Linguistics

Linguistics Program
20/10/2012
Part 1
1-What
2-What
3-What
4-What

is language (Revision).
is historical linguistics (philology or historicism).
linguistics is not (traditional grammar).
is modern linguistics (principal characteristics).
Part2: Major structuralism school
5-Geneva school (European structuralism with De Saussure).
6-The Prague School (functionalism).
7-American structuralism with (Bloomfield).
Part 3:
8-Structuralism and phonology.
9-Structuralism and morphology.
10-Structuralism and syntax.
Part 4: Post-Structuralism
11-The American linguist Zelling Harris ->teacher of Chomsky.
12-Generativism with Chomsky.
Reference:
-Allen, J.P.B and Corder, SP (1918) papers in applied linguistics Oxford
University Press.
-Berry, N (1997) Introduction to systemic linguistics London. Batsford
-Bolinger, D (1968) aspects of language New York Harcourt Brace.
-Chomsky, N (1957) Syntactic Structures The Hague Mouton.
- Crystal, D (1971) Linguistics Penguin Books.
-De Saussure, F (1915) Cours de Linguistiques General (Paris Payot).
- Loyons, J (1970) New Horizons in linguistics Penguin Books.
- Napoli, D.J (1996) Linguistics: An Introduction Oxford University Press.
-The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language by David Crystal
(1995) Cambridge University Press.
-Naom Chomsky by Wolfgang Sperlich (2006) Reakton Books LTD.
-Chomsky Ideas and Ideals by Neal Smith (1999) Cambridge University
Press.
-An Introduction to Linguistics and Language Studies by Ann Mc Cabe
(2011) Equimos.
- Whats linguistics: An Introduction by Napoli, D.J Oxford University Press.
-Modern linguistics. The results of Chomsky Revolution by Smith, N and
Wilson, D Harvest Press.
- An Introduction to Linguistics by Loretto Todd 1987 Longman York Press.
1

Linguistics

- A Theory of Syntax, Minimal Operations and Universal Grammar by

Norbert.

Linguistics

DEFINITION OF LANGUAGE
Language is a means of communication that is used by the members of
the same society, community (milieu).
Language is a social as well as individual phenomenon
It enables human beings to communicate orally or in writing.
Language reflects (mirrors-give an idea) the culture of the society of
speaker who use it.
Its the primary system through which all the components (elements) of
the culture are expressed.
Spoken language is primary and universal, no group of people without
spoken language has never been discovered.
All human beings in a given community speak well enough and
understand to carry out (to do-to perform) the basic activity of life. Many of
these same people cannot read or write. There is no primitive language.
Every language in the world is rich enough and sufficiently complete for
its speaker.
-Every language speaker can produce an infinite number of sentences,
he also has the competence to recognise all the sentences of the language.
-Writing is considered as secondary system derived from speech and not
complete in many ways (no rhythm, no intonation, no stress no gestures.
The fundamentals (principals-characteristics) of language:
1- Language is a sound
2- Language is linear (successive succession of word e.g: I go to London,
one word after another)
3- Language is systematic (we have to respect an organized structure of a
sentence it shoul be meaningful.
4- Language is a system of system (there is morphology,
syntax.....................etc 5 levels)
5- Language is arbitrary
6- Language is conventional
7- Language is creative
8- Duality of pattering (double articulation) that relate the sub systems of
sound with the sub systems of meaning. (economic)

Linguistics

Questions: How do we communicate? Spoken form, writing form

Speech and writing difference: speech is primary writing secondly
Writing lakes gesture: no intonation, no stress no melody, no rhythm...
Incomplete in comparacy
Relationship between culture and language?
-

Language

is

used

to

give

an

idea

about

culture/

Reflecting

culture/language mirrors culture.

What is culture? Set of values (history...etc) shared by the members of the
same society
Does language change all the time? Yes
Dialect changes from a place to another because of geography, history,
culture, educational background, gender e.g: men dont use the same
language as women
Functions of language:
-Informative function
-Interactive function (expression of feeling)
Majors element in a conversation
Speaker ->encode the message / Listener-> decode the message
Situation (context: message)
Sometimes there is a gap (disfonctionnement-fr-)
Language disorder (I dont get the meaning)
Difference between arbitrary and conventional? Language is:
Arbitrary: no bound, no direct connection between an object and the name
given to that object.
Conventional: people agree about the name e.g: windows
Characteristics of language?
-Language is creative, is sound, linear, systematic, system of systems,
arbitrary, conventional.
-Double articulation; language is a system that relates 2 sub systems, sub
system of sound and sub system of meaning.
4

Linguistics

-Language is economic: with a small number of words, we can produce an

infinite number of sentences.
Two major function of language

Interactive

informative
Communication
(function)
Askingresponding
*In any communicative situation
channel
Speaker ==== listener
(encode)
msg
(decode)
We have to share the same code to understand each other.
Sometimes there is a gap because of: disorder of language (they dont
pronounce correctly for that there is no understanding)
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE:
Language is sound: speak comes before writing
Linear: e.g: I go to London => one word after another => succession of
words
Systematic: combination of words according to rules which must be
respected (grammar, structure)
System of systems: phonology, phonetics, syntax, semantics,
morphology.
Arbitrary: there is no direct relationship between the shape/object and the
noun e.g: window there is no connection between the object and the name
given to this object.
Conventional: agreement between people to call things for example
people agreed to call window in this way.
Creativity: using rules we can produce an infinite number of sentences.
Double articulation: (duality of pattering)
System relates two systems

Sound
meaning
Small number of sound=> we can produce=>a large number of units
(words, sentences)
Sounds in any language are limited
Economic: with small number of words we can produce an infinite number
of sentences.
5

Linguistics

The relationship between language and culture: language is used to

express or to give some ideas about culture (language reflects culture)
What is culture?
Is a set of values (civilization, traditions, art, history, religion...) shared by
the members of the same society.

Linguistics

HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
Historical linguistics is the study of language change and how different
languages have developed over time because in the course of history
languages have been subject for change. The study of language change
over time, among the most famous figure of historicism we can mention:
Jasperson, Herman and Sumpson (most important).
Historicism has 5 main concerns
1-To describe the changes in languages
2-To reconstruct the history of languages and determine their relationship
(relatedness) and group them into language families
3-To develop theories about how and why languages change
4-To describe the history of speech communities
5-To study the history of words (etymology)
Sub field of historical linguistics (branches):
1-Comparative linguistics: concerned with comparing languages to
establish their historical relatedness, reconstruct the prehistoric protolanguages and establish language families.
2-Etymology: study of the history of the words, when they entered a
language, from what source (origin) and how their forms and meanings
have changed.
3-Dialectology: is the study of linguistics dialect and the varieties of
languages.
4-Morphology: it study the internal structure of words and how they
changed over time e.g: old English & modern English.
5-Syntax: its the study of the internal structure of sentences and the rules
for constructing them e.g: old English we didnt use auxiliary verb in
question like: you know? NOT- do you know?
6-Phonology: its study the phonemic system of the language and the
sound change over time e.g: in old English: we didnt say house but hoos.
7-Symantic: studies the change in the meaning of words and sentences.

Linguistics

Why does language change? Technological development

The sociolinguistic factor (exchange of knowledge between people)
The psychological factor: language acquisition by children for example:
parents use abbreviations and new words to talk to their children.
-change in pronunciation: Im going to => Im gonna
-The shift from old English to Middle English to Modern English.
How did historical linguistic start? With philology (study of ancient text
script and document (writing record....) then comparative linguistics:
comparing languages & relatedness between them & grouping languages
into families according to similarities & differences.
Then diachronic then modern linguistics
Why studying historical linguistics? Show how they are related to each
other to classify(to group languages in families).
19th century diachronic study of language? Development of language
(De Saussure 1st who gives that name)
20th century synchronic linguistics? The study of language at a
particular point in time not all the time (un tat de langue)
What is meant by proto language? The origin language: very first
language, from what origin did language descend.
Why do languages change? Different culture, people, borrow word from
other language e.g English-> French
New means of technology (revolution...
Sociological factors e.g: language acquisition by children e.g: use
abbreviation for children by parent
Functional explanation e.g: change in pronunciation shift of ancient English
to modern English (easier, not like Shakespeare English)
What is meant by Etimology? Study of sub field (branch) of historical
language (origin changes)
Language is called living phenomenon because it is used in our daily life
everywhere
Philology

Comparative linguistics

Diachronic

Modern linguistic -> structuralism

8

Linguistics

-What is traditional Grammar?

Generally speaking Traditional Grammar is an old school refers to Greek and
Latin philosophers who wanted to know the origin of languages and the
relationship between words and meanings.
-Why it is called Traditional? It was called in the past at the 18 century
Prescriptive School but nowadays Traditional Grammar because the rules
used by Greek and Latin are no longer used now.
What is Grammar?
Is the set of the structural rule that are used in the construction or
combination of phrases, clauses, sentences...
-What is the difference between Grammar, syntax and morphology?
From Grammar we have branches: morphology, syntax
Morphology: it studies the internal structure of words and how they
changed over time e.g: old English & modern English.
Syntax: its the study of the internal structure of sentences and the rules
for constructing them e.g: old English we didnt use auxiliary verb in
question like: you know? NOT- do you know?
-What are the principals of Traditional Grammar?
1-Prescriptive (normative approach): tells us how we should write and
speak, are called norms or rules of correctness and we should follow (called:
say and dont say) this is true you have to follow and this is wrong you have
to avoid.
2-Subjectivity: Giving personal evaluation (in the past grammar gathered
and say lets say this and not say that) base on personal or humanistic
approach of language.
They thought that writing is more important and has the priority over
speaking.
3-Traditional grammarians restrict themselves on a particular style of
writing (formal) and impose it on people. (priority to the written form over
the spoken ones)
Critics of Traditional Grammar
-Illogical because it is normative (impose rules), subjective (so is not
scientific study).
-Neglect speech (write first)
-Literary style, impose the style restricted to upper social class and wanted
to impose this to all class.
-No social variety no dialect, they neglected this
9

Linguistics

-Traditional Grammar is diachronic De Saussure disagree

-Literary style itself, is a subject of change, we cannot impose it as a
standard.

10

Linguistics

Traditional grammar
T.G pays more attention to the
written form of the language
T.G is prescriptive
T.G is interested more in syntax
T.G puts emphasis on grammar
than on any other aspect of the
language
T.G deals with language mostly
from the diachronic point of view
No notational conventions were
used

Linguistics
Linguistics puts emphasis on the
spoken medium
Linguistics is descriptive.
Linguistics has a broader scope for
research
Linguistics analyses all the aspects
of language
Linguistics assumes that
synchronic study has a priority over
diachronic study
Specific notational conventions
used to refer to the date of
language.

11

Linguistics

Modern linguistics
Modern linguistics is a scientific study of language, it follows a scientific
methodology and procedures (steps). Steps are:
1-Objectivity: the linguist should observe the language, set up by
hypothesis, test them and then accept or reject them accordingly; he should
also study language away from his personal judgement or feelings.
2-Descriptivism: the linguist tries to describe and explain how a language
works and not to impose norms (standards) on people on how it should work
or what is correct or incorrect (it is explanatory)
3-Consistency: the absence of contradictions between the different parts
of the total statements (its a sort of link between the parts)
4-Exhaustivism: the adequate (complete) treatment of the different
element of the language from the smallest to the highest, from sound to
sentence.
5-Economy: the linguists should use short statements and use as few
terms as possible.
6-Systematicness: the linguists should be selective and should give
organization to his work by concentrating on one aspect of his subject
matter.
7-Explicitness (clarity) any scientific methodology should explain things
in a clear way i.e each data should be clear.
8-Specticism (there is doubt): the linguist should always discuss and requestion the truth of the statements, they should prove it, base his
experience.
The linguistic should always discuss and re-question the truth for its
statements, he should take as little as possible for granted and examine
language as for the 1st time i.e the ability to be verified in time and space.
9-The linguist should never pay attention to the laymens ( someone who is not trained
in or does not have a detailed knowledge of a particular subject ) prejudices (judgement-opinion)
e.g: it is wrong to say that classical Arabic is purer than the Algerian Arabic
12

Linguistics

(not based on scientific methodology), but the linguistic should say give me
the evidence.
Questions:
The linguists are scientific (should use short sentences and go to the point)
What is the difference between empiricism and rationalism?
Empiricism: all language comes from experimentations (opposed to
rationalism):
1-observation
2-make hypothesis
3-make experimentation (to check)
Rationalism: based on reason of mind (its logical)
2-The linguists should study language for sake of language? Study
language for itself (how language is .......................and how it works) no in
relation with other fields or language, the purpose is for that language.
Microlinguistics (or core linguistics): phonology (study the level of
language), phonetics, morphology, syntax, lexicology, semantics and
pragmatics.
Macrolinguistics: (major branches deal with sub-fields derived from social,
cutural............)
Sociolinguistic, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, evolutional linguistics,
applied linguistics, computational linguistics, psycholinguistics.

13

Linguistics

16/12/2012
Geneva school European Structuralism

De Saussures major dichotomies are :
1-Synchronic/Diachronic
4-signifiant/Signifi
2-Langue/Parole
5-Prescriptive/Descriptive
3-Syntagmatic/Paradigmatic
Language:
Saussure studies language for itself
Saussure studies language as a living phenomenon
Language is a dynamic social activity which people use to communicate this
def..........
Language is a system of signs.
Diachronic study is the total study of Synchronic study
19th century diachronic study of language? Development of language
(De Saussure 1st who gives that name) and examine the evolution of
language through time.
20th century synchronic linguistics? The study of language at a
particular point in time not all the time, as a living whole (un tat de
langue)
Saussure
emphasizes
on
Study language for language
Synchronic study
(social code)
Utterance => pronounced (sentences, words...)
Dichotomies

lang Parole -act of speakingue

Language system
Dichotomies
Syntagmatic (distributional)
Paradigmatic (substitutional)
The combination of words

To change a word in a sentence by a word

in our mind and who doesnt exist in the
sentence

Dichotomies
Signifiant
Signified (semantic image)
Combination of letter e.g: c.u.p
The meaning e.g: a cup
acoustic image
The name is the result of convention
Dichotomies
14

Linguistics

Synchronic- The study of language

at a particular point in time not all
the time (un tat de langue)

Diachronic - Development of
language (De Saussure 1st who
gives that name)

Questions:
De Saussure is the chief runner of structural linguistics
What is semiotics?
Is the science of linguistic signs.
What is the definition given to language by De Saussure?
He was the 1st to consider language as a system of signs and also a
structure.
2-What is the difference between syntegmatic and Paradigmatic?
Syntagmatic (distributional) combination of words according to rules.
Paradigmatic (substitutional) substitute words that can replace another
word but must be from the same category.
3-What is meant by syntagmatic relationship?
Words are combined to form a meaningful sentence under specific rules.
What is syntagme?
Sentence itself (the construction, the combination, the structure itself)
What is paradigmatic relationship?
Replacing (substituting) words from the same category?
What is meant by paradigm?
class of element that share grammatical function (equivalent in function)
What is meant by dichotomies?
Dichotomies means 2 opposite aspect of same things (like *2 face of a coin)
or opposite pairs.
De Saussure is a scientific linguist
What was the basic
........................................................................................................................................................................

Considering language as a living phenomenon

Language as a system of signs
15

Linguistics

independent.............................................................................................................................................
...........................................

The purpose: 1- consider language as a system/2-study the organization of

the system (language)/3-study the relationship between the elements of
language.

3Syntagmatic/Paradig
Axis of
matic

combination
(Select the rules)

1Paradigmatic

Synchronic/Diachron

relationship

ic

(The elements are

Studying language

equivalent in
function)

De Saussures
major dichotomies

2-Langue/Parole

Competence
performance
(spe

16

4-signifiant/Signifi
Signifier/ Signified
/
Sign

form
meaning
sound
concept/idea
acoustic
semantic
Image
image
/tebl /

FUNCTIONALISM WITH PRAGUE SCHOOL

Functionalism was born into structuralism.
The best representatives of functionalism were the linguistic of Prague School which was
founded in 1926. This circle was dealing not only with Slavic language but also with
English. They were considered as functionalists or they saw language in terms of
function. They tried to understand the functions of the different components of language
and how the nature of one component can determine the function of the nature of
others. They produced a set of principles:
1- They made a distinction between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics: Physical study.
Phonology: linguistic study-Studies sounds in relations to language.
2- Studied phoneme and its distinctive features. According to them a phoneme (the
smallest phonological unit) is a set of distinctive features that distinguish one sound
from another. This idea of distinctive features was formulated by Roman Jockobson in
1942.
3-They established the minimal pairs test. Its used to establish the phonemes of a
language.
4-They introduced the Notion of Binarity (P/b).= a kind of classification to make
comparison between sounds.
5-They made difference between the psychological subject and the Grammatical subject.
The psycho is performing the action or the real doer, even though its not the
grammatical subject.
6- Difference between theme and rheme. The psyco subject is the theme about which a
comment is made in the sentence. This king of analysis is called Functional sentence
perspective. It deals with how information is presented over the sentence.
Functionalism is to study the function of the sentence, they were interested in the
different functions of the different elements of the language itself, they were interested
in studying phonemes and how do these phonemes to meaning.
Functionalists work was based on De Saussures work, Its a continuation. They followed
his way.
They rejected something and put emphasis on other thing. Functionalism was born into
structuralism.
Interests: studying the function of language.
Different elements of the sentence
We should look at structure but we should look at the function itself. They based their
study on communication because language is used to communicate. They emphasized
communicative act before dealing with constituents of sentence.
How the sentence is preventative
Function
}
Before dealing with structure
Communicative act
Principles
Principles
1- They made difference between phonetics* and phonology (sound system of language)
* perception of speech sound (physiological)
Functionalists were the 1st to make the difference
2- they studied the distinctive phonemes of language (what makes these phonemes
different from each other/voiced/voiceless, fortis/lenis.
3-They establish the function of the notion
4-they introduced the minimal pair test (two words that differ in only one phoneme. (hatbat/cat-bat) 2 words differs in 1 phoneme

They differentiated between Grammatical and psychological subject.

They introduced the notion of Binarity (type of comparison)
P -bilabial
b -bilabial
-Plosive
-Plosive
-voiced
-voiceless
The door was opened by John
G.S
Psychological the real doer* They made difference between theme and rheme
My mother cooked lunch
theme
rheme (comment on the topic/what happened)
Questions : How was functionalism born (the roots)? It was a continuation to
structuralism, it was based on Saussures theory. In 1926, reaction or continuation of
structuralism (logical succession)? It was a continuation. Functionalism was born on the
base of structuralism and add on it.
Why do we produce utterances?
To communicate, the purpose of producing utterance is to convey message.
What is a phoneme? The smallest phonological unit.
The smallest linguistic unit that is able, when combined with other such units, to
establish word meanings and distinguish between them.
Distinctive1 feature2
1-Distinctive: distinguish between 2 sound thanks to them we distinguish between
features.
2-Features: characteristics-series
Minimal pairs: 2 words that differ only in one phoneme
Functionalism was born into structuralism (logical succession)
The structure itself is not enough but we have to add the function they study the
function of the sentence (which is to communicate a message) they study how the
information are presented not what are the constituents of the sentence.
The structure comes after this is the difference between functionalism and structuralism
The basic principal of functionalism
Study different function of the different element of language.
Made distinction between phonetic and phonology
Phonetics is the physical study of the production or perception of sound
Phonology deals with the sound function in the language, study the sound system of one
language.
Establish minimal pair
Changing meaning fat/hat
Notion of :1- Binarity: (kind of classification that let us makes comparison between
sounds)
e.g: P and B are bilabial plosive but p is voiceless ans B is voiced (absence of voice or
vibration in the vocal folds)
2- Psychological and grammatical: The book was reads by John
(psychological : John (real doer/performer of the action)
Grammatical object: book
3-Theme and Rheme: e.g: my mother is cooking lunch
theme or the topic Rheme (comment on the topic/what
happened)
My mother is the topic
What happening to my mother: the comment is the rheme made about the topic
addition information.
e.g: Jane stands on the table
On the table stand James
Team
Rheme
Team
Rheme

This king of .. functional sentence perspective analyzing rheme and team

Notion of neutralization

Feburary, 2013
Second year (all groups)
Duration: 2 hours
First Examination in Linguistics
Choose one of the following questions (20pts)
Question 01:
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of F.DE Saussure in the
development of Modern Linguistics
Question 02:
Traditional Grammar is prescriptive rather than descriptive.
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the above statement.
Best of luck

Correction
Rules in the exams of Mme Benzerouk
Pay attention to your style of writing (use the techniques you have learned in the other modules
e.g: writing: introduction, 2 paragraphs at least, concluding
Be careful the spelling and grammatical mistakes
Dont forget the punctuation and cohesions
Dont give the same examples seen in class with Madam Benzerouk.
Never use abbreviation like lg for language and st for sentence.
Topic 1:
It is about what De Saussure bring like language is a system of system, a structure and a living
phenomenon + dichotomies
Topic 2:
It is not a comparison between traditional grammar and modern linguistics

Question 01:
Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of
F.DE Saussure in the development of Modern Linguistics

Modern linguistics started to develop in 18 th century and reached the

golden age of philology in 19th century under the heading of the Swiss
linguists Ferdinand De Saussure.
In opposition to the totally historical view of language of the previous
hundred years. Saussure emphasized the importance of seeing language
from two distinct and largely exclusive points of view. Which he called
synchronic and diachronic. For De Saussure the distinction was essential.
Synchronic linguists sees language as a living whole, existing as a state at a
particular point in time (un tat de langue, as Saussure put it). To consider
historical material is to enter to domain of diachronic linguistics. This deal
with the evolution of a language through time, as a continually changing
medium a never ending succession of language states. So, this important
concept introduced because FDS, who saw it as a major dimension of
language study until the twentieth century, most studies of language were
diachronic in character investigation long-term changes in pronunciation,
grammar, or vocabulary, such as from Indo-European into Latin, from
Germanic into English, or from Middle English into modern English. After De
Saussure, the emphasis shifted away from the historical approach; modern
linguistics became primarily a synchronic subject.
Significant and signifi
Saussure accepted that there must be two sides to meaning, but
emphasized that the relationship between them was arbitrary. His labels for
the two sides were signif (that is, the thing signified) and significant (that
is, the thing which signifies). Other pairs of terms could be used to make
the same kind of distinction:concept versus acoustic image is one
possibility which Saussure himself suggested; content versus expression
is another, later suggestion. Saussure calls this relationship of signified to
signifier a linguistic sign. The sign for him, is the basic unit of
communication; a unit within the language of the community. Being a
relationship, and part of langue, it is thus a mental construct-but we must
remember that Saussure viewed such construct as nonetheless real (he
refers to the sign as a concrete entity, at one point). Langue, in this way,
can be viewed as a system of signs.

07/04/2013
American structuralism Bloomfield
Spoken language is important
American Structuralism appeared as a reaction to traditional grammar. It
started with the book of Bloomfield entitled Language
Language is considered as a structure
Study is scientific: Step up hypothesis then verification in order to draw a
conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest..)
Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to
grammar.
He made the difference between syntax and morphology
The relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and
other sentences
Introduced the notion of form class (category) that have similar function
Open close: form class of verb which are substitutional (we can change
them) Saussure said paradigm
Bloomfield Studied language in terms of stimulus-response
Bloomfield studied language from a behaviouristic approach (based on
behaviourism. Stimulus and response (Pavlovs experience was the 1 st who
study it)
American Structuralism is corpus based, Bloomfield reject the isolation we
should study language as a whole no separation of data.
American

Structuralism

is

taxonomic

we

observe

we

describe-

classification but not explanation we are not obliged to explain.

American Structuralism excludes the study of meaning and gave priority not
to meaning (its abstract), the meaning is something abstract so not
scientific, the form...........Bloomfield studied the surface structure not the
deep structure (which is the meaning).
The major point is the analyse of the sentence.
Immediate constituent analysis
Immediate constituent
Analysis I.C.A
Construction (the sentence =the
Constituents
sentence itself)
For Bloomfield each sentence can be analyzed in term of 2 things.

Banniery cut
(done by two-step
by step-always per
2)

Immediate
constituent The young

1- The young girl eats a kiwi

1st constitution (the sentence)
Predication subj-.

(subject+predicate)

girl

eats a kiwi

The

Analyse this
sentence

young girl

Complementation

young

girl

Ultimate
(final)
constituent
cannot go

eats
modificati
on

a kiwi

eat

kiwi

The example of Bloomfield:

The example of
Bloomfield

Poor John ran away

Poor John
Poor

John

ran away
ran

away

Grammatical ties (relationship): relate the constituent to each other

5-Grammatical complementation:
1- Predication (relationship between subject and predicate.)
2-Coordination ((,)(.)(;)) means of punctuation.
3-Subordination (who,that,which).from, at relative pronouns,
prepositions.
4-Complementation: direct object, indirect object
5-Modification: Happy / unhappy (we modify), write-> writes
I-C-A
Tree Diagram
Just analyze the elements we do not label +phonetic transcription
them. We dont give them structure
(N.P/V/VP..)

Questions
-Origin of American structuralism?
Anthropologist Franz Boas who was interested in Indian tribess
languages.
Then Bloomfield
-How did Bloomfield consider language?
As structure as De Saussure, he Bloomfield accepted something and
rejected others.
-What do you mean by scientific methods? Empirical study based on
observation.........etc.
- American structuralism is descriptive?
Its modern so descriptivism (study how people use the language)
-Major contribution of Bloomfield to structuralism:
Immediate constituent.
Language is considered as a structure
Studying language scientific: Experience-> hypothesis -> verification-> in
order to draw a conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest)
Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to
grammar.
Made difference between syntax and morphology
The relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and
other sentences...................?
Introduce the notion of form class (category) that have similar function.
..................... open close form class of verb which are substitutional (we can
change them) Saussure called them paradigm.
7- Mentalism: Behaviourism considers language as a kind of Behaviour in
terms of stimulus response. Mentalism considers language as related to the
mind and not to an external stimulus.
2.2. American structuralism : L. Bloomfield
2.2.1.Behaviorism and Science
Behaviorism was a school of psychology. According to this school science can only deal with
physical facts. Statements must be based on these physical characteristics. Thus, science must
observe, describe physical facts and induce descriptive generalizations.
2.2.2. Language : Stimulus and Response
Human behaviour is studied in terms of stimulus and response, consequently linguistic
behaviour becomes also a pattern of stimulus and response, where language plays a mediating
role.
2.3. American and European structuralism
American and European structuralism had the same objective : describe and classify linguistic
units, though they do not share the same perspective. European structuralists deal with
Saussure's notion of langue, whereas Americans' perspective derived from the limitations of
their behaviorist method.
3.1.1 European Structuralism
The method that a science should follow is called Descriptive Grammar. It is based on
observation
description (of data)
classification

Leonard Bloomfield (American linguist)

Language 1933
-Behaviouristic approach to the study of language, including a behaviorist
theory of semantics in which meaning is the relationship between stimulus
and verbal response.
-Complete neglect of semantics (No semantic theory which contains the law
of contradiction as one of its principles is expressible in behaviourist terms.
Ultimately (finally), American structural linguistics failed not for its
inadequacies in phonology, morphology, and syntax but because
behaviourism doesnt provide an adequate basis for the development of a
semantic theory for matural languages.
-In syntax, he led the foundations of the theory of constituent structure. He
generated so much enthusiasm for syntactic analysis that his . felt
that they were doing syntax for the 1st time in the history of linguistic.
-Bloomfieldian linguistics is often referred to as distributional, its aim is to
establish a full description of all the contexts in which the various categories
of words can be found in every day usage.
-Every language should be considered as a system of relations. Every unit,
every element in this system has no value by itself, if isolated.
-Bloomfield said:To put it briefly, in human speech, different sounds have
different meanings. To study this coordination of certain meaning is to study
language.
American Vs European Structuralism
- They shared number of features in studying language. They had the same
objective. Describing and classifying linguistic units.
-Both insist on the structural uniqueness of each language, and the
necessity of treating each language as a more or less coherent and
integrated system.
-They were working on the same thing but they did not know each other.
European
American
-Language is a system
-Language is a behavior
-Emphasize his study on language - Took interest in both diachronic,
upon the synchronic, focused on
synch arguing that language change
the present state of language.
through time (diachronic) as well as a
specific point in time.
- Focused on Indo European
-Indian languages, they consider that
languages. They didnt go to the
language is a living phenomenon.
field.
They went into the field.
- Language is socially shared
-Describe language in term of
system that makes production and stimulus approach.
comprehension possible.
2- American structuralism /(Bloomfield)
It started in 1933. Bloomfield did an experiment to emphasize the
relationship between the behavior and language or stimulus and response./
Bloomfield father of structuralism his book language has been the bible of
linguistics. Its been a continuation to his work intro to the study of
language.
Stimulus: something that encourages something to happen

s-> the girl feels hungry

r-> the girl asks John to pick an apple.
s-> Jack hears the girls request
r to s-> picking the apple and giving it to the girl.
The fact of being hungry is the stimulus that causes her to ask Jack to pick
apple from the tree (r)
Physical response: movement of lips
Linguistic response: mental movement
5 Main principles
1-Their study was corpus based (a collection of written and spoken
language), they rejected the idea of separating the data. They rejected
dichotomies especially langue and parole. They study language as whole.
They went to the field.
2-It was taxonomic (the process of organizing similar things, its based on
description thats why Its called description. They rejected explanation.
3-American structuralism rejected the study of meaning.
4-They restricted (themselves) their description of language to the surface
structure (not deep which is meaning, something abstract so not scientific)
5-They tried to formulate set of procedures to the analyses of language.
Stimulus: something that encourages something to happen.
The fact of being hungry-> stimulus which causes her to ask Jack to pick
apple from the tree (Reactions).
S->R S->R

Speech
S-> The girl feels hungry
Response -> The girl asks John to pick on apple.
S-> Jack hears the girls request.
R-> (Response to the stimulus) picking the apple a giving it to the girl.
-> physical response: movement of linguistics
-> Linguistic response: mental movement
Difference between American and European structuralism
They shared number of features in studying language both insist in the
structural uniqueness of each language; share a number of features in
insisting upon the necessity of treating each language as a more or less
coherent and integrated system.
They emphasized on the structural uniqueness of individual languages.
They were working on the same thing. They didnt know each other but they
shared the same point of view.
Saussure
Bloomfield describes language in term of stimulus approach.
Difference between them in studying language:
American Structuralism focused on Indian language, they consider that
language is a living phenomenon, they went into the field.
De Saussure: focused on Indo European language. They didnt go to the
field.

American Structuralism: It started with Bloomfield. Its also called

descriptivism. It was not challenged until Chomesky. Language for both of
them is a system. They share the structuraliste point of view;
5 principles (main):
1- Their study was corpus based. They went to the field; American
structuralism rejected dichotomies especially langue and parole. They didnt
study language separately.
2- It was taxonomic. Its based on description thats why its called
descriptivism. We describe language but dont explain.
3- American structuralism excludes the study of meaning from linguistic.
4-They restrict their description of language to the surface structure (not
deep which is meaning).
5-they try to formulate set of procedures to the analyze of language.
Language is
system
6
{
points
Sentence is
structure
Principles of language.
1- Study of language should be based on scientific study, draw conclusion,
generalize them->
2-Bloomfield wanted to study word structure and sentence structure
(relationship between them within language).
For Bloomfield each sentence can be analyses in term of 2 things:
1- The young girl eats a red apple
(__________________________v__________________________)
1st: construction (the sentence)
Subj-Than the verb
Predication

The young girl

Eats an apple
We can divide it into 2 major division (pair)

The
Young girl
eats
An apple

The

young
Girl

the
eat
s
an
Apple

young
girl
eat
s
an
apple
Ultimate constituent (last stage)
Chomsky->add transcription
There are 5 major grammatical
2-Complementation: Direct object, indirect object.

1-Predication: subject and predicate

3-Modification: for example: write -> writes
4-Coordination ((,)(.)(:)) means of punctuation
5-Subordination (which, who, that,) relative pronouns, prepositions.
De Saussure vs Bloomfield
1- Syntax: Saussure considered that sentences are combined thanks to
syntagmatic and paradigmatic his work was mainly linguistics
Bloomfield considered reaction to a stimulus. His work is rather..
2-Meaning: For De Saussure any sentence has got 2 forms: structure and
meaning.

21/04/2013
Morphology: in 1859 by august Shleider
Branch of grammar that study
Derivational (lexical) morphology
Know+ledge=knowledge
II-Inflectional morphology
To write: writes, wrote, ..
Notion of morpheme
Lexical (nouns-verb-obj..)
Free Functional
(articles,
prepositions,
conjunction
morphem
Derivational (affixes, prefix, suffixes,
es
boun infixes
d
Inflectional (tense, plurality, marks,
possessives
Morphological description (Bloomfield?)
The boys wildness shocked his teachers
Function morpheme lexical morpheme derivational inflextional morpheme
lexical morpheme inflectional morpheme derivational inflectional lexical
Morphemes and allomorphs
Ed

/id/
/d/
/t/

es

/s/
/z/
/es/

Take->took
Cut-> cut (zero morpheme )
Questions?
-Origin of morphology
Linguistics Greek philosophers
-Whats the definition of morphem?
Small
Introduced by Bloomfield and made different bound
-Difference between modern Morphology and traditional Morphology.
Derivational and reflectional morphology
e.g: How many ............in phonology

- Contribution of Bloomfield
* Developed morphology
* Sentence...
* Difference between free and bound morphem
Greek psychology ................. in Greek and .
Morphology is composed of morphology: shape of word (form)
Morphology is composed of logy......: study how they are...
Study or the internal structure of word, formed......
2 majors school..............
*Traditional morphology: interested in 2 major: description of the form of the
word e.g: quickly quick+ly
*Classifying sth
*Structural morphology as a reaction of traditional grammar: we can
describe word into categories according to grammatical function e.g: the
word impossible is composed of impo and ssible....hapiness
For Bloomfield morpheme is the smallest unit is..........grammatically ..;
(grammatical function) can be meaningful but if we add........
Definition
A morpheme is minimal linguistic sign (De Saussure significant/signified) we
have a sign is a unit that has 2 forms add meaning.
Bloomfield has add the notion of Free morpheme cant stand
Bound morpheme must be attached to a bound morpheme
e.g: happy ness
modern morphology: can be divided into 2
*derivational: study of a lexical formation of words: I have by mean of
affixation suffix
sings
*inflectional the change may be in form and in meaning e.g:
sang
helpfull/helpless
sing
sung
Study the.......... of the form of the word
singin
8 inflective forms
gs
But for cut there is an exception only 3 forms
cuts
-4 inflective forms:
cut
S plural, er comparative, ist superlative, s possessives cu
t

cutting

To Conclude:
Modern linguistic is ..;
-The derivation of the word
-The inflection of the word
-Compounding......hotel/motel
Contribution of Bloomfield:
5 majors contributions
Introduced the notion of morpheme minimal.. linguistic sign
Introduced the distinction of bound and free morpheme
Mad task of morphology, made it simple
Made task of morphology ........ determiner
Unfaithful -> 2 bound morpheme un+faithfull
4- difference between grammatical and lexical morpheme
Reader-readers-lexical?
5- Allomorphs: difference realisation of the same morpheme.
The environment in which it occurs

Whats is syntax?
It is a combination of morphemes, set of clause, phrases in order to make
sentence
We follow given order to provide given meaning
Bloomfield
(ICD) looking for structure
Chomsky
Grammaticality of sentence
Sentence grammatical/ungrammatical
Arrangement: morphemes are arranged in given order to provide the
meaning
Syntactic rules: determine how kind of morphemes are combined together
to get grammatical sentence (we say that sentence is well formed)
When the sentence is not grammatically (we say that the sentence is not
grammatically or ill-formed)
All these according to syntactic rules
Phrase structure rules
5 reasons to use syntactic rules
1- Syntactic help speaker to make judgement on the quality of sentence
2- Help the speaker to guess the ambiguity, whether the sentence is
ambiguous or not=> sentence has double meaning.
Visiting relative is boring => out of context
Action of visiting is boring/or the relative is boring
3-determine how morpheme are combined together (the right order of
morpheme)
Determine different part of sentence => how morpheme relate together
this is V+S+C
Determine difference between sentence
In immediate constituent analysis
Help us to show how are basic units are combined together (find structure)
Discovery of this structure
Discovering part to discover
Structure

Eeach morpheme
Group
Sub-group
Smallest unit
We analysis from the immediate constituent to the ultimate constituent.
Free structure rules.
Transformation generative grammar of rules
Concerns with syntactic ability or grammatical competence of speaker to
identify whether sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical
Syntactic ability
Chomsky prefers arrows diagrams, symbols => to give certain rules to
analysis.
The constructors
5 majors features
NP+VP
NP->Determine (NP+NP)
VP->V or [V+VP]
Recursive rules => using and we can make infinit number of sentence
We can join many NP by and, or
s-> NP+VP => from this rules we can generate infinite rules
e.g the girl eats an apple.
S->NP+VP
NP->Determiners+N
VP->V+NP
NP->Det+NP
Determiner->The+an
Analysis of Chomsky
V-> eat+s
He writes rules
Phrase structure analysis
Phrase marker
Three diagram

Phrase
Go further in analysis => there is derivation.
We go derive from sentence to small ultimate smallest unit=>called
morpheme.
Syntax: in Greek syntax means arrangement of words.
Is it any order? Not random
Syntax move from one level to another level.. a particular order to convey
meaning.
Syntactic rule (chomesky phrase structure rule)
Help to see whether the sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical
Well formed or ill formed
Determine the rule
5 majors ..........: help speaker or list to make judgement
To make the judgement whether it is ambiguious or not
Visiting relative can be boring (in exam change this exam)
Help us to determine: kind of morpheme
How this morpheme....
Relationship between morphemes and between sentences (preposition...)
Contributions
ICA help us to discover the structure (we analyse the construction into sub
group -> S.G to reach ultimate constituent till we get exact structure of our
sentence).
For Chomsky talks about the sentactic rules
Syntactic sentence from
Talks phrase structure rule
Analys sent by tree diagram (phrase marker)
We analys until we reach the final morphem)
Talks about deep structure (intensive transformational generative grammar)
From this rule we can produce (S->NP+VP)
I can apply this rule to...