) is integrated over this time step, which gives
v;;,
+ nf3q -
D.t (!_pi)
; = 0,
'Yw , ,
(17.15)
where v; and q are the incremental displacement and the incremental pore pressure,
v; = u;(to + D.t)- u;(to),
(17.16)
q = p(to + D.t)- p(to),
(17.17)
and where pis the average value of the pore pressure p during the time step,
_
1 lto+C.t
p= ""A"""
u.t
to
pdt.
(17.18)
It is now assumed that the average values of all quantities can be expressed in the
values at the beginning and the end of the time step by formulas of the type
p = c:p(to) + (1- c:)p(to + D.t).
(17.19)
Here c; is an interpolation parameter. As explained in the previous chapter a value

c; = 0 indicates a backward time interpolation, and a value c; = 1 indicates a
forward time derivative. It may be expected that the most accurate results are
obtained if c; ~ 0.5. The analogy with finite difference methods suggests that
forward time steps may lead to unstable procedures, and should be avoided. Thus
it is suggested to take
0 $ c; $ 0.5.
(17.20)
It has been shown (Booker & Small, 1974) that this will ensure that the numerical
process is stable.
Equations ( 17 .17) and ( 17.19) may be combined to give
294
CHAPTER 17
P=Po+ (1- c) q,
(17.21)
where p 0 is the value of p at the beginning of the time step,
p0 = p(to).
(17.22)
Substitution of (17.21) into (17.15) finally gives the storage equation in incremental
form
vi,i
k
+ nf3q- (1- c).6.t (-q,i),i
-
'Yw
k 0
.6.t (-P,i),i = 0.
'Yw
(17.23)
The incremental form of the equation of equilibrium (17.8) is

(Avi,i),;
+ [J.L(vi,i + v;,i)],i- q,i + .6.1; = 0,
(17.24)
where .6.1; is the increment of the body force in the time step considered.
The incremental displacements Vi and the incremental pore pressure p must
satisfy the following boundary conditions,
= .6.ai,
on s2
(ri1 + q Oij) ni = .6.b;,
on S3
q = .6.g,
on s4
(k/-rw)q,ini = .6.h.
on
sl
(17.25)
Vi
(17.26)
(17.27)
(17.28)
In the right hand side of these boundary conditions al quantities are the increments during the time step. These equations are obtained by simply averaging
the original boundary conditions (17.11) - (17.14), and then applying the rule
(17 .21) to all terms.
17.3
An alternative formulation of the general problem of linear consolidation can be

formulated in the form of a variational principle. For this purpose a functional U
is defined as
U=
L{
AVi,iVj,j
+ JJ(Vi,j + v;,i)vi,j -
2 .6./ivi - 2qvi,i
k
k
0 - nf3q 2} dV
-(1- c) .6.t-q,i
q,i- 2 .6.t-q,iP,i
'Yw
- f
h2
.6.bividS+
h.
'Yw
(1-c).6.t.6.hqdS+
h.
.6.th0 qdS
(17.29)
where Vi and q are arbitrary continuous functions satisfying the conditions (the
constraints)
(17.30)
on
s3 : q = /}.g,
295
(17.31)
The theorem is that the functional U possesses a stationary value for v; = v;

and q = q*, where vi and q* represent the solution of the consolidation problem
formulated in the previous section. The proof of the theorem will not be given in
detail here. It can be obtained by first assuming that the value of the functional
if v; = v; and q = q* is U*, and then showing that for any other set of functions,
which can always be written as vi+ ow; and q* +Or, the first variation of U, that
is the term of order o, vanishes.
In the sequel it will be assumed, for reasons of simplicity, that there is no
surface load (i.e. b; = 0), and that there is no surface discharge (i.e. h = 0).
17.4
Finite elements for plane strain consolidation
Approximate solutions of the variational problem can be found by the finite element method. Restriction is made to plane strain consolidation and triangular
elements, see figure 17.1.
Figure 17 .1. Mesh of triangular elements.

The incremental displacements in the plane of deformation ( v1 and v2 ) will
henceforth be denoted by u and v, respectively. These displacements and the
incremental pore pressure q are now approximated in each triangular element by
linear interpolation between the values in the three corner points. The linear
interpolation formulas for the two displacements and the pore pressure are
+ r2 y + r3,
V = B1X + B2Y + 83,
q = t1x + t2y + t3,
u = r1 x
(17.32)
where
r1 = (b1 u1 + b2u2 + b3u3)/ /}.,
r2 = (c1 u1 + c2u2 + c3u3)/ /}.,
r3 = (d1u1 + d2u2 + d3u3)jf}.,
(17.33)
CHAPTER 17
296
(b1 v1 + b2v2 + b3v3)j !:l.,

81
82 = (c1v1 + c2v2 + c3v3)j!:J..,
83 = (d1v1 + d2v2 + d3v3)j!:l.,
= (blql + b2q2 + b3q3)/!:l.,

= (c1 q1 + c2q2 + c3q3)j !:l.,
= (d1q1 + d2q2 + d3q3)/!:l..
(17.34)
and
tl
t2
t3
(17.35)
Here
b1 = Y2- Y3,
b2 = Y3- Y1,
b3 = Y1- Y2,
= X3- X2,
= X1- X3,
C3 = X2- X1,
C1
C2
(17.36)
and
(17.37)
The quantities b;, c;, d; and !:l. can easily be calculated if the coordinates of the
nodes are known.
In a typical element one may now write, if summation is implied when the
same index appears twice in an expression,
(17.38)
(17.39)
(17.40)
qv;,i
= /:l.12 [(bkbtx + bkcly + bkdt)ukql

+(ckbtX + CkCIY + Ckdt)Vkql],
(17.41)
(17.42)
(17 .43)
q =
2
2
1 [
(bkbtX + 2hctXY + CkCIY + 2bkdtX
/j. 2
+2ckdtY + dkdt)qkqt].
(17.44)
In the integrals that must be evaluated to obtain the contribution to the functional
(17.29) the following elementary integrals appear
J
J
J
J
J
J
~'
dxdy=
(17.45)
~Z.,,
(17.46)
= ~ Zy,
(17.47)
xdxdy =
y dx dy
297
= ~ Zxx,
(17.48)
xydxdy =
~Z.,y,
(17.49)
y 2 dx dy =
~ Zyy.
(17.50)
x 2 dx dy
For triangular elements these integrals can be evaluated without great difficulties.
The results are
(17.51)
= ~ (Yl + Y2 + Y3),
Z.,., = { (x~ + x~ + x; + 9Z;),
Zy
Zxy = {2 (xlYl
Zyy
+ X2Y2 + X3Y3 + 9Z.,Zy),
= A(y~ + y~ + y~ + 9Z~).
(17.52)
(17.53)
(17.54)
(17.55)
In the numerical calculations it may be advantageous to use, at least temporarily, a

centralized local coordinate system, with the origin in the centroid of the triangle.
Then Z., = Zy = 0, which makes the formulas somewhat simpler, and more
accurate, because the subtraction of almost equal very large numbers is avoided.
The contribution to the functional of element j now is
+ Qi 1 u~cv1 + S~ 1 u~cq1
+~ R{, 1 v~cvl + T1 1 v~cql + ~ E~ 1 q~cql
Ui = ~ P11 u~cul
+F1 1 p~q,- G{u~c- H1v~c,
(17.56)
where
.
1
Pfc1 = 2 ~ [(..\ + 2J.t)b~cb/
.
+ J.tC!cC/],
{J1,1 = 2 ~ [..\b~cc1 + J.tC~ccl],
(17.57)
(17.58)
298
CHAPTER 17
.
1
Rtl = 2~
.
[(.A+ 2J.L)CkC/ + J.lbkbi],
S~ 1 =
2 ~ [bkblZx + bkclZy + hdi],
.
Tfl =
2~
.
E~ 1
[ckb/Zx
+ CkC/Zy + Ckdi],
(17.59)
(17.60)
(17.61)
n(J
= (1- c)Fi 1 - 2 ~ [bkb/Zxx + (bkC/ + blck)Zxy + CkC/Zyy

+(bkdl + bldk)Zx + (ckdl + cldk)Zy + dkdl],
(17.63)
G{ = ~ fx ~'
(17.64)
=if /y ~-
(17.65)
H~
After summation over all elements the functional U will be of the form
U=~ pk/UkU/
+ Qk/UkV/ + Sk/Ukql
+t Rk/VkV/ + nlvkql + t Eklqkql

+Fk1PZq1- Gkuk- Hkvk,
(17.66)
where now the summation is over all nodes, and the matrices can be composed by
a summation of the elementary (3 x 3) matrices given previously.
The stationary value of the functional U occurs when its derivative with respect
to u;, v; and q; is zero. This leads to the following system of equations
(17.67)
(17 .68)
(17.69)
These are the algebraic equations that must be solved. The first two equations are
the finite element representations of the equations of equilibrium, and the third
equation is the finite element form of the storage equation. It may be noted that
the right hand side of the first two equations is one-third of the total body force on
the elements. This can be considered as the force acting upon a node, and it also
indicates how to take into account surface forces, namely by simply distributing
the total surface force over the adjacent nodes of a surface element.
17.5
299
Computer program

chapter, is reproduced below. It uses the Gauss elimination method for the solution
of the system of equations, with a wave front technique to make use of the banded
structure of the system of equations.
program consol2d;
uses crt;
const
nn=60;am=40;zz=16;ss=100;
var
data:text;i,j,jz,k,l,m,n,df,ii,is,nsteps:integer;
dt,ep,ea,eb,eps,fb,fc,tz:real;
x,y,p,va,ux,uy,fx,fy,uxa,uya:array[1 .. nu] of real;
t:array[1 .. nn] of integer;np:array[1 .. am,1 .. 4] of integer;
p1,p2,p3,p4:array[1. .111111,] of real;ks:array[l. .4,1. .3] of integer;
pt,pta:array[1 .. nn,1 .. zz] of integer;
aa:array[l .. nn,1 .. zz,1 .. 3,1 .. 3] of real;
tt,rf:array[O .. ss] of real;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(35,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' COISOL2D ');
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
vrite(' Touch any key to continue ');vrite(chr(S));
end;
procedure input;
var
begin
title;vriteln;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of two-dimensional');
vriteln('consolidation by the finite element method.');vriteln;
assign(data,name);reset(data);readln(data,n,m,nsteps);
for i:=1 to n do
begin
readln(data,x[i] ,y[i] ,p[i] ,ux[i] ,uy[i] ,fx[i] ,fy[i], t [i]);
p[i] :=-p[i];
end;
for j:=1 tom do
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j ,2] ,np[j ,3] ,np[j ,4] ,pl[j] ,p2[j] ,p3[j] ,p4[j]);
for k:=1 to nsteps do readln(data,tt[k],rf[k]);
close(data);
end;
procedure initialize;
begin
jz:=1;tz:=O;fb:=O;eps:=0.000001;ep:=0.25;ea:=1-ep;eb:=1/ea;
300
begin
k:=i+j-1;if k>4 then k:=k-4;ks[i,j] :=k
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
uxa[i] :=ux[i] ;uya[i] :=uy[i] ;wa[i] :=p[i]
end;
end;
procedure pointer;
var
i,j,k,kb,kk,ll,ia,ii:integer;
begin
writeln;writeln('Generation of pointer matrix);writeln;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
pt[i,1] :=i;for j:=2 to zz-1 do pt[i,j] :=O;pt[i,zz] :=1;
end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 4 do
begin
kk: =np[j ,k];
for 1:=1 to 4 do
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:=O;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1;
if kb=zz then
begin
writeln('Too many connections');halt;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz do pta[i,j] :=pt[i,j];
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,l,iz,kw,ii,jj,kk,ll:integ er;
a1,ap,ae,af,bb,bc,bd,cb,cc,cd,d b,dc,dd,dl,gg,gk,pl,xx,xy,yy:re al;
xj,yj,b,c,d:array[1 .. 3] of real;
f: array[1 .. 3, 1 .. 3] of real;
a: array[1 .. 3, 1. .3, 1. . 3, 1. .3] of real;
begin
writeln('Generation of matrix');writeln;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz do
begin
pt[i,j] :=pta[i,j];
for k:=1 to 3 do for 1:=1 to 3 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O
end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
CHAPTER 17

for iz:=jz to 2 do
begin
for kv:=1 to 4 do
begin
xx:=O;yy:=O;
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k: =np [j ,ks [kv, i]]; xj [i] : =x[k]; yj [i] : =y [k] ;
xx:=xx+xj[i];yy: =yy+yj[i]
end;
xx:=xx/3;yy:=yy /3;
for i:=1 to 3 do begin xj[i]:=xj[i]-xx; yj[i]:=yj[i]-yy; end;
b[1] :=yj[2]-yj[3];b[ 2]:=yj[3]-yj[1]; b[3] :=yj[1]-yj[2];
c[1] :=xj[3]-xj[2];c[ 2]:=xj[1]-xj[3]; c[3] :=xj[2]-xj[1];
d[1] :=xj[2]yj[3]-xj [3]yj[2];d[2] :=xj[3]yj[1]-x j[1]yj[3];
d[3] :=xj[1]yj[2]-xj [2]yj[1] ;d1:=d[1]+d[2]+d [3];
if d1<0 then
begin
k:=np[j,ks[kv,2 ]];np[j,ks[kv,2] ] :=np[j,ks[kv,3]] ;
np[j,ks[kv,3]]:= k
end;
dd:=abs(d1);
if (dd>eps) and (iz=2) then
begin
ap:=1/(4dd);af :=apdtp3[j];ae :=app4[j];
xx:=(xj[1]xj[1 ]+xj[2]xj[2]+x j[3]xj[3])/12;
yy:=(yj[1]yj[1 ]+yj[2]yj[2]+y j[3]yj[3])/12;
xy:=(xj[1]yj[1 ]+xj[2]yj[2]+x j[3]yj[3])/12;
for k:=1 to 3 do for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
bb:=b[k]b[1];b c:=b[k]c[1];bd: =b[k]d[1];
cb: =c [k] b[1]; cc :=c [k]c [1]; cd: =c [k] *d[1];
db :=d[k] b[1] ;de :=d[k] c [1] ;dd :=d[k] d[1];
gk:=p1[j]-2p2[ j]/3;gg:=p2[j];
a[k,1,1,1] :=ap((gk+2gg) bb+ggcc);
a[k,1,1,2] :=ap(gkbc+ggc b);
a[k,l,1,3] :=apbd;
a[1,k,2,1] :=a[k,1,1,2];
a[k,l,2,2] :=ap((gk+2gg) cc+ggbb);
a[k,1,2,3] :=apcd;
a[1,k,3,1] :=a[k,1,1,3];
a[1,k,3,2] :=a[k,1,2,3];
f[k,1] :=-af(bb+cc);
a[k,1,3,3] :=eaf[k,1]-ae(b bxx+(bc+cb)xy +ccyy+dd)
end;
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
jj: =np[j ,ks [kv ,i]]; ii: =pt [jj ,zz];
for k:=1 to ii do for 1:=1 to 3 do
if np[j,ks[kv,1]]= pt[jj,k] then
for kk:=1 to 3 do for 11:=1 to 3 do
aa[jj,k,kk,11] :=aa[jj,k,kk,11] +a[i,1,kk,11];
end;
for k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j,ks[kv, k]];
301
302
:for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
ll:=np[j,ks[kv,l]];
aa[kk,zz,3,3]:=aa[kk,zz,3,3]-:f[k,l]va[ll]
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
jz:=2;
:for i:=1 to n do
begin
kk:=abs(t[i]);
if (kk=1) or (kk=2) then aa[i,zz,2,2]:=aa[i,zz,2,2]+:fy[i]:fc;
if (kk=1) or (kk=3) then aa[i,zz,1,1]:=aa[i,zz,1,1]+:fx[i]:fc;
i:f (kk=3) or (kk=4) then
begin
k:=2;a1:=uya[i]:fc;
:for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 3 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O;
aa[i,1,k,k]:=1;aa[i,zz,k,k]:=a1;
end;
if (kk=2) or (kk=4) then
begin
k:=1;a1:=uxa[i]:fc;
:for j:=1 to zz do for 1:=1 to 3 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O;
aa[i,1,k,k]:=1;aa[i,zz,k,k]:=a1;
end;
i:f t [i] >O then
begin
k:=3;a1 :=va[i];
for j:=1 to zz do :for 1:=1 to 3 do aa[i,j,k,l]:=O;
aa[i,1,k,k] :=1;aa[i,zz,k,k]:=a1;
end;
end;
end;
procedure wavefront;
var
cc:real;
i,ia,ij,ik,j,jj,jk,jv,kc,kv,kk,l,lv:integer;
f: array [1. .3 ,1. . 3] of real;
begin
vriteln( 1 Solution o:f equations');vriteln('
Elimination');
for i:=l to n do
begin
kc :=pt [i,zz];
for kv:=1 to 3 do
begin
:for ii:=l to kc do for lv:=l to 3 do
for lv:=l to 3 do if lv<>kv then
begin
cc:=aa[i,l,lv,kv];
for ii:=l to kc do :for ij:=l to 3 do
CHAPTER 17

aa[i,ii,1v,ij] :=aa[i,ii,1v,ij]-ccaa[i,ii,kv,ij];
aa[i,zz,1v,1v] :=aa[i,zz,1v,1v]-ccaa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
end;
i f kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj:=pt[i,j];1:=pt[jj,zz];jk:=1;ik:=O;
vhi1e ik=O do
begin
jk:=jk+1;if pt[jj,jk]=i then ik:=1;
end;
for kv::1 to 3 do for 1v:=1 to 3 do
f[kv,1v] :=aa[jj,jk,kv,1v];
pt [jj ,jk]: =pt [jj ,1] ;pt [jj ,1] :=0;
for kv:=1 to 3 do for iv:=1 to 3 do
begin
aa[jj,jk,kv,1v] :=aa[jj,1,kv,1v];
aa[jj,1,kv,1v]:=O;
aa[jj,zz,1v,1v] :=aa[jj,zz,1v,1v]-f[1v,kv]aa[i,zz,kv,kv];
end;
1:=1-1;
pt[jj,zz] :=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=-1;
if ij=-1 then
begin
1:=1+1;
if 1=zz then
begin
vrite1n;vrite1n('Too many connections');ha1t;
end;
ij :=1;pt[jj ,zz] :=1;pt[jj ,ij] :=pt[i,ii];
end;

aa[jj,ij,kv,1v] :=aa[jj,ij,kv,1v]-f[kv,jv]aa[i,ii,jv,1v];
end;
end;
end;
end;
vrite1n('
Back substitution');vrite1n;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
j:=n-i+1;1:=pt[j,zz];
if 1>1 then
begin
for k:=2 to 1 do
begin
jj :=pt [j ,k];
aa[j,zz,kv,kv] :=aa[j,zz,kv,kv]-aa[j,k,kv,1v]aa[jj,zz,1v,1v];
end;
end;
303
304
CHAPTER 17
end;
vrite1n;
end;
procedure output;
begin
1:=0;j:=1;vhi1e 1=0 do
begin
tit1e;vriteln('Time : ',tz:12:3);
vriteln('
i
x
y
ux
uy
p');
vriteln;k:=j+19;if k>n then k:=n;
for i:=j to k do
begin
vrite1n(i:4,x[i] :12:3,y[i] :12:3,ux[i] :12:6,uy[i] :12:6,-p[i] :12:6);
end;
next;j:=j+20;if j>n then 1:=1;
end;
end;
begin
tit1e;input;initialize;pointer;
for is:=1 to nsteps do
begin
tit1e;vriteln('Time step ',is);vrite1n;
dt:=tt[is]-tz;tz:=tt[is];fc:=rf[is]-fb;fb:=rf[is];
matrix;vavefront;
for i: =1 to n do
begin
ux[i]:=aa[i,zz,1,1];uy[i]:=aa[i,zz,2,2];p[i]:=aa[i,zz,3,3];
uxa[i] :=uxa[i]+ux[i] ;uya[i] :=uya[i]+uy[i] ;va[i] :=va[i]+p[i];
ux[i]:=uxa[i];uy[i]:=uya[i];p[i]:=va[i];
end;
output;
end;
c1rscr;
end.
Program CONSOL2D.
In order to avoid the asymmetry created by the diagonals formed in a quadrangle

consisting of two triangles, the elements in the program are quadrangles, each
Figure 17 .2. Quadrangular element.
consisting of four triangles, see figure 17 .2.

The program reads data from a dataset, the name of which must be supplied
by the user. This dataset must be prepared before, for instance using a word
305
processing program. The meaning of the input parameters is shown in table 17 .1.
n
m
nsteps
x[i]
y[i]
p[i]
ux[i]
uy[i]
fx[i]
fy[i]
t[i]
npQ,1]
npQ,2]
npQ,3]
npQ,4]
p1DJ
p2DJ
p3DJ
p4DJ
tt[k]
rf[k]
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Pore pressure in node i
Displacement in x-direction of node i
Displacement in y-direction of node i
Force in x-direction at node i
Force in y-direction at node i
if t[i] > 0 : p[i] = 0
if t[i] < 0 : no water supplied at node i
if abs( t[i]) = 4 : ux[i] and uy[i] prescribed
if abs( t[i]) = 3 : fx[i] and uy[i] prescribed
if abs( t[i]) = 2 : ux[i] and fy[i] prescribed
if abs(t[i]) = 1 : fx[i] and fy[i] prescribed
k/'Yw in element j
n/3 in element j
Time after step k
Reduction factor during step k
Table 17.1. Input parameters program CONSOL2D.
The program uses the modulus of compressibility and the shear modulus as input
parameters, rather than the Lame constants, because soil testing is often done
separately for shear and for compression. The shear modulus is identical to the
constant J.l, and the compression modulus is given by
(17.70)
The reduction factor rf[k] is a multiplication factor for the loads. During time step
k all external loads are multiplied by the factor rf[k]. If the load is constant in
time, the factors rf[k] must be kept constant.
A sample dataset is shown in table 17 .2. This dataset applies to a mesh of
22 nodes and 10 elements, i.e. a vertical column of 10 elements, see figure 17.3.
The load is applied at the top of the column, which is also drained. All other
boundaries are impermeable. The problem defined by this dataset is the classical one-dimensional problem of Terzaghi. The load is such that the initial pore
CHAPTER 17
306
10 14
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.000
0.000
2.000
0.000
0.000
3.000
0.000
0.000
4.000
0.000
0.000
5.000
0.000
0.000
6.000
0.000
0.000
7.000
0.000
0.000
8.000
0.000
0.000
9.000
0.000
0.000
10.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
3.000
1.000
0.000
4.000
1.000
0.000
5.000
1.000
0.000
6.000
1.000
0.000
7.000
1.000
0.000
8.000
1.000
0.000
9.000
1.000
0.000
10.000
1.000
1000.000
2
1 12 13
1000.000
3
2 13 14
1000.000
4
3 14 15
1000.000
5
4 15 16
1000.000
6
5 16 17
1000.000
7
17 18
6
1000.000
8
7 18 19
1000.000
9
8 19 20
1000.000
9 20 21 10
1000.000
10 21 22 11
1.000000
0.000500
1.000000
0.001000
1.000000
0.002000
1.000000
0.003000
1.000000
0.005000
1.000000
0.010000
1.000000
0.020000
1.000000
0.030000
1.000000
0.050000
1.000000
0.100000
1.000000
0.200000
1.000000
0.300000
1.000000
0.500000
1.000000
1.000000
22
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
1000.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
1.000000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
-0.500
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
-0.500
0.000
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
0.000001
Table 17.2. Dataset CONSOLI.
-4
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
2
-4
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
-2
2
307
Figure 17.3. Problem CONSOLI.
pressures (produced after the first time step) should be practically equal to 1.0.
After some time the pore pressures are reduced to zero, by the drainage at the
top boundary. It can be verified, by running the program for the dataset CONSOLI, that the program indeed shows this behaviour. Output from the program
is presented on the screen, after each time step, in the form of a list of the pore
pressure and the displacements of the nodes.
Exercises
17.1 Write a. program tha.t will generate a. basic dataset for a. rectangular mesh of
triangles, using as input va.ria.bles the length a.nd the height of the mesh, a.nd the number of elements in the two directions. As default values assume tha.t a.ll forces a.re zero,
a.nd tha.t the soil properties a.re constant. Such a. basic dataset ca.n later be edited by a.
word-processing program, defining boundary values a.nd loads, in order to describe rea.l
problems.
17.2 Extend the program CONSOL2D such tha.t it will dra.w the mesh on the screen,
with contours of the pore pressure.
CHAPTER 18
TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA
The analysis of transport phenomena in porous media enables to study the behaviour of pollutants in groundwater. In this chapter a three-dimensional numerical model is developed, on the basis of the usual two-dimensional schematization
of the groundwater flow. The flow model is used to describe and predict the pressure in the fluid, and the fluid velocity. These data are then considered as input
parameters for a transport model, which incorporates advection, dispersion, and
decay. This procedure is applicable if the variations of the concentration of the
pollutant do not influence the flow of the fluid. This will be the case if the fluid
density is practically not influenced by the pollution concentration.
For the analysis of groundwater flow many powerful techniques are available,
ranging from analytical solutions to numerical models. These models are widely
available, including computer codes, and they have been tested and validated extensively. Their validity and applicability is generally accepted, even though it
remains a formidable practical problem to collect sufficiently accurate data, such
as soil properties and hydraulic boundary conditions, for the model predictions
to be in agreement with physical reality. In the field of transport modeling several theoretical difficulties are hampering the applicability of the various models,
especially numerical models. These difficulties, such as numerical dispersion, the
incorporation of vertical velocity components, and the flow near singularities, are
addressed in this chapter and the next.
18.1
Basic Equations
Consider a saturated porous medium, in which the motion of the fluid is described
by the velocity field v. Deformations of the porous medium are assumed to be
so small that the porosity n can be considered to be constant in time. The concentration of a certain substance (a pollutant), which is being transported by the
fluid, is denoted by c. This concentration is defined as the mass of the pollutant
per unit volume of the fluid. Part of the pollutant may be adsorbed by the porous
medium, and the pollutant may be subject to decay.
The balance of mass of the pollutant in the fluid requires that
oc
not = -'V(nw)- Q- nG1 ,
(18.1)
where w is the transport vector of the pollutant, expressed as a discharge of mass

of the pollutant per unit area of the fluid, Q is the transfer of mass to the porous
medium by adsorption, and G1 represents the decay of the substance in the fluid.
The flux w consists of advection and dispersion,
308
w=cv-D'Vc.
309
(18.2)
The first term in this expression represents the transport by advection, which is
governed by the fluid velocity v. The second term represents transport by dispersion (including diffusion), D being the dispersion tensor. This will be considered
in more detail later.
The concentration of the pollutant in the porous medium is denoted by c'. Its
definition is the mass of the pollutant per unit volume of the material constituting
the porous medium matrix (the soil particles). Transport by diffusion in the porous
medium is disregarded. The balance of mass in the porous medium requires that
8c'
(1-n)Bt =Q-(1-n)G.,
(18.3)
in which G. represents the decay of the substance in the solid material. The
transfer function Q is, of course, the same as in eq. (18.1).
The velocity of the fluid in a porous medium is often so small that there is
a continuous state of equilibrium between the concentration of pollutant in the
porous medium with the concentration in the fluid. The parameter governing the
transfer of mass from the fluid to the solid is the Peclet number for diffusion in
the solids,
vd
P.=-,
D.
(18.4)
where v is the magnitude of the fluid velocity, d is a representative particle diameter, and D. is the diffusivity of the pollutant in the solid material. The order of
magnitude of the particle diameter d is 10- 4 m, and the order of magnitude of the
diffusivity for most substances is 10- 9 m 2 fs. This means that the Peclet number
P8 in equation (18.4) is small compared to 1, provided that the velocity is small
compared to 10- 5 m/s, which is about 1m/d. This may often be the case; in other
cases it can still be assumed, as a first approximation, that the concentrations are
in equilibrium.
It is now assumed that in the state of equilibrium the concentration of pollutant
in the solids is proportional to the concentration in the fluid,
c'
= Kc,
(18.5)
in which K is a given constant. This relation is usually called the linear equilibrium
isotherm. For the transport of heat in a porous medium equilibrium is usually
considered to require that the temperatures of the fluid and the particles are
equal. In that case K = 1. For the transport of a pollutant equilibrium may be a
consequence of various adsorptive processes. Some substances are attracted more
by the solid particles than others. Thus the value of the partitioning coefficient K
is dependent on the physical properties of the pollutant, the fluid and the porous
material. For salt the value of the partitioning coefficient K is very small : salt is
practically not adsorbed by the soil.
With (18.5) equation (18.3) may be written as
310
CHAPTER 18
Q = (1- n)K
8c
at + (1- n)G,.
(18.6)
Substitution of (18.6) into (18.1) gives

8c
Rn 8t = -V'(nw)- nG,
where nG = nGJ
retardation factor,
R=
+ (1- n)G.,
(18.7)
the total decay of the pollutant, and R is the
1-n
1+--K.
n
(18.8)
The retardation factor R is equal to 1 if the solid particles do not adsorb any
fraction of the pollutant (K = 0). For a substance which in its equilibrium state is
distributed homogeneously over the fluid and the solids, such as the temperature
in a heat transport process, K = 1, and therefore R = 1/n. Eq. (18.7) is the basic
balance equation.
The velocity vector win eq. (18.7) consists of an advective flux and a dispersive
flux, as expressed by eq. (18.2),
w=cv-DV'c.
(18.9)
The first term in the right hand side represents the advective transport, which is
the transport of the pollutant as if the particles are attached to the water particles.
In many cases this is the main component of transport, and it is considered essential that this form of transport is described accurately in a model. The dispersive
transport is described by a second order tensor D. The components of this tensor
can be related to the velocity components as follows (see e.g. Bear & Verruijt,
1987).
(18.10)
Here Dis the coefficient of molecular diffusion (of the pollutant in the fluid), 6;i
is the Kronecker delta (8;i = 1, if i = j, and O;j = 0, if i f= j), Vk indicates the
component of the fluid velocity in the direction Xk, and v is the magnitude of the
fluid velocity,
v
= vv;v;.
(18.11)
In equation (18.10) the coefficients a;jkl are the components of a fourth order
tensor, the dispersivity of the porous medium. These components depend upon
the pore structure, in particular upon the pore size. For an isotropic medium the
dispersivity can be expressed as
a;ikl = ar8;j8kl
+ ~(aL + ar )(8;k8jl + O;!Ojk)
(18.12)
Substitution of (18.12) into equation (18.10) gives

D;j = (D
+ arv)8;j + (aL- ar)v;vifv.
(18.13)
311
The two parameters aT and aL in this expression are the transverse dispersivity
and the longitudinal dispersivity, respectively. They both are of the order of magnitude of the representative length scale of the microscopic flow. In a homogeneous
medium this is the pore size. The longitudinal dispersivity is usually much larger
than the transverse dispersivity, however.
By substitution of (18.13) into (18.9) the flux vector of the pollutant can be
written, in component form, as follows,
w;
= c v; - D;j
ac
-a .
(18.14)
Xj
Substitution of this equation into the balance equation (18.7) gives

ac
Rat
= -c v;,; -
ac
V; -a
X;
+ -a
(D;j
X;
ac
-a ) +G.
(18.15)
Xj
The first term in the right hand side is usually equal to zero, because of continuity
of the flow of the pore fluid. Thus this equation reduces to
ac
at
R-
ac
a
ac
= -v; -+
-(D; -)+G.
ax;
ax;
J axj
(18.16)
This is the basic transport equation. Written out in full, this equation is, when
the coordinates are written as x1 = x, x2 = y, X3 = z,
ac
Rat
ac
= G- Vx -ax
-
ac
ac
V - - Vz yay
az
a
ac
ac
+ ax (Dxx ax + Dxy ay
+ Dxz
ac
a)
ac
ax
ac
ay
+ Dyz
ac
a)
ac
ac
ax+ Dzy ay
+ Dzz
ac
az).
+ ay (Dyx
+ az (Dzx
+ Dyy
(18.17)
When the contribution of molecular diffusion to dispersion can be neglected (i.e.

for sufficiently low values of the Peclet number) the dispersion coefficients can be
expressed as
Dxx
= (aL- aT )vxvx/v + aTV,
Dxy = (aL- aT )vxvy/v,

Dxy = (aL- aT )vxVz/v,
= (aL- aT )vyvx/v,
Dyy = (aL- aT )vyvy/v + aTv,
Dyx
Dyy = (aL- aT )vyvz/v,

Dzx
= (aL- aT )vzvx/v,
Dzy = (aL- aT)VzVy/v,

Dzz
= (aL- aT )vzVz/V + aTV.
(18.18)
CHAPTER 18
312
These equations are greatly simplified if they are expressed in components in the
direction of flow, and perpendicular to it, and especially when the flow is uniform.
The form of the basic equation for uniform flow can be obtained most simply
by assuming that the x-direction is the direction of flow, with v being the fluid
velocity, in every point. The dispersion coefficients then are constant throughout
the field, and the differential equation (18.17) then becomes
ac
ac
a2c
a 2c
a2c
Rat= G- v ax+ aLV ax2 + arv ay2 + arv az2'
(18.19)
where use has been made of (18.19), with v., = v, vy = 0, and Vz = 0. Equation
(18.19) closely resembles the classical convection-diffusion equation. It should be
noted, however, that the diffusion coefficient in the direction of flow is different
from those in the other two directions. Perhaps even more important is the fact
that the diffusion coefficients are proportional to the fluid velocity.
18.2
Transport by advection only
In some cases the dispersion coefficients may be so small that the effect of dispersion on the concentration distribution can be neglected. The transport is then
dominated by advection, with a possible retardation by adsorption. In this section
the solution of problems of advective transport will be discussed.
If there is no dispersion and no decay the basic equation (18.17) reduces to
ac
ac
ac
ac
R- = -v.,- - v - - Vz yay
az
at
ax
(18.20)
When the direction of flow is denoted as the s-direction one may write, formally,
ax
v., =vas,
(18.21)
and then equation (18.20) can be written in the simple form
R ac = -v ac.
at
as
(18.22)
The solution of equation (18.22) is basically very simple, provided that in every
point of the flow field the velocity is known. The solution can be written as
c=f(s-vt/R),
(18.23)
where f(x) is an arbitrary function. It follows from eq. (18.23) that the value of
the concentration c at two very close moments t1 and t2 at the locations s 1 and
s2 are equal if
(18.24)
or
(18.25)
313
where 6.t = t 2 - t 1 , the time step. Equation (18.25) expresses that if at a certain
time the concentration at a certain point in space is c1 then this same concentration
will be found some time 6.t later at a point in space removed from the previous
point by a distance v6.t/ R. Because v6.t is precisely the distance that the water
travels in this time interval, it appears that the pollution travels in the same
direction as the water, with a velocity reduced by a factor R. This is why R is
called the retardation factor.
The phenomenon of retardation is illustrated in figure 18.1 by a representation
of the density of running young men in the streets of Pamplona, chased by a
number of bulls. As the street widens the men spread over a wider range, and as a
result the front propagates slower than the rear, which is being pushed forward by
the bulls. The velocity of most of the running men (and of the bulls) remains the
same, but the average velocity is reduced because some men, those at the front,
find refuge in the wider parts of the street, perhaps even hiding in a doorway.
The front velocity is slower than the velocity of then men at the rear, because
after some time the men at the front are those that started in center of the group.
The same phenomenon can be imagined to occur in a chocolate factory where the
888 8
mmmm~mm~mm:~=~~~=~~~~~'------!"" ...........
----...B""'""'BB,......,B....,.m"""gg=m~=~m\1111111111111
~~~---------------
8 88 8
; ~l l l l il l li
Figure 18.1. Retardation in the streets of Pamplona.
supply of fresh chocolate at the rear, at a certain velocity, leads to a much smaller
velocity of the front if the chocolate gradually fills the spaces in the plate.
Because the solution of the problem of advective transport, by equation (18.25)
is straightforward, provided that the velocity v is known in every point of the field,
the main problem remaining is to determine this velocity. This can be done by
314
CHAPTER 18
solving the flow problem, which consists of the combination of Darcy's law and
the equation of conservation of mass of the pore fluid. Darcy's law can be written
as
qi
= -kij ( -88pXj
- PYj),
(18.26)
where qi is the specific discharge vector (qi = nvi), kii is the hydraulic conductivity
tensor, p is the pressure in the fluid, p is the fluid density, and Yi is the gravity
vector. The equation of conservation of mass of the pore fluid is
8(pqi) - p
(18.27)
axi - '
where P is a given production term, representing point injections of mass.
In most cases it can be assumed that the influence of pollution transport on
the distribution of the fluid density p is so small that the problems can be solved
separately. Only in the case of a very heavy pollutant, or a pollutant with very high
concentrations, is it necessary to take into account the variation of the fluid density
with the concentration. An example of this is the problem of the combined flow of
fresh and salt water in a coastal aquifer. Problems of this type are excluded here.
Thus the flow problem can be solved first, and then the velocity field obtained
from that solution can be used to solve the transport problem.
For the solution of problems of flow in porous media various models have been
developed : physical models, analytical models or numerical models. Because of
the cost involved in building a physical model for a particular situation, and also
because of the general availability of powerful computers, numerical models appear
to be the most effective tools for describing pollution transport. Two models will
be described in the next sections.
18.3
Elementary Analytical Models
Although the number of analytical solutions to the differential equations of the flow
problem in the form of a closed-form solution is limited, together these nevertheless
constitute a rather wide class. Because an analytical solution has the obvious
advantage that it does not contain any approximation, the availability of such an
analytical solution for certain problems, makes it an attractive approach.
Elementary analytical solutions of the flow problem exist, for instance, for
systems of wells in homogeneous aquifers of infinite extent. The aquifer can be
confined, unconfined, or semi-confined. By using image wells (or conformal mapping) solutions may also be constructed for regions in the form of a half-plane,
a circle, or an infinite strip. All these solutions are of a two-dimensional character. In the aquifer variations of the groundwater head in vertical direction are
neglected. Uniform infiltration into the aquifer can be taken into account, but will
not be considered here.
Although analytical solutions have the obvious advantage of being exact, and
thus error-free, they are restricted to relatively simple problems. The main restrictions are that the porous medium must be homogeneous, and that the region
315
occupied by the porous medium must be of mathematically simple shape : a half

plane, a circle, an infinite strip, etc. It should be noted that an extension of the
method of analytical solutions has been developed by Strack {1989). This analytical element method combines the elegance and accuracy of analytical solutions
with the power of modern numerical techniques. This enables to take into account
various types of inhomogeneities, leakage, etcetera. In this section only elementary
solutions will be considered, however, for reasons of simplicity.
It may be illustrative to consider some examples. The first example is the
solution for a homogeneous confined aquifer of infinite extent, with a number of
wells, and a uniform flow at infinity. This solution is
-k (xvx + yvy)- {;;t
Q
r
21rk'H ln{ ~).
{18.28)
Here Vx is the velocity in x-direction at infinity, and Vy is the velocity in y-direction

at infinity. The permeability of the aquifer is denoted by k, its porosity by n, and
its thickness by H. The parameter ri denotes the distance from the i-th well to
the point considered, Qi is the discharge of that well (positive for an injection
well), and R is a reference constant, to be determined from the given value of the
head in some point. On the basis of formulas such as {18.28) transport models
have been developed {FLOP, by Van den Akker, 1982; RESSQ, by Javandel et al.,
1984; BVll-1, by Bear & Verruijt, 1987). Some of these models have also been
extended to more complex flow cases, such as flow in layered aquifers.
In order to facilitate comparison with numerical models a second example of an
analytical solution will be considered, which applies to confined flow in an infinite
strip {0 < y < a), with a number of wells, and uniform flow at infinity. In this
case the expressions for the velocity components are (Bear & Verruijt, 1987)
_
Vx
Q; {
= + L...J
-i=l 4naH
Vx
sinh[1r{x- x;)/a]
cosh [1r(x- Xi) Ja] -cos [1r(y- Yi)/a]
sinh[1r{x- xi)/ a]
}
cosh[1r{x- xi)/ a]- cos[1r(y + Yi)/a]
sin[1r{y- y;)fa]
4naH cosh[1r{x- Xi)/a]- cos[1r(y- Yi)/a]
~ Q; {
v -L...J-Y - i=l
+
(18 29 )
sin[1r{y + Yi)/a]
}
{18.30)
cosh[1r{x- Xi)/a]- cos[1r(y + Yi)/a]
Here Vx is the velocity in x-direction at infinity. The expressions {18.29) and
{18.30) can be derived from the basic solution {18.28) for a single well in an
infinite field by extending this solution to an infinite series of wells, such that the
boundaries y = 0 andy= a become impermeable. They may also be established
by the use of conformal mapping (Strack, 1989).
A computer program that traces the path of a number of particles in accordance
with the solution {18.25), for the case of flow in an infinite strip, is reproduced
below as the program FLUX. In this program retardation is neglected.
316
CHAPTER18
program flux;
uses crt,graph;
const
vv=20;ff=10 0;
v=
maxx,maxy ,graphdrive r,graphmod e,errorcode :integer;xas p,yasp:vord ;

xv,yv,qv:a rray[1 .. vv] of real;
xf,yf:array [1 .. ff] of real;sf:arr ay[1 .. ff] of integer;
nv,nf:long int;step,pi ,por,hh,dx ,dy,vxa,rm :real;data: text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;goto xy(36,1);te xtbackgrou nd(7);textc olor(O);vr ite(' TRAIS ');
textbackgr ound(O);te xtcolor(7) ;vriteln;vr iteln;
end;
procedure graphiniti alize;
begin
graphdrive r:=detect;i nitgraph(g raphdriver ,graphmod e,'');
errorcode:= graphresul t;
if (errorcode< >grok) then
begin
vriteln('Er ror in graphics :',grapherr ormsg(erro rcode));
vriteln;vri teln('Progr am interrupte d.');halt(1 );
end;
setcolor(7 );setbkcol or(O);setli nestyle(0, 0,1);
setfillstyle( 11,7);maxx :=getmaxx; maxy:=getm axy;
getaspectra tio(xasp,ya sp);closegr aph;
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j:integer ;name:stri ng;
begin
title;pi:=3. 1415926;
vriteln('Th is is a program for the analysis of 2-D transport by');
vriteln('gr oundvater flov for vells in an infinite strip.');vr iteln;
vrite('lame of input datafile ........... . ');readln(n ame);
assign(dat a,name);re set(data);
readln(dat a,dx,dy,vx a,step,por, hh,rm,nv,n f);
for i:=1 to nv do readln(dat a,xv[i],yv[ i] ,qv[i]);
for j:=1 to nf do begin readln(dat a,xf[j] ,yf[j]);sf[ j] :=1;end;
close(data );title;
end;
procedure velocities (x,y:real;v ar vx,vy:real );
var
i,k,kk,ll:in teger;a,b,c ,d,ea,eb,c h,sh,cb,sb ,cc,sc:real ;
begin
vx:=vxa;vy :=O;for i:=1 to nv do
begin
d:=qv[i]/(4 hh*pordy );
a:=pi(x-x v[i])/dy;b: =pi*(y-yv[ i])/dy;c:=p i(y+yv[i]) /dy;
ea:=exp(a) ;eb:=1/ea;c h:=(ea+eb) /2;sh:=(ea- eb)/2;
cb:=cos(b) ;sb:=sin(b) ;cc:=cos(c );sc:=sin(c );
vx:=vx+d( sh/(ch-cb)+ sh/(ch-cc)) ;
vy:=vy+d( sb/(ch-cb)+ sc/(ch-cc)) ;
end;
end;
procedure shov;
317
var
xa,ya,r,sx,sy,xl,yl,x2,y2,vx,vy:real;
i,j,kk,ia,ib,ja,jb:integer;a:char;
begin
clrscr;sx:~axx/dx;sy:=(yasp/xasp)*maXy/dy;i sy<sx then sx:=sy;

sy:=xaspsx/yasp;initgraph(graphdriver,grapbmode,'');
kk:=O;vhile (kk=O) do
begin
or i:=l to n do i (s[i]>O) then
begin
xl:=xf[i];yl:=y[i];velocities(xl,yl,vx,vy);
x2:=xl+vxstep/2;y2:=yl+vystep/2;velocities(x2,y2,vx,vy);
x2:=xl+vxstep;y2:=yl+vystep;
or j:=l to nv do
begin
xa:=xl-xv[j];ya:=yl-yv[j];r:=sqrt(xaxa+yaya);
i (r<rm) then begin x2:=xv[j];y2:=yv[j];s[i] :=-l;end;
end;
ia:=round(sxxl);ib:=round(sxx2);
ja:~axy-round(syyl);jb:~-round(syy2);
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
x[i] :=x2;y[i]:=y2;i ((x2<0) or (x2>dx)) then s[i]:=-1;
end;
i (keypressed) then kk:=l;
end;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
show;
end.
Program FLUX.
In this program input data must be entered from a dataset, which must be prepared
by the user. The input variables are defined in table 18.1. The meaning of most
input data will be clear from their definition, given above. The width of the field
(dy) corresponds to the variable a used above for the width of the infinite strip.
The length of the field (dx) is the part of the infinite strip that will be shown
on the screen. The capture radius of the wells has not been defined before. This
parameter defines a zone around each well inside of which a traveling particle is
automatically captured by the well. If this is not done a particle that approaches
a well may overshoot the well, due to its very large velocity near the well. In the
program the maximum number of wells is 20, and the maximum number of stream
lines that can be traced is 100. The variable s:f [j] is used as a flag to indicate
whether the particle is still in the field. Initially this variable is set equal to +1,
indicating that the particle will be traced. As soon as it enters a well, or passes
the boundary, it is set equal to -1, and tracing of the stream line stops.
As an example a case with three wells in a strip of 300 m width is shown in
figure 18.2. The numerical data for this problem are defined in the datafile FLUXl.
318
CHAPTER 18
dx
dy
vxa
step
por
hh
rm
nw
nf
xw[i]
yw[i]
qw[i]
xflj]
yflj]
Dimension of field in x-direction

Dimension of field in y-direction
Uniform velocity in x-direction
Time step
Porosity of soil
Thickness of aquifer
Capture radius of wells
Number of wells
Number of stream lines
x-coordinate of well i
y-coordinate of well i
Water supply at node i
x-coordinate of particle j
y-coordinate of particle j
Table 18.1. Input parameters program FLUX.

400.000
250.000
150.000
250.000
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
300.000
1.000
80.000 -400.000
150.000 -400.000
250.000 -400.000
3.000
9.000
15.000
21.000
0.500
0.400
10.000
5.000
3 50
291.000
297.000
Datafile FLUXl.
Here not all initial positions of particles are given, to save space. The initial xcoordinate of all particles has been set equal to 0.001 to ensure that they are all
in the field considered. It should be noted that the definition of the variables is
such that the discharges of the wells are negative when they are pumping water
from the aquifer. A positive discharge indicates an injection well.
18.4
Finite element solution
For the solution of groundwater flow problems finite element models are widely
used, and generally considered as useful and powerful tools. This suggests to investigate the possibility to base a transport model on a finite element model. Such
a model is presented below, in the program FEMFLUX. It is based upon a simplified version of the program GWF, described in chapter 13. The program applies
to steady flow in a single confined aquifer, with the possibility of water supply
319
Figure 18.2. Three wells in infinite strip.
from the exterior by a given infiltration in the elements, or by given discharges

in the nodes (local wells). The program calculates the advective transport of a
given number of particles, with given starting points, and traces the stream lines
of these particles on the screen. An eventual retardation is not taken into account,
although this can easily be simulated by a change of the time scale.
program femflux;
uses
crt~graph;
const
nn=300;mm=500;zz=10;pp=50;
var
maxx,maxy,graphdriver,graphmode,errorcode:integer;xasp,yasp:v ord;
x,y ,h,f ,q, u, v, v: array[l .. nn] of real; ip :array[l .. nn] of integer;
perm,por,inf,vx,vy:array[l .. mm] of real;
np:array[l. .mm,l. .3] of integer;
p:array[l. .nn,l. .zz-1] of real;pt :array[l .. nn,l .. zz] of integer;
xp,yp:array[l .. pp] of real;sp,lp:array[l .. pp] of integer;
xj,yj,b,c:array[1 .. 3] of real;
n,m,mp:integer;ns:longint;step:real;data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(35,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' FEKFLUX ');
end;
begin
320
begin
vriteln('Error in graphics : ',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
end;
end;
procedure input;
var
i,j,k:integer;name:string;
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of transport by');
vriteln('groundvater flov by the finite element method.');vriteln;
assign(data,name);reset(data);r eadln(data,n,m,mp,ns,step);
for i:=l ton do readln(data,x[i],y[i],h[i],ip[ i],f[i],q[i]);
for j:=l tom do
readln(data,np[j,l],np[j,2],np [j,3],perm[j],por[j],inf[j]);
for k:=l to mp do
begin
readln(data,xp[k],yp[k]);sp[k] :=l;lp[k] :=1;
end;
close(data);title;
end;
procedure pointer;
v=
begin
for i:=l ton do for j:=l to zz do pt[i,j]:=O;
for i:=l ton do begin pt[i,l] :=i;pt[i,zz]:=l;end;
for j:=l tom do
begin
for k:=l to 3 do
begin
begin
ll:=np[j,l];ia:=O;
for ii:=l to pt[kk,zz] do if pt[kk,ii]=ll then ia:=l;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+l;if kb=zz then
begin
vriteln('Pointer width too small.');vriteln;halt;
end;
pt[kk,zz] :=kb;pt[kk,kb]:=ll;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
CHAPTER IS

i,j,k,l,kv,kv,ii,kk,ll:integer;hh,dd,dp:real;
begin
vriteln('Generation o system matrix');vriteln;
or i:=1 ton do or j:=1 to zz-1 do p[i,j]:=O;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
hh:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,i];xj[i] :=x[k] ;yj[i] :=y[k] ;hh:=hh+h[k]/3;
end;
b[1] :=yj [2]-yj [3] ;b[2] :=yj[3]-yj [1] ;b[3] :=yj [1]-yj[2];
dd:=abs(b[1]xj[1]+b[2]xj[2]+b[3]xj[3]);dp:=perm[j]hh/(2dd);
or k:=1 to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j,k];ii:=pt[kk,zz];
or 11:=1 to ii do for 1:=1 to 3 do i np[j,l]=pt[kk,ll] then
p[kk,ll] :=p[kk,ll]+dp(b[k]b[l]+c[k]c[l]);
q[kk]:=q[kk]+ddin[j]/6;
end;
end;
end;
procedure search(xx,yy:real;j:integer;var jj:integer);
var
i,k,kk,ll:integer;a1,a2,a3:real;
begin
jj:=O;or i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j ,i] ;xj[i] :=x[k] ;yj [i] :=y[k];
end;
b[1] :=yj [2]-yj [3] ;b[2] :=yj [3]-yj [1] ;b[3] :=yj [1]-yj [2];
c [1] :=xj [3] -xj [2] ; c [2] : =xj [1] -xj[3] ; c [3] : =xj [2] -xj [1];
a1 :=(yy-yj [1] )c [3]+(xx-xj [1] )b[3];
a2 :=(yy-yj [2] )c [1]+(xx-xj [2] )b[1];
a3:=(yy-yj [3] )c [2]+(xx-xj[3])b[2];
i ((a1a2>=0) and (a2a3>=0) and (a3a1>=0)) then jj:=j;
end;
procedure locate(xx,yy:real;j:integer;var jj:integer);
var
i,i1,i2,kk,ll:integer;
begin
jj:=O;kk:=O;ll:=O;vhile (11=0) do
begin
i:=j+kk;i ((i<=m) and (i>=1)) then search(xx,yy,i,i1);
i (i1>0) then jj:=i1;
i:=j-kk;if ((i<=m) and (i>=1)) then search(xx,yy,i,i2);
i (i2>0) then jj:=i2;i (jj>O) then 11:=1;
kk:=kk+1;i (kk>=m) then 11:=1;
end;
end;
procedure velocities;
var
i,j,k:integer;d:real;
begin
or j:=1 tom do
begin
321
CHAPTER 18
322
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
lt: =np [j, i] ; xj [i] : =x [lt] ; yj[i] : =y [lt] ;
end;
b[1] :=yj[2]-yj[3] ;b[2] :=yj [3]-yj [1] ;b[3] :=yj [1]-yj [2];
d: =b[1] xj [1]+b[2] xj [2]+b[3]xj[3 ] ;
vx[j] :=O;vy[j]:=O ;d:=perm[j]/( dpor[j]);
for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
lt:=np[j,i];
vx[j] : =vx[j] -db[i] f[lt] ;vy[j] : =vy[j] -dc [i] f[lt];
end;
end;
end;
procedure solve;
var
it,i,j,iv:inte ger;ee,uu,vv ,vv,aa,bb:re al;
begin
vriteln( 1 Solution of equations 1 );vriteln;
ee:=0.000001 ;ee:=eeee;it: =1;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
iv:=pt[i,zz]; u[i]:=O;if ip[i]<O then
begin
u[i] :=q[i] ;for j :=1 to iv do u[i] :=u[i]-p[i,j ]f[pt[i,j]];
end;
v[i] :=u[i];
end;
uu:=O;for i:=1 ton do uu:=uu+u[i] u[i];
while (it<2n) and (uu>ee) do
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
v[i]:=O;iv:= pt[i,zz];
for j :=1 to iv do v[i] :=v[i]+p[i,j ]v[pt[i,j]];
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+v[i] v[i];
aa:=uu/vv;fo r i:=1 to n do if ip[i]<O then
begin
f[i]:=f[i]+aa v[i];u[i]:=u [i]-aav[i];
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+u[i] u[i];
bb:=vv/uu;fo r i:=1 ton do v[i]:=u[i]+b bv[i];
uu:=vv;it:=it +1;
end;
for i:=1 to n do
begin
q[i] :=O;for j :=1 to pt[i,zz] do q[i] :=q[i]+p[i,j ]f[pt[i,j]];
and;
end;
procedure shov;
var
xa,ya,xb,yb,d x,dy,sx,sy,l[] [,JJ,X2,y2:re al;
i,j,lt,l,ll,ia, ib,ja,jb,jj:in teger;ltlt:lo ngint;a:cha r;
begin
323
clrscr;
xa:=x[1];xb:=xa;ya:=y[1];yb:=ya;for i:=1 ton do
begin
i f (x[i]<xa) then xa:=x[i];if (x[i]>xb) then xb:=x[i];
if (y[i]<ya) then ya:=y[i];if (y[i]>yb) then yb:=y[i];
end;
dx:=xb-xa;dy:=yb-ya;sx:=maxx/dx;sy:=(yasp/xasp)*mBXy/dy;
if sy<sx then sx:=sy;sy:=xaspsx/yasp;
initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode,'');setlinestyle(1,0,1);
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
11:=1+1;if 11>3 then 11:=1;
ia:=round(sx(x[np[j ,1]]-xa));
ib:=round(sx(x[np[j,ll]]-xa));
ja:=maxy-round(sy(y[np[j ,1]]-ya));
jb:=maxy-round(sy(y[np[j,ll]]-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
end;
setlinestyle(0,0,1);kk:=O;vhile (kk<ns) do
begin
for i:=1 to mp do if (sp[i]>O) then
begin
xx:=xp[i];yy:=yp[i];locate(xx,yy,lp[i],jj);
if (jj=O) then sp[i] :=-1 else
begin
x2:=xx+stepvx[jj];y2:=yy+stepvy[jj];
ia:=round(sxCxx-xa));ib:=round(sxCx2-xa));
ja:=maxy-round(sy(yy-ya));jb:=maxy-round(sy(y2-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);xp[i] :=x2;yp[i]:=y2;1p[i]:=jj;
end;
end;
kk:=kk+1;if (keypressed) then kk:=ns;
end;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
pointer;
matrix;
solve;
velocities;
shov;
end.
Program FEMFL UX.
by the user. The program first determines the groundwater head in the nodes,
by the finite element method, using triangular elements. In these elements the
groundwater head is interpolated linearly, so that the velocity components v., and
vy are constant throughout each element. These components are calculated in the
324
CHAPTER 18
procedure velocities.
The input variables are defined in table 18.2. In each node both the groundwater head and the local discharge (positive for injection) must be given. In reality
only one of these quantities is known from the boundary conditions. This is controlled by the switch parameter ip. When this is larger than 0 the groundwater
head is given, and the discharge is unknown. In this case the input value of the
discharge is ignored by the program. When the switch parameter ip is negative
the discharge is considered as given, and the input value of the groundwater head
is ignored. After having calculated the groundwater head in all the nodes, the
n
m
mp
ns
step
x[i]
y[i]
h[i]
ip[i]
f[i]
q(i]
np[i,1]
np[i,2]
np[i,3]
perm[i]
por[i]
inf[i]
xp[k]
yp[k]
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of particles
Number of .time steps
Time step
Thickness of aquifer at node i
if ip[i] > 0 : groundwater head given
if ip[i] < 0 : water supply given
Groundwater head at node i
Permeability in element j
Porosity in element j
Infiltration in element j
x-coordinate of particle k
y-coordinate of particle k
Table 18.2. Input parameters program FEMFL UX.
program traces the stream lines of the given particles. This consists of two steps :
first the program must determine in which element the particle is actually located;
this is done by the procedure locate. This procedure checks, in principle for all
elements, whether the particle location is on the same side of each boundary. If
this is indeed the case the particle must be located inside the element. In order to
avoid an unnecessary long search process, the searching starts with the previous
element in which the particle was found as a first guess. This is the variable 11 [k]
in the program.
The second step is to determine the displacement of the particle in the time
step considered by simply multiplying the velocity components in the element by
the time step. The stream lines stop when the particles leave the region. This is
325
controlled by the variable sp [k] . The tracing of the stream lines on the screen
also stops when the user hits any key on the keyboard.
An example is shown in figure 18.3, for a case of flow in a rectangular region
from a boundary of given head at the left to another boundary of given head at
the upper part of the right side boundary. A single well is operating, capturing
part of the flow. Because the capacity of the program FEMFL UX is rather limited
Figure 18.3. Example calculated by FEMFLUX.
(maximum 300 nodes and 500 elements) the shape of the stream lines is not very
smooth. This is also due to the simple type of element used, with constant velocity
components in each element. The same problem has also been solved by a more
powerful program (the program MULAT, distributed by the Delft University of
Technology). The results are shown in figure 18.4. In this case the number of
nodes is n = 29041, and the number of triangular elements is m = 57600. It
appears that now the stream lines are smooth throughout the field. Comparison
with figure 18.3 shows that the general shape of the stream lines is very similar,
however. The failure of the simple model to represent the fine details of the flow
are clearly due to the small number of nodes and elements. The results may well
be useful as a first indication of the general trend of the transport process.
It may be noted that the program FEMFLUX suffers from various defects. It
has, for instance, no provision for capturing water particles when they reach a
pumping well. This may lead to water particles near a well overshooting the well
and then again returning to the well from the opposite side. Also, the program
uses the velocity at the beginning of a time step to calculate the displacement
during the entire time step, even if the time step brings the particle into a new
326
CHAPTER 18
MULAT 1.5
Delft University of Technology
Example FEMFLUX1
Figure 18.4. Example calculated by MULAT.
element. This may be improved by using a Runge-Kutta procedure, in which the

average velocity is used to trace a particle. Usually many of the defects of the
program can be practically avoided by taking very small time steps. The reader
is also encouraged to add the improvements just mentioned to the program.
18.5
Three-dimensional transport
For the analysis of transport of pollutants in aquifers it is often necessary to take

into account the vertical component of flow, in order to obtain a realistic evaluation
of the extent of the endangered zones. This can, of course, be accomplished by
using a fully three-dimensional model, but this will lead to systems with many
millions of degrees of freedom, requiring large computers and long computation
times. Moreover, the usual geological geometry is such that the vertical dimensions
are much smaller than the horizontal dimensions. This suggests to use a mixed
type of approach, in which the soil is considered to consist of a layered system of
a number of aquifers, with intermediate layers of low permeability (aquitards). In
the sandy aquifers the flow will be mainly horizontal, so that it can be assumed that
the pressure distribution is hydrostatic (Dupuit's assumption). In the aquitards
(usually clay layers) the flow can be considered to be strictly vertical. These layers
serve to transfer water from one aquifer to another. In the aquifers the flow velocity
is considered fully three-dimensional, with the vertical component of flow being
determined from the equation of continuity (Strack, 1984). In this section this
327
approach will be presented for a finite element analysis in a single layer. A finite
element analysis for a multi-layered system has been described by Swidzinsky &
Verruijt (1993).
The finite element analysis of the distribution of the groundwater heads in a
single aquifer has been presented in chapter 13, and this has been extended above
to the tracing of two-dimensional stream lines, in the program FEMFLUX. Here
such a program is taken as the point of departure. This will lead to a solution
in which the groundwater head is a function of the coordinates x and y in the
horizontal plane. The components of the specific discharge vector in the horizontal
plane can be determined by using Darcy's law,
(18.31)
(18.32)
These will be functions of x and y. In particular, in a finite element model using
triangular elements with linear interpolation of the head , and a constant permeability in each element, the two components qx and qy will be constant in each
element, but different in different elements.
If the vertical component of flow qz now would also be derived from Darcy's
law the result would be zero, because the derivative a/az is zero. Therefore it is
suggested, following Strack (1984), that this component be determined from the
equation of continuity of an element in the aquifer,
aqx
ax
aqy
ay
aqz _ 0
az - .
{18.33)
It now follows that
aqz = _ aqx _ aqy = A(x, y),

az
ax
ay
(18.34)
where the function A(x, y) indicates that the right hand side of the equation is
independent of z.
Integration of equation (18.34) in z-direction now gives
qz = A(x, y) z + B(x, y),
(18.35)
where B(x, y) is an integration constant, again a function of x and y only.

The two functions A and B can be determined most simply from the boundary
conditions in vertical direction. First of all it is assumed here that the bottom of
the aquifer is horizontal, and completely impermeable. If the level of this bottom
is denoted as the surface z = 0 it follows that the first boundary condition is
Z
= 0 : qz = 0.
This gives, with (18.35),
(18.36)
CHAPTER IS
328
(18.37)
B=O.
For a steady free surface the boundary condition at the upper surface is (Verruijt,
1970)
(18.38)
z=
where I is the infiltration rate. This condition ensures that the infiltration is added
to the system. It also ensures that the free surface is a stream line boundary when
there is no infiltration.
Because the derivatives 8!8x and 8f8y can be expressed into the fluxes qx
and qy using Darcy's law, see eqs. (18.31) and (18.32), the boundary condition
(18.38) can also be written as
(18.39)
With equation (18.35) the value of the function A can now be determined,
A= -
!_
q;
+ q~
(18.40)
The final expression for the vertical component of the specific discharge is
(18.41)
All components of the flow now are completely known. It appears that the vertical
component is a linear function of z. This is a consequence of Dupuit's assumption.
It has been shown that this approximation is very good, provided that the vertical
dimension of the system is indeed small compared to the horizontal dimensions
(Strack, 1984; Verruijt, 1991). It should be noted that the velocity components
can be determined from the specific discharge by dividing them by the effective
porosity n.
A computer program that performs the computations is reproduced below, as
the program FEM3D. The program applies to steady flow in a single confined
aquifer, with a horizontal bottom. Water can be supplied from the exterior by a
given infiltration in the elements, or by given discharges in the nodes (local wells).
The program calculates the advective transport of a given number of particles,
with given starting points, and traces the stream lines of these particles on the
screen, in a two dimensional projection of the three-dimensional flow. The program
applies to an aquifer of a given thickness, such that the flow will be confined if the
groundwater head is larger than the thickness. If the groundwater head is below
the upper surface of the aquifer, the transmissivity is adjusted to the product
of permeability and groundwater head. This is done in a number of cycles, for
instance 6.

program fem3d;
uses crt,graph;
const
nn=300;mm=500;zz=10;pp=50;
var
maxx,maxy,graphdriver,graphmo de,errorcode:integer;xasp,yasp:v ord;
x,y,h,f,q,u,v,v:array[l .. nn] of real;ip:array[l .. nn] of integer;
perm,por,inf,vx,vy,vz:array[l .. mmJ of real;
np: array[l .. mm,1. .3] of integer;
p:array[1. .nn,1. .zz-1] of real;pt:array[1. .nn,1. .zz] of integer;
xp,yp,zp:array[l .. pp] of real;sp,lp:array[l .. pp] of integer;
xj,yj,b,c:array[1. .3] of real;
ic,n,m,mp,cycles:integer;ns:lo ngint;step,alpha,vscale:real;da ta:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(36,1);textbackgr ound(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' FEK3D ');
end;
begin
graphdriver:=detect;i~itgraph(graphdriver,graphmode,'');
errorcode:=graphresult;if (errorcode<>grok) then

begin
vriteln('Error in graphics :',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
end;
end;
procedure input;
var
begin
title;
vriteln('This is a program for the analysis of transport by');
vriteln('groundvater flov by the finite element method. ');vriteln;
write('5ame of input datafile ............ ');readln(name);
assign(data,name);reset(data);
readln(data,n,m,mp,ns,step,alp ha,vscale,cycles);
for i:=l ton do readln(data,x[i],y[i] ,h[i],ip[i] ,f[i],q[i]);
for j:=l tom do
readln(data,np[j ,1] ,np[j ,2] ,np[j ,3] ,perm[j] ,por[j] ,inf[j]);
for k:=l to mp do
begin
readln(data,xp[k],yp[k],zp[k]); sp[k] :=l;lp[k]:=l;
end;
close(data);title;
end;
procedure pointer;
var
begin
for i:=l ton do for j:=l to zz do pt[i,j]:=O;
for i:=l ton do begin pt[i,l] :=i;pt[i,zz]:=l;end;
329
CHAPTER18
330
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 3 do
begin
begin
11:=np[j,1];ia:= O;
for ii:=1 to pt[kk,zz] do if pt[kk,ii]=11 then ia:=1;
if ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,zz]+1 ;if kb=zz then
begin
vrite1n('Pointe r vidth too sma11.');vrite1n ;ha1t;
end;
pt[kk,zz]:=kb;pt [kk,kb]:=11;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix(ic:integ er);
var
i,j,k,1,kv,kv,ii, kk,11:integer;h h,ff,dd,dp:rea1 ;
begin
tit1e;vrite1n('G eneration of system matrix, cycle ',ic);vrite1n;
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to zz-1 do p[i,j]:=O;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
hh:=O;ff:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,i];xj[i]: =x[k];yj[i]:=y[ k];hh:=hh+h[k] /3;ff:=ff+f[k]/3 ;
end;
b[l] :=yj[2]-yj[3];b[ 2] :=yj[3]-yj[l];b[ 3]:=yj[1]-yj[2] ;

c[1] :=xj[3]-xj[2];c[ 2] :=xj[1]-xj[3];c[ 3]:=xj[2]-xj[1] ;
dd:=abs(b[1]xj [1]+b[2]xj[2]+ b[3]xj[3]);if (ff<hh) then hh:=ff;
dp:=perm[j]hh/ (2dd);
for k:=l to 3 do
begin
kk:=np[j,k];ii:= pt[kk,zz];
for 11:=1 to ii do for 1:=1 to 3 do if np[j,1]=pt[kk,11 ] then
p[kk,11]:=p[kk, 11]+dp(b[k]b[ 1]+c[k]c[1]);
if (ic=l) then q[kk] :=q[kk]+ddinf[ j]/6;
end;
end;
end;
procedure search(xx,yy:re a1;j:integer;var jj:integer);
var
i,k,kk,11:intege r;a1,a2,a3:rea1 ;
begin
jj:=O;for i:=1 to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,i];xj[i] :=x[k];yj[i]:=y [k];
end;
b[l] :=yj[2]-yj[3];b[ 2]:=yj[3]-yj[1]; b[3] :=yj[1]-yj[2];
c[l] :=xj[3]-xj[2];c[ 2]:=xj[1]-xj[3] ;c[3] :=xj[2]-xj[1];
a1:=(yy-yj[1])c [3]+(xx-xj[1])b [3];

a2:=(yy-yj[2])c[1]+(xx-xj[2])b[1];
a3:=(yy-yj[3])c[2]+(xx-xj[3])b[2];
if ((a1a2>=0) and (a2a3>=0) and (a3a1>=0)) then jj:=j;
end;
procedure locate(xx,yy:real;j:integer;var jj:integer);
var
i,i1,i2,kk,ll:integer;
begin
jj:=O;kk:=O;ll:=O;vhile (11=0) do
begin
i:=j+kk;if ((i<=m) and (i>=1)) then search(xx,yy,i,i1);
if (i1>0) then jj:=i1;
i:=j-kk;if ((i<=m) and (i>=1)) then search(xx,yy,i,i2);
if (i2>0) then jj:=i2;
if (jj>O) then 11:=1;kk:=kk+1;if (kk>=m) then 11:=1;
end;
end;
procedure velocities;
var
i,j,k:integer;d:real;
begin
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for i:=1 to 3 do begin k:=np[j,i];xj[i]:=x[k];yj[i]:=y[k];end;
b[1]: =yj[2]-yj [3] ;b[2] :=yj [3]-yj[1] ;b[3] :=yj [1] -yj[2];
d: =b [1] xj [1] +b [2] xj [2] +b [3] xj [3] ;
vx[j] :=O;vy[j] :=O;d:=perm[j]/(dpor[j]);
for i:=l to 3 do
begin
k:=np[j,i];vx[j] :=vx[j]-db[i]f[k];vy[j]:=vy[j]-dc[i]f[k];
end;
vz [j] :=-inf [j] /por [j] -por [j] (vx [j] vx [j] +vy [j] vy [j] )/perm[j];
end;
end;
procedure solve(ic:integer);
var
it,i,j,iv:integer;ee,uu,vv,vv,aa,bb:real;
begin
vriteln('Solution of equations');vriteln;
ee:=O.OOOOOl;ee:=eeee;it:=l;
for i:=l to n do
begin
iv:=pt[i,zz];u[i]:=O;if ip[i]<O then
begin
u[i] :=q[i] ;for j :=1 to iv do u[i] :=u[i]-p[i,j]f[pt[i,j]];
end;
v[i] :=u[i];
end;
uu:=O;for i:=1 ton do uu:=uu+u[i]u[i];
vhile (it<2n) and (uu>ee) do
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
v[i]:=O;iv:=pt[i,zz];
for j :=1 to iw do v[i] :=v[i]+p[i,j]v[pt[i,j]];
331
332
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+v[i]v[i];
aa:=uu/vv;for i:=1 to n do if ip[i]<O then
begin
f[i]:=f[i]+aav[i];u [i] :=u[i]-aav[i];
end;
vv:=O;for i:=1 ton do vv:=vv+u[i]u[i];
bb:=vv/uu;for i:=1 ton do v[i]:=u[i]+bbv[i];
uu:=vv;it:=it+1;
end;
if (ic=cyc1es) then
begin
matrix(ic);
for i:=1 to n do
begin
q[i]:=O;
for j:=1 to pt[i,zz] do q[i] :=q[i]+p[i,j]f[pt[i ,j]];
end;
end;
end;
procedure shov;
var
xa,ya,xb,yb,dx,dy,sx ,sy,xx,yy,yz,zz,xq,yq ,zq:rea1;
ff,hh,x1,y1,x2,y2,pi ,ca,sa:rea1;
i,j,k,1,11,ia,ib,ja,jb ,jj:integer;kk:1ongi nt;a:char;
begin
c1rscr;pi:=3.1415926 ;ca:=cos(a1phapi/18 0);sa:=sin(a1phapi/1 80);
xa:=x[1];xb:=xa;ya:= y[1]sa;yb:=ya;
for i:=l to n do
begin
xx:=x[i]+y[i]ca;yy:= y[i]sa;yz:=yy+vscal e*h[i];
if (xx<xa) then xa:=xx;if (xx>xb) then xb:=xx;
if (yy<ya) then ya:=yy;if (yz>yb) then yb:=yz;
end;
dx:=xb-xa;dy:=yb-ya;s x:=maxx/dx;sy:=(yasp /xasp)maxy/dy;
if sy<sx then sx:=sy;sy:=xaspsx/ya sp;
initgraph(graphdrive r,graphmode,'');set1i nesty1e(1,0,1);
for j:=l tom do
begin
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
11:=1+1;if 11>3 then 11:=1;
ia:=round(sx(x[np[j ,1]]+y[np[j,1]]ca-xa ));
ib:=round(sx(x[np[j ,11]]+y[np[j,11]]ca- xa));
ja:=maxy-round(sy(y [np[j,1]]sa-ya));
jb:=maxy-round(sy(y [np[j,11]]sa-ya));
1ine(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for 1:=1 to 3 do
begin
11:=1+1;if 11>3 then 11:=1;
ia:=round(sx(x[np[j ,1]]+y[np[j,1]]ca-xa ));
ib:=round(sx(x[np[j ,11]]+y[np[j,11]]ca- xa));
CHAPTER IS
333
ja:~axy-round(sy(vscale[np[j,l]]+y[np[j,l]]sa-ya));
jb:~axy-round(sy(vscale[np[j,ll]]+y[np[j,ll]]sa-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);
end;
end;
setlinestyle(O,O,l);
kk:=O;vhile (kk<ns) do
begin
or i:=l to mp do i (sp[i]>O) then
begin
xx:=xp[i];yy:=yp[i];zz:=zp[i];locate(xx,yy,lp[i],jj);
xl:=xx+yyca;yl:=vscalezz+yysa;
hh:=O;or j:=l to 3 do hh:=hh+h[np[jj,j]]/3;
:=0;or j:=l to 3 do :=+[np[jj,j]]/3;
i (<hh) then hh: =ff ;
i (jj=O) then sp[i] :=-1 else
begin
xq:=xx+stepvx[jj];yq:=yy+stepvy[jj];
zq:=zz+stepvz[jj]zz/hh;
x2:=xq+yqca;y2:=vscalezq+yqsa;
ia:=round(sx(x1-xa));ib:=round(sx(x2-xa));
ja:=maxy-round(sy(y1-ya));jb:=maxy-round(sy(y2-ya));
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);xp[i] :=xq;yp[i]:=yq;zp[i]:=zq;
xl:=x2;yl:=y2;lp[i]:=jj;
end;
end;
kk:=kk+l;i (keypressed) then kk:=ns;
end;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
pointer;
or ic:=l to cycles do
begin
matrix(ic);
solve(ic);
end;
velocities;
shov;
end.
Program FEM3D.
by the user. The program first determines the groundwater head in the nodes,
by the finite element method, using triangular elements. In these elements the
groundwater head is interpolated linearly, so that the velocity components Vx and
v11 are constant throughout each element. These components are calculated in the
procedure velocities.
The input variables are defined in table 18.3. In each node both the groundwater head and the local discharge (positive for injection) must be given. In reality
only one of these quantities is known from the boundary conditions. This is con-
334
CHAPTER 18
trolled by the switch parameter ip. When this is larger than 0 the groundwater
head is given, and the discharge is unknown. In this case the input value of the
discharge is ignored by the program. When the switch parameter ip is negative
the discharge is considered as given, and the input value of the groundwater head
is ignored.
n
m
nn
ns
step
alpha
vscale
cycles
x[i)
y[i)
h[i)
ip[i)
f[i)
q[i]
np[i,1]
np[i,2]
np[i,3]
perm[i)
por[i]
inf[i)
xp[k)
yp[k)
zp[k)
Number of nodes
Number of elements
Number of particles
Time step
Angle of projection (degrees)
Scale factor vertical/horizontal
Number of cycles in Dupuit iteration
Thickness of aquifer at node i
if ip[i) > 0 : groundwater head given
if ip[i) < 0 : water supply given
Groundwater head at node i
Permeability in element j
Porosity in element j
Infiltration in element j
x-coordinate of particle k
y-coordinate of particle k
z-coordinate of particle k
Table 18.3. Input parameters program FEM3D.
An example is shown in figure 18.5, for a case of flow in a rectangular region

from a boundary of given head at the left to another boundary of given head at
the right side boundary. A single well is operating, capturing part of the flow. The
three-dimensional path of 12 particles, starting at the water surface at the left is
shown in the figure. Because of the inflow at the water surface, due to infiltration,
the particles are gradually transported downward. Of course the program FEM3D
can be extended by various advanced features, and the capacity can be increased
by using advanced programming techniques. To illustrate the possibilities of a
more powerful program the results obtained with the program MULAT are shown
in figure 18.6. In this case the number of nodes is n = 29057, and the number
of triangular elements is m = 57632. It appears that now the stream lines are
Figure 18.5. Example calculated by FEM3D.
Figure 18.6. Example calculated by MULAT.
335
336
CHAPTER 18
smooth throughout the field. Comparison with figure 18.5 shows that the general
shape of the stream lines is very similar, however. The failure of the simple model
to represent the fine details of the flow are due to the small number of nodes and
elements. The results may well be useful as a first indication of the general trend
of the transport process, however.
Exercises
18.1 Run the program FLUX with a slightly modified datafile FLUX1, in which the
capture radius of the wells is no longer 5 m, but 1 m. Explain the strange behaviour of
the stream lines in the vicinity of the wells.
18.2 Write a program that will generate a dataset for the program FEMFLUX, for a
homogeneous rectangular region, with the dimensions of the rectangle, and the number of
elements along each side as the main input parameters. The program may be interactive.
18.3 Solve the problem shown in figure 18.2 by the finite element method, and show
that the results are similar.
CHAPTER 19
ADSORPTION AND DISPERSION
In the previous chapter the transport of particles of a pcllutant in groundwater

has been considered in general, with particular emphasis on the most important
transport mechanism: advection. Two other physical phenomena in this transport
process are adsorption to the soil particles and dispersion. In this chapter these
processes will be considered in some detail.
The purpose of the study of the adsorption process is to derive a simple analytical solution, which may be used as a reference for further analysis, and as a
test case for numerical solutions.
In order to estimate the time scale of the adsorption phenomena it may be
useful to consider the physically similar process of diffusion of heat from a fluid
of constant temperature to small solid particles in such a fluid. Therefore this
problem is also included in this chapter.
It is often assumed that adsorption is so fast that it may be assumed that an
equilibrium condition between the concentration in the solid material and in the
fluid is always maintained. Then the linear adsorption process merely results in a
reduction of the propagation velocity of a disturbance (retardation). If, however,
the adsorption time is relatively large, it will be shown that the process can, at
least approximately, give rise to dispersion, especially in the direction of flow.
The analysis of dispersive transport is presented as the basis of a computer
program, in which dispersion is simulated by a random walk process.
19.1
Basic equations of linear adsorption
The problem to be considered concerns the flow of polluted groundwater, with

part of the pollutant being adsorbed by the soil. This is illustrated schematically
in figure 19.1. The porous medium is represented by a layer of thickness H of
fluid, and a layer of thickness D of solid material. The ratio H/(H +D) may
be considered to represent the porosity n of the porous material. In the fluid the
velocity is v, and the concentration of the pollutant is c1 . The concentration of
the pollutant in the solids is c2 . If it is assumed that the concentration in the fluid
and in the solids are functions only of time and the distance x, the equations for
the transport of the pollutant through the two phases of the porous medium are
a(c 1 H)
at
= _ a(c1Hv)
ax
_A
(19.1)
(19.2)
337
CHAPTER 19
338
----
........................................................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
Figure 19.1. Uniform flow with adsorption.
where A is a measure for the pollutant transferred from the fluid to the solids by
adsorption.
Expressed in terms of the porosity the basic equations can be written as
a(nci) _
(19.3)
at
a[(1- n)c2] =A*
at
'
(19.4)
where now A* = A/(H +D) represents the transfer of pollutant from the fluid to
the solids. It is assumed that this process is governed by a formula of the form
A*
= (1 _ n) kc1- c2,
ta
(19.5)
where k is the distribution coefficient and ta is a coefficient (having the physical dimension of a time), which expresses the resistance to adsorption. The distribution
coefficient k expresses that in a state of equilibrium, with no further adsorption,
the concentration in the solids is k times the concentration in the fluid. The factor
(1- n) has been added for future convenience Equation (19.5) expresses that in a
state of non-equilibrium there is a linear rate of adsorption.
The boundary condition is supposed to be
x = 0:
c = co sin(wt),
(19.6)
where c0 is the amplitude and w is the frequency of the sinusoidal fluctuation.
19.2
Time scale of adsorption
It may be illustrative to first consider the simplified case that the concentration
in the fluid is constant, say c0 , and that the initial concentration in the solids is
zero. In that case the two equations (19.2) and (19.5) can be combined to give
339
8(c2) _ kco- c2
8t
ta
(19.7)
The solution of this differential equation is
= kco [1- exp( -t/ta)].
c2
(19.8)
The solution (19.8) expresses that the concentration gradually increases from zero
to its final equilibrium value kco. This final value is reached when the time t is
about 4 or 5 times the reference time ta, which can therefore be considered as a
time of adsorption. It can be expected that in case of fluctuations slow compared to
ta there will always be a state of equilibrium, and that for very rapid fluctuations,
with a time scale much smaller than ta, adsorption can be neglected.
19.3
Time scale of heat transfer to particles
In order to obtain a more quantitative indication of the relevant time scales, one
may consider the analogue phenomenon of heat transfer from a moving fluid to
spherical particles. The basic differential equation for this problem is
8T
8 2T
at = K( 8r
2 8T
8r ),
(19.9)
+;
where Tis the temperature, r is the radial coordinate, and II": is the diffusivity of
the particle material. Suppose that the initial condition is that the temperature
is zero for t = 0, and that the boundary condition at the outer boundary of the
particle is
r= R:
(19.10)
T=To,
where R is the radius of the particle. This indicates that the particle is suddenly surrounded by a warmer fluid. The differential equation (19.9) describes the
warming up of the particle.
The solution of the problem defined by the differential equation with its boundary condition (19.10) and the initial condition of a zero temperature is
2 R
00
1)i+l
- = 1---" - .
To
1r r J=l
~
J
.
2 2 t
sin{'7rr) exp(-~)
R2
(19.11)
The average temperature of the particle can be obtained by averaging the temperature over the volume of the sphere,
1R
= 413
-T
31rR
47rr 2 Tdr.
(19.12)
The result is
T,
0
= 1- 2
7r
j27r
L ~J1 exp(----w-)
00
j=l
2 Kt
(19.13)
340
CHAPTER 19
For relatively large values of the time only one term of the infinite series needs to
be taken into account, so that the solution reduces to
To
1r 2 Kt
6
1 - - exp(--).
R2
1r 2
(19.14)
This means that the governing time parameter is

td
R2
= -2-,
7r K
(19.15)
A normal value for the diffusivity is K = 0.4 x 10- 6 m 2 Js. If the particles have a
radius R = 2 mm, indicating that the soil is medium fine sand, the diffusion time
td is found to be about 1 second. For finer materials the diffusion time is even
smaller. Such small values are often considered as sufficient justification for the
assumption that for phenomena of heat transfer in porous media the time scale of
diffusion into the particles is so small that it can be assumed that the temperature
of the solid particles is equal to the temperature of the fluid. This means that at
all times the temperature in the particles is in equilibrium with the temperature
of the fluid, which may considerably simplify problems of heat transfer in porous
media.
Of course, adsorption of a pollutant to solid particles may be governed by a
time scale quite different from the time scale of heat diffusion, because the physical
background is quite different. Adsorption may be confined to the surface of the
particles, for instance, and it may depend upon a chemical reaction process with
its own specific time scale. The very small time scale of heat diffusion to the
particles in porous media may well be indicative, however, for a small time scale
of adsorption. And of course certain materials are not adsorbed at all. An example
of this is salt, which is easily dissolved in water, but is practically not adsorbed
by soils. In such a case the distribution coefficient is zero.
Analytical solution of the general problem
19.4
We now return to the general problem, defined by the equations (19.3), (19.4) and
(19.5). After elimination of the adsorption rate A the first two equations can be
rewritten in dimensionless form as
P- q
ap
- - (R-1)-,
= - vax
-ap
ta
at
aq
p-q
ta '
at
(19.16)
(19.17)
c2 /(kc0 ), with c0 being some reference value for the conc!/c0 , q

where p
centrations, ta is the adsorption time defined by (19.5), and R is the retardation
factor, defined as
1-n
R=1+--k.
n
(19.18)
341
In dimensionless form the boundary condition (19.6) is

x = 0:
p = sin(wt),
(19.19)
where w is the period of the sinusoidal fluctuation.

The periodic solution of the problem, which is obtained after a large number
of fluctuations, can be obtained using complex variables. For this purpose the
solutions are written as
p = Im[P(x) exp(iwt)],
(19.20)
q = Im[Q(x) exp(iwt)],
(19.21)
and these expressions are substituted into the differential equations (19.16) and
(19.17). The boundary condition for the function P(x) now is simply
x=O:
P=l.
(19.22)
After some elementary mathematics the final results are

wxb .
xa
p = exp( - - ) sm[w(t-- )],
v
v
(19.23)
wxb .
xa
q =cos( a) exp( - - ) sm[w(t--)- a],
v
v
(19.24)
where
a
R + (wta) 2
1 + (wta) 2 '
-----='--~
(19.25)
wta
b = (R- 1) 1 + (wta)2'
(19.26)
a= arctan(wta)
(19.27)
Thus the solutions appear to be damped sinusoidal waves, with the propagation
speed and the damping ratio being determined by the parameters Rand wta. The
coefficient a defines the velocity of propagation of the wave in the fluid and in the
solids, the coefficient b defines the damping rate, and the coefficient a represents a
phase shift. In order to verify the properties of the solution it may be interesting
to consider a number of special cases in some detail.
19.4.1
No ADSORPTION
The case of zero adsorption can be described by assuming that the adsorption time
ta is infinitely large, or that there is no retardation (R = 1). In both these cases
one obtains a = 1 and b = 0. This means that in this case there is no damping,
and the wave is propagated at a velocity v. This is in agreement with the original
differential equation (19.1) in the absence of adsorption.
This same special case occurs when the frequency w of the boundary fluctuations is very high, so that wta is very large. Then there is no time for adsorption
to take place.
CHAPTER 19
342
19.4.2
EQUILIBRIUM ADSORPTION
The case of equilibrium adsorption can be described by assuming that the adsorption time ta is very small, or that the frequency w of the boundary fluctuation is
very small. Then one obtains a = R and b = 0. Again there is no damping, but
the wave is propagated at a reduced speed, vf R. This is in agreement with the
classical result of considerations of equilibrium adsorption. It explains why the
coefficient R is called the retardation factor.
The solution for this special case can be obtained directly from the basic equations (19.3) and (19.4) by eliminating the adsorption rate A*, and then replacing
c 2 by kc 1 .
19.4.3
MAXIMUM DAMPING
In the general case the damping is determined by the factor b,
wta
b=(R-1 1 (
+ wta p
(19.28)
This factor depends upon the parameters R and wta. Clearly it is very large
when the retardation factor is very large, which is the case if large amounts of the
pollutant are adsorbed by the solids. For a given value of the retardation factor
the damping ratio still depends upon the frequency parameter wta. The maximum
value of b occurs when wta = 1. Then b = ~(R- 1) and a= ~(R + 1).
Numerical solution
19.5
Again we return to the general problem, in the dimensionless form of equations

(19.16) and (19.17),
{}p
= -v {}p
{}q
p- q
8t
8t
8x
(R- 1) p- q,
ta
T'
(19.29)
(19.30)
where p = cl/co, q = c2 /(kc0 ), with c0 being some reference value for the concentrations, ta is the adsorption time defined by (19.5), and R is the retardation
factor, defined as
1-n
R=1+--k.
n
(19.31)
The boundary condition (19.19) is

x=O:
p=sin(wt),
(19.32)
where w is the period of the sinusoidal fluctuation.

A numerical solution of these equations can be obtained by using finite difference approximations of the partial derivatives. The resulting equations are

1
P; = p; q;I
vilt
(R-1)/lt
Llx (p;- Pi-dta
(p; - q;),
flt (Pi = q; + t:;
q; ) ,
343
(19.33)
(19.34)
where p~ and q: denote the values of p and q at the point number i after a time
step of magnitude Llt. For the approximation of the spatial derivative 8pf8x a
backward finite difference has been used, (p;- p;_l)filx.
A program that performs the calculations, in Turbo Pascal, is reproduced below, as the program SORPTION.
program sorption;
uses crt,graph;
const
max=200;
var
aa,bb,period,alpha,courant,retard,tsorp:real;steps:integer;
p,q,pa,pb,qb:array[O .. max] of real;
begin
graphdriver:=detect;initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode, 11 ) ;
begin
vriteln( 1 Error in graphics :',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
vriteln;vriteln( 1 Program interrupted.');halt(l);
end;
setcolor(7);setbkcolor(O);setlinestyle(O,O,l);setfillstyle(11,7);
maxx:=getmaxx;maxy:=getmaxy;closegraph;
end;
procedure shov;
var
x,xl,x2,x3,y,yl,y2,y3,xa,xb,ya,yb,i:integer;sx,sy:real;cc:char;
begin
initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode, 11 ) ;
xl:=round(O.l~axx);x3:=maxx-xl;x2:=round(0.5~x);
yl:=round(0.9~axy);y3:=maxy-yl;y2:=round(0.5~y);
line(xl,y2,x3,y2);line(x2,yl,x2,y3);
line(x2,yl,x2-2,y1-8);line(x2,yl,x2+2,y1-8);
outtextxy(10,1, 1 1umerical solution');
outtextxy(x3-2,y2+8, 1 x 1 );outtextxy(x2+6,y1-4, 1 c 1 ) ;
sx:=0.8~axx/max;sy:=0.2~axy;
for i:=l to max do

begin
xa:=xl+round(sx(i-l));xb:=xl+round(sxi);
ya:=y2+round(syp[i-1]);yb:=y2+round(syp[i]);
line(xa,ya,xb,yb);
end;
cc:=readkey;cleardevice;
line(xl,y2,x3,y2);line(x2,yl,x2,y3);
line(x2,yl,x2-2,y1-8);line(x2,yl,x2+2,y1-8);
344
CHAPTER 19
outtextry(10,1,'Analytical solution');
outtextry(x3-2,y2+8,'x');outtextry(x2+6,y1-4,'c');
for i:=1 to max do
begin
xa:=x1+round(sx(i-1));xb:=x1+round(sxi);
ya:=y2+round(sypa[i-1]);yb:=y2+round(sypa[i]);
line(xa,ya,xb,yb);
end;
cc:=readkey;closegraph;
end;
procedure reverse(st:string);
begin
textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(st);textbackground(O);textcolor(7);
end;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);reverse(' SORPTIOI ');vriteln;vriteln;
end;
procedure next;
var
a:char;
begin
end;
procedure input;
var
pi,v,st,dt,dtmax,cr:real;
begin
title;reverse(' IIPUT ');vriteln;vriteln;
vrite('Retardation factor (R >= 1.0) ........ ');readln(retard);vriteln;
if retard<1.0 then retard:=1.0;
vrite('Adsorption time (s) .................. ');readln(tsorp);vriteln;
vrite('Period of boundary fluctuation (s) ... ');readln(period);vriteln;
dtmax:=tsorp;if (retard>1.0) then dt:=2tsorp/(retard-1.0);
if (dt<dtmax) then dtmax:=dt;
vriteln('Stability limit for time step ........ ',dtmax:12:3);vriteln;
vrite('Time step (s) ........................ ');readln(dt);vriteln;
cr:=1.0-0.S(retard-1.0)dt/tsorp;
vriteln('Suggestion for Courant number ........ ',cr:5:3);vriteln;
vrite('Courant number ....................... ');readln(courant);vriteln;
pi:=3.1415926;v:=2pitsorp/period;alpha:=dt/period;steps:=2*max;
bb:=(retard-1.0)v/(1+vv);aa:=(retard+vv)/(1+vv);
end;
procedure initial;
var
i:integer;
begin
for i:=O to max do
begin
p[i] :=O.O;q[i] :=O.O;pa[i] :=0.0;
end;
end;
procedure run;
var
345
i,j,xa,ya:integer;pi,c1,c2,ee:r eal;
begin
reverse(' CALCULATIOIS );vriteln;vriteln;
xa:=vherex;ya:=vherey;pi:=3.141 5926;
c2:=alphaperiod/tsorp;c1:=c2 (retard-1.0);
for j:=1 to steps do
begin
gotoxy(xa,ya);vriteln('Step ............................... .. ',j);
pb[O] :=cos(2pi*alphaj);qb[O] :=0.0;
for i:=1 to max do
begin
pb[i] : =p[i]-couranU(p[i] -p[i-1] )-(p[i] -q[i] )ct;
qb[i] :=q[i]+(p[i]-q[i])c2;
end;
for i:=O to max do
begin
p[i]:=pb[i];q[i]:=qb[i];
end;
end;
for i:=O to max do
begin
ee:=2pialphaibb/courant;if (ee>20) then pa[i] :=0.0 else
pa[i] :=exp(-ee)cos(2pialpha(step s-iaa/courant));
end;
shov;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
initial;
run;
title;
end.
Program SORPTION.
The program uses interactive input, and produces the results of the calculations in
graphical form on the screen. First the numerical solution is shown, and this may
then be compared with the analytical solution, which is shown on the screen later.
The parameter v !:::.t/ !:::.xis denoted as the Courant number in the program. In the
numerical analysis of wave propagation problems it is usually suggested that the
value of this parameter is taken somewhat smaller than 1.
The program solves the problem by considering it as an initial value problem,
starting with zero values. Thus the periodic solution can only be approached after
a large number of time steps. In the program this is done by defining the number
of time steps as twice the number of spatial steps, which is set, arbitrarily at 200.
If desired, the user may modify these values to larger values.
The numerical procedures used in the present numerical model, using a forward
finite difference for the time derivative, may be unstable if the time step is too
large. It can be shown that for stability of the procedures it is required that
t::.t
-<
ta
'
(19.35)
346
CHAPTER 19
{19.36)
The first stability criterion simply expresses that the time step must be smaller
than the adsorption time ta. The second stability criterion is used in the program
to print a suggestion for the value for the Courant number to be used. The user
is free to follow the suggestion or to enter a larger number. In the latter case the
program may stop by a numerical error, or it may show unrealistic results. For
large values of the retardation factor the Courant number obtained from {19.36)
might be negative, which is impossible. To prevent this a third criterion may be
added, namely
D.t
{19.37)
t;< R-1'
which will ensure that the value obtained from {19.36) is positive. The criteria
{19.35) and {19.37) are included in the program, and used to print the stability
p
: Analytical solution
: Numerical solution
-1
Figure 19.2. Example of adsorption problem.
limit for the time step. The user must take care that the time step is taken smaller
than this limit. Of course the time step must also be small compared to the period
of the fluctuation at the boundary.
The user may verify that for various combinations of the input parameters the
computer program gives satisfactory results, provided that the stability criteria are
met. An example is shown in figure 19.2. For this example the retardation factor
is R = 2, the adsorption time is ta = 20, the period of the boundary fluctuation is
T = 10, the time step is D.t = 0.5, and the Courant number is vD.tf D.x = 0.988,
as the program suggests. The fully drawn line gives the analytical solution, and
347
the dotted line represents the numerical solution. The agreement appears to be
good.
19.6
Modeling two-dimensional dispersion
There are various methods to model dispersion. In a few cases it is possible to

describe the dispersion process by analytical formulas, but this is possible only
if the geometry of the flow problem is very simple (uniform or radial flow), and
the medium is homogeneous. Nevertheless, such analytical solutions can be very
helpful to estimate the influence of dispersion on the transport process.
Another class of solutions is by constructing a fully numerical model, on the
basis of the finite difference or the finite element method. Great care must then
be taken to avoid numerical dispersion. The approximation of the continuous
concentration distribution by a set of discrete values, defined only in the grid points
of a network, leads to a spreading effect with the mesh size as its characteristic
length. As the mesh size is usually much larger than the characteristic lengths in
the porous medium (the size of particles or of lumps of particles) this means that
the dispersion effect is greatly overestimated (Bear & Verruijt, 1987).
A third type of method is the semi-analytical method of tracing a cloud of
particles in a flow model, with the dispersion effect being represented by a random
walk process. Because each particle is traced at its own flow path, there is no
numerical dispersion. A numerical model for this method is presented below.
19.6.1
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
In this section some elementary solutions of the convective-dispersive transport

equation will be presented, mainly for the purpose of future reference. All these
solutions apply to the simplest case of uniform flow, in the :~:-direction, with a
point source of pollutant. In all examples there is supposed to be no decay of the
pollutant. Linear adsorption is taken into account through a retardation factor R.
An important basic case is that of a source at the origin of the coordinate
system. If the total mass of tracer injected instantaneously, at time t = 0, IS
denoted by M, the solution is
c=
M
exp{- (x- vtf R)2 - __]_
..j47raLvt..j47raTvt..j47raTvt
4aLvt
4aTvt
- ~}. (19.38)
4aTvt
This function has its maximum at the point x = vt/ R, y = 0, z = 0, and is

bell-shaped in all directions, exactly like the probability density of a Gaussian
distribution function. It can be shown by integration over the entire space that the
total mass at all times is equal to M. The longitudinal and transverse dispersion
coefficients have been expressed as aLv and aTv, respectively.
For the validation of numerical models it is often useful to consider also the
two-dimensional equivalent of the point source problem. If there is no transport
in z-direction the solution in the x, y-plane is
348
CHAPTER 19
(19.39)
where H is the thickness of the layer.
A further simplification arises by considering transport in one direction only.
This is the case of a column of small cross section. For the case of a point source
at x = 0 the solution now is
(19.40)
where A is the area of the column. It may be noted that this solution applies to
the one-dimensional form of the transport equation. i.e.
8c
8c
R 8t =- v ax
82c
+ aLV 8x2.
(19.41)
The quantity aL v can also be written as DL, the coefficient of longitudinal dispersion.
19.6.2
RANDOM WALK SIMULATION
Transport by dispersion or diffusion can be simulated by a random walk process.

In the one-dimensional case this process can be described by assuming that it
consists of a succession of small steps, where in each time step the magnitude ( x)
of the step is in the range a- b < X < a+ b, with a fixed probability distribution,
say a uniform distribution p(x) in that interval,
0,
if x < a- b,
p(x)= { 1/2b, ifa-b<x<a+b,
0,
if x >a+ b.
(19.42)
The stochastic process of successive random walks can best be described in terms of
the first and second order moments of the distribution function, or by the average
value m and the standard deviation u,
m
= E(x) =
j xp(x)dx =a,
(19.43)
(19.44)
This means that in each step the average distance covered is a, and the standard
deviation, which is a measure for the spreading from the average, is u = bf-/3.
In the theory of stochastic processes (Feller, 1966) it is shown, in the central
limit theorem, that after a large number (N) of time steps the probability of
having traveled a certain distance is given by the Gaussian or normal distribution
function,
P(x) =
1
{
V2iS2
exp -
(x- M)2}
282
(19.45)
349
where M is the average distance,

M=Nm=Na,
(19.46)
and S is the standard deviation,

S2 = Nu2 = Nb2
3"
(19.47)
It is not surprising that the average distance after N steps is the sum of the
averages of the individual steps. In order to prove that the standard deviation
of the complete process increases with the square root of the number of steps,
as indicated by eq. (19.47), requires a careful study of the theory of stochastic
processes.
Comparing the outcome of the random walk process, eq. (19.45), with the
solution of the one-dimensional advection-dispersion process, eq. (19.40), shows
that the two solutions are of the same form, and that they are identical when
M = vt/R,
(19.48)
and
(19.49)
This means that the adsorption-dispersion process can be simulated by a random
walk process, taking the average in each time step as
a= vD.tfR,
(19.50)
where D.t is the magnitude of an individual time step. The agreement of the
standard deviations can be achieved by taking
b2
2aLvt
= ~ = 2aLvD.t,
(19.51)
With (19.50) this can also be written as

b = J6aLaR.
(19.52)
Thus the simulation process consists of taking a large number of time steps, in
each of which the magnitude of the step taken by a pollution particle consists
of a deterministic part a and a random part varying between -b and +b. In a
simulation model the random part can be calculated by using a random function
generator.
19.6.3
NUMERICAL MODEL
A numerical model for the transport by (retarded) advection and dispersion can
be constructed on the basis of a model for advective transport by particle tracking.
All that is needed is to let the pollution particles undergo a random step component
in each deterministic step. Such a model is presented below, in the program DISP.
CHAPTER19
350
program disp;
uses crt,graph;
const
ww=20;=100;pp=1000;
vu
xasp,yasp:word;
xw,yw,qw:array[1o owv] o real;
x,y:array[1o o] o real;s:array[1o o] o integer;
xp,yp:uray[1oopp] o real;sp:array[1oopp] o integer;
nw,nf,np:integer;step,pi,por,hh,dx,dy,vxa,rm,al,at,xpa,ypa:real;
data:text;
procedure title;
begin
clrscr;gotoxy(37,1);textbackground(7);textcolor(O);vrite(' DISP ');
end;
begin
i (errorcode<>grok) then
begin
writeln('Error in graphics :',grapherrormsg(errorcode));
writeln;vriteln('Program interruptedo');halt(1);
end;
setcolor(7);setbkcolor(O);setlinestyle(0,0,1);
setillstyle(11,7);maxx:=getmaxx;maxy:=getmaxy;
getaspectratio(xasp,yasp);closegraph;
end;
procedure input;
var
begin
title;pi:=3o1415926;
vriteln('This is a program or the analysis o 2-D transport by');
writeln('advection and dispersiono');writeln;
write('lame o input datafile
o o o o ');readln(name);
assign(data,nmae);reset(data);readln(data,nw,nf,np);
readln(data,dx,dy,vxa,step,por,hh,rm,al,at);
or i:=1 to nv do readln(data,xv[i],yw[i],qw[i]);
or j:=1 to nf do
begin
readln(data,x[j],y[j]);s[j] :=1;
end;
readln(data,xpa,ypa);
or k:=1 to np do
begin
xp[k] :=xpa;yp[k] :=ypa;sp[k] :=1;
00
00
00
00
end;
close(data);title;
end;
procedure velocities(x,y:real;var vx,vy:real);
vu
i,k,kk,ll:integer;a,b,c,d,ea,eb,ch,sh,cb,sb,cc,sc:real;
begin

vx:=vxa;vy:=O;for i:=l to nv do
begin
d:=qv[i]/(4hhpordy);
a:=pi(x-xv[i])/dy;b:=pi(y-yv[i])/dy;c:=pi(y+yv[i])/dy;
ea:=exp(a);eb:=1/ea;ch:=(ea+eb)/2;sh:=(ea-eb)/2;
cb:=cos(b);sb:=sin(b);cc:=cos(c);sc:=sin(c);
vx:=vx+d(sh/(ch-cb)+sh/(ch-cc));
vy:=vy+d(sb/(ch-cb)+sc/(ch-cc));
end;
end;
procedure shov;
var
xa,ya,r,sx,sy,x1,y1,x2,y2,vx,vy,aa,bb,rr,da,db:real;
i,j,kk,ia,ib,ja,jb,jp:integer;a:char;
begin
clrscr;
sx:=maxx/dx;sy:=(yasp/xasp)~axy/dy;
if sy<sx then sx:=sy;sy:=xaspsx/yasp;

initgraph(graphdriver,graphmode,'');
kk:=O;vhile (kk=O) do
begin
jp:=O;for i:=l to nf do if (sf[i]>O) then
begin
jp:=jp+l;
xl:=xf[i];yl:=yf[i];velocities(xl,yl,vx,vy);
x2:=x1+vxstep/2;y2:=y1+vystep/2;ve1ocities(x2,y2,vx,vy);
x2:=x1+vxstep;y2:=y1+vystep;
for j:=l to nv do
begin
xa:=x1-xv[j];ya:=y1-yv[j];r:=sqrt(xaxa+yaya);
if (r<rm) then
begin
x2:=xv[j];y2:=yv[j];sf[i]:=-1;
end;
end;
ia:=round(sxx1);ib:=round(sxx2);
ja:=maxy-round(syyl);jb:=maxy-round(syy2);
line(ia,ja,ib,jb);xf[i] :=x2;yf[i]:=y2;
i f ((x2<0) or (x2>dx)) then sf[i] :=-1;
end;
if ((jp=O) or (keypressed)) then kk:=l;

end;
randamize;kk:=O;vhile (kk=O) do
begin
for i:=l to np do if (sp[i]>O) then
begin
xl:=xp[i];yl:=yp[i];velocities(xl,yl,vx,vy);
x2:=x1+vxstep/2;y2:=y1+vystep/2;ve1ocities(x2,y2,vx,vy);
x2:=x1+vxstep;y2:=y1+vystep;
aa:=x2-x1;bb:=y2-y1;rr:=sqrt(aaaa+bbbb);
da:=2sqrt(6rra1)(random-0.5);
db:=2sqrt(6rrat)(random-0.5);
x2:=x2+daaa/rr-dbbb/rr;y2:=y2+dabb/rr+dbaa/rr;
for j:=l to nv do
begin
xa:=x1-xv[j];ya:=y1-yv[j];r:=sqrt(xaxa+yaya);
351
352
CHAPTER 19
if (r<rm) then
begin
x2:=xv[j];y2:=yv[j];sp[i]:=-1;
end;
end;
ia:=round(sxxl);ib:=round(sxx2);
ja:=maxy-round(syyl);jb:=maxy-round(syy2);
line(ib,jb,ib,jb);xp[i]:=x2;yp[i] :=y2;
if ((x2<0) or (x2>dx)) then sp[i] :=-1;
end;
if (keypressed) then kk:=l;
end;
end;
begin
graphinitialize;
input;
shov;
end.
Program DISP.
The program applies to the case of two-dimensional groundwater flow in a strip of

land, between two impermeable boundaries, under the influence of a uniform flow
and a number of wells. This flow problem is the same as the one considered in
chapter 18 in the program FLUX. Retardation is neglected, i.e. it is assumed that
R 1. A number of stream lines is traced by the program, considering advective
transport only. In addition to these stream lines the transport of a number of
particles is traced, taking into account both advection and dispersion. All these
particles start at the same point, the source of the pollution. The advective transport of the particles is modeled by a deterministic step in the direction of flow.
The random walk part of the process, which simulates the dispersive transport, is
carried out by letting each particle also make a random step in the direction of
flow, determined by the longitudinal dispersivity, and another random step in the
direction perpendicular to the flow, determined by the transverse dispersivity.
The input parameters of the program are listed in table 19.1. They are read
from a datafile, which must be prepared by the user. The physical dimensions of
the parameters may be taken from any consistent set of units, for instance meter
(m) for length and day (d) fot time.
As an example the case of a region of 600 m length, 300 m width arid 10 m
thickness is considered. The groundwater flow is determined by a uniform flow of
1 m/ d, and a well of discharge 800 m 3 / d in the point with coordinates x = 450 m,
y = 180m. At the point x = 10m, y = 120m a number of particles is injected,
to simulate a pollution source. The porosity of the material is assumed to be 0.40,
the longitudinal dispersivity is 0.50 m, and the transverse dispersivity is 0.10 m.
The flow lines of the groundwater and the path lines of the particles are shown in
figure 19.3. It appears that in this case all the polluted groundwater is captured
by the well.
nw
nf
np
dx
dy
vxa
step
por
hh
rm
al
at
xw[i]
yw[i]
qw[i]
xf[j)
yf[j]
xpa
ypa
Number of wells
Number of stream lines
Number of particles
Dimension of field in x-direction
Dimension of field in y-direction
Velocity at infinity
Step size
Porosity
Thickness of aquifer
Capture radius of wells
Longitudinal dispersivity
Transverse dispersivity
x-coordinate of well i
y-coordinate of well i
Discharge of well i
x-coordinate of starting point of stream line j
y-coordinate of starting point of stream line j
x-coordinate of starting point of pollution
y-coordinate of starting point of pollution
Table 19.1. Input parameters program DISP.
Figure 19.3. Example with dispersive transport of pollution.
353
CHAPTER 19
354
Dispersion caused by adsorption
19.7
In this section it will be shown that linear adsorption may lead to a spreading of
pollutants in a similar way as usually denoted as dispersion. This effect was first
described by Raats (1981).
The basic equations are, see (19.16) and (19.17),
p- q
ap
ap
at =-vax -(R- 1 )~,
aq
at
(19.53)
p- q
ta
(19.54)
Differentiation of eq. (19.53) with respect tot gives
a 2p
taat 2
a 2p
= -vtaaxat
ap
aq
-(R- 1) at +(R- 1) at
(19.55)
With (19.54) the term aqjat can be eliminated. The result is
p- q
ap
a 2p
a 2p
ta at2 = -vta axat - (R- 1) at + (R- 1) ~
(19.56)
The last term in this equation can be eliminated by using the original equation
(19.53). After some rearrangement of terms the result can be written as
(19.57)
This is an equation in a single variable, the dimensionless concentration in the
fluid (p).
It can be expected that retarded convection is the main transport process, as
described by the first term in the right hand side of eq. (19.57),
ap
at
R-~
ap
ax
-v-.
(19.58)
Differentiation of this equation with respect to t and x enables to express the

other two terms in the basic equation (19.57) in terms of a 2pj ax 2. Thus an
approximation of the differential equation is
(19.59)
where
(19.60)
Equation (19.59) is of the form of the usual convection-dispersion equation. If the
dispersion coefficient is written as usual in the form of the product of the fluid
velocity v and a dispersivity aL, which has the dimension of a length,
355
(19.61)
it now follows that in this case
aL
R-1
= vta-w
(19.62)
When the adsorption time ta is small, as is the case, for instance, in the case
of transport of heat, the resulting dispersivity is very small, and the additional
dispersion effect may be disregarded. When the adsorption time is not small,
however, so that the length vta becomes large compared to the grain size of the
porous material, this dispersion effect may be of considerable importance. It may
be noted that in this form of dispersion the dispersivity is proportional to the
square of the velocity, see eq. (19.60).
Exercises
19.1 Equation (19.18) expresses the retardation factor R in terms of two thicknesses.
A porous medium is often characterized by the porosity n, defined as the volume of pores
per unit total volume. What is the relation between R and n?
19.2 In a laboratory the process of heat transfer in a porous medium is studied by
means of a column of 2 m length, filled with a porous medium in the form of gravel
particles of diameter 20 mm. The porosity of the porous medium is 40 %. Through the
porous medium a fluid is moving at a uniform velocity of 1 mm/s. The diffusivity of the
particle material is K. = 0.4 x 10- 4 m 2 fs. At the entrance of the column the temperature
of the fluid is varying sinusoidally with a period of 1000 s, and an amplitude of 10C.
Determine the amplitude of the temperature fluctuations at the end of the column, in c.
19.3 What will be the answer if the column of the previous problem is filled with a
sandy material, having the same properties as the gravel, but with an average diameter
of the particles of 2 mm ?
19.4
Pi-I
Derive the stability criteria (19.35) and {19.36) by assuming errors p;
=-e.
=e
and
19.5 In the program SORPTION a backward finite difference is used to approximate

the spatial derivative 8pf8x. Investigate the possibility to use a forward or central finite
difference instead.
19.6 Modify the program SORPTION so that it will calculate the response due to a
unit step function at the boundary, and will give output both of the concentration in the
fluid and in the solid.
19.7 Modify the program DISP so that it will also take into account retardation caused
by equilibrium adsorption.
19.8 Run the program DISP with larger values for the dispersivities, and demonstrate
that this may cause that not all pollution is captured by the well.
APPENDIX A
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS
In this appendix a brief review is given of some integral transform methods. These
are techniques used to reduce a differential equation to an algebraic equation.
The main transforms are the Laplace transform, the Fourier transform and the
Hankel transform. These will be presented here, together with some of their main
properties. Derivations of the theorems will be given in condensed form, or not
at all. Complete derivations are given by Sneddon (1951) and Churchill (1972).
Extensive tables of transforms have been published by the staff of the Bateman
project (Bateman, 1954).
A.l
Laplace transforms
The Laplace transform is particularly useful for problems in which the variables
are defined in a semi-infinite domain, say for 0 < t < oo, where t may, for instance,
be the time, and t = 0 indicates the initial value of time. The Laplace transform
of a function F(t) is defined as
f(s) =
00
(A.1)
F(t) exp( -st) dt,
where s is a parameter, which is assumed to be sufficiently large for the integral

to exist. By the integration over the time domain, for various values of s, the
function F(t) is transformed into a function f(s). For various functions the Laplace
transform can be calculated, sometimes very easily, sometimes with considerable
effort. Tables of such transforms are widely available (Churchill, 1972; Bateman,
1954). A short table is given in table A.l. The integrals in this table can all be
evaluated with little effort.
The fundamental property of the Laplace transform appears when considering
the transform of the time derivative. Using partial integration this is found to be
oo
dF(t)
- - exp(-st)dt = sf(s)- F(O).
dt
(A.2)
Thus differentiation with respect to time is transformed into multiplication by s,

apart from the subtraction of the initial value F(O).
EXAMPLE
In order to illustrate the application of the Laplace transform technique let us

consider the differential equation
356
357
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS
F(t)
f(s) =
tn
exp(at)
sin( at)
cos( at)
No.
Jt F(t) exp(-st)dt
1
s
1
s2
n!
8 n+l
1
s-a
-a
s2 + a2
s
s2
+ a2
Table A.l. Some Laplace transforms.
dF(t)
dt
2F
= 0,
(A.3)
with the initial condition F(O) = 5. Using the property (A.2) the differential
equation (A.3) is transformed into the algebraic equation
(s+2)/-5=0,
(A.4)
the solution of which is

5
!=-.
s+2
(A.5)
Inverse transformation now gives, using transform no. 3 from table A.1,
F = 5 exp( -2t).
(A.6)
Substitution into the original differential equation (A.3) will show that this is
indeed the correct solution, satisfying the given initial condition.
This example shows that the solution of the problem can be performed in
a straightforward way. The main problem is the inverse transformation of the
solution (A.5), which depends upon the availability of a sufficiently wide range of
Laplace transforms. If the inverse transformation can not be found in a table of
transforms it may be possible to use the general inverse transformation theorem
(Churchill, 1972), but this requires considerable mathematical skill.
358
APPENDIX A
Heaviside's expansion theorem

A powerful inversion method is provided by the expansion theorem developed by
Heaviside, one of the pioneers of the Laplace transform method. This applies to
functions that can be written as a quotient of two polynomials,
!( ) = p(s)
(A.7)
q(s)'
where q(s) must be a polynomial of higher order than p(s). It is assumed that the
function q(s) possesses single zeroes only, so that it may be written as
q(s)
= (s- sl)(s- s2) (s- sn)
(A.8)
One may now write
f(s)
p(s)
an
= -()
=
--+
--++
-.
q
St
S2
a1
S -
a2
S -
S -
(A.9)
Sn
The coefficient a; can be determined by multiplication of both sides of eq. (A.9)

by (s- s;), and then passing into the limit s - s;. This gives
1.
a;= ,_,;
tm
( s - s;) p( s)
.
q( s )
(A.lO)
Because q(s;) = 0 the limit may be evaluated using L'Hopital's rule, giving
a;
p(s;)
= --.
q'(si)
(A.ll)
Inverse transformation of the expression (A.9) now gives, using formula no. 4 from
table A.l,
~ p(s;)
F(t) = L...J '(s) exp(s;t).

i=l
(A.l2)
This is Heaviside's expansion. It gives the inverse transform of the function (A.7).
It has been derived here for the case of the quotient of two polynomials, but it
can be used equally well for more general cases of the quotient of two functions,
provided that the denominator is of higher order than the numerator, and that
the denominator has zeroes of the first order only.
A.2
Fourier transforms
For certain partial differential equations the Fourier transform method can be used
to derive solutions. These include problems of potential flow, and elasticity problems, especially in the case of problems for infinite regions, semi-infinite regions, or
infinite strips. The main principles of the method will be presented in this section.
The main property of the Fourier transform can most easily be derived by
first considering a Fourier series expansion. For this purpose let there be given a
function g( 8), which is periodic with a period 211", such that g( 8 + 211") = g( 8). This
function can be written as
359
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS
g(O) = 2Ao +
L {Ak cos(kO) + Bk sin(kO)},

00
(A.13)
k=l
where
Ak
= -7r11+.,..
g(t) cos(kt) dt,
_.,..
(A.14)
Bk
= ;11+.,..
_.,. g(t) sin(kt) dt,
(A.15)
and
These formulas can be derived by multiplication of eq. (A.13) by cos(jO) or sin(jO),

and then integrating the result from (} = -1r to (} = +1r. It will then appear that
from the infinite series only one term is unequal to zero, namely for k = j. This
leads to eqs. (A.14) and (A.15).
For a function with period 21rl the Fourier expansion can be obtained from
(A.13) by replacing(} with x/1, t by t/1 and then renaming g(x/1) as f(x). The
result is
1
f(x) = 2Ao +
L {Ak cos(kx/1) + Bk sin(kx/1)},

00
(A.16)
k=l
where now
= l11+'11'1 f(t)
cos(kt/1) dt,
(A.17)
11+71'1
Bk = - 1
f(t) sin(kt/1) dt.
7r
-71'1
(A.18)
Ak
7r
-'11'1
and
EXAMPLE
As an example consider the block function defined by
!( ) _ { 0, if
x 1, if
lxl > 7rl/2,

lxl < 7rl/2.
(A.19)
For this case the coefficients Ak and Bk can easily be calculated, using the expressions (A.17) and (A.I8). The factors Bk are all zero, which is a consequence of
the fact that the function f(x) is even, f(-x) = f(x). The factors Ak are equal
to zero when k is even, and the uneven terms are proportional to I/k. The series
(A.I6) finally can be written as
I
2{
x
I
3x
f(x) = 2" +; cos( l)- cos( T)
5x
1
( 7x )
}
+ S1 cos( T)7 cos T + ....
(A.20)
360
APPENDIX A
/[\
f(x)
2 ::::
~
~
1
1
~
~
~
~
II I ~
f..- ......... ~- ... ....
........ -~ ... Jro....-+--1114
.................. :.................. : .................. :....................................
OL-~~-=--~--~=--~---=
~~~------~--~
11"1
0
1
2
3
4
5,..
Figure A.l. Fourier series, 40 terms.
The first term of this series represents the average value of the function, the second
term causes the main fluctuation, and the remaining terms together modify this
first sinusoidal fluctuation into the block function.
Figure A.1 shows the approximation of the series (A.20) by its first 40 terms.
It appears that the approximation is reasonably good, except very close to the
discontinuities. The approximation becomes better, of course, when more terms
are taken into account.
FROM FOURIER SERIES TO FOURIER TRANSFORM
Substitution of (A.17) and (A.18) into (A.16) gives

1
f(x) = -2 I
7r
J+..-1 f(t) dt +
-..-1
00
{; f(t) 1rl
J+..-1
-..-I f(t) cos[k(t- x)f~ dt.
(A.21)
The interval can be made very large by writing 1/1 = aa. Then the formula
(A.21) becomes
aa J+..-/Aa
f(x) = f(t) dt +
-..-/A a
27r
oo
{; f(t)
If aa
a a !+..-/A a
-..-/Aa
f(t) cos[kaa(t- x)] dt.
(A.22)
0 this reduces to
11oo da J+oo f(t) cos[a(x- t)] dt.

-oo
f(x) = -
7r
(A.23)
361
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS
This can also be written as
l(x) =
where
{A(o:) cos(o:x) + B(o:) sin(o:x)} do:,
00
11
A(o:)
=;
B(o:)
=;
and
(A.24)
00
-oo l(t) cos(o:t) dt,
(A.25)
11
00
-oo l(t) sin(o:t) dt.
(A.26)
It can be seen from (A.25) that A(o:) is an even function, A(-o:) = A(o:), and
from (A.26) it can be seen that B(o:) is uneven, B(-o:)

G(o:) =A+ iB, it follows that
I:
G(o:) do:=
21
00
{
= -B(o:).
A(o:) cos(o:x) + B(o:) sin(o:x)} do:,
Therefore, if
(A.27)
and thus eq. (A.24) may also be written as
l(x) =
where
G(o:)
11
2 -oo G(o:) exp(-io:x)do:,

00
11
=;
00
-oo l(t) exp(io:t)dt,
(A.28)
(A.29)
Finally, by writing F(o:) = ~G(o:) the factor ~can be eliminated from the expression (A.28),
l(x)
where now
=I:
F(o:) exp(-io:x)do:,
00
F(o:) = 217r -oo l(t) exp(io:t) dt,
(A.30)
(A.31)
This is the basic formula of the Fourier transform method. The function F(o:) is
called the Fourier transform of l(x). It may be noted that the asymmetry of the
formulas is often eliminated by writing a factor 1 / $ in each of the two integrals.
The main property of the Fourier transform appears when considering the
Fourier transform of the second derivative a?- I/ dx 2 . This is found to be, using
partial integration,
1 1oo -d
a?- I exp(io:t) dt = -o: 2 F(o:),
-27r
_ 00 t 2
(A.32)
APPENDIX A
362
if it is assumed that f(x) and its derivative dffdx tend towards zero for a---+ -oo
and a ---+ oo. Thus the second derivative is transformed. into multiplication by
-a2.
When it is known that the function f( x) is even, f( -x)
f(x) =
where now
1
21
00
Fe( a)=7r
= f( x), one may write
Fc(a) cos(ax)da,
(A.33)
f(t) cos( at) dt.
(A.34)
00
The function Fe( a) is called the Fourier cosine-transform of f(x).

For uneven functions, f( -x) =- f(x), the Fourier sine-transform may be used,
1
= -21
f(x) =
where
F8 (a)
00
7r
(A.35)
F.(a) sin( ax) da,
00
(A.36)
f(t) sin( at) dt.
Both for the Fourier cosine transform and for the Fourier sine transform various examples are given in the tables published by Churchill (1972) and Bateman
(1954).
EXAMPLE
As an example consider the problem of potential flow in a half plane y > 0, see
figure A.2. The differential equation is
:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::-:~X
--~:~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::r.::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~:::~...........
.....................
..............
............. ...............................................
. .. . ..................................
. ... .... ..
.. ..
....
. ..............
..
.. ..
.... ..
.. ..... ..
... ....
.......
..
.....
. ..... ..
. ..... .........
. ..... .........
... .... ... ....
........
.. ..
... ..... .............
. ...
..
..............
....
.....
..
..
.
.
.
. .................
...........
.... .........
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
..
.
..
..
..
..
.
........
.... ..
.. ..
.. ..
..
.. ..
..
.. ..
.. ... ....
..
.. ..
..
.. ..
...
.. ......................
..
..
.. ..
.. ..
.. .......................................
..
....
..
..
.... ..
.. ..
.... ..
..
..
....
..
....
.... ..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
..
..
..
..
. .... ... ... .. .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .................... .... .... ..
..
.. ..
..
..........................
..
.
..
..
.
..
..
..
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
..
..
.
..
.
.
..
..
.
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
..
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
... ... ... .... ... ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... ... .... ... ... ...........
.. ..
..
... .... ..
. ... .... ...... .................... ............ ..
..
.. ..
..
' ........... .
....
........
........
.. ........................................................... ..
....
.. ..... ......................
.. ..
..
..
. .....
.. ..
.......
.. ..
. ..
..
..
..
..
.. ..
..
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
................
....
..
. .... ... ... ....
..
. .............. .......... ... ... .. ..
.
.
.
.
....
. ...
..
..
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
. ... .... ... ... ........ .... ... ................. . . . . . ..
..
.........
. ... .... ...
..
.. ..
.... ..
..
.... .... ..... .......................... ...........
.
.
..
..
.
..
..
..
.
.
.
..
.
..
..
..
......
..
.......... . . . .. .... .. ..
. ... ... .... ... .... .................. ...............
... ...
..
....
.........................
. . . . .............. ...... .... ....
...... .......... ...................... ......................
.
..
..
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........ ..
.. ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... .. .... ... ... .... ...... ....... ...... .... .
. .. . . . .. .. . . .
. ... ....
...
. .... ..
......... ..
...... .... ... ... .... ...... .
.... ..
... ... ..
.. .... ..
.. ..
.......... ... .. .... ...... ................ .
........ ..
... ....
................ ................. .
y
Figure A.2. Half plane.
(A.37)
363
INTEGRAL TRANSFORMS
with the boundary condition

_ 0 .
y-
f _ { 0,
-
p,
if
if
lxl > a,
lxl < a.
(A.38)
Because the boundary condition (A.38) is symmetric with respect to the y-axis,
it can be expected that the solution will be even, and therefore the Fourier cosine
transform (A.34) may be used. The transformed problem is, using (A.32),
2
-a F
dF
+ dy 2 = 0.
(A.39)
The solution of this ordinary differential equation which vanishes at infinity is
F = A(a)exp(-ay).
(A.40)
From this it follows that the value at the surface y = 0 is

y
=0
: F
= A( a).
(A.41)
The transformed boundary condition is, with (A.38) and (A.34),

y = 0 : F = 2p sin( a a) .
7r
a
(A.42)
From eqs. (A.41) and (A.42) the integration factor A( a) can be determined,
A( a)= 2p sin(aa).
a
The final solution of the transformed problem is
7r
(A.43)
sin(aa)
(
)
F =2p
exp -ay.
(A.44)
7r
a
The solution of the original problem can now be obtained by the inverse transform,
(A.33),
sin(aa) cos( ax) exp ( -ay) d a.

(A.45)
a
Although this integral has been obtained as a Fourier integral, it can actually most
easily be found in a table of Laplace transforms, because of the function exp( -ay)
in the integral. In such tables the following integral may be found
f =2p
7r
00
00
sin(at)
a
- - exp( -st) dt =arctan(-).
t
s
(A.46)
Using this result, and some trigonometric relations to bring the integrand of (A.45)
into the correct form to apply (A.46), the final solution of the problem considered
here is found to be
f = ~ arctan(a + x) +~arctan( a-x).

7r
7r
(A.47)
It can easily be verified that this solution satisfies the differential equation (A.37)
and the boundary condition (A.38). Thus the expression (A.47) is indeed the
solution of the problem.
364
APPENDIX A
A.3
Hankel transforms
For problems with radial symmetry a useful solution method is provided by the
Hankel transform. This transform is defined by
F(~) =
00
f(r) r Jo(~r) dr.
(A.48)
The inverse transform is

(A.49)
For a derivation of this relation the reader is referred to the literature, see e.g.
Sneddon (1951).
The main property of the Hankel transform is that it transforms the operator
often appearing in radially symmetric problems into a simple multiplication. Thus
00
d2 f
1 df
.
{ -d
2 + --d } rJo(~r)dr =
r
r r
-e F(~).
(A.50)
This property can be derived by using partial integration, and noting that the
Bessel function w = J0 (~r) satisfies the differential equation
d2 w
1 dw
2
-d
2 +--d +~ w=O.
r
r r
(A.51)
Thus the combination d 2 f fdr 2 + (1/r) df fdr is transformed into multiplication of

the Hankel transform F(e) by
This means that a differential equation in
which this combination of derivatives appears may be transformed into an algebraic equation. In many cases this algebraic equation is relatively simple to solve,
but the problem then remains to find the inverse transform. For the inverse transformation tables of transforms may be consulted, but if the tables do not give the
inverse transform, it may be a formidable mathematical problem to derive it, as
an illustration of Timman's principle of conservation of misery.
-e.
APPENDIX B
SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
The development of a numerical model for the solution of an engineering problem

often leads to a set of linear algebraic equations. The solution of such a system of
equations is a standard problem in linear algebra. In many cases, especially when
using the finite difference method or the finite element method, the most effective
procedures to solve the system of linear equations use the particular structure of
the system resulting from the physical nature of the model. In order to provide
some basic theory for the various methods used in this book some of the methods
used are briefly presented in this appendix, together with elementary listings in
Turbo Pascal. Versions of the programs in BASIC have been given earlier by Bear
& Verruijt (1987). Comprehensive presentations of solution methods can be found
in textbooks on numerical analysis (for instance Ralston & Rabinowitz, 1978).
Listings of computer programs are given by Press et a/. (1986).
B.l
Reference problem
The solution methods will be presented on the basis of a simple example, see
figure B.l. The example concerns a linear system, consisting of 12 linear resis-
2--;
~~
t--
t--
Figure B.l. Reference problem.
tors, connecting 9 nodal points. Through the resistors a fluid (or electricity, or
365
366
APPENDIX B
heat) may flow, depending upon the potential difference between the two ends, by
equations of the form
I= F1- F2.
R
(B.1)
The system of equations is obtained by requiring that the total flow into each node
is zero. The system can be written as
n
L: I{i Fi = Qi,
(B.2)
i=l
where Qi is the volume of fluid supplied to the system at node i, and where n is
the number of nodes. It is assumed that for all nodes Qi = 0.
For a physical problem the system of equations must not only describe the
physical processes in the interior of the body, but must also take into account the
0. If all
boundary conditions. It is assumed that these are that F1 9 and F9
resistors in the network are equal, the solution of the problem then is
F2
= F4 = 4,
Fs
= Fs = 2.
It can easily be verified that now the total fluxes into each node are zero.
B.2
Gauss-Seidel iteration
A very simple method to solve the system of equations (B.2) in an iterative way
is to successively update all values Fi using the algorithm
n
Fi = Fi
+ R(Qi- L:PiiFi)/Pii
(B.3)
i=l
If R = 1 this means that the error in the i-th equation is calculated (the term
between parentheses), and then the value of Fi is updated such that the equation
is satisfied. The process must be executed for all variables, and then repeated
a number of times, until all errors are practically zero. Experience shows that
the number of iterations needed to obtain sufficient accuracy usually is of the
order of magnitude of the number of equations (n). By taking the value of the
overrelaxation factor R somewhat greater than 1 convergence is often considerably
faster. The value of this factor must be smaller than 2 (1 ~ R < 2). The method
has been found to converge reasonably fast if the main diagonal of the matrix is
dominant. This is the case for problems of potential flow, such as groundwater
flow problems.
In its standard form the Gauss-Seidel algorithm requires storage of a n X n
matrix, and about n 3 multiplications. In real physical problems it appears that
367
a large proportion of the matrix coefficients is zero, so that valuable computer

storage and time would be wasted to store zeros, and to execute multiplications
involving the number zero. This can be avoided by restructuring the matrix,
storing only the non-zero coefficients, using some sort of bookkeeping system to
keep track of their actual position in the original matrix. An effective method is to
define a pointer matrix, which indicates the position of the non-zero coefficients in
the system matrix. This matrix is given the dimensions n x 10, where the number
10 has been chosen in the expectation that the maximum number of non-zero
coefficients in any row of the system matrix will be less than 10. In many methods
from mathematical physics, in which the system matrix is composed on the basis
ofa finite number of discrete contributions in the neighborhood of each point only,
the maximum number of non-zero coefficients is indeed of the order of magnitude
of say 6 or 8. In the case of the reference problem shown in figure B.1 the pointer
matrix is as follows.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2
1
2
1
2
3
4
7
6
4
3
6
5
4
5
8
5
8
5
0
0
0
0
0
7
6
9
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
4
3
4
5
4
3
4
3
The first row of this pointer matrix indicates that the only nodes that are connected
to point 1 are nodes 2 and 4, so that in the equation describing continuity of flow
in node 1, only the values F 1, F 2 and F 4 will appear. The last column of the
matrix is used to indicate the actual number of non-zero coefficients in each row.
The coefficients of the matrix P now are stored in the following way.
Pu
p22
p33
p44
Pss
Pss
Fr7
Pss
Pgg
p12
p21
p32
p41
Ps2
Ps3
p74
Ps1
p96
p14
p23
p36
p45
Ps4
Pss
P1s
Pss
Pgs
0
p25
0
p47
Pss
Psg
0
Psg
0
0
0
0
0
Pss
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ql
Q2
Q3
Q4
Qs
Qs
Q7
Qs
Qg
A program, in Turbo Pascal, that reads the input data from a datafile "example.dat", creates the pointer matrix, sets up the system of equations, and then
solves the system of equations by Gauss-Seidel iteration, is reproduced below.
368
program gs;
const
nn=300;mmF250;vv=10;
var
x,y,,q:array[1 .. nn] o real;ip:array[1 .. nn] o integer;
r:array[1 .. -:1 o real;np:array[1 .. -,1. .2] o integer;
pt:array[1. .nn,1. .1111] o integer;p:array[1. .nn,1 .. vv] o real;
n,m,nit:integer;rx:real;data:text;
procedure input;
var
i,j: integer;
begin
assign(data,'example.dat');reset(data);readln(data,n,m,nit,rx);
or i:=1 to n do readln(data,x[i] ,y[i] ,ip[i] ,f[i] ,q[i]);
for j:=1 tom do readln(data,np[j,1],np[j,2],r[j]);
close(data);
end;
procedure pointer;
var
i,j,k,1,kk,1l,ia,ii,kb:integer;
begin
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to 1111 do pt[i,j]:=O;
for i:=1 ton do begin pt[i,1] :=i;pt[i,1111]:=1;end;
for j:=1 tom do
begin
for k:=1 to 2 do
begin
begin
11:=np[j,1];ia:=O;
for ii:=1 to pt[kk,1111] do i f pt[kk,ii]=11 then ia:=1;
i ia=O then
begin
kb:=pt[kk,llll]+1;pt[kk,vv]:=kb;pt[kk,kb]:=11;
end;
end;
end;
end;
end;
procedure matrix;
var
i,j,k,1,h:integer;a:rea1;
begin
for i:=1 ton do for j:=1 to 1111 do p[i,j]:=O;
for i:=1 ton do p[i,llv] :=q[i];
for j:=1 tom do
begin
a:=1/r[j];
for i:=1 to 2 do
begin
k:=np[j,i];1:=np[j,3-i];p[k,1] :=p[k,1]+a;
for h:=2 to pt[k,vv] do if (pt[k,h]=1) then p[k,h] :=p[k,h]-a;
end;
end;
end;
procedure so1vegs;
APPENDIX B
369

var
it,i,j:integer;a:real;
begin
~or it:=1 to nit do
begin
~or i:=1 ton do i~ ip[i]<O then
begin
a:=p[i,vv];~or j:=1 to pt[i,vv] do
a:=a-p[i,j]~[pt[i,j]];
~[i]:~[i]+rxa/p[i,1];
end;
end;
end;
procedure output;
var
i:integer;
begin
vriteln(' i
x
y
~);
~or i:=1 ton do vriteln(i:3,x[i]:8:3,y[i]:8:3,~[i] :8:3);
end;
begin
input;
pointer;
matrix;
solvegs;
output;
end.
Program GS.
The constant nn denotes the maximum number of nodes, mm denotes the maximum
number of elements, and wv denotes the width ofthe pointer matrix and the system
matrix. In the program the data defining the problem are read from a dataset
named "example.dat". For the problem illustrated in figure B.l this dataset is as
follows.
9
12 20 1.6
0.0 1 6.0
1.0 -1 0.0
2.0 -1 0.0
0.0 -1 0.0
1.0 -1 0.0
2.0 -1 0.0
0.0 -1 0.0
0.0 -1 0.0
2.0 1 0.0
1.0
1.0
6 1.0
6 1.0
8 1.0
9 1.0
4 1.0
7 1.0
s 1.0
8 1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1 2
2 3
4
6
7
8
1
4
2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
370
3
6
APPENDIX B
6
9
1.0
1.0
Dataset exa.mple.da.t.
The first line of this dataset specifies that the number of nodes is 9, the number of
elements is 12, the number of iterations should be 20, and the overrelaxation factor
is 1.5. The next 9 lines give the data of the nodes, with the numbers in the third
column indicating whether the values of Fi are given (if ip[i] > 0) or unknown
(if ip[i] < 0). The final 12 lines give the data of the elements: the two node
numbers, and the resistance. It may be noted that in the program the boundary
conditions are taken into account by simply skipping the updating algorithm if
ip[i] > 0.
When running the program the output on the screen is as follows.

i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
2.000
2.000
2.000
f
6.000
4.000
3.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
3.000
2.000
0.000
y
0.000
1.000
2.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
0.000
1.000
2.000
Output.
These are indeed the correct results.
B.3
Conjugate gradient method
Another iterative method is the method of conjugate gradients (Reid, 1971), which
will always converge in just n iterations, where n is the number of unknowns,
provided that the system matrix is positive definite. This is usually the case for
which the equations can be established on the basis of a minimum principle, such
as problems of potential flow and elasticity problems.
The method starts with an estimate Fi of the solution. This estimate will give
rise to residuals ui when substituted into the system of equations,
n
ui = Qi- L:PijFj.
(B.4)
i=l
A second vector
Vi
is introduced, which is initially set equal to Ui,
(B.5)
The actual iterative process now consists of a repeated execution of the following
operations,
371
Uo = L:uiui,
(B.6)
i=l
n
wi = L:Pi;l-J,
(B.7)
j=l
Vo = LViWi,
(B.8)
i=l
A= Uo/Vo,
(B.9)
Fi=Fi+AVi,
(B.lO)
ui = ui -Awi,
(B.ll)
Wo = L:uiui,
(B.12)
i=l
B = Wo/Uo,
(B.13)
(B.l4)
The process is repeated until the value of Uo (which is a measure for the error) is
smaller than some given small value.
A Thrbo Pascal procedure that executes the calculations is reproduced below.
procedure solvecg;
var
u,v,v:array[l .. nn] of real;

it,i,j,iv:integer;ee,uu,cc,vv,vv,aa,bb:real;
begin
ee:=O.OOOOOl;ee:=eeee;it:=l;
for i:=l to n do
begin
iv:=pt[i,vv];u[i]:=O;if ip[i]<O then
begin
u[i]:=p[i,vv];for j:=l to iv do
begin
u[i] :=u[i]-p[i,j]f[pt[i,j]];
end;
end;
v[i] :=u[i];
end;
uu:=O;for i:=l ton do uu:=uu+u[i]u[i];

while (it<n) and (uu>ee) do
begin
for i:=l to n do
begin
v[i]:=O;iv:=pt[i,vv];for j:=l to iv do
begin
APPENDIX B
372
v[i] :=v[i]+p[i,j]v[pt[i,j]];
end;
end;
vv:=O;for i:=l ton do vv:=vv+v[i]v[i];
aa:=uu/vv;for i:=l to n do if ip[i]<O then
begin
f[i]:=f[i]+aav[i];u[i] :=u[i]-aav[i];
end;
vv:=O;for i:=l ton do vv:=vv+u[i]u[i];
bb:=vv/uu;for i:=l ton do v[i]:=u[i]+bbv[i];
uu:=vv;it:=it+l;
end;
end;
Procedure solvecg.
This procedure may be substituted for the procedure solvegs in the program given
above. The reader may verify that the program will also give the correct output
data. It may be noted that the number of iterations and the relaxation factor,
which are read in the first line of the procedure input, are no longer used.
The conjugate gradient method is especially valuable for large systems, because it usually needs much less iterations than the number of nodes. Another
advantage is that its storage requirements are small, because it can be formulated
using a pointer matrix. Actually, storage requirements can be further reduced by
making use of the symmetry of the system matrix, and by assembling the non-zero
coefficients in a pointer vector, omitting all zeros.
B.4
Elimination using wave front method
Although iterative methods of solution of systems of linear equations are often

very effective, they are not always applicable, especially if the system matrix is
not positive definite. Therefore direct methods of solution are also frequently used.
The principle of such methods is simply that equation number 1 is used to express
the variable F 1 into all other ones, and then this relation is used to eliminate F 1
from all other equations. The remaining system of n- 1 equations then contains
only n- 1 variables, and the process of elimination may be repeated until finally
only 1 equation with 1 unknown variable remains.
For sparse systems of equations, with many zero coefficients, special procedures
have been developed, in which the sparsity of the system matrix is maintained
as well as possible. Examples are the method of LDU-decomposition, which is
restricted to symmetric matrices, or the wave front method (Irons, 1970), which
has no such restiction. In this method the variables are stored using a pointer
matrix, and during elimination this pointer matrix is updated, because non-zero
coefficients are created.
A Thrbo Pascal procedure that executes the calculations is reproduced below.

procedure boundary;
var
i,j:integer;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
if ip [i] >O then
begin
p[i,1]:=1;p[i,vv] :=f[i];for j:=2 to vv-1 do p[i,j]:=O;
end;
end;
end;
procedure solvevf;
var
i,j,k,l,kc,jj,jk,jl,ii,ij,ik:integer;a,c:real;
begin
for i:=1 to n do
begin
kc:=pt[i,vv];c:=1/p[i,1];p[i,vv] :=cp[i,vv];
for ii:=1 to kc do p[i,ii]:=cp[i,ii];
i f kc>1 then
begin
for j:=2 to kc do
begin
jj :=pt [i,j] ;l:=pt [jj ,vv];
for ik:=2 to 1 do if pt[jj,ik]=i then jk:=ik;
a:=p[jj ,jk] ;p[jj ,vv] :=p[jj ,vv]-ap[i,vv];
pt[jj,jk] :=pt[jj,1] ;pt[jj,1] :=0;
p[jj,jk] :=p[jj,1] ;p[jj,1] :=0;
1:=1-1;pt[jj,vv]:=1;
for ii:=2 to kc do
begin
ij:=-1;
i:f ij=-1 then
begin
1:=1+1;if 1=vv then
begin
vriteln('Vidth o:f matrix p too small');halt;
end;
ij :=1;pt [jj ,vv] :=1;pt[jj ,ij] :=pt [i,ii];
end;
p[jj,ij] :=p[jj,ij]-ap[i,ii];
end;
end;
end;
end;
:for i:=1 to n do
begin
j:=n-i+1;1:=pt[j,vv];i:f 1>1 then
:for k:=2 to 1 do p[j,vv]:=p[j,vv]-p[j,k]p[pt[j,k],vv];
end;
:for i:=1 ton do :f[i] :=p[i,vv];
end;
Procedure solvewf.
373
374
APPENDIX B
This procedure may be substituted for the procedure solvegs in the program given
above. In order to take into account the boundary conditions the system matrix
must be modified before the elimination process starts. This is done in the procedure boundary, which must be called before calling solvewf. It can be verified
that a program using the procedure solvewf will also give the correct output data.
This procedure is used in several programs in this book.
REFERENCES
M. Abramowitz and I.A. Stegun, Handbook of Mathematical Functions, National

Bureau of Standards, Washington, 1964.
American Petroleum Institute, API Recommended Practice for Planning, Design
and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API, Dallas, 1981.
C.A. Appel and T.E. Reilly, Selected reports that include computer programs by
the USGS for simulation of ground-water flow and quality, Water Resources
Investigations Report 87-4271, USGS, Denver, CO, 1988.
P.K. Banerjee and R. Butterfield, Boundary element methods in geomechanics,
in : Finite Elements in Geomechanics (G. Gudehus, editor), Wiley, London,
529-570, 1977.
P.K. Banerjee and T.G. Davies, The behaviour of axially and laterally loaded
single piles embedded in non-homogeneous soils, Geotechnique, 28, 309-326,
1978.
R.A. Barron, Consolidation of fine-grained soils by drain wells, Transactions
ASCE, 113, 718-754, 1948.
H. Bateman, Tables of Integral Transforms, 2 vols, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1954.
K.J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, 1982.
J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, American Elsevier, New York,
1972.
J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, Reidel, Dordrecht, 1987.
M.A. Biot, General theory of three-dimensional consolidation, J. Appl. Phys.,
12, 155-164, 1941.
M.A. Biot, Theory of propagation of elastic waves in a fluid-saturated porous
solid, J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., 28, 168-191, 1956.
A.W. Bishop, The use of the slip circle in the stability analysis of earth slopes,
Geotechnique, 5, 1955.
L. Bjerrum, Geotechnical problems involved in foundations of structures in the
North Sea, Geotechnique, 23, 319-359, 1973.
H. Blum, Einspannungsverhiiltnisse bei Bohlwerken, Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn,
Berlin, 1931.
J.R. Booker and J .C. Small, An investigation of the stability of numerical solutions of Biot's equations of consolidation, Int. J. of Solids and Structures,
11, 907-917, 1974.
J .E. Bowles, Analytical and Computer Methods in Foundation Engineering,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.
J .E. Bowles, Foundation Analysis and Design, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
1988.
J.D. Bredehoeft and G.F. Pinder, Mass transport in flowing groundwater, Water
Resources Research, 9, 194-210, 1973.
375
376
REFERENCES
J. Brinch Hansen, A revised and extended formula for bearing capacity, Bulletin
of the Danish Geotechnical Institute, 28, 5-11, 1970.
M.A. Celia et al., Computational Methods in Water Resources, 2 vols., Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1988.
R.V. Churchill, Operational Mathematics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.
C. W. Cryer, A comparison of the three-dimensional consolidation theories of Biot
and Terzaghi, Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math., 16, 401-412, 1963.
R. De Borst and P.A. Vermeer, Possibilities and limitations of finite elements for
limit analysis, Geotechnique, 34, 199-210, 1984.
C.S. Desai and J.F. Abel, Introduction to the Finite Element Method, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972.
C.S. Desai and J.T. Christian, Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977.
W. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and its Applications, 2, Wiley,
New York, 1966.
W. Fellenius, Erdstatische Berechnungen, Ernst, Berlin, 1927.
L. Fox, Numerical Solution of Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations, Pergamon Press, New York, 1962.
A.O. Garder, D.W. Peaceman and A.L. Pozzi, Numerical calculation of multidimensional miscible displacement by the method of characteristics, Soc.
Petroleum Engineers Journal, 4, 26-36, 1964.
A.E. Green and W. Zerna, Theoretical Elasticity, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954.
J.G.M. van der Grinten, An Experimental Study of Shock-induced Wave Propagation in Porous Media, Ph.D. Thesis, Eindhoven, 1987.
W. Grobner and N. Hofreiter, Integraltafel, Springer, Wien, 1961.
G. Gudehus, Finite Elements in Geomechanics, Wiley, London, 1977.
P. van der Heijde et al., Groundwater Management : The Use of Numerical
Models, 2nd ed., AGU, Washington, D.C., 1985.
M. Hetenyi, Beams on Elastic Foundation, University of Michigan Press, Ann
Arbor, 1946.
S.P. Huyakorn and K. Nilkuha, Solution of transient transport equation using
an upstream finite element scheme, Applied Mathematical Modeling, 3, 7-17,
1979.
I. Javandel, C. Doughty, and C.F. Tsang, Groundwater Transport: Handbook of
Mathematical Models, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1984.
G. de Josselin de Jong, Wat gebeurt er in de grand tijdens het heien?, De Ingenieur, 68, B77-B88, 1956.
G. de Josselin de Jong, Consolidatie in drie dimensies, LGM-Mededelingen, 7,
25-73, 1963.
W. Kinzelbach, Groundwater Modelling, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1986.
D.E. Knuth, The TF;Xbook, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1986.
L.F. Konikow and J.D. Bredehoeft, Modeling flow and chemical quality changes
in an irrigated stream-aquifer system, Water Resources Research, 10, 546562, 1974.
REFERENCES
377
L.F. Konikow and J.D. Bredehoeft, Computer model of two-dimensional solute

transport and dispersion in ground water, Techniques of Water Resources
Investigations of the USGS, Book 7, Chapter C2, 1978.
A.P. Kooijman, A Numerical Model for Laterally Loaded Piles and Pile Groups,
Ph.D. Thesis, Delft, 1989.
T.W. Lambe and R.V. Whitman, Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1969.
L. Lamport, D.TEX: A Document Preparation System, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
1986.
E.C. Leong and M.F. Randolph, Finite element analyses of soil plug response,
Int. J. Numer. and Anal. Methods Geomech., 15, 121-141, 1991.
J.A. Liggett and P.L.F. Liu, The Boundary Integral Equation Method for Porous
Media Flow, Allen & Unwin, London, 1983.
O.S. Madsen, Wave-induced pore pressures and effective stresses in a porous bed,
Geotechnique, 28, 377-393, 1978.
J. Mandel, Consolidation des sols, Geotechnique, 7, 287-299, 1953.
M.G. McDonald and A.W. Harbaugh, A modular three-dimensional finite difference groundwater flow model, Techniques of Water Resources Investigations
of the USGS, Book 6, Chapter A1, 1988.
K.L. Meijer and A.G. van Os, Pore pressures near moving underwater slope, J.
Geotechn. Eng. Div., ASCE, 102, no. GT4, 361-372, 1976.
T.N. Narasimhan and P.A. Witherspoon, An integrated finite difference method
for analyzing fluid flow in porous media, Water Resources Research, 12,
57-64, 1976.
A.G. van Os, Snelle deformatie van korrelvormig materiaal onder water, Polytechnisch Tijdschrift, 32, 461-467, 1977.
A.G. van Os and W. van Leussen, Basic research on cutting forces in saturated
sand, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, 113, 1501-1516, 1987.
G.F. Pinder and H.H. Cooper Jr., A numerical technique for calculating the
transient position of the saltwater front, Water Resources Research, 6, 875882, 1970.
G.F. Pinder and W.S. Gray, Finite Element Simulation in Surface and Subsurface
Hydrology, Academic Press, New York, 1977.
H.G. Poulos, Behaviour of laterally loaded piles, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div.,
ASCE, 97, no. SM5, 711-751, 1971.
H.G. Poulos, Marine Geotechnics, Unwin Hyman, London, 1988.
L. Prandtl, Uber die Harte plastischer Korper, Nachr. Kgl. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, Math.-phys. Klasse, 1920.
T.A. Prickett and C.G. Lonnquist, Selected digital computer techniques for
groundwater resource evaluation, Illinois Water Survey Pub/., 55, 1-62, 1971.
P.A.C. Raats, Transport in structured porous media, Flow and Transport in
Porous Media (A. Verruijt and F.B.J. Barends, editors), Balkema, Rotterdam, 221-226, 1981.
M.F. Randolph, The response of flexible piles to lateral loading, Geotechnique,
31, 247-259, 1981.
378
REFERENCES
M.F. Randolph, The axial capacity of deep foundations in calcareous soil, Proc.
Int. Conf Calcareous Sediments, 2, 837-857, ISSMFE, Perth, Western Australia, 1988.
J .K. Reid, Large Sparse Sets of Linear Equations, Academic Press, London, 1971.
R.L. Schiffman, A bibliography of consolidation, Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena in Porous Media (J. Bear and M.Y. Corapcioglu, editors), Martinus
Nijhoff, Dordrecht, 617-669, 1984.
E.A.L. Smith, Pile driving analysis by the wave equation, Trans. ASCE, 127,
1145-1193, 1962.
I.M. Smith, Programming the Finite Element Method, Wiley, Chichester, 1982.
I.N. Sneddon, Fourier Transforms, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951.
I.S. Sokolnikoff, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1956.
S.E.J. Spierenburg, Seabed Response to Water Waves, Ph.D. Thesis, Delft, 1987.
O.D.L. Strack, Three-dimensional streamlines in Dupuit-Forchheimer models,
Water Resources Research, 20, 812-822, 1984.
O.D.L. Strack, Groundwater Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1989.
N.Z. Sun and W.W.G. Yeh, A proposed upstream weight numerical method for
simulating pollution transport in ground water, Water Resources Research,
19, 1489-1500, 1983.
K. Terzaghi, Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Deuticke,
Wien, 1925.
K. Terzaghi, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1940.
S.P. Timoshenko and J .N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1951.
G.J.M. Uffink, Analysis of Dispersion by the Random Walk Method, Ph.D. Thesis,
Delft, 1990.
M.T. Van Genuchten, On the accuracy and efficiency of several numerical schemes
for solving the convective dispersive equation, in : Finite Elements in Water
Resources, (W.G. Gray, G.F. Pinder and C.A. Brebbia, editors), Pentech.
London, 1.71-1.102, 1977.
A. Verruijt, Elastic storage of aquifers, Flow through Porous Media, (R. de Wiest,
editor), Academic Press, New York, 331-376, 1969.
A. Verruijt, A simple formula for the estimation of pore pressures and their
dissipation, Applied Ocean Research, 2, 57-62, 1980.
A. Verruijt, Theory of Groundwater Flow, 2nd ed., Macmillan, London, 1982.
A. Verruijt, Approximations of cyclic pore pressures caused by sea waves in a
poro-elastic half-plane, Soil Mechanics - Transient and Cyclic Loads ( G .N.
Pande and O.C. Zienkiewicz, editors), Wiley, London, 37-51, 1982.
A. Verruijt, Numerieke berekening van verend ondersteunde liggers, Cement, 35,
659-662, 1983.
A. Verruijt, The theory of consolidation, Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena
in Porous Media, (J. Bear and Y.M. Corapcioglu, editors), Martinus Nijhoff,
Dordrecht, 330-350, 1984.
REFERENCES
379
A. Verruijt, The influence of soil properties on the behaviour of offshore structures, Behaviour of Offshore Structures (J.A. Battjes, editor), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 7-19, 1985.
A. Verruijt and A.P. Kooijman, Laterally loaded piles in a layered elastic medium,
Geotechnique, 39, 39-46, 1989.
A. Verruijt, Finite element modeling of transport in porous media, Appl. Scientific Res., 48, 129-139, 1991.
A. Verruijt and W. Swidzinski, Advective transport in a multilayered system of
aquifers, Transport in Porous Media, 12, 31-42, 1993.
H. Vidal, The principle of reinforced earth, Highway Research Record, 282, 1-16,
1969.
H.F. Wang and M.P. Anderson, Introduction to Groundwater Modeling, Freeman,
New York, 1982.
M.J. Wichura, The PJCI'EX Manual, 1-800-USA-BOOKS, Lawrence, NY, 1987.
C.R. Wylie, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1960.
T. Yamamoto, H.L. Koning, J.B. Sellmeijer and E. van Hijum, On the response
of a poro-elastic bed to water waves, J. Fluid Mech., 87, 193-206, 1978.
G.T. Yeh, An orthogonal-upstream finite element approach to modeling aquifer
contaminant transport, Water Resources Research, 22, 952-964, 1986.
W.W.G. Yeh, Y.S. Yoon and K.S. Lee, Aquifer parameter identification with
kriging and optimum parameterization, Water Resources Research, 19, 225233, 1983.
O.C. Zienkiewicz, The Finite Element Method, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill, London,
1977.
W. Zijl, Finite element methods based on a transport velocity representation for
groundwater motion, Water Resources Research, 20, 137-145, 1984.
INDEX
active earth pressure 69, 125
adsorption 337
advection 308, 310
Airy functions 87, 105
ALP (Program) 103
analytical element method 315
ANISEL (Program) 263
aquifer 219
aquitard 220
axially loaded piles 78
CONSOL2D (Program) 304

contraction 199
Courant number 345
CPT 5, 6, 91
creep 203
critical time step 190
cyclic loading 35, 141, 199
damping 141, 150, 341
Darcy's law 11, 219, 314
deformations of unstable slope 213
degree of consolidation 18
diffusivity 309, 339
dilatancy 199
DISP (Program) 352
dispersion 308, 309, 310, 337, 354
dispersivity 310
distribution coefficient 338
divergence theorem 222, 248
drained deformations 26
Dupuit 219, 326
dynamic effects 93
dynamic pile loading test 91
beam theory 53
bearing capacity 6, 89, 93, 195
bending moment 54
Bernoulli's assumption 123
Biot's theory 8, 203
Bishop's method 204
Bjerrum's relation 42, 200
Blum 68, 77
Blum's approximation 126
Boussinesq 2
Brinch Hansen's formula 6, 90, 195
bulk modulus 25
central limit theorem 348
characteristic frequency 173
characteristics 175
cohesion 5, 126
cohesive material 81
compatibility 25
compressibility 4, 280
compression modulus 25, 244
compression waves 167
cone penetration 91
cone penetration test 5
conjugate gradients 370
conjugated gradients 239
conservation of mass 220, 314
consolidation 8, 202, 291
consolidation coefficient 14, 36
CONSOLlD (Program) 287
effective stress 12, 25

eigen frequency 173, 17 4
eigen functions 173
elastic foundation 54
elastic modulus 2
elastic plug model 106
elasticity 244
ELASTO (Program) 255
elasto-plastic response 97, 125
elasto-plasticity 165, 266
equilibrium 244, 291
equilibrium adsorption 342
expansion theorem 358
explicit procedure 20
FEMFLUX (Program) 323
FEM3D (Program) 333
381
REFERENCES
382
finite differences 19, 342
finite elements 222, 244, 280, 291
finite pile 169, 171
fluid compressibility 9, 36
FLUX (Program) 317
Fourier series 358
Fourier transform 358
friction 89, 91, 183, 191
FRICTION (Program) 192
friction angle 5, 126
frictional material 85
Galerkin method 246
Gauss-Seidel method 227, 366
gravity foundations 194
groundwater flow 219
GWF (Program) 231
Hankel transform 364
heat transfer 339
Heaviside 358
Hooke's law 25, 244, 292
hydraulic conductivity 11, 220, 314
IMPACT (Program) 191
impedance 176, 189
inclination factors 196
incompressible fluid 40
infiltration 220
infinite pile 168
Integral transforms 356
Koppejan 206
Lame constants 25, 244, 267, 292
Laplace transform 168, 356
lateral earth pressure 86
laterally loaded piles 122
layered system 151
LDU-decomposition 251
leakage 220
leap frog 188
Linear equations 365
linear equilibrium isotherm 309
linear material 78, 122
liquefaction 48
LLP (Program) 140

long waves 39
longitudinal dispersivity 311
Mandel-Cryer effect 30, 32
mass balance 308
MULAT 325
Navier equations 245
neutral earth pressure 69
non-steady flow 234
normal distribution 348
NSF (Program) 239
NUMCONS (Program) 22
numerical plug model 110
oedometer test 5
offshore platforms 194
one-dimensional consolidation 12, 280
overrelaxation factor 228
partitioning coefficient 309
passive earth pressure 69, 125
Peclet number 309
permeability 11, 220, 280
PILAT (Program) 163
pile driving 167
pile group 165
plastic material 125
plastic plug model 109
plastic potential 268
PLASTO (Program) 275
plate loading test 5
plug 92, 106
PLUG (Program) 120
point resistance 80, 89
pointer matrix 228, 367
Poisson's ratio 2
pollution transport 308, 337
pore pressures 197, 198, 200
porosity 328
Prandtl 90, 195
preshearing 48
quake 82, 113
REFERENCES
radial consolidation 31
radiation condition 187
radiation damping 187
references 375
reflection 178
reflection coefficient 180
reservoir deformations 203
resistance 220
resonance 175
retardation 310, 337, 340, 342
retardation factor 313
safety factor 204
SEABED (Program) 50
separation of variables 171
settlements 18, 202
shakedown 104, 143
shape factors 90, 196
shear modulus 25, 244
shear strength 5
sheet pile wall 67
short waves 40
SLOPE (Program) 211
slope stability 204
SORPTION (Program) 345
SPWALL (Program) 75
stability 345
stability factor 204
static pile loading test 91
stiffness 2
storage equation 10, 36, 198
stroke 70, 75, 126
subgrade modulus 2, 55, 79, 123, 183
Terzaghi's formula 4
Terzaghi's principle 12, 25, 292
Terzaghi's problem 13, 305
three-dimensional consolidation 23, 291
three-dimensional transport 326
transmission 178
transmission coefficient 180
transmissivity 220, 234
transport 308
transport equation 311
transverse dispersivity 311
383
uncoupled consolidation 29
undrained deformations 27
undrained shear strength 5, 7
variational principle 221, 281, 294
viscosity 11, 149, 150
viscous damping 148
volumetric weight 11
water waves 35
wave equation 168
wave front method 258, 372
waves in piles 167
weighted residuals 246
WINKLER (Program) 64
yield condition 267
Theory and Applications of Transport in Porous Media

Series Editor:
Jacob Bear, Technion -Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
1. H. I. Ene and D. Polisevski: Thermal Flow in Porous Media. 1987
ISBN 90-277-2225-0
2. J. Bear and A. Verruijt: Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution. With Computer
ISBN 1-55608-014-X; Ph 1-55608-015-8
Programms for Sample Cases. 1987
3. G. I. Barenhlatt, V. M. Entov and V. M. Ryzhik: Theory of Fluid Flows Through
Natural Rocks. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0167-6
4. J. Bear andY. Bachmat: Introduction to Modeling of Transport Phenomena in Porous
Media. 1990
ISBN 0-7923-0557-4; Ph (1991) 0-7923-1106-X
5. J. Bear and J-M. Buchlin (eds.): Modelling and Applications of Transport Phenomena
in Porous Media. 1991
ISBN 0-7923-1443-3
6. Ne-Zheng Sun: Inverse Problems in Groundwater Modeling. 1994
ISBN 0-7923-2987-2
7. A. Verruijt: Computational Geomechanics. 1995
ISBN 0-7923-3407-8
Kluwer Academic Publishers - Dordrecht I Boston I London

Bok:978 94 017 1112 8

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Bok:978 94 017 1112 8

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

COMPUTATIONAL GEOMECHANICS

Theory and Applications of Transport in Porous Media

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved

Sea Bed Response to Cyclic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Beams on Elastic Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Axially Loaded Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

8 Laterally Loaded Piles ........................................ 122

12 Slope Stability ............................................. 204

15 Finite Elements for Elasto-Plastic Deformations ...................... 266

18 Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

tion and dispersion.

Delft, January 1995

In many problems of soil-structure interaction the soil is modeled by a subgrade

Figure 1.1. Linear spring.

Figure 1.2. Foundation on elastic soil.

Figure 1.3. Foundation on elastic soil, approximation.

Thus the apparent subgrade constant is proportional to the modulus of elasticity

If this is compared with the elastic relation c:

SHEAR STRENGTH OF SAND

Table 1.1. Cone resistance in sand.

SHEAR STRENGTH OF CLAY

or the correlation proposed by Skempton,

20 kPa, the order of magnitude of the cone resistance

Consider a porous material, consisting of a solid matrix or an assembly of particles,

Figure 2.1. Conservation of mass of the fluid.

~tn)p,] + 'V [(1- n)p,w] = 0,

ment of the particles. The particles themselves are assumed to be incompressible.

-7ft+ 'V [(1- n)w] = 0,

PJ =Po exp[,B(p- Po)],

be written as Of:vol/ot, where f:vol is the volume strain,

Equation (2.8) can now be written as

where K. is the (intrinsic) permeability of the porous material, p. is the viscosity of

Thus Darcy's law can also be written as

oq., oqy oqz

oc:vol = nf3-op V' ( -'Vp

A volume change can now occur only by vertical deformation,

This is the simple second relation between

and p that was being sought.

(a+n,B ) -=a--+Y' -Y'p.

Figure 2.2. Terzaghi's problem.

a+n,B) -{) =a-{) + -{) 2 .

The initial condition is

and the boundary conditions are

The mathematical problem to be solved is completely determined by the equations

p exp( -st) dt,

where s is a positive parameter. The basic principle of the Laplace transform

In this case the denominator is the function

P(s;) = cos[(2j- 1) 2 (-h-)].

and the value of the derivative of the denominator for s = s; is

hViJC;, = i(2j- 1)7r/2,

Q'(s;) = -i(2j- 1) sin[(2j- 1)7r/2] = -i(2j- 1)( -1)i- 1.

The final result now is

x exp [- ( 2J. - 1)2

speaking Heaviside's expansion theorem applies only to a function consisting of the

(/3 = 0), the initial settlement is zero.

If the fluid is incompressible

U = __!_ {2h Po - p dz.

........ ... ! ... ! !

Figure 2.5. Degree of consolidation.

In this section a simple numerical solution of the one-dimensional consolidation

The basic equation to be solved is the partial differential equation (2.28),