Politecnico di Torino

Sedimentary Basins
Formation and evolution of sedimentary basins
& their geo-energy potential

Formation of sedimentary basins

Hanneke VERWEIJ
Email: jmverweij@gmail.com
7-11 January 2013

Sedimentary Basins
Formation and evolution of sedimentary basins
& their geo-energy potential

Formation of sedimentary basins

Mechanisms of basin formation
Classification of sedimentary basins
Characterization sedimentary basins

Evolution of sedimentary basins

Evolution plate-tectonic setting

Fluids, porosity, permeability
Compaction
Burial history
Temperature and heat flow

Geo-energy potential of sedimentary basins

Introduction
Geothermal energy potential
Introduction to petroleum systems

Evolution of petroleum systems

Sedimentary Basins
All those areas in which sediments can
accumulate to considerable thickness and be
preserved for long geological time periods
(Einsele 2000)

Genetic classification based on mechanisms of

basin formation

Mechanisms of Basin Formation

Sedimentary basins are related to prolonged
subsidence
Mechanisms for subsidence are related to
processes in lithosphere
Lithosphere is composed of plates that are in
relative motion to each other
Basin formation is related to plate tectonics

Plate tectonics and basin formation

Deformation

(Allen and Allen 2005)

Lithospheric plates are constantly moving. The motion of plates set up

plate boundary forces. These forces induce deformation of rocks
concentrated along the plate boundaries, where the plates are
colliding and moving away from each other.

Mechanisms of Basin formation

~ Major mechanisms for regional subsidence:
Loading of lithosphere causes flexural deformation (e.g.
topographic loading - mountains; volcanic loading;
sedimentary loading)
Isostatic consequences of changes in crustal/lithospheric
thickness (mechanically: due to lithospheric stretching and
erosion; thermally: cooling)
Dynamic consequences of asthenospheric flow, mantle
convection, and plumes (as related to buoyancy effects of
mantle temperature changes)

Genetic classification of basins

a. based on mechanisms of basin formation
(proposed by Allen and Allen 2005)

Classification of basins
REMEMBER:
Sedimentary basins are related to prolonged subsidence
Mechanisms for subsidence are related to processes in lithosphere
Lithosphere is composed of plates that are in relative motion to each other

Basin formation is related to plate tectonics

b. Basin classification related to plate tectonics:
Driving forces
Nature plate boundaries

Driving forces behind plate tectonics

2

Lithospheric plates move because of the convection of the mantle (1).

The plates keep moving because of ridge-push (2), and slab-pull (3)

(Kre Kullerud et al. 2003; www.eage.org )

Movement lithospheric plates

(Allen and Allen 2005)

Main lithospheric plates

3 types of plate boundary

Spreading: plates move away from each other

Colliding: plates are moving toward each other
Plates are moving parallel but in opposite directions
(Kre Kullerud et al. 2003)

Plate boundaries: diverging oceanic plates

mid-oceanic ridge

Diverging lithospheric plates: plates moving away from each other

Below MOR, the asthenosphere occurs at a higher level than normal; the material in
asthenosphere undergoes partial melting, resulting in formation of basaltic magma. This
magma moves upward to a magma chamber, a few km below the surface. When the
plates diverge, the empty space is filled with upward moving magma, forming new crust
Oceanic crust is characterized by a sequence of four rock types: pillow lava, dyke rock,
gabbro and ultramafic rock (sequence = ophiolite).

Mid Atlantic ridge cuts through

Iceland

Mid-Atlantic ridge cuts through

Iceland

Mid Atlantic ridge

Plate boundaries:diverging continental plates

Diverging continental African and Somalian plate

(stretching, thinning of lithosphere, formation of continental rift)

Future?
New ocean?

Plate boundaries: Convergent plates

ocean versus ocean
Example: Japan: oceanic Pacific plate is subducted below the Eurasian
plate (here also oceanic)

(Volcanic loading)

Plate boundaries: convergent plates

ocean versus continental
Example: along west coast of S America, the oceanic Nasca plate
is subducted below the continental South American plate

(Compression, volcanic and

topographic loading)

Plate boundaries: convergent plates

continental versus continental

Gradual destruction of oceanic crust in subduction zone

The two converging continents meet,

the subduction comes to a stop

Finally the two continents collide

(tectonic/topographic loading of
lithosphere)

Plate boundaries: convergent plates

continental versus continental
Example: ongoing collision between India and the Eurasian continent

Mountain building (Himalayas) (crust thickening,

topographic loading; compression)

Plate boundaries: transform faults

Example: San Andreas fault is a transform fault between the Pacific plate
and the North American plate

Genetic classification of basins

b. related to tectonic setting
Compressional setting
E.g. Foreland basins
Extensional setting
Grabens, rift basins, oceanic basins,
passive margins, intracratonic basins
Strike-slip setting
E.g. Pull-apart basins

Basin classification & characterization

Compressional setting: Foreland basins
Occur in compressive settings at
convergent plate boundaries; oceancontinent or continent-continent
Flexural basins: loading (e.g. by thrust
sheets) causes subsidence
Rate of subsidence greatest near (thrust)
loading
Elongate and highly asymmetrical basins
deepening towards the orogenic belt (or
magmatic arc)
Basins commonly occur in pairs
separated by orogenic belt (or magmatic
arc); peripheral and retro foreland basins

Basin classification & characterization

Foreland basins
Generally clastic high sediment input from adjacent
uplifts: clastic wedges; carbonates in some settings
Marine or non-marine fill: turbidites, pelagic, deltaic,
shoreface/shelf, fluvial
Basin fill adjacent to thrusting gets caught up in
deformation

Basin classification & characterization

Foreland basins

Depth foreland basin close to Himalaya = 6 km

(Allen and Allen 2005)

Basin classification & characterization

Foreland basins
Apennine foreland
basins, Italy

Bertello et al., 2008)

Basin classification & characterization

Foreland basins
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

Western Canada
Sedimentary Basin

Basin classification & characterization

Foreland basins
Western Canada Sedimentary Basin

(From Wright, 1984, in Wright

et al. 2008)

WE cross section: note the increasing thickness of the sedimentary fill of the basin
towards the Rocky Mountains

Basin classification & characterization

Extensional setting
Extension of the lithosphere results in the formation of :
intracratonic basins, grabens, rift basins, oceanic basins and passive margins

Basin classification & characterization

Intracratonic Basins
Continental basins that developed by continental stretching
but have failed to develop into either rifts or spreading
centers (other explanations have been proposed as well)
Occur away from plate boundaries in otherwise stable
cratonic areas
Slow rate of subsidence; Subsidence greatest towards
center basin
Broadly oval; not very deep; no major faults
Sedimentary fill: mainly terrestrial (fluvial,lacustrine);
marine (in case of flooding from adjacent oceans)

Basin classification & characterization

Intracratonic Basins
Example: Michigan Basin, USA

4 km of sediments
deposited over 500
My (8m/My)

Depth contours in
thousands of feet

Cross-section showing ages of

the stratigraphic units

Basin classification & characterization

Rift basins
Passive rifting:
1. Regional extension causes thinning
lithosphere (brittle extension upper crust and ductile
extension lower crust and mantle lithosphere) and
2. Passive upwelling of hot asthenosphere

Active rifting:
1. Hot mantle plume causes topographic
doming
2. Extension of lithosphere (gravitational
driven extension)
(Example active rifting: East African Rift)
(Allen and Allen 2005)

Basin classification
& characterization
Graben and rift basins
Passive rifting

(www.geo.arizona.edu)

Basin classification & characterization

Rift basins
Red Sea East African rift

Lake Tanganyiaka (length >

650 km, depth >1400
m;Tanzania) in Great African
Rift valley

Basin classification & characterization

Rift basins

Lake Baikal in Cenozoic rift Basin:

most voluminous fresh water lake
(length ~635 km, depth > 1600 m)

Basin classification & characterization

Rift basins
Duration of rifting stages: highly variable

* Period of main volcanic activity

Duration of rifting: 9-280 My

Duration of rifting: 7.5-210 My

(duration of seafloor spreading: 5-55 My)

(Ziegler and Cloetingh 2004)

Basin classification & characterization

Rift basins
Occur in different extensional settings
(continental, ocean)
Elongate valleys bounded by normal faults
Rapid fault-related syn-rift subsidence; post-rift
thermally controlled progressively slower
subsidence
Sedimentary fill continental rifts: initial syn-rift
deposits course continental (fluvial, lacustrinefreshwater or evaporitic, aeolian) and shallow
marine; post-rift progressively deeper finegrained deposits
Intrusive and extrusive rocks may be present

Burial history

Basin classification & characterization

Ocean basins
The actually rifting-apart of the continent: the asthenosphere rises
towards the surface, causing decompression and extensive melting.
New basaltic oceanic crust is formed.

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins
After initial ocean basin formation:

Sea-floor spreading takes over as

the ocean basin widens.
The rift sedimentary sequence is
buried beneath younger marine
sediments, and passive margin
develops

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins
World map showing modern passive margins

(Bradley 2008)

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins
Offshore Ghana

Transform faults

(Rupke et al., 2010)

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins
Ghana offshore

Post-rift units represent 99 Ma to ongoing relative passive infilling of the south

facing continental slope

(Rupke et al., 2010)

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins

Subsidence passive margin is due mainly to continued cooling of the

lithosphere and in addition to considerable loading of the sediments

Passive margin is overlying rifted, attenuated, crustal lithosphere

Massive subsidence occurs during this post-rift phase of passive margin

development; subsidence rate increases seaward

Seaward thickening prisms of shallow water marine sediments (overlying a

faulted basement with syn-rift sedimentary sequences, often of continental
origin)

Thick package of sediment near outflow of large rivers

Growth faults; salt tectonics

(14 km of sediments have been deposited off the east coast of New Jersey,
USA)

Basin classification & characterization

Passive margins
Morphology characterized by shelf, slope and continental rise
Shelf sediments can be clastic or carbonate
Water depth stays relatively constant on shelf
Slope/rise clastic material shed from continental shelf during
lowstands
Aprons/fans deposited along slope/rise
Pelagic sediments

Passive margins (continued)

Passive margins (continued)

(Unternehr et al., 2010)

Basin classification & characterization

Strike-slip basins

(Nichols 1999)

Regions of extension between two strike-slip faults

Relatively small (100-1000 km2)
Rapid subsidence (several kms in few million years)
At margins course sediments (alluvial fans), in centre lacustrine
sediments (continental setting), marine sediments
Lateral facies changes over short distances

Basin classification & characterization

Strike-slip basins
Example:
Strike slip basins along plate boundary
between Arabian plate (east) and
small Palestine block (west), e.g.
Dead Sea bounded by steep strikeslip faults; fluvial sedimentation by
Jordan River, plus alluvial fans

(Nichols 1999)

Basin classification & characterization

(Plate) tectonics is needed to create the

basins and determine their overall
geometry
The infill of the basins is sedimentary,
determined by e.g. depositional
environment
Similar sediment types can occur in basins
of different tectonic origin

Summary

Sedimentary basins: areas in which sediments can accumulate to

considerable thickness and be preserved for long geological time periods

Formation sedimentary basins: processes on large time and spatial scales;

great variation in duration of sediment basin formation (few to 100s Myrs)

Sedimentary basins are related to subsidence

Major mechanisms for regional subsidence:

Flexural (response to loading)
Isostatic (response to lithospheric changes in thickness due to stretching and
cooling)
Dynamic (response to asthenospheric flow, mantle convection, plumes)

Mechanisms for formation sedimentary basins are related to plate tectonics

(extensional, compressional, strike-slip basins)

Summary
Genetic classification of sedimentary basins (and tectonic setting)
Foreland basins (compressional setting)
Rift basins (extensional setting)
Intracratonic basins (away from plate boundaries)
Passive margins (extensional setting; post-rift)
Strike-slip basins (strike-slip setting)
Sedimentary basins have different dimensions (small strike-slip
basins of 100-1000 km2 to large foreland basins of 100s km wide
and 1000 kms length)