6.

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS - MINERALS

6.1 Introduction and classification
With the exception of the organically bound elements hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen and
oxygen, there are about 20 or so inorganic mineral elements which are considered to be
essential to animal life, including fish and shrimp. The essential mineral elements are
usually classified into two main groups according to their concentration in the animal
body; the macroelements and the microelements (Table 11)

Table 11. The essential mineral elements

Macroelements
Principal cations

Trace or microelements

Principal anions

Calcium (Ca)

Phosphorus (P)

Iron (Fe)

Fluorine (F)

Magnesium (Mg)

Chlorine (Cl)

Zinc (Zn)

Vanadium (V)

Sodium (Na)

Sulphur (S)

Manganese (Mn)

Chromium (Cr)

Copper (Cu)

Molybdenum (Mo)

Iodine (I)

Selenium (Se)

Cobalt (Co)

Tin (Sn)

Nickel (Ni)

Silicon (Si)

Potassium (K)

Underwood (1971); Reinhold (1975)

6.2 General function

The general function of minerals and trace elements can be summarised as follows:

Minerals are essential constitutents of skeletal structures such as bones and

teeth.

Minerals play a key role in the maintenance of osmotic pressure, and thus
regulate the exchange of water and solutes within the animal body.

Minerals serve as structural constituents of soft tissues.

Minerals are essential for the transmission of nerve impulses and muscle
contraction.

Minerals play a vital role in the acid-base equilibrium of the body, and thus
regulate the pH of the blood and other body fluids.

Minerals serve as essential components of many enzymes, vitamins, hormones,

and respiratory pigments, or as cofactors in metabolism, catalysts and enzyme
activators.

6.3 Macroelements

6.3.1 Calcium
Biological function: The principal biological functions of calcium may be summarised as
follows;

Calcium is an essential component of bone, cartilage and the crustacean

exoskeleton.

Calcium is essential for the normal clotting of blood, by stimulating the release of
thromboplastin from the blood platelets.

Calcium is an activator for several key enzymes, including pancreatic lipase, acid
phosphatase, cholinesterase, ATPases, and succinic dehydrogenase.

Through its role in enzyme activation, calcium stimulates muscle contraction (ie.
promotes muscle tone and normal heart beat) and regulates the transmission of
nerve impulses from one cell to another through its control over acetylcholine
production.

Calcium, in conjunction with phospholipids, plays a key role in the regulation of

the permeability of cell membranes and consequently over the uptake of nutrients
by the cell.

Calcium is believed to be essential for the absorption of vitamin B12 from the
gastro-intestinal tract.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of calcium include limestone,
oystershell grit, bone meal, rock phosphate (4030%); crab meal, shrimp meal, meat
and bone meal (2010%); white fish meal, poultry manure, meat meal (105%); and
brown fish meal, delactose whey powder, dried skim milk, poultry by-product meal, kelp
meal, alfalfa meal (51%).
Calcium is readily absorbed through the gastro-intestinal tract (through vitamin
D3 action), gills, skin and fins of fish and crustacea. In general, dietary
calcium absorption is facilitated by dietary lactose (by forming a soluble sugar-calcium
complex) and by high gastric acidities (by aiding solubilization of the calcium salt).

6.3.2 Phosphorus
Biological function: The principal biological functions of phosphorus may be summarized
as follows;

Phosphorus is an essential component of bone, cartilage and the crustacean

exoskeleton.

Phosphorus is an essential component of phospholipids, nucleic acids,

phosphoproteins (casein), high energy phosphate esters (ATP), hexose
phosphates, creatinephosphate, and several key enzymes.

As a component of these important biological substances, phosphorus plays a

central role in energy and cell metabolism.

Inorganic phosphates serve as important buffers to regulate the normal acidbase

balance (ie. pH) of animal body fluids.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of phosphorus include rock
phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, bone meal (2010% P); meat and bone meal, meat
meal, whitefish meal, shrimp meal, poultry by-product meal, dried poultry manure (5
2%); and rice bran, rice polishings, wheat bran, wheat mill run, dried brewers
yeast, sunflower seedmeal, cottonseed meal, rapeseed meal, sesame seed meal,
dried delactose whey (21%).
Although soluble phosphorus salts can be absorbed through the skin, fins and gills of
fish and shrimp, the concentration of phosphorus in fresh and sea water is low, and
consequently body phosphorus requirements are usually met from dietary sources.
Within plant foods, including cereals and oilseeds, 5080% of the phosphorus occurs in
the form of the calcium or magnesium salt of phytic acid; phytic acid being the
hexaphosphate ester of inositol. This organic form of phosphorus must first be
hydrolyzed within the gastro-intestinal tract by the enzyme phytase to inositol and
phosphoric acid before it can be utilized and absorbed by the animal. As with calcium,
the absorption of inorganic phosphorus salts is facilitated by high gastric acidity;
the more soluble the salt the higher the availability and absorption of phosphorus.

6.3.3 Magnesium
Biological function: The principal biological functions of magnesium may be summarised
as follows;

Magnesium is an essential component of bone, cartilage and the crustacean

exoskeleton.

Magnesium is an activator of several key enzyme systems, including kinases, (ie.

enzymes that catalyse the transfer of the terminal phosphate of ATP to sugar or
other acceptors), mutases (transphosphorylation reactions), muscle ATPases,
and the enzymes cholinesterase, alkaline phosphatase, enolase, isocitric
dehydrogenase, arginase (magnesium is a component of the arginase molecule),
deoxyribonuclease, and glutaminase.

Through its role in enzyme activation, magnesium (like calcium) stimulates

muscle and nerve irritability (contraction), is involved in the regulation of
intracellular acid-base balance, and plays an important role in
carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of magnesium include; meat and
bone meal, rice bran, kelp meal, sunflower seed meal (1.00.75% Mg); and wheat bran,
wheat mill run, rice polishings, rapeseed meal, shrimp meal, cottonseed meal, linseed
meal, poultry manure and crab meal (0.750.5%).
Magnesium is readily absorbed through the gastro-intestinal tract, gills, skin and fins of
fish and crustacea. As with calcium and phosphorus, a proportion of the magnesium

contained in plant foodstuffs may be present in the form of phytin (Ca or Mg salt of phytic
acid).

6.3.4 Sodium, Potassium and Chlorine

Biological function: Sodium, potassium, and chlorine occur almost entirely in the fluids
and soft tissues of the body, sodium and chlorine being found mainly in the body fluids,
and potassium occuring mainly in the cells. They serve a vital function in controlling
osmotic pressures and acid-base equilibrium. They also play important roles in water
metabolism.
Sodium is the main monovalent ion of extracellular fluids; sodium ions constituting 93%
of the ions (bases) found in the blood stream. Although the principal role of sodium in the
animal is connected with the regulation of osmotic pressure and the maintenance of
acid-base balance, sodium also has an effect on muscle irritability, and plays a specific
role in the absorption of carbohydrate.
Potassium is the major cation of intracellular fluid, and regulates intracellular osmotic
pressue and acid-base balance. Like sodium, potassium has a stimulating effect on
muscle irritability. Potassium is also required for glycogen and protein sysnthesis, and
the metabolic breakdown of glucose.
Chlorine is the main monovalent anion of extracellular fluids; chlorine ions constituting
about 65% of the total anions of blood plasma and other extracellular fluids within the
body (ie. gastric juice). Chlorine is therefore essential for the regulation of osmotic
pressue and acid-base balance. Chlorine also plays a specific role in the transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, and the maintenance of digestive juice pH.
Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of sodium, potassium and chlorine
include: kelp meal, condensed fish solubles, dried delactose whey, shrimp meal, white
fish meal, meat meal, meat and bone meal (41% Na in decreasing order); dehydrated
cane molasses, condensed fish solubles, delactose whey powder, alfalfa meal, dried
torula yeast, soybean meal, rice bran (4-2% K in decreasing order); dried brewers yeast,
dried distillers solubles, wheat bran, cottonseed meal, meat and bone meal, wheat mill
run, copra meal, rapeseed meal, peanut meal, and sunflower seed meal (21% K in
decreasing order); salt (sodium chloride, 60% Cl) and potassium chloride (48% Cl).
Potassium, sodium and chloride are readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract,
skin, fins and gills of fish and crustacea.

6.3.5 Sulphur
Biological function: The principal biological functions of sulphur may be summarised as
follows;

Sulphur is an essential component of several key amino acids (methionine and

cystine), vitamins (thiamine and biotin), the hormone insulin, and the crustacean
exoskeleton.

As the sulphate, sulphur is an essential component of heparin, chondroitin,

fibrinogen and taurine.

Several key enzyme systems such as coenzyme A and glutathione depend for
their activity on free sulphydryl (SH) groups.

Sulphur is believed to be involved in the detoxification of aromatic compounds

within the animal body.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of the sulphur containing amino
acids include fish meal, chicken eggs, and hydrolysed feather meal (the latter containing
primarily cystine, Table 5). Sulphur containing amino acids and to a lesser extent
inorganic sulphates are readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract of fish and
shrimp.

6.4 Microelements
6.4.1 Iron
Biological function: The principal biological functions of iron may be summarised as
follows;

Iron is an essential component of the respiratory pigments haemoglobin and

myoglobin.

Iron is an essential component of various enzyme systems including the

cytochromes, catalases, peroxidases, and the enzymes xanthine and aldehyde
oxidase, and succinic dehydrogenase.

As a component of the respiratory pigments and enzymes concerned in tissue

oxidation, iron is essential for oxygen and electron transport within the body.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of iron include; blood meal (0.3
0.2% Fe); kelp meal, coconut meal, meat and bone meal, sunflower seed meal, dried
distillers solubles (1000500 mg/kg); alfalfa meal, crab meal, condensed fish solubles,
fish meal, meat meal, poultry by-product meal, linseed meal, dried brewers yeast,
dehydrated cane molasses, rice bran, delactose whey powder, and dried poultry manure
(500200 mg/kg).
Iron is readily absorbed through the gastro-intestinal tract, gills, fins and skin of fish and
crustacea. Dietary iron availability and absorption is usually depressed by high dietary
intakes of phosphate, calcium, phytates, copper and zinc. In general, inorganic sources
of iron are more readily absorbed than organic sources; the ferrous iron (Fe++) being
more available for absorption than ferric iron (Fe+++). Reducing substances such as
vitamin C enhance the absorption of non-haem iron.

6.4.2 Zinc
Biological function: The principal biological functions of zinc may be summarised as
follows;

Zinc is an essential component of more than 80 metalloenzymes, including

carbonic anhydrase (required for the transport of carbon dioxide by the blood and

for the secretion of HCI in the stomach), glutamic dehydrogenase, alkaline

phosphatase, pyridine nucleotide dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
superoxide dismutase, pancreatic carboxypeptidase, and tryptophan desmolase.

Zinc serves as a cofactor in many enzyme systems, including arginase, enolase,

several peptidases, and oxalacetic decarboxylase.

As an active component or cofactor for many important enzyme systems zinc

plays a vital role in lipid, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism; being particularly
active in the synthesis and metabolism of nucleic acids (RNA) and proteins.

Although not proven, it has been suggested that zinc plays a role in the action of
hormones such as insulin, glucagon, corticotrophin, FSH and LH.

Zinc is believed to play a positive role in wound healing.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of zinc include chick hatchery meal
(0.15% Zn), dried Candida yeast, dehydrated fish solubles, dried distillers grains with
solubles, dried poultry manure (500200 mg/kg); fish meal, corn gluten meal, poultry byproduct meal, wheat bran, rice mill run, dehydrated cattle manure, wheat middlings, crab
meal, sunflower seed meal, dried torula yeast (200100 mg/kg Zn).
Zinc is readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract, gills, fins and skin of fish and
crustacea. Dietary zinc availability and absorption is reduced in the presence of
phytates, and high dietary intakes of calcium, phopshorus and copper.

6.4.3 Manganese
Biological function: The principal biological functions of managanese may be
summarised as follows,

Manganese functions in the body as an enzyme activator for those enzymes that
mediate phosphate group transfer (ie. phosphate transferases and phosphate
dehydrogenases), particularly those concerned with the citric acid cycle including
arginase, alkaline phosphatase and hexokinase.

Manganese is an essential component of the enzyme pyruvate carboxylase

As a cofactor or component of several key enzyme systems, manganese is

essential for bone formation (re. mucopolysaccharide synthesis), the
regeneration of red blood cells, carbohydrate metabolism, and the reproductive
cycle.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of manganese include kelp meal
(0.10% Mn), rice bran, dehydrated poultry manure, palm kernel meal, crab meal, wheat
bran, wheat germ meal, wheat mill run, wheat middlings (300100 mg/kg); dehydrated
cattle manure, corn distillers dried solubles, rye grain, dehydrated cane molasses,
dehydrated fish solubles, copra meal (10050 mg/kg); wheat, rapeseed meal, sesame
seed meal, linseed meal, brewers dried grains, safflower seed meal, shrimp meal and
oats (5030 mg/kg).

Manganese is readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract, gills, fins and skin of fish
and crustacea. Dietary manganese availability and absorption is reduced in the
presence of phytates, and high dietary intakes of calcium.

6.4.4 Copper
Biological function: The principal biological functions of copper may be summarised as
follows;

Copper is an essential component of numerous oxidation-reduction enzyme

systems. For example, copper is a component of the enzymes cytochrome
oxidase, uricase, tyrosinase, superoxide dismutase, amine oxidase, lysyl
oxidase, and caeruloplasmin.

As a component of the enzyme caeruloplasmin (ferroxidase), copper is intimately

involved with iron metabolism, and therefore haemoglobin synthesis and red
blood cell production and maintenance.

Copper is also believed to be necessary for the formation of the pigment melanin
and consequently skin pigmentation, for the formation of bone and connective
tissue, and for maintaining the integrity of the myelin sheath of nerve fibres.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of copper include condensed fish
solubles, corn distillers dried solubles, dehydrated sugar cane molasses (100-75 mg/kg
Cu); corn distillers grains with solubles, dehydrated poultry manure (7550 mg/kg); dried
brewers yeast, crab meal, corn gluten meal, linseed meal, soybean meal, dried brewers
grains, wheat mill run, millet, cottonseed meal, wheat middlings, and copra meal (5020
mg/kg).
Copper is readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract, gills, fins and skin of fish and
crustacea. Dietary copper availability and absorption is reduced in the presence of
phytates, and high dietary intakes of zinc, iron, molybdenum, cadmium, inorganic
sulphates and calcium carbonate.

6.4.5 Cobalt
Biological function: The principal biological functions of cobalt may be summarised as
follows;

Cobalt is an integral component of cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12), and as such is

essential for red blood cell formation and the maintenance of nerve tissue.

Although not confirmed, cobalt may also function as an activating agent for
various enzyme systems.

Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of cobalt include copra meal (2
mg/kg Co), linseed meal, dried brewers yeast, fish meal, meat meal, cottonseed meal,
and soybean meal (0.50.1 mg/kg).

Cobalt is readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and the surrounding water by
fish and crustacea. Dietary cobalt availability and absorption is reduced in the presence
of high dietary intakes of iodine.

6.4.6 Iodine
Biological function: Iodine is an integral component of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine
and tri-iodo-thyronine, and as such is essential for regulating the metabolic rate of all
body processes.
Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of iodine include all food stuffs of
marine origin, and in particular seaweed meals (which may contain up to 0.6% I) and
marine fish and crustacean meals. Iodine is readily absorbed from the gastro-intestinal
tract and the surrounding water by fish and crustacea. Dietary availability and absorption
is reduced in the presence of high dietary intakes of cobalt.

6.4.7 Selenium
Biological function: Selenium is an essential component of the enzyme glutathione
peroxidase, and as such (together with the tocopherols - vitamin E) serves to protect
cellular tissues and membranes against oxidative damage. It has also been suggested
that selenium participates in the biosynthesis of ubiquinone (coenzyme Q; involved in
cellular electron transport) and influences the absorption and retention of vitamin E.
Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of selenium include dehydrated
fish solubles, fish meal (52 mg/kg Se); dried brewers yeast, corn gluten meal, dried
torula yeast, rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal (21 mg/kg); and dried brewers grains,
wheat bran, wheat middlings, linseed meal, hydrolyzed feather meal, poultry by-product
meal, meat meal and alfalfa (10.5 mg/kg). Selenium is readily absorbed from the
gastro-intestinal tract and the surrounding water by fish and crustacea.

6.4.8 Chromium
Biological function: Trivalent chromium is an integral component of the glucose tolerance
factor (GTF; a low molecular weight compound with trivalent chromium coordinated to
two nicotinic acid molecules with the remaining coordinates protected by amino acids)
and acts as a cofactor for the hormone insulin. Apart from its vital role in carbohydrate
metabolism (ie. glucose tolerance and glycogen synthesis), trivalent chromium is also
believed to play an important role in cholesterol and amino acid metabolism.
Dietary sources and absorption: Rich dietary sources of trivalent chromium include chick
shell meal (15 mg/kg), shrimp tail meat, Artemia salina, dried brewers yeast, shellfish,
liver, poultry by-product meal and fish meal (51 mg/kg dry weight). Trivalent chromium
is readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and the surrounding water by fish and
crustacea.

6.5 Dietary mineral requirements

There is scant information on the dietary mineral requirements of fish and shrimp. This is
mainly due to complexities which arise because of the ability of aquatic animals to
absorb minerals from the surrounding water in addition to the food ingested, and

because of their variation in response to salt regulation or osmotic pressure. For

example, because marine fish and shrimp live in a hypertonic environment (ie. in a
medium containing an excess of salt) they tend to suffer from dessication through water
loss across the gills. To compensate for this loss marine fish therefore have to
continually drink small amounts of water; the excess salt contained within the intestinal
seawater being pumped out of the gill to the exterior (Cowey and Sargent, 1979).
Consequently, since marine fish are reported to drink up to 50 percent of their total body
weight per day, drinking may satisfy a substantial part of their mineral requirements
(NRC, 1983). Coupled with the direct absorption of minerals through the gills, fins and
skin, it is perhaps not surprising that marine fish such as the red sea bream (C. major)
have only been found to have a positive dietary requirement for phosphorus, potassium
and iron when fed a purified diet; the nutritional requirement for the remaining
physiologically essential minerals being apparently satisfied through direct absorption
and/or drinking (Yone and Toshima, 1979). The situation in freshwater fish and prawns is
the reverse; here the animals suffer from hydration across the gills due to the steady
loss of salt to the hypotonic environment. These animals therefore drink little or no water,
and have to compensate for their urinary salt losses by actively pumping salt from the
external medium across the gills into the plasma. Freshwater fish and prawns are
therefore more demanding on an adequate dietary mineral supply than marine fish and
shrimp (Cowey and Sargent, 1979).
From the above it follows therefore that the dietary requirement of a fish or shrimp
species for a particular element will depend to a large extent upon the concentration of
that element in the water body. At present there is little information concerning the
contribution of waterborne elements to the total mineral balance of fish or shrimp (Tacon,
Knox and Cowey, 1984).
Dietary mineral requirements are usually determined by feeding graded levels of each
element within a purified or semi-purified test diet; dietary requirement being taken at
break-point on the basis of the observed growth response, feed efficiency, or tissue
enzyme indicator level (for review see Cowey and Sargent, 1972; Cho, Cowey and
Watanabe, 1985; Kanazawa, 1983; Lall, 1979; Nose and Arai, 1979; NRC, 1983; and
Robinson and Wilson, 1985). As with the vitamins, the majority of studies have been
conducted under controlled laboratory conditions and so little information exists on the
dietary mineral requirements of fish or shrimp under practical semi-intensive or intensive
farming conditions using practical diets.
Despite these limitations, the known dietary mineral requirements of the major
aquaculture species are summarised in Table 12.

Table 12. Dietary mineral requirements of fish and shrimp

Species/Element
CALCIUM
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Eel (A. japonica)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Common acrp (C. carpio)
Red sea bream (C. major)
Red sea bream (C. major)

Dietary requirement
0.24 %
0.27 %
0.05 %
0.45 % 1
1.50 %
0.028 %
0.34 %
>0.14 %

Reference
Arai et al., (1975)
Arai, Nose & Hashimoto (1975)
Lovell & Li (1978)
Robinson et al., (1985)
Andrews, Murai & Campbell (1973)
Ogino & Takeda (1976)
Sakamoto & Yone (1973)
Sakamoto & Yone (1976)

Penaeids (P. japonicus)

Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
1

12 %
1.24 %
1.0 %
<0.5 %

Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984)

Kitabayashi et al., (1971)
Kanazawa (1983)
Deshimaru et al., (1978)

Dietary calcium requirement determined in calcium-free water

Ads by BlockAndSurfAd Options

PHOSPHORUS
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Atlantic salmon (S. salar)
Common carp (C. carpio)
Tilapia (O. niloticus)
Tilapia (O. aureus/niloticus)
Eel (A. japonica)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Red sea bream (C. major)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)

0.70 %
1.12 % 1
0.60.7 % 2
0.90 % 2
0.450.6 % 2, 3
0.29 %
0.42 % 2
0.50 % 2
0.45 % 2
0.68 %
1.04 %
2.00 %
1.00 %
12 %

Ogino & Takeda (1978)

Ketola (1975)
Ogino & Takeda (1976)
Watanabe et al., (1980)
Viola, Zohar & Arieli (1986)
Arai, Nose & Kawatsu (1974)
Wilson et al., (1982)
NRC (1983)
Lovell (1978)
Sakamoto & Yone (1973)
Kitabayashi et al., (1971)
Deshimaru & Yone (1978a)
Kanazawa (1983)
Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984)

Basal diet contained 0.62% P derived mainly from plant sources and requireda minimum of 0.6% supplemental inorganic P as
dibasic calcium phosphate formaximum growth response
2

Available phosphorus requirement (as determined with fish)

Experiments conducted in floating cages suspended in an earthen pond, 100 fishof average size 120g/m 3, and available P
requirement based on P availabilitiesof 70% for fish meal and Dicalcium phosphate and 33% for plant phosphorus

MAGNESIUM
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Common carp (C. carpio)
Eel (A. japonica)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Red sea bream (C. major)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
1

Ogino, Takashima & Chiou (1978)

Knox, Cowey & Adron (1981, 1983)
Ogino & Chiou (1976)
Nose & Arai (1979)
Gatlin et al., (1982)
Sakamoto & Yone (1979)
Kanazawa (1983)
Deshimaru & Yone (1978a)

1.0 %
0.9 %
0.21 %

Deshimaru & Yone (1978a)

Kanazawa (1983)
Yone & Toshima (1979)

No dietary requirement demonstrated

POTASSIUM 1
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Red sea bream (C. major)
1

0.060.07 %
0.05 %
0.040.05 %
0.04 %
0.04 %
<0.012 %
0.30 %
ND 1

No dietary requirement or deficiency symptom demonstrated for sodium orchlorine in fish or shrimp to date

ZINC
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)

1530 mg/kg
150 mg/kg 1

Ogino & Yang (1978)

Ketola (1978, 1979)

Common carp (C. carpio)

Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)

1530 mg/kg
20 mg/kg
150 mg/kg2

Ogino & Yang (1979)

Gatlin & Wilson (1983)
Gatlin & Wilson (1984)

Basal practical diet containing white fish meal as the major protein sourceand 60 mg/kg Zn; diet required supplemental Zn as
ZnSO4.7H2O at 150 mg/kgdiet to prevent Zn deficiency and produce normal growth
2

Basal practical diet containing 1.1% phytic acid from soybean meal and rice,and requiring a dietary supplementation of 150
mg Zn/kg diet to preventdeficiency symptoms

IRON
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Eel (A. japonica)
Red sea bream (C. major)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
1

30 mg/kg
170 mg/kg
150 mg/kg
ND1

Gatlin & Wilson (1986)

Nose & Arai (1979)
Sakamoto & Yone (1976a, 1978)
Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984)

3 mg/kg
3 mg/kg
5 mg/kg
60 mg/kg
ND 1

Ogino & Yang (1980)

Ogino & Yang (1980)
Gatlin & Wilson (1986a)
Kanazawa (1983)
Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984)

1213 mg/kg
1213 mg/kg
2.4 mg/kg 1
25 mg/kg 2

Ogino & Yang (1980)

Ogino & Yang (1980)
Robinson & Wilson (1985)
Robinson & Wilson (1985)

No dietary requirement demonstrated

Ads by BlockAndSurfAd Options

COPPER
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Common carp (C. carpio)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
1

No dietary requirement demonstrated

MANGANESE
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Common carp (C. carpio)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
1

No dietary requirement demonstrated with fish fed purified diets for 13 weeks,and containing a basal manganese content of
2.4 mg/kg (studies in press)
2

Recommended dietary Mn level for practical catfish feeds

IODINE
Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha)
Salmonids
SELENIUM
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)

0.61.1 mg/kg
15 mg/kg

Woodall & LaRoche (1964)

NRC (1983)

0.070.38 mg/kg
Hilton, Hodson & Slinger (1980)
0.10.25 mg/kg 1 Gatlin & Wilson (1984)

Dietary requirement of 0.25 mg/kg within purified diets, and a recommendeddietary requirement of 0.1 mg/kg Se within
practical catfish feeds

CHROMIUM
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)

6.6 Mineral pathology

1.0 mg/kg

Tacon & Beveridge (1982)

6.6.1 Mineral deficiency

The following gross anatomical deficiency signs have been reported in juvenile fish or
shrimp fed experimental diets lacking in one or more essential mineral elements:
Element/species
PHOSPHORUS
Common carp (C. carpio)

Channel catfish (I. punctatus)

Red sea bream (C. major)

Eel (A. japonica)

Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Atlantic salmon (S. salar)
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
CALCIUM
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Eel (A. japonica)
Red sea bream (C. major)
MAGNESIUM
Common carp (C. carpio)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Eel (A. japonica)
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)

Penaeids (P. japonicus)

IRON
ZINC
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
Common carp (C. carpio)

Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)

MANGANESE
Tilapia (O. mossambicus)

Deficiency signs 1
Reduced growth, poor feed efficiency (1,2); bone
demineralization, skeletal deformity, abnormal calcification of
ribs and soft rays of pectoral fin (1); cranial deformity (1,3);
increased visceral fat (4)
Reduced growth, poor feed efficiency (5); bone
demineralization (5,6)
Reduced growth, poor feed efficiency, bone
demineralization, increased muscle, liver and vertebrae lipid
content (7); curved and enlarged spongy vertebrae (8);
decreased liver glycogen (9)
Anorexia, reduced growth (10)
Reduced growth, poor feed efficiency, bone demineralization
(13,14)
Reduced growth, poor feed efficiency, bone demineralization
(13,14)
Reduced growth (41)
Reduced growth, low carcass ash, Ca and P content (fed
vitamin D deficienct diets, 6)
Anorexia, reduced growth and feed efficiency (15)
Anorexia, reduced growth and feed efficiency (16)
Anorexia, reduced growth and feed efficiency (17)
Reduced growth (11, 18); sluggishness, anorexia,
convulsions, high mortality (11); cataracts (18)
Anorexia, reduced growth, sluggishness, muscle flacidity,
high mortality (19)
Anorexia, reduced growth (20)
Reduced growth (2124); anorexia (22,23); cataracts (25);
sluggishness, calcinosis of kidney (21,22); increased
mortality, vertebral curvature, degener- ation of muscle fibres
and epithelial cells of pyloric caecae and gill filaments (23);
reduced bone ash, Mg and elevated Ca content (24)
Reduced growth, poor survival and reduced feed efficiency
(41)
Hypochromic microcytic anaemia (C. carpio - 26; C. major 27; Salvelinus fontinalis - 28; A. japonica - 20; I. punctatus 42; reduced growth and feed efficiency (42)
Reduced growth, anorexia, depressed bone Ca and Zn
content (29)
Reduced growth (18, 30); cataracts (18); anorexia, high
mortality, erosion of fins and skin, elevated tissue
concentrations of Fe and Cu in intestine and
hepatopancreas (30)
Reduced growth (25,31,32); increased mortality (31, 32);
cataracts (25, 31); short body dwarfism (25); fin erosion (31)
Reduced growth, anorexia, loss of equilibrium, mortality (33)

Common carp (C. carpio)

Reduced growth (34, 18); short body dwarfism, cataracts

(18)
Cataracts (25, 35); reduced growth, short body dwarfism
(34, 35); abnormal tail growth (34)

Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)

COPPER
Common carp (C. carpio)
SELENIUM
Atlantic salmon (S. salar)

Reduced growth (34, 18); cataracts (18)

Increased mortality, muscular dystrophy, depressed
glutathione peroxidase activity (36)
Reduced growth (18, 37); cataracts (18); anaemia (37)
Reduced growth (38)

Common carp (C. carpio)

Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
IODINE
Salmonids

Thyroid hyperplasia/goitre (39, 40)

1-Ogino & Takeda (1976); 2-Yone & Toshima (1979); 3-Ogino et al., (1979); 4-Takeuchi & Nakazoe (1981); 5-Andrews, Murai
& Campbell (1973); 6-Lovell & Li(1978); 7-Sakamoto & Yone (1980); 8-Sakamoto & Yone (1979); 9-Sakamoto & Yone(1978);
10-Arai, Nose & Kawatsu (1974); 11-Ogino & Chiou (1976); 12-Ogino &Takeda (1978); 13-Ketola (1975); 14-Lall & Bishop
(1977); 15-Arai et al. (1975);16-Arai, Nose & Hashimoto (1975); 17-Sakamoto & Yone (1973); 18-Satoh et al.,(1983); 19Gatlin et al., (1982); 20-Arai et al., (cited by Nose and Arai, 1979);21-Cowey et al., (1977); 22-Knox, Cowey & Adron (1981); 23Ogino, Takashima &Chiou (1978); 24-Knox, Cowey & Adron (1983); 25-Satoh et al., (1983a); 26-Sakamoto& Yone (1978a); 27Sakamoto & Yone (1978); 28-Kawatsu (1972); 29-Gatlin& Wilson (1983); 30-Ogino & Yang (1979); 31-Ogino & Yang (1978);
32-Wekell,Shearer & Houle (1983); 33-Ishak & Dollar (1968); 34-Ogino & Yang (1980);35-Yamamoto et al., (1983); 36-Poston,
Combs & Leibovitz (1976); 37-Lall (1979); 38-Gatlin & Wilson (1984a); 39-Woodall & LaRoche (1964); 40-NRC (1983);41Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984); 42-Gatlin & Wilson (1986).

Despite the adequate presence of macro and trace elements in virtually all raw
ingredients commonly used for fish feeding (Tacon and De Silva, 1983), and the ability of
fish and shrimp to absorb certain trace elements from the surrounding water, mineral
deficiencies may arise under intensive culture conditions through:

The absence of a specific macro or trace mineral premix within the diet (for
details of specific mineral premix formulations see NRC, 1983).

Reduced mineral bioavailability through dietary imbalances. The availability and

utilization of dietary trace elements in fish or shrimp is dependent upon the
dietary source and form of the element ingested, the adequacy of stores within
the body, interactions with other mineral elements present in the gastro-intestinal
tract and within the body tissues (antagonisms), and finally by element
interactions with other dietary ingredients or their metabolites (ie. vitamins, fibre
and phytic acid). For example, Table 13 shows the relative availabilities or
apparent absorption efficiency of various forms or sources of dietary phosphorus
for three fish species.

Table 13. Availability of various sources of dietary phosphorus in fish

Phosphorus source

Channel catfish

Common carp

Rainbow trout

(%)

(%)

(%)

Sodium phosphate, mono

90

94

98

Potassium phosphate, mono

94

98

monobasic

94

94

94

dibasic

65

46

71

tribasic

13

64

Phosphates

Calcium phosphate:

Fish meals
Fish meal, white

018

66

Fish meal, brown

24

74

Fish meal, anchovy

40

Fish meal, menhaden

39

Egg albumin

71

Casein

90

97

90

Brewers yeast

93

91

Rice bran

25

19

Wheat germ

57

58

Wheat middlings

28

Corn, ground

25

Soybean meal, with hulls

50

Soybean meal, dehulled

2954

Phytate

838

019

Protein sources

Plant products

Source: NRC (1983)

For certain fish species the availability and absorption of phosphorus and other major
elements (ie. calcium) from fish meal and meat and bone meal is further complicated by
the absence of an acid-secreting stomach, which is essential for normal bone
solubilization. For stomachless fish species soluble monobasic inorganic salts or
bioavailable organic salts must therefore be provided in the diet. Conversely, within plant
proteins a large proportion of phosphorus is present as organically bound phytates. Not
only is phytic acid phosphorus believed to be largely biologically unavailable, but phytic
acid also has the capacity to chelate other trace elements (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt,
molybdenum) and by so doing may render them biologically unavailable to the fish
during digestion (Spinelli, 1980; Robinson and Wilson, 1985).
Under practical farming conditions mineral deficiency signs often arise from a dietary
imbalance of calcium; due to the antagonistic effect of excess dietary calcium on the
absorption of phosphorus (Nakamura, 1982) and the trace elements zinc, iron and
manganese (Lall, 1979). For example, the bioavailability of zinc, and to a lesser extent
manganese within white fish meal has been found to be much lower than that contained
in brown fish meal (which has a much lower ash and calcium content; Ketola, 1978;
Watanabe, Takeuchi and Ogino, 1980). Thus in experimeental feeding trials with rainbow
trout, chum salmon and common carp fed on diets in which white fish meal was used
without a trace element supplement, overt trace element deficiency signs arise such as
depressed growth, short body dwarfism and cataracts (Watanabe, Takeuchi and Ogino,
1980; Satoh et al., 1983, 1983a; Yamamoto et al, 1983).

6.6.2 Mineral toxicity

A major hazard which may be associated with the use of dietary feed ingredients is the
presence of potentially toxic mineral elements such as the accumulative elements
copper, lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, fluorine, selenium, molybdenum and

vanadium. For example, contamination with copper may arise from products fermented
within copper lined vessels (ie. brewery by-products), or within pig and poultry excreta
from the use of copper based growth stimulants or anti-fungal agents. Other feed
ingredients which may contain potentially toxic metal contaminants include: poultry
manure (arsenic); paper pulp waste (lead); fish meal (mercury, selenium, arsenic,
cadmium, and lead); poultry by-product meals (zinc); shellfish (zinc); seleniferous
accumulating plants of the genera Astragalus and Machaeranthera, or cereals grown in
seleniferous soils (selenium); and Antartic krill (fluorine).
Dietary toxicity signs which have been reported in fish and shrimp under controlled
laboratory conditions include:
Ads by BlockAndSurfAd Options

Element
Zinc

Species
Common carp (C. carpio)

Toxicity sign 1
Reduced growth (dietary level above 300 mg/kg Zn; 1)
Reduced growth, feed efficiency and haematocrit (dietary
2
Copper
Channel catfish (I. punctatus)
level above 15 mg/kg;2)
Selenium
Reduced growth and feed efficiency, high mortality (dietary
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
levels above 13 mg/kg; 3,4); nephrocalcinosis (4,5)
Channel catfish (I. punctatus) Reduced growth (dietary levels above 15 mg/kg; 6)
Cadmium Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) Scoliosis, hyperactivity (710)
Common carp (C. carpio)
Scoliosis, lordosis, black tail, anaemia, degeneration of
Lead
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
caudal fin (11)
Chromium Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) Reduced growth and feed efficiency (12)
Iron
Penaeids (P. japonicus)
Reduced growth (dietary levels above
0.014%; 13)
1

1-Jeng and Sun (1981); 2-Murai, Andrews & Smith (1981); 3-Hilton, Hodson &Slinger (1980); 4-Hicks, Hilton & Ferguson
(1984); 5-Hilton & Hodson (1983);6-Gatlin & Wilson (1984a); 7-Koyama & Itazawa (1977); 8-Koyama & Itazawa (1977a);9Koyama & Itazawa (1979); 10-Roch & Maly (1979); 11-Johansson-Sjbeck & Larsson(1979); 12-Tacon & Beveridge (1982); 13Kanazawa, Teshima & Sasaki (1984)
2

Recent trials with channel catfish failed to demonstrate a deleterious effect of40 mg supplemental copper/kg diet on growth,
feed efficiency or blood chemistry(Gatlin and Wilson, 1986a). The absence of dietary copper toxicity has alsobeen reported for
rainbow trout fed 150 mg supplemental copper or 500 mg totaldietary copper (Knox, Cowey and Adron, 1982, 1984).