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E7IRLY J7IP7IN

LIFE

WORLD

LIFE

NATURE LIBRARY

LIBRARY

TIME READING

PROGRAM

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

THE

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GREAT AGES OF MAN

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GREAT AGES OF
A

MAN

History of the World's Cultures

E71RLY J71P7IN
by

JONATHAN NORTON LEONARD

and

The

Editors of

TIME-LIFE

TIME-LIFE BOOKS,

BOOKS

NEW YORK

TIME-LIFE

Jonathan Norton Leonard is a

and former staff writer for
Time-Life Books. For 20 years he worked for
Time Magazine as Latin American and Science
editor. In the latter position, Mr. Leonard han-

THE AUTHOR:

BOOKS

freelance
founder: Henry R. Luce 1898-1967
Editor-in-Chief: Hedley

Donovan

Chairman

Andrew

of the Board.

Heiskell

President: James R. Shepley

Chairman. Executive Committee: James A. Linen

Editorial Director: Louis

Roy

Vice Chairman:

EDITOR: Jerry

Banks

the globe. Although he has always been interested in Japan and the Japanese, his com-

prehension of the culture and accomplishments

Larsen

B,

C Whipple

its consultants. Among Mr. Leonard's recently published books are Ancient America,
into
in the Great Ages of Man Series, F/ig/it

with

Planning Director: Oliver

Text Director: Martin

E.

Allen

Mann

Space, Exploring Science and the volume Plan-

Art Director: Sheldon Cotler

ets in the LiFE

Chief of Research: Beatri ,ce T. Dobie

Director of Photography

Melvin

Assistant Text Directors

Ogden Tanner, Diana Hirsh

L.

Science Library.

Scott

Assistant Art Director: Arnold C. Holeywell

PUBLISHER: Joan D.

dled stories that originated in every quarter of

of that land has been greatly enriched with his

development of this volume in collaboration

E.

Korn

Executive Editor:

writer

THE CONSULTING EDITOR:

sity,

Manley

Leonard Krie-

History at Columbia Univerwas formerly Professor of History at Yale.

ger. Professor of

Business Manager: John Steven Maxwell

He is the author of The German Idea of Freedom and The PoUtics of Discretion and co-

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in collaboration

with

Public Relations Director: Nicholas Benton

THE COVER: A

GREAT AGES OF

IVIAN

SERIES EDITOR: Russell

Boume

samurai on horseback, clad

Editorial Staff for Early Japan:

in full battle regalia, storms after his foe during one of the civil wars that ravaged Japan in

Text Editor: Robert Tschirky

the 12th Century.

Picture Editor: Jean

Tennant

Designer: William Rose

Staff Writers:

The following

Marianna Kastner,

John von Hartz, Bryce Walker,

Production.

Edmund White
Don

in the

Norman

Airey. Nicholas Costino

Laboratory, George Karas; Time-Life

Nelson,

Time

Inc.

preparation of this book: Editorial

Jr.;

Library,

ONeil; Photographic

Peter Draz, Picture Collection, Doris

Chief Researcher: Peggy Bushong

Researchers:

individuals and departments of

gave valuable aid

News

Service.

Murray

Gart, Correspondents Erik Amfithealrof, Jerrold L SchecChang and Shoichi

ter, Takiko Kato, juntaro Nagase, S

Helen Lapham, Jacqueline Boel.

Alice Baker, Kathleen Brandes, Val

Chu.

Elizabeth Evans, Helen Greenway,

Sigrid von Huene, Arlene

Zuckerman

Imai (Tokyo), Margot

Hapgood (London), Ann Natanson

(Rome), Elisabeth Kraemer (Bonn). Maria Vincenza Aloisi

and Joan DuponI

(Paris).

Art Assistant: Anne Landry

EDITORIAL PRODUCTION

Graham

Production Editor: Douglas

B.

Quality Director: Robert

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Copy

Staff:

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L.

Rosalind Stubenberg,

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1968 Time

Inc. Alt rights reserved.

in

Canada.

Revised 1969. Reprinted 1972.

Library of Congress catalogue card

Barbara Hulls. Florence Keith

Picture Department: Dolores

Published simultaneously

Cox

Littles,

number 68-27297.

School and library distribution by

Silver Burdett

Company, Morristown, New

Jersey.

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION

COUNTRY OF CONTRADICTIONS
1

Picture Essay:

A VENERATED LAND

lo
21

THE ELEGANT SOCIETY

Pichne Essay:

RISE

TALES OF COURTLY LOVE

43

OF THE SAMURAI

Picture Essay:

THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR

65

MONKS AND MEN-AT-ARMS

THE COUNTRY AT

THROUGH EUROPEAN

THE NATION UNITED

Picture Essay:

Picture Essay:

Picture Essay:

Picture Essay:

THE WORLD

IN

A GARDEN

85

WAR

DESIGNS FOR LIVING

A POETIC SLICE OF

107

EYES

LIFE

A FEUDAL LORD S FORTRESS OF BEAUTY

125

147

A CLOSED JAPAN
Picture Essay:

KABUKl-A THEATER OF ESCAPISM

Chronologies, 183
Bibliography, 186
Credits and Acknowledgments, 187
Index, 188

169

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2009

http://www.archive.org/details/earlyjapanOOIeon

INTRODUCTION
Throughout most

of history Japan has been remote

from us of the West and

when

it

our attention,

to

When
came

but

all

has broken through

its

unknown but

isolation to

come

has never failed to amaze us.

it

Portuguese and then other Europeans

to

Japan

first

middle of the 16th Century,

in the

are the people

and

particular, the Japanese

have enjoyed throughout

peculiar balance between

their history

too great isolation and too

Japan was close

sea lanes of world

were

Asian

peoples.

most

the

Later,

when

admirable
Japan,

that

of

all

more

after

than two hundred years of self-imposed isolation,

was "rediscovered"
tury,

it

ability

in the

middle of the 19th Cen-

soon astounded Europeans by

among

non-Western lands

all

its

unique

to close

with

much

enough

own

and, appreciating the familiar, decided

contact with the

outside world.

China center of early

Japanese

In

most of

they found this feudal land reminiscent of their

the

historical experience.

their

commerce

North

great

the

to

and

civilization

main

to the

ample

to receive

cul-

from abroad. At the same time,

tural stimulation

geography spared

it

and the confusion

the

of

tramp of invading armies

many

strange tongues and ways.

intruding aliens with

Thus

the Japanese had

more opportunity than most peoples

develop

to

what they learned from others and

to the fullest

in-

speed the technological gap that had opened up be-

vented themselves. The subtlety and sophistication

tween the West and the

of their art

World War

(into

II

rest of

the world. After

which Japanese

militarists

and

The balance

had plunged Asia and the United States and dur-

cial

ing which their nation was

show between

virtually

destroyed),

Japan again amazed everyone by the miracle of

its

rapid recovery and startling rise to third place

industrially

among

Compared

the nations of the world.

the

to

around

lands

the

Mediter-

North China, Japan

the Indian subcontinent and

first

notable

Japanese court did not come into existence until

the Sixth Century A.D.). For

two

or three

thousand

years Japan lagged far behind those other lands,

and, until very recent times,

it

was never

a cross-

roads of civilization. Obviously there must have

been some fortuitous combination of circumstances

to

account for

eventual greatness.

its

point to the climate,

not harsh.
fertile,

is

Then

which

the land

is

itself,

sea.

but

though not very

well watered and suited

munication by

One might

invigorating

to

forms.

to

easy com-

But most important, of course.

this.

their so-

that the Japanese people

driving ambition, contemplative in-

ner strength and esthetic sensitivity attests also to

an untrammeled process of cultural maturation.

In Japan's semi-isolation, a diversity of

ranean and the ancient centers of civilization in

got off to a slow historical start (the

testimony

literature bear

So also the delicacy and complexity of

new and

old, foreign

and indigenous, could work

slowly on each other to produce rich

tions.

who

Where

else

would one

pride themselves

etry, martial arts

traits,

on

new combinawarriors

find great

their calligraphy

and po-

based on contemplative discipline,

parties that are philosophical experiences, or

tea

ancient arts that set the pace for contemporary esthetic trends?

Behind Japan's great achievements

special historical narrative. This

ard

tells

with

skill

is

lies

very

what Mr. Leon-

and grace, covering the period

from Japan's shadowy beginnings

as

backward

land on the edges of the civilized world, to the

time

when

the pattern of

had become well

set

its

own

cultural greatness

by the early 17th Century.

EDWIN

O.

REISCHAUER

University Professor, Harvard University

U.S.

Ambassador

to

Japan 1961-1966

1i^

hDa-npa

Off the east coast of Asia, too far to be seen on

and wonderful

the clearest day, Hes the strange

Land
chain

Sun Japan.

Rising

the

of

volcanic

of

islands

It

larger

main

islands

On

among
tile

many

place for

men

But Japan

beautiful land, and

is

temperate

its

make

a delightful

it

to live.

also a violent land.

lies

It

squarely

path of hurricanes, and nearly every year

in the
at least

CONTRADICTIONS

flat-bottomed

and innumerable smaller patches of

soil. It is a

climate and dependable rainfall

COUNTRY OF

mountainous. But

is

the peaks and forested crags are several fer-

river valleys

of the land

plains of considerable size,

arable

four

its

Kyushu, Shikoku, Honshu and

of

Hokkaido, most

than

area

in

Great Britain, smaller than France.

curving

is

one great typhoon roars across

coasts,

its

battering waterfronts, uprooting trees and

narrow valleys with foaming

belch

themselves

earthquakes

Japan

of

afflict

it

seem

to

and

the

have

re-

character

Japanese

the

in

vol-

to end.

The extraordinary beauty

grim catastrophes that

and

smoke,

and

fire

shake the islands from end

flected

Another kind

floods.

comes from underground: active

of violence

canoes

filling

contradictory and often startling mixture of del-

and belligerence.

icacy

times

ancient

Since

among

Japanese have ranked

has given

rocious warriors, but no other people

more

elaborate attention to courteous conduct or

more loving devotion

In a

fected

more
its

to flowers, poetry

way

direct

and

The Korea

national culture.

island,

Strait,

miles wide, and although

islands,

was

it

a semi-isolation,

and

tural area

example of the Japanese

essary item (a shield to protect the swordsman's

beautiful.

The blade passes through

the

center

within the Chinese cul-

same time

the

setting

it

apart.

broad stream of knowl-

edge, literature, art and

from China

to Japan.

At other times the flow was shut

from one

side or the other,

its

own.

But

whether

always

to

itself.

off

and Japan developed

in

isolation

Everything

or

that

not,

came

esthetic: a nec-

hand) has been made

of

it

religion flowed

Japan was
is flu

at

and dangerous

barrier strait gave Japan

During certain periods

on
SWORD GUARD

placing

100

is

has sizable stepping-

difficult

The

cross in early times.

it

which

Kyushu, from

the nearest part of the Asiatic mainland,

stone

art.

Japan's geography has af-

separates the westernmost

A DISTINCTIVE

the

the world's most fe-

the

crab

design.

from China, from household

was reshaped

to suit

arts

to

philosophy,

Japanese tastes and needs.

11

HOLLOW-EYED FIGURES, depicting

the faces of a girl, a

man and

of early Japanese emperors, both as ornamentation

and

to stabilize the loose earth.

Japan's past from prehistory through the classical centuries of

many

was often

By 500

casts

it

distinctive

and contrasting

key

to his success.

millennium

after the great land

high

civilization,

the

were

in-

off its coast

characteristics can be traced far back into antiqui-

chain of Japanese islands

The emperor, for instance, is treated in much

the same way today as he was 15 centuries ago. Al-

habited by rude tribesmen. Archeological evidence

ty.

though he

an important

is

symbol

of

national

some

indicates that

thousands of years,

unity and honored as supreme ruler, he wields

lit-

they came from

temporal power. Almost equally ancient

the

ly that

tle

Japanese

eagerly

of

trait

for long periods, then

or hostile to

courting

foreign

is

ideas

suddenly turning indifferent

them changing

attitudes toward the

outside world that have alternated repeatedly since

The

very early times.

artistry
is

contrast between passionate

and the grimmest kind of combativeness

another ancient fixture in the

of the highly

life

emotional Japanese. Sometimes one

trait

has been

dominant, sometimes the other, but always both

have existed. During the country's blood-drenched

early

feudal

swords of

period,

fierce

at

the

same time

that

the

12th Century samurai warriors

ple.
a

who

are predominantly a

Another ancient

and

seems

Mongoloid peo-

lived

chiefly

by hunting

worshiped bears and were

fishing,

like-

group were the Ainu,

tribal

who

It

resemblance to the

racial

little

Stone Age folk

for

there

but who they were and where

largely a mystery.

is

they bore

Japanese,

them had been

of

still

notably

are not. Some anAinu

a few of whom
thropologists think that the
of Hokkaidostill live on the northern island
hairy,

were
strain

which most Japanese

primitive
that

members

split

off

from

stock in very ancient times.

rived

in

Japan

widespread until

from

the

of

white

race,

Caucasian

ancestral

They may have

and

Siberia

forced northward by

been
a

ar-

f..irly

more ad-

Japanese

vanced people already established further south.

were also creating beautifully landscaped gardens,

These established inhabitants were not Mongoloid

were lopping

off

heads wholesale,

even as they do today.

Still

earlier,

the

as

powerful

provincial warrior chieftains threatened the authority of

Tenth Century emperors, the blending of

perfume was
12

B.C., a

China had achieved

of

phrase

a courtier's ability to turn a poetic

on modern

whose

of

and

art

Japanese civilization is especially

fascinating because of the light

Japan,

monkey, were among

ground around the burial mounds

the thousands of cyUndrical clay statues set in the

complex and highly sophisticated

either, at

Chinese
an

any
are,

rate not in the clear sense that the

and may have reached Japan from

undetermined

They may

homeland

have spoken

in

northern

language

Asia.

similar

in

some ways

modern Japanese, which

to

wholly

is

from Chinese and may be distantly

different

relat-

ed to Korean.

and

Centuries

First

Mongoloid immigrants

B.C.

invaders crossed

or

the Korea Strait in considerable numbers, bringing

with them all-important knowledge:

flooded

in

rice

how

paddies,

and how

cloth

smelt

to

how
weave

to

coarse

and forge

iron

grow

to

into

it

crude tools and weapons. They mixed with the ear-

their
ers,

customs and language. Like most early farm-

the people resulting from this

undoubtedly practiced

amalgamation

form of nature-worship,

phenomena

deifying such

sun

the

as

awesome

moon, or an especially

and

the

mountain

or

This mixed culture, which was flourishing by

the beginning of the Christian era,

Yayoi, from the

Glimpses

from supercilious Chinese

reported in 238 A.D.
called

states that

of

travelers,

that

known
first

one of

southwestern

Wa, was divided

who

up

shut

lived

with 1,000 female

was
in

attendants

a lady

custom

by

of rule

and

Japan until

Century. In

through

fact,

women seem

political

and

According
of

Wa

foot.

live

men

ing them,

small

Among
Pi-

palace
to

late

much

in

to

continue

the

Eighth

of Japan's early

have exercised considerable

becoming completely

Chinese account, "the people

on raw vegetables and go about baretheir

bodies

with

pink

and

bamboo and wooden

helping themselves with their fingers. WhenThey

the

road,

they either squat or kneel, with both

hands on the ground

Wa

of

show

to

respect.

The people

"

are very fond of strong drink.

About 250 A.D.

this island

serve food on

country of mild bar-

barians governed by sorceress

queens

sterner influences. Across the Korea

under

fell

came

Strait

Mongoloid horsemen, an invasion

fierce

that

was

probably part of the explosion of Asian peoples

Huns

pire a century

later.

against the

Little

Roman Em-

known about them

is

except that they fought in iron armor and wielded

They may have been com-

superior iron weapons.

paratively few in number, but their horsemanship

and weapons, and perhaps

only after the 15th Century.

to another

They smear

scarlet.

trays,

to

social influence,

subservient to

men on

they stop and withdraw to the roadside. In address-

fighting spirit,

man

one

women was

intermittently in

history

of importance worship, they mere-

lowly meet important

the

be good or

will

hands instead of bowing or kneeling.

whom

named

fortified

ex-

help her communicate with her subjects. This ancient

whether fortune

Japan,

many

into

as

come

also

it

were often ruled by sorceresses.

these magic-working queens

miko,

is

where archeologists

site

remains.

its

which he

When men

ly clap their
If

they bake bones and divine

arises,

tell

destined to fling the

waterfall.

cavated

bad.

to

journey

and gradually adopted some of

inhabitants

lier

and discussion
in order

During the Second

truly

ever they undertake an enterprise or a

new

were

their organization

responsible

and

bringing

for

structure to Japanese society.

Soon the warlike horsemen became established

as the aristocracy of Japan,

and

it

was not many

generations before one of their noble families, per-

haps

in alliance

with native priest-aristocrats,

precedence over the others. By

tinuity,

this

same Imperial Family,

deep

the

shadows of prehistory,

in

won

miracle of conoriginating
still

reigns

over modern Japan.

Japanese mythology
details
ily.

is

richly embroidered with

about the divine origin of the Imperial Fam-

According

member

to

one

of the family

the

first

earthly

of Amadown from heaven

was the grandson

terasu, the sun-goddess.

to establish

myth,

Sent

order and bearing three precious sym-

bolsthe curved jewel, the sword and the mirror

that even today are imperial

tokens

"the august
13

One

grandchild" landed in southeastern Kyushu.

of his

human

descendants was

half-legendary

emperor of Japan,

first

domain

larged his

Yamato

until

included

it

who
the

up

set

his capital

en-

fertile

on Honshu, near the modern

plain

Osaka. There he

of

Jimniu Tenno, the

Among

these

runs a thread of

usefulness was to protect and preserve the Imperial

fancies

describing

power among

struggles for

the

bloody

armed factions

the

Even then the emperor was already

paradoxical role he was to

fill

supreme yet

pan's history venerated as

practical purposes

more

the head of government.

cial

something

position

who

was

like a

was no firm
died or

The

real ruler

for

was an

their

own. There

when an emperor
was

win continuing control

to be

of the

Thus, upon the death of

Soga among

new
of

ruler

Japan

forced

a ruler, the successor

throne always

his closest

was not

its

daughters into the imperial

its

the

relatives.

a child,

him

to

Soga advisers. After

married Sogas, these

ties

numbered

the

Even when the

the strong family ties

obey the orders of

number
became

of emperors

members,

tier,

scattering of scholars only a few

to read or write Chinese.

was so poor
influence

Yamato

the

that the central

over the

Much

region.

Communica-

government had
beyond

turbulent clans
of the country

was fron-

plagued by outlaws and pirates or unsubdued

of Chinese civilization

still

stronger.

and eagerly welcomed ev-

erything Chinese.

The beginning
influence

is

of this period of

given

often

marked Chinese

552,

as

year

when

China was emerging from centuries of disruptive

wars and

political

one of the most

ry.

It

and

chaos

illustrious

was beginning

to

and bursting with new

vigor.

The more

was approaching

epochs of

mold

nation, wonderfully orderly

itself

its

long histo-

into

great

by Japanese standards,

religious, artistic

and

literary

the Japanese learned about this

dynamic country on the mainland, the more desirous they were to catch

up with Chinese

The year 552 stands out

his

had

Emperors might be dethroned or murdered, but

14

their

Japan became aware of the charms and advantages

of

court was the Soga family, which consolidated

who ascended

its

knew how
little

Sometimes he had several young princes

power by marrying

supremacy of one of

technology was far behind that of China

even Korea. There was no written language,

or

all

offi-

loosely knit assemblage of clans

fought for by various clans,

armies

rule of succession;

clan to

its

tion

assassinated in order to head off future rivalries.

line.

tolerating the

Yamato

barbarous

had not progressed

land. Its political organization

and

the

at

still

Ainu. But a great change was coming. Suddenly

ed which prince of the Imperial Family

first

Japan under the Soga was

much beyond

was deposed, the great minister often decid-

his heir.

The

Despite such intricate statecraft

court,

Ja-

symbol than

religious

vi-

prime minister. This powerful

a prize

could muster

cast in the

through most of

of

cissitudes.

and among

that surrounded their court.

more than 1,500 years

through

Family

and

the

sun-goddess, could be held divine and could in-

Archeological and historical

emperors

from

descended

tercede with heaven on behalf of men. This ritual

studies show that the Japanese state expanded

from Kyushu and reached the Yamato region before 400 A.D. About this time the myths became
fairly plausible records, giving the names of flesh-

and-blood

directly

and reigned

mythological

decorative
fact.

its

was too important. Only an

religious significance

authentic emperor,

displaced, because

city

"more than 100 years."

for

was never

the royal family

in Japan's

of

the

as a significant

open-armed reception

zation, because

it

was

culture.

of

mainland

in that year that the

date
civili-

ruler

Korean kingdom of Paikche, which had

close cultural ties with China, appealed for Jap-

Along with

anese help against his enemies.

emissaries, he sent to the

Yamato court

his

bronze

image of the Buddha, some Buddhist scriptures

and
to

Buddhism, which had spread

a letter praising

Korea from

home

far-distant

its

and

in India

was now well established

in

have had

with Buddhism, which

earlier contacts

China. Japan must

was already 1,000 years

old,

Paikche's letter seems

have triggered

to

but

king

the

of

new

active innovator in

work
ly

as a

handy

Chinese culture and ideas

tool,

He was

priest-politicians.

and by favoring

ac-

its

strongly

also

attracted

Chinese theories of government that emphasized

hands of powerful

a central

bureaucracy

ministers.

The Soga statesmen already dominated

the

in

the Japanese Imperial Court.

it

If

that Chinese influence

would give them

tight control

between the advocates

Buddhism, which stressed

ethical

and those clans wishing

religion,

pressure for

by

now known

about

and

was flooding

it

the

shows

into the coun-

and Japanese scholars were learning

the fashion,

the difficult Chinese written language.

The death
a

Shotoku

of Prince
particularly

622 was

in

many

of

peror

Kotoku came

its

members

of another clan,

who were

and

next 500

fol-

bloody interval of

civil

was driven
rivals

and

slaughtered. In 645 the

Em-

to the throne

who came

to

under the tutelage

be called Fujiwara

destined to be predominant for the

years.

The Soga

policy

of

welcoming

things Chinese, however, did not change, for by

this

time Chinese culture was more appealing.

The

great mainland empire,

now

ruled by the

T'ang Dynasty, had become the strongest, most advanced and civilized nation on earth. Between the

Iname's politico-religious strategy threw Japan

into 50 years of struggle

tive

preachments
behave,

most-

It is

Chinese customs and etiquette were becoming

try.

the Chinese system

of the outlying provinces as well.

of

moral
should

officials

from power by a league of envious

at

ceptance he hoped to offset the power of native

virtue,

document sometimes

warfare, during which the Soga clan

carrier of

could be set up,

that

but also as a political

to

the

is

constitution of Japan.

have viewed Buddhism not only

Iname, the high-ranking Soga minister

time, appears to

first

Chinese-based

way

lowed by

active partisans.

its

him

attributed to

hailed as the

burst of interest in this religion, and the powerful

Soga family became

governmental matters; he ac-

complished few tangible reforms. The best-known

and

spiritual

the na-

to retain

Shinto.

as

Buddhism and Chinese

The

cultural ideas

Seventh and early Tenth Centuries, while Europe

was enduring the Dark Ages,

to

the

were

Caspian

Sea;

its

its

traders

armies marched

and

diplomats

touch with India, Persia, even with By-

in

zantium.

capital,

Its

Ch'ang-an, was already the

world's biggest city, with over a million people;

was maintained by Iname's son and successor

from

Umako, who imported Chinese books and

scholars,

ences continued to flow into Japan in an ever-

and en-

increasing stream.

sent

embassies and students

to

China

couraged the founding of Buddhist monasteries.

In these efforts he
lected

in

593

as

was supported by the man he

heir

apparent,

Crown

se-

Prince

One

fountainhead of culture, Chinese

of the

was Chinese

is

remembered

as

an idealized

sage-ruler of the Chinese type, but he

was prob-

ably more a symbol of Chinese culture than

an

influ-

most important of these influences

religion. After initial opposition

from

defenders of Shinto, Chinese religious ideas, notably Chinese versions of

Shotoku.
Prince Shotoku

this

mensely popular,

at least

Buddhism had changed

Buddhism, became imwith the upper classes.

a great deal since its

sup-

posed foundation by the Indian Prince Gautama,

15

who

Century B.C. Built on the

lived in the Sixth

Hindu concept

of a never-ending cycle of reincar-

nation, the original Buddhist doctrines held

involves suffering and

all

life

no

relief

ous

new life
The only

has ended.

life

this

because

death brings

that

begins after

ment,

previ-

possible escape from

eternal repetition of suffering

"

that

"enlighten-

is

an awareness of the illusory nature of

all

existence,

attainable only

of desire

through arduous study, discipline and

renunciation

the

after

Many

uous.

nature-oriented

dhism had long since

split,

as

Bud-

Christianity

later

resemblance

little

Some

teaching of Prince Gautama.

developed

un-

in the

but

Shinto,

innumerable sects with

to the original

and

the Buddhists,

As

China emphasized ethics and

in

still

or meditation.

others

From

magical ritual

practiced

many

these

Bud-

varieties of

dhism the Japanese selected and imported

those values and

features

suited

best

that

just
their

tastes.

Along with Buddhism came

wanted

the Japanese apparently

the early centuries

of rules of ethics

efficacious

of

Bud-

of

introduction

its

and impressive way of

in-

This

want, as well as more philosophical needs. Their

came

to

from

Japan

Korea

or

China

equipped with wonderfully colorful and moving

brilliant

vestments,

gongs, drums and incense.

chants,

They brought Chinese-

language sutras (holy scriptures)

velous effects

when

incantations,

read or recited.

that

had mar-

They imported

beautiful images of the serene Buddha, as well as

architects to build temples,
to decorate

and sculptors,

them.

artists

Among

its

Chinese custom of ancestor-worship and stresses

and devotion that children owe

the reverence

to

their parents, for ancestors are the parents of par-

From

earliest

times

had

the Japanese

also

attached great significance to their ancestors, and

even

down

comparatively

to

most important qualification

when new

this

have been

to

an outgrowth of the very ancient

ily

fill

and behavior said

respect for superiors, especially par-

is

is

Plenty of Buddhist sects were ready

to

plain,

formalization

is

handed down from remote antiquity.

crops and to ward off plagues and other disasters.

and artisans

preserved,

still

lesser infusion of

Chinese Confucianism, which

was ancient and

rituals,

are

monastery on the Yamato

terceding with the divine powers to assure good

priests

them

the world.

ents.

more

of

probably the oldest wooden building in

is

ents.

with

vied

families

were several dozen Buddhist

Some

temples in Japan.

central ideas

was

wealthy

early as 640 there

heaven, and

in

in

artistic

each other in building and embellishing temples.

morality. Others incorporated belief in gods and

What

interest

little

and techniques that came along with

treasures

which

dhism

who had

Japanese

of the Horyuji

sects

of the day, Japan's de-

Buddhist philosophy were enchanted by the

Seventh Century Japanese brought up

did, into

violence

expression was already conspic-

light in artistic

This mystical doctrine might not have appealed

sophisticated,

16

was frequently the order

when

period

early

this

notably the beautifully proportioned Golden Hall

meditation.

to

Even during

times

recent

for high public office

The same fam-

aristocratic lineage.

names remained prominent

for centuries

families pressed to the forefront,

usually had, or claimed, descent from

ancient names.

Thus

elegant treatment of

by Confucius and
Japan's
into the

own

ancestor

and
they

illustrious

welcomed

the Japanese
the

the

the

theme offered

his followers.

was pushed

native religion, Shinto,

background

for a

while.

It

went

largely

out of fashion at court; even some emperors be-

came pious Buddhists. But

the

lower

especially in the provinces, continued

their

familiar

nature-gods,

and

soon

to

classes,

worship

ingenious

A NOSEY CARICATURE of a grimacing

man was found in the Golden Halt at
Horyuji

in 1945.

ceiling in the

bles a

The sketch, done on

dance mask. With

ated features,

Seventh Century, resem-

it

is

exagger-

its

a delightful gift to

unknown

posterity left by an

artist.

theologians were reconciling Shinto and Buddhism.

said in effect,

were simply different forms of the

This was

same

it

symbol of

nation's

the

ly,

sanctity

Japan since the Imperial Fami-

vital for

from

dess. Little

by

derived

unity,

its

descent from the Shinto sun-god-

its

little

all

right for her de-

and

to erect a statue of the

Buddha.

the two very different religions

embody elements

to

was perfectly

scendant, the emperor, to go ahead with his plan

Though

were intermingled. Ritual announcements by the

emperor came

So

faith.

of both Shinto

and adapt-

the Japanese eagerly adopted

ed Chinese religious, literary and

ideas,

artistic

and Buddhism, as well as some features of Con-

they did not accept so willingly the efforts of the

fucianism.

imperial statesmen to impose on their loose and

Japanese history has few examples of religious

conflict,

except

come greedy

when

the various faiths

ences without
did

it

managed

much

in picturesque

ward the

organizations be-

religious

for wealth or political power. Usually

to

trouble,

ways.

compose

their differ-

and they sometimes

One

important step

to-

Buddhism and Shinto

reconciliation of

chaotic society the rigid Chinese system of central

government. The

when

initial

move was made

Fujiwara clan, called the leading nobles together

to

an

hear

have been
the

announcement.

important

dramatic and

touchy occasion that

The proclamation was nothing

monk Gyogi, an
who was as much

laration of

works, bridges and public

in

and

cleric

of

the

emperor's

deity,
ion.

the

plan

Tang

sun-goddess,

the

to

erect

Ise,

great

the principal

supreme Shinto

and asked the goddess herself

for her opin-

For seven days and seven nights he prayed

the door of the shrine. Finally the goddess an-

swered

in

it

crees,

statue of Buddha, he journeyed to

shrine of

and

monuments as he was
To determine the pro-

deciding religious matters.

priety

at

influential

interested in building irrigation

Chinese verse. The two

religions,

she

almost

wealth

absolute

must

It

noblemen had anticipated with mixed

was accomplished around 740 by the Buddhist

energetic

645

in

Emperor Kotoku, backed by the powerful

the

less

monarchy by

feelings.

than

dec-

emperor,

the

was presently backed up by detailed deTaika

the

called

those

exactly

Reform,

theoretically

China. All agricultural land,

in

which

copied

effect

in

the

basis

Japan, was declared the property

throne, and

it

to the peasant

was

to

be allocated

in

in

of

of the

small plots

households that cultivated

it.

The

peasants in turn would pay part of their crop as

taxes to the state

upon

for

labor

and they would

on

public

works.

also be called

The

system
17

would be administered by

officials

appointed by

early version of state-socialism inspired

by China had been enforced suddenly and rigidly

in Japan,

would probably have provoked

it

by

revolt

rious

powerful provincial

the

who

held a tight grip on land and peasants.

fact

that

was no

there

Taika Reform was not put into

tic

step.

new

Apparently, the

when and where

only

were strong enough

came under

shows

revolt

effect in

The
the

that

one dras-

laws were enforced

court

the

se-

barons,

to enforce

and

them.

its

allies

Some

lands

and certain

Some

an origin.

isters,

offices,

who

like potential

tended

Besides

aristocratic

Taika Reform. Some of them gained a great deal,

new government

receiving rank and office in the

commensurate with

their

former holdings;

these

become

to

provincial

clan chieftains

to

troublemakers, and these

hereditary.

Reform

differed

from

its

who had
The

Chinese

another important respect. In China,

appointments were commonly given

cial

tle

The emperor's min-

spotty enforcement, the system set

its

in

Few

circle.

with their emoluments,

looked

offices

were excluded

these

however, were careful to give

model

wealth or power because of the

most of

from the charmed court

from the seat of central

lost

provincial magnates entered the

lower ranks, but

the Taika

landowners

the

houses of Chinese or Kore-

aristocratic

up by

authority, were left undisturbed.

Family,

heads of clans with ancient and illustrious lineage

effective court control while others, es-

pecially in regions distant

passed

subjects

relation

offi-

men

examinations.

written

rigorous

to

on which they were examined bore

which they aspired,

the duties to

to

but the tests did

help

to

lit-

candidates

select

who

noblemen naturally became enthusiastic supporters

were intelligent and well-educated men. The Chi-

of the system.

nese bureaucracy

Along with

its

provisions for land tenure, the re-

form created an elaborate hierarchy of court ranks

modeled on Chinese
were permitted

to

practice.

Holders

came

for their

nomic
first

to

own

side

five

to

amounts of
sands of

offered to ambitious

young men

to

China.

Such

the

and

who

Scholarly Japanese

priv-

and

throughout

learning

observed the Chinese

bureaucratic organization were doubtless impressed

also a solid eco-

by

Members

of the

did not succeed. Since custom dictated that long

specified

and prestigious ancestry was the prime requisite

was

the rank system.

the rice land

dition, they

it

class of the population,

and the op-

were allowed

fifth

sake, but there

got

portunity that

these scholar-officials,

efficient,

forceful

at

be considered extremely important

ranks

who might come from any

was remarkably

wear distinctive clothing

enter the emperor's audience chamber.

ileges

rank

of

manned by

encouraged education

and ranks above the

court,

income

owned by

from

the state. In ad-

were allotted hundreds or even thou-

"sustenance households," which meant

it,

but

if

they tried to apply

for high secular office,

authorities

who

it

in Japan, they

the Japanese

administered

proceeded in accordance with

the

appointment

Taika

Reform

this tradition. Instead

that they received the taxes those peasant house-

of testing aspirants for intellectual ability, they ex-

holds would otherwise have had

amined the candidates' genealogies

government.
official

When

was added

appointment

to rank, the

to

as a

pay

to

the

government

rank holder enjoyed

Rank-holding was almost always limited

that they were really descended

to the

to

make

sure

from distinguished

ancestors; the bureaucracy produced by this meth-

od was anything but

an even greater income.

18

branches of the Imperial

junior

of

the emperor and his ministers.

If this

higher levels of the aristocracy, composed largely

In spite of

its

efficient.

many compromises,

the Taika Re-

form did strengthen the central government and

curbed

some

the

independence

fractious

of the provincial nobles.

government revenue and

least

at

greatly increased

It

led

of

improved

to

com-

munication with distant parts of the country.

It

created a valuable class of small landholders and

stimulated

reclamation

the

many

of

additional

areas of rice land. Together with the influx of Chi-

nese culture and technology

Japan on the

set

it

road to becoming an organized and reasonably unified nation.

Still

AN

EVIL-PROOF PLAN

lacking,

pseudoscience of divination

that originated in China, played

where government and imported

homestead, for example, the wise owner

consulted

geomancer's "compass,"

some

the one above,

ments are translated

like

whose pronounce-

of

in

key below.

the

techniques and learning could flourish.

Eighth Century began, Japan had no

building

for

storehouse

or

barn; receding ground at this point prom-

good

ises

luck.

had been hardly more than

it

shifted

Extension

bring

its

location

homestead here

the

of

well

here

is

whenever an emperor

storehouse

promises

wilt
ruin.

second

and

marriage

agent

the

gate

gate here

sign

is

of

of

of

of

government had been growing, and the

the

whose members,
be

moved

numerous bureaucracy

retainers

and servants could not

created

Open

illness.

concerned with

comfort and

6.

ing

7.

space

in

this direction

well,

that

of

is

eye

the

intemperance

stove facing east

a Buddhist niche

is

is

of

the

culture

The Chinese were not un-

uncleanness, but they had

with

of dealing

it

than by moving

away.

So

in

710

a site for a

permanent

Yamato

city

plain,

was

select-

which was

the sign
diseases.

pond here causes deaths from drownor

ways

ritual

ed in the center of the

peace;

of

Chinese

Furthermore,

easily.

cheer; a storehouse, the source of prosperity.

5.

died,

according to Shinto beliefs of the time, his

better
4.

and

death has caused. But the administrative machinery

called for a fixed capital.

3.

larger village,

no harm.

lavatory does

destruction;

the

only

necessary to avoid the ritual uncleanness

a step

Taika Reform
2.

When
cities,

thatched huts. The emperor's capital

villages of

that,

Good

1.

arts,

on the su-

perstitions of the early Japanese. In building

a

country that was becoming increasingly stable

fixed capital

Geomancy,

however, was one essential for

master.

apt to cause a

fire;

the sign of good luck.

then,

as

now,

green

sea

of

rice

choice was

made

mancy

determine whether the

to

lucky, and

it

in

fields.

The

accordance with Chinese geo-

may have been no

chosen place was close

to

would be

site

accident that the

several powerful

Bud-

dhist monasteries.

The model
city,

for Japan's

new

capital

and

first

real

Nara, was the T'ang capital of Ch'ang-an.

19

Nara's builders copied

rectangular plan and laid

its

herself

chancellor-priest.

ter.

cen-

its

and Buddhist temples and

crowded thickly around the

monasteries

cultural center, as well as headquarters for

Much

anese Buddhism.
in the

form of pious

was poured

from the court and nobil-

gifts

into the city's Buddhist temples

and monasteries.

These

buildings,

ecclesiastical

to

religious

works but

also

many examples

of Chinese

secular literature and learning. Since Chinese culture

monk soon

was then the passionate concern

of

every

Japanese with means and education, Nara quickly

became the focus

bers of

of fashion, attracting large

pleasure-seekers

num-

many more

well as

as

Though Nara gave Japan

a brilliant capital, the

government established there was not always

armies were so

weak

ef-

they were

that

often defeated by the Ainu in the north. Nearer

maneuvered

ceaselessly

to

place their

fa-

however. Nara's

continued

teries

Nara an increasingly

government. In 784 the Emperor

what was needed was

that

of the clergy even dared

dication of

young

Empress

the

prince,

Following the ab-

Koken

handsome

monk named Dokyo managed

and

favor

in

to get

press completely in his power, in

of

unscrupulous
the ex-em-

much

the

same

way as did the villainous Russian monk, Rasputin,

who corrupted the court of the last czar. She

Kammu

decided

Supported by the Fujiwara clan he gave the order

move

to

the

capital,

to

first

later to the site of

Nagaoka,

nearby

ill-omened,

as

about 25 miles from Nara, but the journey was

enough

ficult

to

and

modern Kyoto. This was only

dif-

reduce the influence of Nara's

Buddhists.

The sun-goddess and other Shinto gods and

had been told of the move and they,

its

ital,

member

monas-

and

"priest-proof" city.

of

to aspire to the imperial throne.

death

the

difficult place for the secular

power struggle came when the influence

so great that a

after

temples

the Buddhists, thought well of

monks had become

true.

grow, and their power made

to

of

Nara's numerous priests and

Hachi-

to

were

770 he was banished from the

in

The climax

vorites in positions of great power.

this

from favor, and

fell

empress

influence,

home, the turbulent nobles and ambitious Buddhist

clergy

this

if

emperor. The scheming

which was soon abandoned

serious-minded people.

fective. Its

god

for

This episode did not mark an end of Buddhist

re-

spectable libraries that contained not only Chinese

the

perial lineage, could not be

court.

grew

emissary

a trusted

ask

to

he

if

much even

Hachiman's answer was that Dokyo, lacking im-

housed priceless treasures of paintings and

sculpture. Their collections of books

She sent

the empress.

man's shrine

of the

tiled

would have peace forever

were made emperor. This was too

roofs in the Chinese

with their up-curving,

style,

Jap-

of Japan's national wealth,

He claimed

satisfied.

war-god Hachiman had de-

that the great Shinto

clared that Japan

palace.

Nara became and long remained an impressive

ity,

But Dokyo was not yet

Lining these avenues were the houses of noble

made

into exile; then she

empress again and named Dokyo as her

out a grid of wide streets covering an area of 2V2 by

3 miles, with the Imperial Palace north of

families,

20

young emperor

sent the

laid

meaning "the

was hopefully named Heian-kyo,

capital of peace

and

tranquillity."

Heian-kyo was not always peaceful and

it

not

The new cap-

it.

out like Nara on a Chinese-style rec-

tangular plan,

but

if

spir-

was

to

be the center for more

tranquil,

than 300

years of a unique society that has fascinated every-

one with even the most casual interest

past.

It

came

to be called

and under that name

tal

it

Kyoto

in Japan's

"the capital"),

remained the imperial capi-

of Japan for over a thousand years.

^^mw^'^'

To

PROTECTOR OR DESTROYER, A SEA

THAT HOLDS THE ISLANDS' FATE

the sea fhe'fapniiwse

owe

barrier av^ainst invasion,

tliL'ui

to

produce

develop

their privacy.

if

has eiial'lcd

in relatixK' isolation

a culture

and

to

uniquely influenced by

the native e)nuronnient. Ever present in these

surroundings
the

is

the sea itself,

which breaks

narrow land chain into alrrmst 1,000

"^^

.*J

^''i'm^m-

&S-

*^JK?>V

9fW7y'i'^'',

islands, ivui provides

such useful WLitenoays

near

as the Inland Sea (opposite pa^e).

The waters

that

guard and serve japan,

however, sometimes batter

tidal
IS

waves.

reco<iuize

seeks

onwns

Tliis

it

xiicioush/

with

capacity for iood or evil

ceremony
for the future in

f/u' sea.

January

5, a large

Ise are

a small rock in a hay

tied together

by a slrazv rope (seen at the top of the

picture above).

exposure

if

At

the

aui of

a year's

to the ocea}i's ziiolence, the

inspected:

Every

and

"wedded" literally

if

unbroken,

broken,
it

it

foretells

rope

is

signifies coil times;

good days

to co}ne.

".';'

^.

mm.

*^.
^y^:jk.

^v^

'^j

^h1
'V:fe?*

"'>

lapaii'a

BEAUTY AND BOUNTY Of- A

WELL-WATERED COUNTRYSIDE

7/JE

the

iaiJiC:.

most ahiiiidmit natural resource and

most

xdta!

one

for its precious crops-^is

fresh water. Its plentiful rainfall can take

the form of a typhoon's slashing sheets that

mi^iht leave

up

to 15

inches

in a

day, or the

^^-

fiiic

mists that settle

j;fiif/y

over forests,

most

efficient farms.

such as those uenr Nikko (opposite). This

delicate,

heavy precipitation, lacing the

waterfall at

with

rivers,

coiDitrx/side

streams and lakes, provides

electric poiver

and

)iourishes the xvorld's

watery

Il

also creates scenes of

beaiity, like the

Ke^on

wooded

(above), that the lapa)}ese

portray in their paintinv,, duplicate in their

gardens and memorialize

i)i

their

poems.

From

the hc^^iiiniii^,

n'/i'v'/oii

been inextruabh/ honiut

A UNIQUE REVERENCE FOR NATURE,

first

major

faith, Shi)ito,

in

Inpnn has

to the land.

was

predicated on )}ature, ami

The

largely

trees,

rocks and

streams xoerc often worshiped as

:i,ods.

Sliinto

shrines, simple and primitive, were placed

xuitli

an eye

to scenic

beauty

in

wooded

^^.'^^3

'..d'iS'y

afgrtiViiEXB

groves or on hilltops.

When Buddhism

entered Japan in the Sixth Century, the

feeling for nature
too.

permeated that

religion

Buddhist pagodas, such as the one at

Nara shown opposite, were

also built to

temple, the five swooping roofs symbolize

the five universal elements: earth, water,

wind and

sky.

also reflects this intimacy with nature; set in

a quiet

maple grove and flanked by stone

blend into secluded settings, and designed to

lanterns,

represent aspects of nature. In the Nara

subtly echoing the sacred

E^.

fire,

Buddhist gravestone (above)

it

too

is

made up

of sections

number

five.

Oiw

A SERENE VOLCANO: GRACEFUL

SYMBOL OF A NATION'S IDEAL

natiinil Iciliirc

symbol
tlic

of iLipan:

coiintrx/'s

200

/in.s lo)i:j,

MoiDit

stood

Fuji, the

volcaiioi's. It

spectaculcu poioer (ciltliou^h

it

its

thi'

tcilli'st

of

coDihiins
List

erupted

tliat

coinwyfi in

/'fs

nhriost fiyniiiictrical coiw

the esthetic purity prized

Ill

pnsl centuries, the

thought

/iv

the Inpunefie.

mountain was

to he "tlie he^iniiin>:^ of

heaven and

earth, pillar of the nation." Pilgrims scaled

the heights chanting prayers,

Fujis

were worshiped

Today
hut a

its

trip

sunrise

in

religious role

up Mount

is still

ami miniature

other parts of Japan.

is

much

Fuji to

diminished,

watch the

a cherished experience.

..^-^^ '"-^>A

When

the

capital

in

Kammu

Emperor

new

the

Japan's

Heian-kyo, he could

of

city

established

not have foreseen the splendid success his action

was

to bring.

794,

it

home

Soon

became

a flourishing center of culture,

in

the

more than

of a decorative society that for

300 years was

with

was founded,

after the city

an endless pageant embellished

like

and music and spiced with

art, literature

tit-

illating love affairs.

The

chosen

site

the

for

ideal for the nurturing of

sloping

tly

on other

THE ELEGANT SOCIETY

was open

site

by

sides

mons were most

Mt. Hiei and

Many

such

almost

The gen-

south but enclosed

mountains.

or

hills

from which de-

direction,

swoop, was shielded by

likely to

Buddhist monastery.

protective

its

a society.

to the

forested

The dangerous northeast

was

capital

fast-running streams brought clear mountain

water, and a navigable river, the Yodo, provided

convenient barge transportation to the sheltered

Honshu from

Inland Sea that separated

the island

of Shikoku.

Heian-kyo's plan,

like that of the earlier capital,

Nara, was copied from the great Chinese metropo-

Ch'ang-an, but with an important difference:

lis,

by

which Buddhist tem-

a royal edict, the areas in

ples could be built

were limited, and they were

not permitted to cluster around the Imperial Palace,

where

their clergy

might have too direct an

The Buddhist

influence on court affairs.

mained

at

Nara,

his lifetime

capital

the

himself,

safe distance

Kammu

Emperor
free

clerics or secular aristocrats.

When

however, the picture changed.

the

capital,

the city.
fell

ruled

he died

Monks
the

significantly,

increasingly under

the

their climb to

IS

shown

in this

early 12th Century anthology of poetry, in

decorative page from an

which the ornamental writing

has been delicately brushed in ink on a flowered paper. In the Heian

the art of calligraphy

became

a cult,

and

a person's character

ing were usually assessed by the skill with

which he handled

of

of

title

of chancellor

title at all,

the Fujiwara

real rulers of Japan.

The Fujiwara succeeded

THE BRILLIANCE OF CALLIGRAPHY

of

who had

power around the middle

or regent, or sometimes no

to

emperors

influence

political

the preceding century. Using the

soon became the

in 806,

throughout

later

that extraordinary family, the Fujiwara,

begun

new

thronged

and temples sprang up

More

his

from either

interference

of

center re-

away, and during

in fostering the

Heian-kyo and the development of

oriented society, even though

all

its

growth
culture-

around the

city

Age

and breedhis brush.

Japan struggled through dark and ignorant times.

During the

late

Eighth Century and part of the

31

when

Ninth,

the city's characteristic culture

taking shape, most of Japan was

still

The

great bulk of

ple

were simple peasants, and many

more

estimated five million peo-

its

was

Conflict

cultivated.

them, and bloodshed was a

Ainu

warlike

were

Such

a partly civilized
its

northern

the

the

frontiers

country might be expect-

The

massive cas-

fortifications like the

wall

six-foot-high

kyo was no more than

wooden buildings

set

colorfully

and

soon

it

group

spacious park and

uniformed

in the capital

guards,

imperial

whose duties were ceremonial and whose military

value was

close

to

zero.

Businesslike

weapons

were seldom seen and hardly ever used. The most

toward

the

efficient

private

bureaucracy

central government. Agencies responsible to

lected

appointed

taxes,

To maintain

to

explain

how

and culture could flourish

and

conflict.

dhism;

its

and

in writing subtle

One

influence

in

poems.

intricate

this

support the emperor in

trade

many

to

under

strictly

their

baffled

usurping politicians, they solved

of

set

had

impressive magnifi-

full,

keeping him

still

thumbs. This recurrent problem, which has

through marriage,

manner pioneered by

the

in

island

of

calm

sea of ignorance

may have been Bud-

doctrine of nonviolence, though often

an ample

supply of beautiful, intelligent

were married

statecraft

sons.

and

One

of

again

daughters. After
ing,

which seems

But not

the empress,
to

Fujiwara

have had no adverse genetic

The Imperial Family

lacked,

man who

married

that
to

long,

the

thin

Shinto

had, and

genealogical

sun-goddess.

possessed this divine relationship

could be emperor. The Fujiwara were careful

many minds and must have had

sanctity

because

distinction,

the

warded

of

emperors'

Family's ancestry was almost

thread leading back

Only

were

to

few generations of such inbreedto

entirely.

the Fujiwara

to

and pro-

instruments

emperors or

them normally became

sons

her

charming

These

daughters.

lific

preserve

some

branch produced

tion after generation their leading

ignored by the Buddhist priests themselves, gov-

erned

col-

it

regulated

officials,

their position, the Fujiwara

effects, the Imperial

hard

also

and controlled the court.

entirely Fujiwara.

is

enormous wealth and

the family's

potent tools of competition were the fine-pointed

It

outside

performed most of the practical functions of the

brushes with which elegant courtiers vied with

one another

off attacks

the

to

emperor's

on the central govern-

gentling effect on politics. Possibly more effective

ment. Working through him and protected by his

was the

aura,

political skill of the

Tujiwara

in substitut-

ing deft intrigue for simple swordplay.

From

the

Ninth Century

the Fujiwara-dominated

to

the 11th

they managed

the capital,

Century

government was reason-

to

much more

govern

Besides the political adroitness of the Fujiwara

effect of

worked hard

politics, there

still

and administration. Their

conflicts

within

the

clan

in

loosely in the disorderly

and the calming

at politics

Japan firmly

provinces for more than three centuries.

ably strong and effective, and Fujiwara ministers

family council settled

32

policies

were more systematic and persistent. For genera-

wholly unfortified. The only soldiers

were the

managed

its

and

Heian-

girded

that

large

the Soga family centuries before. But the Fujiwara

gesture,

in

world.

was not the

crumbled away. The Imperial Palace was

of

set-

and determined

cence, while

medieval Europe, but this

of

case.

common way of
many years

government safely situated

central

well-manned

tles

among

for

on

tribes

slightly

frequent

serious cause of trouble.

ed to have
in

Moreover,

disputes.

tling

provincial

and landowners were only

officials, priests

was

backward.

is

Buddhism on Japanese

another factor that helps

account for the long and peaceful existence

to

of

Heian-kyo: the enchantment of Japan's high

istocracy with

own

its

version of Chinese culture.

when Japan had

Since the late Sixth Century,

begun

deeply

be

to

influenced

by

the

cultural

achievements of the great T'ang Dynasty

her

na,

and

aristocrats

had

scholars

in

Large

memo-

and avidly collected Chinese

rized Chinese poetry

voyage

embassies made the dangerous

official

China and were joyously greeted when

to

they returned laden with the treasures of

was

Heian-kyo

T'ang

the

for

built,

Dynasty,

by revolts and invasions, was breaking up.

beset

the Japanese completed a mission to

.'\fter

838,

they did

until 894,

and

it

on

plan

not

China

making another

was abandoned when

cided that conditions on the

its

leader de-

mainland were too

Communication with China was broken

disorderly.
off

high-

This intercourse ended soon after

er civilization.

in

Chi-

admired

everything Chinese. They wrote in Chinese,

art.

ar-

except for

a trickle of scholars

The Japanese

and

did not regret the

traders.

loss.

By

this

time they had absorbed a vast amount of Chinese

culture and had created in their isolated capital a
social

so

life

delightful

most of

that

great

the

noble families entitled by birth to participate in

it

had

long

since

moved

to

Heian-kyo.

There

they stayed by passionate choice, abandoning the

provincial strongholds that they might have used
as

power bases and using

their

wealth

to patronize

peaceful cultural pursuits. Their concentration in

the capital, where

any

act of violence

was con-

sidered bad form, gave Japan a kind of voluntary

Not

unity.
tocrats

whole new

until a

had arisen

in

the

class of warlike aris-

provinces

in

the

12th

Century did the wonderful Heian Age of peace

A FIERCE PROTECTOR,
about two

feet

altar against

demons.

this.

defends

tall,

It

ish mai4soleuni built in

Fujiwara general;

Wooden

the

the bodies of Kiyohira

statuette

Buddhist

toas placed in a lav-

come

to a

Few
golden

traces of
era.

1124 by Kiyohira, a

mausoleum
and

houses

his descendants.

bloody end.

Modern Kyoto
some

of

its

Heian-kyo remain

Even the

city's

covers most of

to

recall

this

name was changed.

its site

and preserves

checkerboard street pattern, but except

33

for a

few tile-roofed temples, the wooden buildings

of the original city have been

peated wars and

that followed.

stroyed and

Although the
enchanting

its

much

900 years ago,

swept away by

during

fires

of

erature has survived to

city
life

re-

ages

was physically de-

extinguished nearly

rich

its

rougher

the

and detailed

lit-

of life in that ancient

tell

"Capital of Peace and Tranquillity." Because of

and delicate conventions,

sensitive

its

literature

this

of Chinese influence

women

for

difficult

made up

and that was considered too

Chinese writing

learn.

to

is

of thousands of intricate characters that

words,

stand for

worked well

not

are monosyllables that

for Japanese, a

structure,

it

This

sounds.

for

system

Chinese because Chinese words

for

do not vary

language with

form. But

in

wholly different

was agonizingly clumsy and had

to

has always had a strong appeal to the Japanese

be modified in ways that were also clumsy.

people.

Chinese system of writing persisted, nevertheless,

The

so minutely in Heian

social life described

writings involved perhaps no more than 3,000 of

the city's

100,000 population. These select few,

"dwellers

among

the

clouds,"

were

aristocrats

closely associated with the Imperial Court.

group; for centuries

a closed

no fresh blood. In
rated as

The

lesser

ment were only

rich,

charmed
people"
of

eyes

It

was

circle of

manners and

almost

language was easy

common

people

only 47 syllables;

which

a letter

both

often powerful and immense-

(literally

"good

determined success

game

at court.

might hinge on

a single syl-

wealth of meaning. Perfume-

blending was practiced as

a fine art,

and socially

prominent gentlemen were often recognized by

ancient

in

write

Two

phonetically.

developed

Ninth Century and came into wide use

was beneath the dignity

in Icanfl

gentlemen and scholars

al-

for

in-

laboriously

taught the complicated Chinese characters.

most nothing of

The

lively

When
al-

literary value.

gentlewomen

of

Heian times suffered

from no such limitation. They were not expected

to learn the

highly
called

cumbersome Chinese, but they were

literate

in

kana which

"women's writing." The

to

was

and poems poured from

of this

work

is

their brushes.

this

the

people and

was the enormous complexity of the Chinese

sys-

too.

Sprightly Heian authoresses

of court

activity,

it

describe

women

diaries, novels

living literature today

places

sometimes

brighter

have been almost too

most wholly by women. The main reason for

tem of writing that Japan's scholars had adapted

the

writing seriously they used them, and produced

bright wrote voluminously. Letters,

Age was written

in

of high-ranking

who had been

and some of them seem

elegant society of the Heian

to

formal purposes and popular literature. But writing

ened room.
sophisticated literature that illuminates the

had

It

symbol

down on paper

hint of their favorite scent drifting through a dark-

The

their

systems of syllabic writ-

were

kana,

called

times

each were given

speech could be set

ing,

provincial

was written and the way the paper

a

it,

Even

better.

poem. The exact shade of the paper on

was folded carried

represent

to

if

little difficulty.

Every move was made with utmost delicacy.

lable of a

even

with

Japanese) an enthralling

courtier's rise or fall

The Japanese had handicapped themselves unnecessarily because

recruited

people of quality

taste

characters.

it

were despised as boors. But within the

in ancient

for

the

notice except as

The

many centuries the mark of an educated

Japanese man was his ability to write in Chinese
and

bureaucrats of the govern-

little

who were

governors,
ly

its

semihuman and beneath

curiosities.

34

Japanese language during the early years

to the

describes

its

tell

The

best

and makes

vividly

alive

of the routine

people

and

their

ventured into the

To modern eyes the perfumed "dwellers among

who peopled the court might not at first
seem attractive. The men wore tiny patches of

countryside in ox-drawn carriages to listen to bird-

beard on the point of their chins. Both sexes cov-

manners, and recount

such diversions as

tales of

poetry contests or even "cuckoo-viewing" expeditions,

on which bevies of

girls

and banter with whatever

songs, gather flowers

clouds

shaved

Some

ier

of these writings have a

ple in

any

Heian

of

finest

serious

and

side

works produced by any peo-

age; they look

beneath the gay exterior

and with startling insight lay bare

life

the universal sorrows and anxieties

that troubled

who

even the seemingly carefree aristocrats

peo-

The hub

shown

was no more than

when he came

child

in

He-

who sometimes

emperor,

the

to

the

throne. Genuinely revered as a religious and nationalistic

symbol, but granted virtually no practi-

power, he

cal

spent

ones

eyebrows and painted much heav-

high

on

They

glaring and hideous.

hair

grow

unusually lovely

performing

career

his

the

every detail was prescribed by court regulations

Men wore

or etiquette.

made them look

black laquered

numerous court

lend

themum
the

his

Among

which the emperor was expected

presence was

Festival,

festivities.

the

when he and

chrysanthemums

in the

annual

Chrysan-

12 silk robes of different colors, whose full sleeves

hung

girls

When

the wrists.

sides for passersby to admire.

of coloring
slightly

gardens of the Imperial

From

had

bad

taste the

formed the setting for

banquet during which the emperor's guests

which chry-

in

santhemums had been steeped a concoction

lieved to

Around

the

emperor

portance. Grave

massive

discussion

work concerned such

riage proper for

and

details as

bureaucracy

of

similar

activity

certain

this

were paid extremely well out

little

and often hired substitutes

to

paper

involved

nobleman of

they spent

im-

the kind of car-

aristocratic officials in charge of

funds, but

picture
this

of

women

the

like

mannered way

that

of

life.

trees,

its

was nearly 300

willows was

feet

of the

wide,

Im-

and the

a favorite subject for

po-

Within the palace enclosure stood the

city's

most impressive building the Great Hall of

State,

etry.

containing the dais on which rested the imperial

throne. This hall,

some 170

feet long,

was

a plat-

of

court

formlike structure painted red and covered by a

their

work

roof of dazzling blue

time

at

do

for them.

it

rank.

sort of

it.

parks than thoroughfares. The principal

perial Palace

beauty of

the

writ-

city

avenues were broad and planted with

more

the

one was in

if

avenue leading south from the enclosure

was mildly busy with functions

The

be-

promote longevity.

Its

vivid

Each delicate shade

and novels of the

was

over

whole court heard about

ers

emerges

would show

sleeves

be just right;

to

the diaries

all

riding in carriages

many-colored

their

Palace. Following the rite of flower-viewing there

a

Both

like crested quail.

and

his nobles inspected

composed poems and drank wine

headgear

men
women wore loose trousers, and on dress occasions a woman might wear over these as many as
that

little at

to

and

tall.

were of varying lengths so that

the celebrations to

black

was considered

her hair was abundant

if

longer than she was

the welfare of the country or acting as the centhe

also

their glossy

let

as long as possible: a girl

long, slow, sacred rituals considered necessary for

tral figure in

They

foreheads.

their

Clothing was incredibly elaborate, and nearly

of the colorful society

was

off their

blackened their teeth; white teeth were considered

pled the Imperial Court.

ian literature

The women

ered their faces with white powder.

charming young men they chanced to encounter.

rank among the

'

umns.

Outside

the

tiles

palace

supported by 52 colarea

some

religious
35

structures had high roofs of green

tile,

but most

permitted a

It

woman

of quality to ob-

of the buildings were one-story with thatched or

serve her surroundings and carry on a conversation

shingled roofs.

while concealing herself from general view; those

The homes
mentioned
nues

in

of the nobility (others

were

in literature)

compounds covering

seldom

are

on main ave-

built

several

and

acres

were usually surrounded by low, white painted

stone walls with carved and painted gates.

cal

compound

included a

number

of

outside

Heian love
mitted

gentleman

to

the gardens that adjoined the

running streams of clear

wives and concubines, his children,

artificial lakes,

tures

re-

of

were

buildings

these

state,

wood.

of

as

these

In

carefully

homes

life

per-

were

of the nobili-

grounds

landscaped

in

came when a lady

come behind her kicho.

structures housing his principal wife, his secondary

and servants. Like the temples and struc-

only

affair generally

ty.

relatives,

her

see

Favorite locales for less-private social

typi-

buildings.

could

curtains

the

vague outline. The moment of commitment

Besides the master's quarters there were separate

tainers

mountain

fast-

water

fed

which sometimes contained small

islands planted with pine trees.

For major enter-

tainments, elaborately carved and painted barges

Dur-

Rectangular and tastefully simple, they foreshad-

might be brought

owed

ing "winding water banquets" ladies and gentle-

the austerity and understatement that

distinguish

much

would

and architecture

of Japan's art

men

to navigate the little lakes.

sat beside the circuitous streams, listening to

through the ages. Each main building contained

music, fluttering their fans and

one large room that could be used as such for en-

Now

and again,

would pick

by

by; guests in turn

There were

no

and

recite

windows. The outside walls consisted mostly of

cup

to the flowing water.

divided

movable screens and

smaller

into

partitions.

shutters that were taken

down

warm weather

in

One

and replaced by bamboo screens. The buildings

ian

compound were connected by long

a compound occupied by a

Sei

within each

covered corridors, and

growing household soon became

maze

of pas-

sageways and courtyards.

homes
there

movable screens

today. In addition to the

was an occasional low

table,

braziers

heating and cushions for sitting on the

floor.

for

up, sip from

it

most revealing descriptions

found

is

it

Shonagon,

in

the Pillow

a light-hearted

He-

of

Book written by

and highly observant

young woman who was born about 966 and

be-

came

the

lady

in

Empress Sadako.

Furnishings were few, as they are in Japanese

decorously.

an elegant poem before returning the

of the

life

flirting

lacquered cup of wine floated

rooms

tertainments or

cation,

waiting
Sei

the

at

court

Shonagon's forte was

and her book

is

full

of

of

versifi-

poems packed

with puns and literary allusions. The poems made

a great

impression and established Sei Shonagon

as a leading wit at court.

They

are so intricately

platform called a chodai, about nine feet square

constructed, however, that they defy translation;

and two

more

feet

large rooms.

high,

When

stood in the

ions and surrounded by

curtains
a small

dependable privacy. Another

furniture

center

of

the

furnished with mats and cush-

bed chamber and provided

was the kicho,

it

served as a

amount

common

interesting for

sions of very

modern readers

human Heian

are her impres-

scenes. Writes

nagon:

of un-

article

of

portable and attractively

curtained frame, six feet high,

36

function.

with an unusual

girl

white

IS

wearing an unlined robe of soft

stuff, full trousers,

and

a light purple

mantle thrown across her shoulders with a

Sho-

THE MASTER QUARTERS of a house

belonging to the politically powerful

Fujiwara family often served as

temporary quarters for the emperor.

In the center there

was one main

room, which contained a bed

curtained
central

area.

in

Surrounding

the

and

stor-

room were

sitting

age rooms. The rooms were divided

by hanging bamboo screens, sliding

draperies.

The

screens could be removed to

make

paper

screens

one large space,

or

in

which the em-

peror seated spectators

fights

when cock

and soccer games were

held.

very gay

But she has some terrible

effect.

malady of

the

chest.

waiting come in turns

Her fellow

with her, arjd

to sit

outside the room there

is

ladies-in-

crowd

of very

young men inquiring about her with great

How

anxiety:

terribly sad!

The highborn women described by

nagon,

especially

were supposed
selves

young and

the

Sho-

Sei

ones,

pretty

them-

to lead secluded lives, hiding

from prying eyes

and showing

faces

their

Has she ever had

No

close relatives.

kichos

in their curtained

only

and

servants

to

doubt some of them lived up

such an attack before! and so on. With them

no doubt

is

her lover, and he, poor man,

indeed beside himself with distress.

likely as not

it

is

to this dull ideal,

But as

and

a secret attachment,

but to judge by contemporary

lit-

is

erature,

many were

eager for any excuse

outdoors to see and be seen.

When

get

to

public cer-

was

fearful of giving himself away, he hangs on

emony

the outskirts of the group, trying to pick

scheduled, the girls sallied forth in their carriages,

news. His misery

is

up

and

now

there

raises herself
is

on her couch. Even

a grace in her

makes them pleasurable

press hears of

her

to

movements

that

watch. The em-

corjdition

and

at

once

sends a famous reciter of the Scriptures,

nowned

for the beauty of his voice, to read

at her bedside.

now

re-

The room

is

throng of visitors

ber of ladies

tree-lined

the reading.

women

At

this

hear

exposed bevy of young

the priest constantly glances as he

reads, for

which he

the

come.

life

to

to

will certainly

suffer in

and

their

and

foot-retainers

admirers riding alongside.

avenues and tangled

jams while

passengers

in

capital's

sociable

exchanged

traffic

compli-

ments, verses and song.

Days without entertainment dragged, but

the

nights were usually more interesting. "I like the

added a num-

who have simply come

entertainment

Sometimes 500 carriages creaked along the

very small, and

is

outriders

often with gentlemen

feeling that
to the

private

lavish

surrounded by

a touching sight.

The lady binds back her beautiful, long

hair

or

one must always be on the

"And if this is
how much more during the

says Shonagon.

true

day,

night,

must be prepared

for

something

to

alert,"

during the

when one
happen

at

any moment. All night long, one hears the noise

of footsteps in

the

corridor

outside.

Every

now
37

and then the sound

and there

ticular door,

some

will cease in front of

will be

par-

gentle tapping,

Shonagon must have heard many such tappings

own

on her

door for she

expert in every detail

is

Heian love

"It

fair.

One

know how

him

likes

to

sure that he

stay longer
of

while he

night.

at

her

way

He

how much

that one

should

first

whisper

fin-

in a

half-said

left

going and would

and

Then he should

tells

his departure

such

in

unhappy

close to one's ear

of the night.

is

behave

whatever was

ish off

that

is

make

to

he possibly could.

if

come

all

af-

important," explains Shonagon, "that

is

a lover should

the course

in

after

Genji,

The preliminary move

fair

in

compose

by

attracted

one of the longest. Written early

Century,

deepen

eager

to

chose

letter

the

method

of

of departure."

such a Heian love

beautiful

af-

letter.

girl,

would
try-

would make the lady

relationship.

He

carefully

paper whose shade and texture lent

has been the subject of praise, analysis

and controversy, which started soon

ever, has a

cept notable
attention.

about

in

after the au-

and has continued ever

thor's death
if

the 11th

in

since. Rarely,

novel or any work of

books received such avid

religious

Japan

In

literature ex-

alone

has

it

been

written

more than 10,000 books. As early

as the

54-volume Japanese commentary

1960

Japanese publisher issued

some

Tale of Genji Encyclopedia that runs to

1,200 large, closely printed pages.

The Tale of Genji well deserves

Although

written in 11th Century Japanese, as

it is

archaic as Anglo-Saxon

Lady Murasaki's

ry),

translated into
lish.

attention.

this

European contempora-

(its

work has been

modern Japanese and

skillfully

Eng-

also into

Like few other books in world literature

acclimates the reader to an exotic

mote

in time

human

way

of

life,

it

re-

and never duplicated, but intensely

nevertheless.

Its

characters and situations,

spanning several generations,

widely from

differ

themselves to the sentiments he wished to convey.

chapter to chapter, and the scene shifts constantly

Then he

from

readied his brush for the crucial step

the actual writing of the letter.

Mastery of calligraphy, the

flowing, cursive characters,
the

of

writing

in

was considered among

a

Heian

aris-

person's handwriting revealed not only

his education but also his social standing, character

and mood. Sometimes

ly girl, write a

man would

reply.

If

admire a love-

poetic letter to her, entrust

messenger and wait with

the gay entertainments that enlivened the

Heian court
art

most important achievements of

tocrat;

38

it

of

literature.

novel in any language, as well

is

in

poem, weighing every syllable and

ing to evoke an image that

real

first

It

appeared and

would often have been made by

young man,

the

Tale

TJie

the great classic of Japanese

he dreads the day

he has slipped away, she can

lover depends greatly on his

is

moments. Indeed, the success

Shonagon was Lady

as

stand gazing after him, with charming recollections

of those last

her physical charms.

serious writer than

13th Century

before him and longs for the approach of

Then,

how abundant

A more

shutters

the

raise

sank below consideration, no

Murasaki Shikibu, whose romance,

inside will instantly have recognized the knock."

of the clandestine but formalized

sensitivity, she

matter

with one finger; but one knows that the lady

just

is

and

bated

breath

it

for

to a

her

the girl's calligraphy lacked proper grace

to

solemn ceremonies

monasteries, to contests in

perfume-blending.
its

One need

book

is

poetry and

not read the novel in

staggering entirety to enjoy

great

mountain

at

painting,

it,

however;

the

and wonderfully vivid

full of short

episodes that can be read as self-contained entities.

The

Tale includes

many

tales of love.

Prince Genji, the "Shining Prince,"

some son

of an emperor

lived "it matters not

is

Its

hero.

the hand-

who, says Lady Murasaki,

when,

"

and the book

is

largely

study of Genji's innumerable love

a psychological

Also recounted are the love

affairs.

woman

first

whom

with

polygamy prevailed among the Heian

might

he

gave him
waiting

liaisons,

himself

in

him

him.

interest

young

ladies

He was forever
women, and

mansions or wherever
might be living

lovely

quality

in seclusion.

search

rewarded during

is

trip

mountains where monks and hermits

daughter of

prince,

raises

comes

nun

the

This

it

has

comes Prince Genji's

Not

all

of

living

ten,

nun.

and

illness

and many of
Genji end

bring
affairs

tragically.

young mistresses

dies

One

evil spirit that

in

with

such

the girl be-

woman. But
grows

cold.

no

to

The

sorrow,
Tale

of

charming

bewitched before his eyes.

avail;

the

a tall,

girl's

away

forbidding

small

body

This horrifying scene haunts Genji,

who falls sick

He recovers in

himself and seems about

time to order Buddhist

on the 49th day

after

and

lifepath,

Genji was nevertheless

in great sohci-

refined

to

write

numerable poems and acquiring

in

manners and

or other

off of contact

in

etiquette.

intellectual

life

Tale

the girl's death,

to

rites

when

die.

held

her

of

matter of learning

ponderous Chinese,

in

some

in

gaps and contradic-

full of

Education was largely

memorizing
a

in-

polish

brilliant

There was no science

and,

the

after

breaking

with China in the 800s, no interest

foreign countries.

Even Japan's own past got

courtiers

Heian days

of

as

term of deep opprobrium. Costumes were elabbut food was simple and Heian

orate,

hardly ever mentions

on gardens but

Genji's

he envisions as

new

the

Frantically he tries to revive her, to drive

an

but already she must be setting

and used "old-fashioned"

frequent

of

life

lived in the present

happy ending:

love

the

some future

negligible attention;

girl

favorite wife.

death

ever in

Though advanced and highly

it.

little

literature

Great effort was expended

on

which

houses,

could

have been made much more comfortable.

even the gayest inhabitants of the bright Heian society,

we

her spirit had wandered in

and

the

happiness in the world of Genji. To

is

now

eventually be-

told

is

find

to

Buddhist

takes

tale

While

lived.

throws no discredit on the Shining

it

Prince. Indeed

girl
is

own house and

lover.

restraint that

Genji

dies

her in his
her

who

with her grandmother

When

sacred

famous holy man he happens

visiting a

the

Genji's

the

to

Till

ways, the Heian world reflected in The

tions.

In one of the tenderest of the stories,

knot, shall

it

girdle that todai/ with

tude he prayed continually for her safety.

his quest

of

Lady Murasaki:

and as he folded

a certain dress

forth on her

searching

girl

the void,

in

humble houses, neglected, weed-grown

to

tears

but even

lifetime,

give to the priests, he

to

poem: "The

the

untie?"

attended his father's court. But they

for distinctive qualities in

led

great

charm and position

fiis

choice of any of the

who

did not

engage

properly

many amorous

made

next

he was secretly looking through his

came upon

aristocracy,

its

solace. Writes

little

store for largess

but since

to do,

little

start

to

him

When

and principal wife was

he had

due

is

this gives

and descendants.

of his friends, relatives

Prince Genji's

some

affairs of

soul

In religious

marched

side

matters,

the

grossest

by side with lofty Buddhist

losophy. Divination, for example,

rious
as

attention,

ing government

of

to

se-

omens

decisive role in shap-

Certain days were con-

unlucky and on such days every

was made
sible.

policies.

phi-

was given

and the interpretation

good or bad often played

sidered

superstitions

effort

remain indoors and as inactive as pos-

Even such

simple function as bathing or

washing one's hair was put

date. Belief in

off until

an auspicious

demons, goblins and other noxious

supernatural spirits was

common, and

there were
39

A LOFTY MONASTERY belom the peaks of Mt.

monks

tury. Its

lived close to the river

Muro was

Ninth Cen-

initially built in the

and worshiped

temples that were located

in

on higher, more sacred land. In the Heian Age such monastaries acquired enormous
tracts of

tax-exempt land and thus placed a severe drain on the imperial economy.

incantations, charms

them

at bay.

and

spells

aplenty

to

keep

In the Imperial Palace, for instance,

the guards twanged their bowstrings at regular intervals

to

frighten

away

any

that

spirits

evil

might have invaded the royal precinct.

On

the other hand,

aristocrats

the

writings of

sometimes made them seem sincerely

pious; the Buddhist idea that the world

of

universal

their minds.

suffering

And

is

place

was deeply embedded

yet the

Heian nobility loved

in
life

voices of birds and insects,

in

thunder and

their literature

typhoons.

of

more

serious

evils existed

melancholy

writings,

tury.

they

for

and portended coming

The charmed world

had begun

to

wane by

of

the

ward

some

delighted

flowers or mist on
dles.

far

Though

from

still

of

The

description

Tale
of

of

Genji

nature of

water or frost on pine nee-

the Heian aristocrats seldom ventured

their

beloved capital, they watched ev-

of

underlies

their

recognized

that

difficulties.

Heian aristocracy

Cen-

Buddhist sages had long been warning that

women. Hardly

page

much

the start of the 11th

"the latter days of the law,"

while

portrays them as smiling often, a

gloom and

sense

took fearful pleasure

But

too much to brood eternally on its evils. The

women admired the attractions of men, and the
men were forever enchanted by the beauty of

lacks

40

the Heian

ery subtle change of the seasons, listened for the

when

the Buddha's

teachings would lose their benefit, were close at

hand.

Many Heian

courtiers of the

day looked

to-

the future with ever increasing apprehension.

Troubles were certainly multiplying. They did not

come from any mystical

source, however, but from

the slow deterioration of the political

base that supported the capital

city.

and economic

The

roots of this difficulty led back to the Sev-

enth Century,

when

Kotoku

to

tried

Reform

the Taika

up

set

landownership by the

system

Chinese

the

Emperor

of

of

This system, which

state.

required peasant cultivators of

land

the

to

this transaction,

but they

in-

number and wealth. Some

of

them belonged

government was never strong enough

to establish

continued

Many

firmly.

it

productive land and refused

to control

pay

for various reasons to

many

As time

taxes.

passed,

which might be made up

these provincial estates,

of

magnates

provincial

scattered parcels of land, gained formal

in

size,

to rich court nobles, especially the

who were

Fujiwara,

the

richest

of

others

all;

many branches

were the personal estates of the

growth came

of the Imperial Family. Part of this

from adventurous pioneering outside of court con-

Many

trol.

youth of good family, who saw no

prospect of keeping up with the fashionable so-

exemption from taxes and services, and so did

ciety

land that emperors granted

increase an insufficient inheritance and never

and

foundations.

religious

to

favorite

Each

loss

courtiers

of

taxable

the court,

of

Young men

back.

went into the provinces

leaving their

imperial court.

wild frontiers where they saw

tom

of

"commending"

land

taxable

overlords. This practice

grew out

who

land

peasants

held

was the cus-

to the court

their

to

tax-free

from the

and not from the powerful estate-owners.

state

For these poor farmers, no local aristocrats or stewards

ready

stood

to

who were

tax-collectors,

against

imperial

often corrupt

and op-

intercede

pressive, or against imperial agents

ed

men

for labor

for troops
script

had

was
to

and military

who

service.

especially dreaded.

supply his

own

army was often enough

There was
position.

simple

to ruin a

way

hope of

son in the

his land to

better

much

attention to orders from the capital.

was expanding.

Japan

lands were brought

in

Every

more

year

rice

under cultivation, especially

northern areas of the main island of Honshu.

New
cial

land was theoretically the

property of the

much of it fell into the hands of provinbarons, who were not at all like the perfumed

state,

but

imperial

They were exceedingly tough, schooled

traditions

of

warfare

against

unsubdued

in

Ainu

and against an unruly frontier population made

up

of

Japanese

the offspring of

out of this precarious

paid

capital.

draft

the

for

Neither nobles nor peasants on the frontier

and culture-obsessed aristocrats of the

peasant family.

The peasant could entrust

districts

The

young con-

settled

in

conscript-

food, clothing and

weapons, and the burden of having

homes

life.

of the plight of

directly

to

came

of peasant origin did the same,

farmland reduced the income and influence of the

Even more damaging

cen-

rolls of the

While taxable lands shrank, private manors

went into
the central

them very complicated,

of

took land from the tax

creased

operation in Japan, chiefly because

some

variations of

government.

tral

pay

all

taxes directly to the emperor's government, never

full

many

out of the army. There were

settlers,
all

outlaws,

these elements.

aborigines

uation existed in southern Kyushu,

barians called

Kumaso had

and

similar sit-

where bar-

held out for centuries

tax-exempt nobleman or temple; he then received

against Japanese conquest. Even in long-settled dis-

the right to continue to cultivate

tricts local

payments

that were less

vices that he

new

it

in

return for

than the taxes and ser-

had been paying

to the state. If the

patron was strong enough, he protected the

peasant from grasping

officials

and kept

his sons

protect

magnates organized private armies

themselves

or

to

take

land

from

to

their

neighbors. Buddhist temples and monasteries fol-

lowed

suit;

mercenaries

they
to

armed

seize

their

new

monks

land

or

or

hired

revenues.
41

The

which meant

central government,

in

effect

the Fujiwara family, fought a long rearguard action against the loss of taxable state land

increase of provincial independence.

and influence diminished

it

came

to

As

helped

alli-

pow-

gathered around

namoto

the

men

or the Taira,

suppress

for

of the provinces

Mi-

banners of either the

thus dividing most of

the

nation into two warlike leagues.

with private armies battling each oth-

in turmoil,

and defying the forces of the central govern-

ment. The highways were

the seas

swarmed with

Often disorder pen-

etrated into the Capital of Peace

itself.

by bandits;

plagued

pirates.

and Tranquillity

Robbers broke into noblemen's homes or

wooden buildings on

mountain monasteries swept through the

stately

set

Armed monks from

the

the

fire.

II)

city's

avenues and from the gates of the Imperial

Emperor Go

the

throne. His mother

Fujiwara, and so he had no

the

filial

obliga-

long-dominant family. Furthermore,

He was

he was no helpless youth.

35 years old,

vigorous, intelligent man, and determined to rule

without Fujiwara control.

This he succeeded in doing during

reign

of

four years, though disorder in the provinces con-

Then he

tinued and increased.

throne

the

freed

to

his

him from

the

sumed nearly

Shirakawa.

son

This

action

burden of ceremony that conof

all

abdicated, leaving

the

titular

and energy and allowed him

name.

Go

emperor's

govern

to

time

fairly ef-

Sanjo died

year

after his retirement. His son continued to rule for

a

while as emperor, then abdicated in turn and be-

came

monk.

This curious institution of government by an officially retired ruler

characterized the closing cen-

The

tury of the Heian Age.

his court busied themselves

rituals while the Retired
fices

set

up

in

his

titular

emperor and

with elaborate religious

Emperor ruled from

private

of-

Meanwhile

residence.

confusion and disorder continued to grow. Some-

was more than one Retired Emperor

Palace threatened the Fujiwara-controlled govern-

times there

ment. Major revolts, however, were harshly sup-

contending for power, and as central authority be-

pressed by armies organized and led by the Mi-

came more chaotic

namoto. Since they had

were

other warrior clans fought one another with in-

chasing clerical hoodlums back

creasing ferocity in their struggle for power, wealth

especially

good

at

to their monasteries.

rebuilt.

they

piety,

little

But disorder increased; much

was burned

Minamoto, the Taira and

prestige.

With turmoil and defiance mounting throughout

Large sections lapsed into wilderness in-

Japan and more and more land being seized by pro-

fested with outlaws

Worst of

all,

to

and robbers.

the Fujiwara

their political magic.

seemed

vincial barons, the

to

have

lost

Branches of the family, which

had grown enormously, began

to plot against

one

another, and at a critical time the leading branch

failed to

and

the

the ground and never

of the city

produce enough daughters

to

keep

all

the scions of the Imperial Family safely supplied

42

fectively in his son's

Early in the 11th Century the provinces were

er

the

as "the

time the pirates that had long infested the Inland

Sea. Gradually, the fighting

to

income

its

depend on

and was known

Fujiwara

the

came

tions to

and claws of the Fujiwara." Another family,

the Taira,

1068

was not

ances with warlike provincial families, especially

teeth

In

Sanjo (Sanjo

and the

on one called the Minamoto, which headed

erful league of warriors

with Fujiwara wives.

court and

gance for

its

income that had supported the

"dwellers

over

three

among

the clouds" in ele-

centuries

was

drastically

reduced. By the middle of the 12th Century the

brilliant social life of the capital
ter,

had

lost

and the Heian golden age gave way

era filled with the clash of arms.

its

to a

lus-

dark

i,.'^-'-^awr

-.,

.-JC*

_^

ifT'-i

*JTt
iW

fi^
.'W-

'***

lm
i:*!

PRINCF CrNM.

umhrcllii

nn

attcuiiiDit. t^ct^ otii

lo

vi^it

TALES OF COURTLY LOVE

To

fill

the

humdrum

hours between court ceremonies, a

lady in waiting to an 11th Century Japanese empress

began writing a love story. After brushing the equizialent

of

some 630,000

"The Tale of

had completed

loords on paper, she

Ge)iji," the world's first

major novel and

Japan's hterary classic. Part of the fascination of the

"Tale," which describes the adventures of a certain Prince

Cenji and his descendants, are the glimpses

the court of Heian Japan.
their

lilies

The Heian

to the leisurely pursuit of

But their many love

affairs

it

offers into

aristocrats devoted

pleasure and romance.

sometimes brought them

sorrow, as can be seen in the following episodes from the

"Tale," illustrated with paintings from 12th Century
scrolls themselves treasures of Japanese
\irs/

art.

lady

fricud.

A RUINOUS LOVE AFFAIR

THAT LED TO MISERY

was

the very

model of a

iiohlerftan.

The sou

of an

Prince Goiji

Heian

emperor, he captivated
his ^ood looks
flair for

and

all liearts zoith

f^ood taste,

and

his

poetry a particularly desiralue

talent at court,

where most

polite

conversation was sprinkled with verses.

He had

several wives (poly^:,amy

quite accepted),

was

and he treated them

with the utmost kindness.

But one day, when Cenji

away

loas

from home, an amorous courtier forced

on the hero's youn;fest

his affectiojis

wife, Nyosa}!, the daut;,hter of the ex-

emperor. In due course, Nyosan

conceived a child. Overcome by
she stayed

in

bed

ajinouncin;^ that she

a nun.

Her

wanted

become

to

father, deeply concerned,

seen sitting by her side;

weeps

Older iiohlemen

Nyosan's father,

who

is

is

her husband

Genji, in the foreground,

his sleeve.

s.uilt,

(at left in this scene),

into

like

clad in

nmnk's

robes, often took monastic voios. But

for a youn}!, ^irl

such a step zoas a

cause for vrea

since

abandoning forever the

it

meant

frivolities of the

court the poetry contests, wine parties

and ceremonials that

courtiers

meant

to the

Heian

civilization itself.

A BIRTHDAY CEREMONY TINGED WITH IRONY

To avoid

scatuial, Geiiji nckiioioledged his wife's

illegitimate sou, Kaorii, as his

the

own. He carefully observed

customary ceremonies that followed the birth of a

nohknnan's son. In
state dressed

Kaoru

i)i

i)i

this scene,

Genji

is

shown

sitting in

luxurious court robes and cradling

his arms, ready to receive the congratulations

of friends and relatives. Beside him, partially hidden by

zimrn one on top of the other. Despite these liappy

bamboo

surroundings, Genji's head

of

rice,

screening, are lacquered trays bearini^i dishes

traditional gifts

attended by tiuo ladies

sumptuously clad

from well-wishers.
hi waiti)jg

in the latest

(lower

He

left),

is

bowed

in

sorrow.

He

finds

a bitter irony in the day's celebrations, since he himself

is

who

are

court style nearly a

dozen voluminous dresses of carefully chose)i hues.

had produced an
father's

illegitimate son

by one of

concubines~a crime, according

the "Tale," that "never ceased to

haunt

his

to the

own
author of

his conscience."

AND A YOUNG COQUETTE

As

the boy

Kaoni

i!,rew

toward manhood, he was accented

without question as Genji's

acconif.ihshed in

all

flute like a professional

a fan. Because he

own

son.

He was

hi^lUy

the courtly graces; he could play the

and compose poetry

was endoiued with

at the

drop of

a naturally sweet

aroma, achieved without the perfumes most Heian

^^.

noblemen used, he was nicknamed "Fragrant Captain."

But despite his obvious appeal for young

Kaoru showed no
a

New

Year's

draw him

damsel

ladies,

interest in love. In this scene, during

Day

veranda while two

visit to

an aunt, he

ladies inside the

into conversation

sits

tries to

comparing him

"Would

on the

house try vainly

Finally, exasperated

to

through the bamboo screens.

by Kaoru's reticence, one

provoke a response by
to the

fdum

tree in the

reciting a

garden

that your color, like your scent,

of the plum,

demurred;

grew sweeter

at close

his time for love

flirtatious

poem

(right):

O first flower

hand." But Kaoru

had not yet come.

^'$^:.

SWEET MUSIC TO CAPTIVATE A TROUBLED HEART

Kaoru's

sh\/)iess

with yoiin^ ladies sprang from a

reserved, at times even melancholy, disposition. For one

thing, he

was troubled with doubts about the strange

(Why had his

become a 7iun? Was

circumsta}>ces surrounding his birth.

mother so suddenly decided

to

Prince Genji, perliaps, not his real father after nil?)

^^^^.^'

K,^

r.

Ont' day, however, on a visit to the house of an older

friend, Kaorii heard

mist.

music

Could the musicians he

lohom he had never met?

right)

filtering

through the evening,

his friend's

In this scene

peeks through a bamboo fence

spies the

two

girls (top left),

two daughters,

Kaoru

in the

first

time

in his life

he

is

love for the elder daughter, Oigimi, luho

biwa, or Japanese

lute.

Yet love, so long

smitten with
is

in

playing a

coming

to

Kaoru, brought him nothing but misery. Oigimi rebuffed

(far

garden and

attended by two ladies

waiting. For the

in

his attentions,

and

later,

whe)i her father died of old

age, she herself pined to death in sorrow.

rn'

>

DIPLOMATIC GAME OF "GO"

TO WIN A PRINCESS' HAND

-4

For a

tune Kaorii was discoui^olatc

/oHi;

over Oi^iini's death. But, while love urns

a matter of the heart iv Heian Japan,

matrimony was usually

zoheii the

political. So,

emperor proposed a marriage

with his daughter, Knoru SToallowed his

unhappiness and accepted.

Tlie emperor's offer

was made

loith

characteristic Heiau delicacy. His

Majesty

Kaoru

challeni:.ed

round of

to a

"^o," a traditional lapanese board name,

hintin\:,

vaguely

to

Kaoru that "you

have a present

shall

if

handsojne one too" a

to his

you win, and a

I'eiled

daughter, hi this

reference

scow

the

emperor, seated apposite Kaoru

sits at

men

bottom

0)i

the

ri^ht), places

(wlu-i

one of

liis

"no" board. The emperor

co}ive)!ient!y lost the s^ame;

Kaoru,

diplonuitically acknowled^ini:,

unworthiness

to

become

liis

the emperor's

son-in-laio, plucked a chrysautlienuim

from the imperial garden and handed

to the

emperor while he

recited

extemporaneous poem: "Were

it

an
this a

flower that in the hedgerow of a

conuuon garden

my

fill."

greiv, then

would

jjirrc

But Kaoru accepted the

emperor's

offer, aiuf as this tale of his

early years

drew

to a close,

Kaoru thus

became one of the most importa)it

persoimg,es

i)i

the Heian court.

^c--^

Like a dark cloud blotting out the sun, a turbulent

and almost incessant warfare

era of bloodshed

fol-

lowed the golden Heian Age. Within the Imperial

Court gentle

and refinement were

artistry

tinuing ideal, but

con-

around brutal violence

all

flour-

ished and at times shattered the serenity of

court

Now

itself.

the

arms took precedence

feats of

over poetry contests and "cuckoo-viewing" excursions into

countryside,

the

man the mounted

3
RISE

new kind

of

knight in armor clattered onto

win dominance over the elegant court-

the scene to

of an earlier age.

ier

The

OF THE SAMURAI

and

man had begun

rise of the fighting

the

in

11th Century, as the power of Japan's central gov-

ernment gradually eroded.

had attempted

Its

Fujiwara ministers

maintain their influence by mak-

to

ing alliances with the powerful military factions,

Minamoto and

especially those of the

Taira clans.

But by the middle of the next century conflict

among

these

ambitious

leagues

and

intensified,

became supreme; before the 12th Cen-

the warrior

tury was over he had firmly imposed on Japan a

system of military rule that was

to

persist,

with

various modifications, for some 700 years.

reasonable date for the

feudal

itaristic

age

dawn

1156.

is

of Japan's mil-

war

year

that

In

between the Minamoto and Taira leagues swept

for the first time over the unfortified, ungarrisoned

capital

came

that

be

to

in

Kyoto.

called

But

the

war and were instrumental

forces that led to the

shaping feudalism had long been gathering. As

early as 946, in the

cial

heyday of Fujiwara

rule,

an

offi-

had reported: "Many make lawless use

of

power and authority; form confederacies; engage

military

daily in

men and

exercises;

menace

district

governors;

people;

violate

their

steal their beasts of

their

collect

and maintain

horses under pretext of hunting game;

own

operations.

wives

plunder the

and

common
and

daughters;

burden and employ them

for

purposes, thus interrupting agricultural

"

He recommended

that "persons

who

enter a province at the head of parties carrying

bows and arrows

shall

be recognized as

common

bandits and thrown into prison."

A

MOUNTED SAMURAI,

If
flrrfli/ed in

armor and carrying a sword, a how and a

quiver of arrows, plunges into the sea in

of a 12th

Century

battle

between the

rival

detail

this

Taira

from a painting

and Minamoto

clans.

any such order were

forced,

and

as

the

issued,

it

effectiveness

was never enof

centralized

authority gradually diminished, disorder increased

55

A FEUDAL ESTATE, owned hy two samurai brothers, straddles a

river in this 13th

banks

in

bottom),

Century map. The brothers lived on opposite

manor houses with high peaked

and

their

When

the provinces.

in

included

holdings

roofs (center, top

cottages

landholders found they

could no longer depend on royal

tection

against

outlaws

and

and markets.

pro-

officials for

predatory

or

neighbors,

they armed their sons and retainers and put themselves

under the leadership of chiefs

renowned

the 12th Century these

start of

armed

groups were numerous but remained small and

local

their followers

because the power and intrigues of the Fu-

ier

lords in turn pledged allegiance to

or

times was

not

against

make powerful

the

violent

small groups;
alliances

be subjugated and despoiled.

trend

of

those that did

were almost sure

To

the

to

gain additional

strength for defense or offense, the warrior-chiefs

of each small region
their

to

banded together and offered

combined services

to

more important

lords.

In return for this support the lords agreed to pro-

be.

strik-

ingly similar to the feudal alliances that developed

Europe during the centuries of

in

after the fall of

Rome. And

crude but effective

some kind

scheme

chaos

political

in Japan,

for

But

loft-

still

claimed

least

at

dieval Europe, these alliances supplied

to threaten the cen-

to

noblemen who were members of some ancient

and mighty family,

them from growing big enough

government.

and

share with them any booty that they might win.

The

jiwara family, reaching out from the capital, kept

tral

56

minor chiefs and

These step-by-step bonds of allegiance were

for fighting ability.

At the

tect the

as

me-

in

the

basis

enforcing

for

of order in a turbulent time.

They

are

a natural

response to the failure of authorized gov-

ernment

to provide protection.

As

the

Heian Age drew

rior-landholders had

to a

become

close,

most war-

associated, frequently

through several stages of allegiance, with the two

Minamoto and

the

great

military

Taira.

These families ranked lower than the court

families,

the

claimed descent from early

nobles, though each

emperors. Both had numerous branches, some of

which were

land and power and

bitter rivals for

only too apt to desert to the other side. Both had

well-established representatives in
parts of Japan,

and branches

followed the frontier as

all

long-settled

of both families

had

advanced into eastern

it

and northern Honshu. In many places Minamoto

and Taira estates lay side by
those of lesser

side,

families

provincial

mingled with
gave

that

al-

inward principles that motivated them were quite

different.

of

personal and family loyalty came the appearance

most famous

urai, or

gentleman warrior. "Samurai" means "one

the sam-

of Japanese types,

who

serves," and the samurai were soldiers

Some were

served personal chiefs.

wealthier than

but no matter what their economic

others,

cumstances,

were

all

womanhood

theoretically

cir-

bound by

ing his

and children nor duty

love of wife

parents. Least of

all

should the fear of

death affect a man's fidelity to his feudal leader.

In a Japanese tale

dating from the 12th Century,

one noble warrior puts into vivid words the samurai's utter

my

contempt

for death:

not

might sink

bottom of the

to the

reckoning

voured by monsters of the deep.

harness, arms

my

trade

that

my body

long,

like sacred

steel

These

strips
fierce,

held

together

outwardly the knights of medieval Europe, but, except for

their

devotion

to

their

power

overlords,

the

no one
least

at

in

charrest

below samurai
theory,

carry

to

But the

full

the

mystique of the

creating

strong,

chain

Minamoto and

The

Taira.

these two families

councils

of

in the land.

agreement between the Taira and Minamoto,

perhaps sealed by

have brought peace

such

private

to the

became the strongest lawmaking

and law-enforcing bodies

An

of

up from individual warriors

that reached

through subordinate chiefs and great lords

to

thongs.

and

was already

of

series
to

the

marriages,

entire

No

which favored fighting

to every bit-

for

the nation's sake.

Except for

the vague, semireligious attachment that

as yet

but

feeling of patriotism urged the factions

make peace

anese

might

country,

detente hardly suited the belligerent spirit

ter end.

by cords or

acquired

when the power struggle between

Minamoto and Taira factions was approaching
climax. The tradition of personal loyalty, how-

pillow was

grim, aristocratic horsemen resembled

caste

widely apart from the

the 12th Century

My

The wealthier samurai fought on horseback,

made of narrow

it

objects.

of the times,

clad in helmet and flexible armor

exploits

samurai had not taken shape by the middle of

and be de-

names and

two-handed swords that were revered almost

sea,

."
.

Instead,

cries.

supreme weapons of Japanese warfare,

the

spurred

braved the dangers of

wind and wave,

my

horse on frowning precipices, careless of death

the face of the foe.

in

"...

set

rank was permitted,

ever,

to one's

the

warrior

the

population,

of the

tion, neither

own prowess and

acteristics that

mediate superiors in the feudal chain of command.

devo-

sam-

of his illustrious ancestors.

Nothing was supposed

this

As

plunged into battle he was no crusader

he sought to strike terror in his enemies by shout-

the

with

glorification

European knighthood

invoking heavenly aid in his war

code that demanded absolute loyalty to their im-

to interfere

that underlay

and the

the samurai inspired by religious fervor.

urai warrior

Eventually,

the growth of a feudal system based on

of that

who

ideal of chivalry

had no counterpart among the samurai. Nor were

legiance to one or the other.

With

The

felt

all

Jap-

toward the Imperial Family, there existed

no concept of Japan

The Minamoto were the

as a nation.
first

of the

two great

warrior leagues to win strong influence at court;

after the decline of

Fujiwara control

the

family
57

moved
This

and

Kyoto and secured many high

into

power was resented by the Taira,

to

rise

in

and

intrigues

of

series

offices.

they

battles

sought to dislodge the Minamoto from the capital.

war between the

In 1156 full-scale

erupted in Kyoto

and

itself,

the

more than 300 years had been

and

ture

soldiers

great

of

both sides burned palaces

of

for

Samurai warriors and com-

cruelty and destruction.

mon

that

city

sanctuary of cul-

became the scene

elegance

families

rival

and

slaughtered the inhabitants. Most of the prisoners

were executed, often beheaded, though capital punishment had long been abolished
of

Buddhism's

at court

on nonviolence. Early

stress

struggle the captured chief of the

ly

was condemned

own

than have

to

Minamoto
it

in

Minamoto

the

fami-

death by the Taira, and his

to

son was ordered

fused, but a

because

him. The son

kill

officer did the

done by

hated

re-

deed rather

Taira.

Then he

killed himself.

Grisly descriptions of warfare between the two

factions

abound

tale describes a

in the literature of the time.

Minamoto

emperor

retired

"Wild flames

Taira:

raid

who was
filled

in

One

on the palace of
league

with

the

the heavens, and a tem-

pestuous wind swept up clouds of smoke. The

nobles, courtiers
the

of

slashed to death.

When

burned by the

as not to be

rows.

and even the

ladies

women's quarters were

When

in

waiting

down

or

they rushed out, so

fire,

they met with ar-

they turned back, so they would not

be struck with arrows,

the flames.

shot

they were consumed by

Those who were

afraid of

the arrows

JAPANS FIRST SHOGUN. Miiiumofo Yoritomo became military

dictator in 1185,
rival Taira clan.

a sifstetn of military
centuries.

and

terrified

by

wells in large numbers,

tom ones

in a short

even

flames

the

and of

jumped

into

these, too, the bot-

time had drowned, those in

the middle were crushed to death by their fellows,

and those on top had been burned up by

the

flames."

From such
58

orgies of blood

and arson the Taira

when
From

He

is

ter in his right

Kamakura, he

government that

shown
hand,

he vanquished the leaders of the

his capital at

in full

in this

set

up

lasted almost seven

court dress, holding, a scep-

13th Century

wood

sculpture.

emerged the

llbO Kiyomori, the Taira

victors. In

Imperial Family and

leader, seized control of the

Minamoto

the central government.

beyond

treated

re-

mostly to the eastern

reach,

his

survivors

provinces in the region around modern Tokyo, a

where the authority of the Kyoto gov-

frontier area

ernment had never been strong. There they waited

Kiyomori was

most warriors how

better than
intricate

ment,

mechanism

nearly

frivolous

as

been during the Heian

merous posts

who

who came

Family;

it

was

to

appendage so

make
that

1180

new

By

copied

it

and did not recognize the

in-

Fujiwara

dead

age of the fighting man's supremacy.

the second half of the 12th Century the

peror's court

The only

had become

reality

trolled

by

Japan.

When

made

the

little

was armed

fierce

warrior

more than

force,

families

and

it

was con-

of

down

settling

over

scattered

Kiyomori and other Taira

mistake

em-

symbol.

in

of the

coming from

chieftains
the

real

joined

although Go Shiramany wavering warriorMinamoto faction because

results;

power,
the

Emperor's support made that cause

Retired

seem the legitimate one.

finally

crushed in a great naval

fought on the Inland Sea

battle

drowned along with most

was

to

grow

of his entourage.

war was

structive five-year

the strongest

provinces despite

many

Kyoto,

lord

gallant attempts and

namoto survivors gathered

dercloud for

there

like

Mi-

thun-

bloody comeback.

The Minamoto

struck in 1180 under the leader-

and out

de-

of

it

Yoritomo, the Minamoto leader, saw in the samurai's feudal

subdue the eastern

over,

government the country

code of loyalty and service to his

basis

governing

for

put his plan into effect he had

able to rally forces sufficient to

was

The

had yet known.

leaders

were never

The Em-

in 1185.

peror Antoku, then seven or eight years old,

court and tended to lose touch with the provincial

their followers

pursue

to

as rebels. This imperial bless-

through

The Taira and

Mi-

the

to

their generals

to

descendant of the sun-goddess,

produced important

kawa had no

with

take

had continued

Antoku's name. He defected

rule in

ing,

ex-emperor

officially retired,

they gave themselves over to the pleasures of the

barons.

of that

Go Shirakawa

age of

the

summer

who, although

impotence

capital's

Late in the

westward with the child-emperor

and retreated

The Taira were

This policy failed because

in this

itself.

the

them the support

had done.

past

war

the

year the demoralized Taira abandoned the capital

and punish the Taira

the

1181,

in

By 1183 two Minamoto armies threatened

daughter

govern

could

Taira

died

raged on.

namoto and encouraged

the

at

the imperial name, as

definitely in

Kiyomori,

had

the Imperial Family a Taira

the

orgy of slaughter and devastation. Even after the

Taira leader,

held nua

an

in

life,

two, was his grandson. Apparently Kiyomori's objective

sawed back and forth across the country

to

Emperor Antoku,

the

the throne in

to

still

He even married

at court.

Imperial

as

be

to

Antoku. But they were not able

and made friends

Age,

with frosty Fujiwara nobles,

the

manipulate the

to

of the ancient court govern-

took part in the capital's social

f^e

which remained

into

who understood

a clever politician

proved

ultimately

one of Japan's greatest statesmen. The struggle see-

Taira in Kyoto

round of war.

for the next

who

ship of Yoritomo,

vals

in

his

who was one

rival

the

whole country
he could

military dictatorship. Before

own

faction,

to

of his best generals.

after another

suppress

including

his

many

As one ambitious

was disposed

the country

of,

gradually quieted down, and Yoritomo began

build the structure for his rule.

ri-

brother,

From

Emperor Go Shirakawa (now acting

to

the Retired

in

the

name
59

who was Antoku's

of the child

authority

the

tracted

to

successor) he ex-

appoint constables and

task

portant

of

regime was the most im-

to the

The samurai-dokoro

statecraft.

stewards in the provinces. This grant of power,

was thus more than an army

given very reluctantly, was the keystone of the

was

new scheme
loyal

were

of government. Constables

henchmen

ward securing

local

when Yoritomo appointed

military chiefs, and

these offices, he

to

military control of

went

far

who

By the judicious appointment

Yoritomo and
of

session

of

his loyal vassals gradually

proportion

large

With
to

the

fall

now

of the Taira before

him

as

officials still

careful

won

nearly

pos-

most

quarters

an examthe

done.

bors,

ments of the Imperial Court. Instead he established

ments.

mouth

Tokyo Bay, where

of

namoto maintained

Kamakura

of

Mi-

the

shrine of the war-god Hachi-

man. There experts from Kyoto helped him build

up what amounted
a

small but efficient bureaucracy.

self as

did

reclamation

land

When

disputes

and

lords or their samurai, the

settled

them with

as

generals

his

servants waited, then

for

became an

armed

of bloodshed.

shogun

was not always

fought

many campaigns

against recalcitrant barons, mostly in remote parts

He headed

it

The name had

came

it

him-

office to deal

with

where

Under
all

office

originally

nobleman's
guard-

Yoritomo

it

the affairs of mili-

and

men, allocating duties

ommending promotions and

council,

to designate a

retainers.

privileges,

rec-

rewards, determining

punishments and even regulating

a soldier's

family

and personal behavior. Since the feudal warriors

of Japan

had become the only

keeping

them

strong,

feudal

of the country.

all-important

a place

improvethe

samurai-dokoro usually

minimum

Yoritomo's reign
peaceful;

among

as har-

government with

him were an administrative

meant "service room,"

fairly

provincial

irrigation

arose

The

generals always won, and Yori-

He

an

judges

Its

and managed public works such

estates of the

and

that

shogun's head-

much more

so

its

was

everyone

learned

Kamakura, the Bakufu.

at

tomo divided the

called the samurai-dokoro.

tered,

in the

his loyal vassals.

title

system of courts

tary

business

conferred by the emperor.

Directly below

room

quickly

Seii-taishogun (barbarian-suppressing com-

mander-in-chief), a

to a private

But

illusion.

The Bakufu executives appointed

tough soldiers would be exposed to the blandish-

town

Kyoto and

at

and honestly than the emperor's courts had ever

officials

near the

the

power resided

all real

mistake of moving to Kyoto, where he and his

his headquarters in the small

al-

Japan,

in

had this function, and Yoritomo

preserve

to

Court

Imperial

the

oretically

with government

make

administration,

authority

strongest

the

decided lawsuits and

be avoided, Yoritomo did not

new

his

were not the country's formal government. The-

productive land.

ple

The shogun and

stewards,

Japan's

of

it

to-

course of time often became their effective proprietors.

office;

though

the

in

central

source of power.

his

provinces.

the

Stewards were managers of estates

60

and firmly attached

class that really

orderly,

mat-

contented

vanquished among

died in 1199, and since the

two sons who succeeded him

in

turn were less

able than their father had been, his

would probably have

government

fallen apart except

strong-minded widow, Masa-ko.

This

woman had shown her mettle as

when she eloped with Yoritomo on

for his

extraordi-

young

nary

girl

the very

day that

she

was scheduled

to

marry another

man. After her husband's death she intrigued so

skillfully that

members

of her father's family, the

Hojo, eventually emerged as regents in complete

control of the office of shogun.

For well over a century the Hojo family controlled Japan,

and the shogun was reduced

to

During

figurehead.

this period

the country's gov-

ernment was an extraordinarily compHcated maze.

was the emperor

Its

titular chief

his

powers such
by

ministered
father.

govern

to

actually ad-

Emperor,

Retired

The Retired Emperor

power

perial

were were

as they

Kyoto, but

at

usually

his

in turn delegated

im-

to the military

shogun

at

Kamakura, and the shogun himself was dominated

by

remarkably

From time

well.

to

time,

be

to

an emperor would conspire with ambitious

sure,

noblemen
spiracies

the

all

Hojo even found the upris-

by giving the confiscated

nobles

devoted

to

estates of

they

vassals,

strengthened the feudal loyalties that supported

much

neficent for

its

grow

to

and pointed out diplomatically that lack of such

might lead

lations
at

Kamakura
it

was

defiant

way.

would probably

into cities;

trade with

towns

China

and new ideas

in-

Kyushu

develop from a simple set of feudal

powerful ethical code that

is still

in-

and most of the trappings of

would identify

Although military

rule

samurai for centuries

to stay

on the

severest

gressive

up overseas, and

would put the samurai caste

test.

In

the

early

Mongols burst out

campaign of conquest

1200s

fierce

to

its

and ag-

ing force

as

well.

go

un-

perceived

that

strike at

the

is-

would most

some 450

In

and man

November

to

Japanese watched Mongol armies overrun China

sailed

forced
fleet

out

Iki,

at

of

into

and took the small

whose Japanese

man. Then the

Kyushu and landed

they
great

is-

garri-

continued

fleet

Hakozaki Bay on the

north coast.

Hurrying into

were

the

last

1274, the armada,

troops,

the stormy Korea Strait

sons died to the

but

seafaring,

Mongol

carrying 15,000

They knew

With growing apprehension

his spies

likely sail.

build

to

ships.

on

Meanwhile

The Mongols, being Central Asian horsemen,

most Asiatic

of Central Asia

that terrorized

ulti-

lands and eventually a good part of Eastern Eu-

rope

alert.

lands of Tsushima and

had brought order inside

Japan, trouble was building

it

silently

kept close watch on Korea, from which an invad-

to Japan.

come had taken shape.

mately

same

convenient base for an assault

the Koreans

that

in the

Such defiance could not

Mon-

sent the

China without an answer

to

knew nothing about

to

a veiled threat,

It

and the Hojo regent

attack

first

to yield.

ambassadors

later

challenged,
the

no mood

ambassador back

and treated

was

realized that this

in

re-

The Hojo government

war.

to

had begun

war

suggested

China was desirable

defenses strengthened and warned the warriors of

day. Population increased;

fluential in Japan,

he addressed

He

small country."

Also, by mid-century the samurai code of honor

loyalties into a

whom

on the main island of Honshu. He ordered coastal

creased, bringing wealth

to

Mongols, Gen-

of the

rel-

Century Japan was

Hojo regents, which was remarkably be-

rule of the

Khan

and tranquil under the strong

of the 13th

atively prosperous

began

as "the ruler of a

land of Kyushu,

power.

For

away.

far

sador to the "King of Japan,"

gol

way

power, but

the

to

fall

grandson Khubilai, sent an ambas-

ghis Khan's

were crushed by the fiojo regents without

the conspiring

they saw Korea also

In 1268 the Great

but

ings helpful;

their

might not be

such con-

to recover real

difficulty. In a

When

scendants.

conquerors, they realized that an attack on Japan

that friendly intercourse with

Hojo regent.

This long chain of delegated powers held together

under the leadership of Genghis Khan and his de-

kufu

battle

came

the

local

that great armies dispatched

moving

to

support

them,

samurai.

by the Babut

not

waiting for help they threw themselves recklessly

on the dreaded Mongols, shown by contemporary

Japanese

artists as hairy

subhumans. The samurai

61

enjoyed the

fighting

of

benefit

on

grounds, but in every other respect were at

enemy, and

con-

They had never faced

siderable disadvantage.

foreign

home

their

their

in

warfare

civil

they

used hardly any military formations. The highranking warriors generally fought opponents
equal rank in formalized single combat.
gols,

of

The Mon-

on the other hand, were accomplished

tacti-

cians, maneuvering skillfully in tight formations.

shot

crossbows

Their powerful

out-

that

bolts

ranged Japanese arrows, and they brought

artillery

enemy was again expected

the

handle them.

to

on Kyushu able

warlike barons
their troops

all

ready for battle

Weapons were

some

of

pirates

whom

Mongols

board

to

many

night a storm broke, sank

blew the remnants of the

Soon

fleet

of the ships

back toward Korea.

Japan"

come

to

to

king and do homage.

Imperial

Court

at

Mongol

the
It

Kyoto was

yielding and underlined

it

of the
insult,

could think

its

of:

"King

capital of Pe-

was an ultimatum. The

terrified,

makura's resolute Bakufu rejected

way

Khan

after this abortive invasion, Khubilai

sent another embassy, this time ordering the

of

and

but Ka-

thought of

all

decision in the strongest

by lopping

off

Mongol ambassadors. This was

and it was thrown in the

the heads

the ultimate
face

of

The

in

they began

to

prepare for

word

spies brought

it

with

unity

Mon-

preparations

large-scale

that

were under way. Again the Koreans had been ordered to build ships, a thousand

and

time,

Mongol army

toward the

shore

of

Korea

the

taneously an even bigger

was the
until

modern

Simul-

may have

inflated

doubt that

little

this

times.

summer

of 1281

from Korea and made

The

reached

was marching
Strait.

largest sea-borne invasion force in history

Early in the

fore.

this

embark an army of

100,000 men. Although the spies

numbers, there seems

them

was reported gather-

fleet

ing in the south of China to

the

of

of 50,000

first

the

for

Mongol

Kyushu,

troops landed on June 23 at

shores of Hakozaki Bay.

Kyushu soon

The

after

many

fleet

from China

and landed most of

With

a characteristic

its

that

tempt for death, the Japanese attacked

soldiers farther west.

fleet

as be-

including the walled

and

shown before. To hinder

Mongol landing parties, land-

Sea-

busy mopping up remnants

Asia to Arabia, and whose horsemen had ravaged

too well that another

Kyoto

southern China. Then Japanese

places on the north coast,

The Japanese knew only

notice.

at

were samurai whose lands touched

sailed

and stronger Mongol attack would come,

court

respite lasted for five years while the

of resistance

an

Hungary.

moment's

the

shores joined enthusiastically with government

enemy people whose conquests now reached from

the China Sea all the way across the continent of
as far west as

and

terrorized the Inland

gol conquerors were

suaded the

men

all

save resources for defense.

to

who

seamen, not liking the look of the weather, per-

That

at a

stockpiled;

forces in naval maneuvers.

ships.

the

to

over Japan were told to keep

was inconclusive. At dusk the Japanese withdrew behind earthworks, and the Korean
the

attack

built

be called up immediately to repel invaders,

its

battle

ma-

arms so that they could

their valor and their deadly, cherished swords.

The

to land. Small,

census was taken of

to bear

Even the

only

wall

clumsy Mongol transports, and crews were trained

gave up luxuries

muster

were

warships

neuverable

and explosive missiles. Against this formidable mil-

machine the Japanese could

to build

around Hakozaki Bay, on whose sheltered shores

of a sort: catapults that hurled flaming projectiles

itary

62

owners on Kyushu were ordered

at

cononce;

damage, armed crews

the country had never

their small boats did great

the charges of the

boarding the enemy transports or setting them on

THE IMPERIAL RESIDENCE moved four times

The first capital, Nara, was abandoned in

moved

briefly to

Nagaoka and then

to

in

Japan's history.

784.

The emperor

Heian-kyo (Kyoto). By

1192 shogun had taken over Japan's administration and ruled

from Kamakiira and

kyo, has been

Since 1869 Edo,

later Edo.

both the

imperial and

StA

OF lAPAN

capital.

JAPANS SHIFTING CAPITALS

SEA OF

renamed To-

administrative

'c.;,.

lAPAN
Administrative
capital

HONSHU

1603-1868
Imperial capital
since 1869

Edo (Tokyo)

Shogun's military capital

1192-1333

Imperial capital

Kamakura

Ml. Full

794-1868
Heian-kyo (Kyoto)

I^^H^^

Imperial capital

Nagaoka*
764-794

.c*''

Nara

INLAND

Imperial capital

^^-
fire.

PACIFIC

The most potent weapon

the

of

OCEAN

Mongols,

long-term advantage. Their armies were being con-

Mongol invaders never

the paralyzing terror that they had inspired across

stantly reinforced, and the

much

penetrated far from the coast of Kyushu.

at all

Century world, had no

of the 13th

effect

on the Japanese.

Whether

Great armies were streaming toward the battlefield,

the samurai leaders racing each other to get

there

monks

and

Priests

first.

in

monasteries

or not the

have triumphed

is

Mongols might ultimately

an argument that

will

be settled because nature or the gods took

cisive

hand

in

the

Toward

battle.

the

never
a de-

end

of

throughout Japan prayed for victory. The emperor

August, as often happens

commanded

dark clouds stood high in the south, and a great ty-

religious services

day and night

Shinto and Buddhist shrines and

he and the Retired Emperor wrote

own hands

the

to

All of Japan that

tombs of

was not

was praying

Both

letters in their

beseeching the aid of the

and sent them

to fight

temples.

in all

spirit

world

counts of

it

wind blew
ly

cleared,

at

hurricane force.

both enemy

and most of

that have
it

When

fleets

the

the sky final-

were wrecked or

crews drowned. The de-

scattered

fighting or

preparing

moralized invaders marooned on shore were quick-

more than 50 days. Ac-

come down

to

us are so

cannot be said which side had

the upper hand. After the Japanese withstood the

initial

phoon roared over Kyushu. For two days

ly

shock of the attack they probably gained

their

slaughtered by the Japanese.

The typhoon was

confused that

at that season,

ancestors.

or chanting incantations to in-

struggle lasted for

Japan

their

sure victory.

The

in

kamikaze,

the

the

"divine

wind" whose timely intervention convinced the

Japanese for
land

was

many

centuries thereafter that their

specially protected

other invasion

threatened

the Japanese pilots

who

by the gods.
in

the

20th

When

an-

Century,

flew planes loaded with

63

explosives into the guns of American warships in

Go

Daigo, mounted the throne. Unlike some of

homeland were aptly named

his

predecessors he was

an

effort to save their

long-famed wind.

for the

Mongol conquerors,

gents achieved their greatest

the Hojo re-

After

success.

that

climax they were dogged by troubles that eventual-

grew unmanageable. For 20 years the Mongols

ly

mount another attack, and not unKhan in 1294 did the

til the death of Khubilai
Japanese begin to feel secure. The war and the

force

and

economically

Japan

on resources was

this strain

to

prove

fatal to the

Feudal loyalty compelled the important lords to

to call

on

their

own

vassals for services and supplies, but after similar

commands
regents

Mongol

before the

had

rewarded

their

invasion, the
faithful

Hojo

supporters

with land and other booty taken from opponents

defeated in

wars.

civil

No

such rewards accrued

from the defeat of the Mongols, and the Bakufu

could not

itself

pay

for military services since

it

had no funds Japan had no nationwide system

of taxation.

swarmed

to

for

Most of the petitioners who now

Kamakura came away empty-handed,

how worthy

no matter

their claims for

recompense

Grievances of disappointed claimants gradually

dal

of loyalty that held the feu-

system together. Great landholders, especially

the country, began to behave

in distant parts of

more independently. Even when they became openly defiant,

the

Bakufu often could not make

its

its

plotting to regain real power.

subtle intriguers found willing accomplices.

In 1318, following a long dispute about the imperial succession,

64

general,

Go

re-

powerful army

com-

its

Ashikaga Takauji, changed

before he reached Kyoto and

in

Go Daigo

the time.

all

to

at this

evaded the

overawe the ambitious emperor, but

to

manding

sides

entered the capital

Daigo's name. His defection to the emperor

burned
if

an unusually vigorous emperor.

who marched on Kamakura and

samurai,

their

it

to the

ground. For

Go Daigo would

imperial

power and,

cials

while

it

looked as

actually succeed in restoring

like the

emperors of prefeudal

times, rule through ministers

appointed by the

and provincial

Takauji,

offi-

But

Imperial Court.

recently acquired general,

his

had personal

ambitions. Backed by lords bent on maintaining

feudal powers,

their

Daigo with

and

he managed to replace

Go

puppet emperor, and took over the

Kyoto government
capital

set

up

Go Daigo

as shogun.
a rival

fled the

court in the mountains

south of Kyoto.
of the line

founded by Ashikaga Ta-

were never as strong as Yoritomo or

kauji

Hojo-dominated successors, and within

their

power dwindled

most 300 years

to almost nothing.

coup

after Takauji's

his

century

d'etat,

For

al-

Japan

seldom had an effective central government. The

southern court had been persuaded

Kyoto

renew

Hojo leaders sent

In 1333 the

shadows

to

for him; for years he

gent's orders, gaining supporters

ing strength of the Bakufu encouraged the Imperial

Its

Hojo regent

time was weak-minded and debauched.

other vassals act against them. Moreover, the wan-

Court

the Im-

repeatedly

tried

to abdicate, but the

The shogun

wartime duties.

weakened the bonds

man and

signaled a wide revolt of discontented lords and

Bakufu system of controlling the country.

obey the Bakufu orders and

him

was too much

threatened to

long alert had drained

The Bakufu

Family.

perial

In repelling the

full-grown

fully resolved to restore the authority of

in

1392,

Japan's

emperors

of the almost equally

They gave only

the

but

to

return

to

remained

shadowy shogun.

national unity

while

nobleman of the provinces, the daimyo

(great

trace of

names), came to rule their

nations.

A new

fiefs

like

independent

stage of feudalism had begun.

i3

ik

L
A

MAN OF WAR,

the armor-clad

ideals of strength

samurai personified the

and courage of Japan's feudal

age.

THE WAY OF THE WARRIOR

The

civil

brought

wars that swept Japan during the 12th Century

in a

new

age of strength and

steel.

Men

in their battle for control of the

armed noblemen,

the samurai,

country.

began

their talents to the production of

which combined beauty with

samurai shown above,

in

to

from

all

over

Minamoto

Japan joined the ranks of the warlike Taira and

fierce

new

clans

breed of

emerge. Artisans turned

superb swords and armor,

deadly practicality. Like the

an illustration from

feudal manual on

armor-wearing, Japan had put on the armor of war.

It

to

took more than just a sword and a metal

arm

suit,

however,

samurai. Part of his equipment was moral and

psychological an austere, unwritten code of personal courage

and loyalty roughly

Europe.

The

code,

parallel to the rules of fealty in

known

as bushido, or

"The

Way

medieval
of the

Warrior," demanded an almost religious commitment

life,

in

to military

which physical hardship was the order of the day, and

a heroic

death in battle the most honorable goal.

UNDERPINNINGS: BASIC STEPS

A

samurai's

duty was

first

fighting for his lord.

of saving your

hero

is

supposed

to die

one legendary

to

have

to

war

had better not go

DEFENSE

you think

"If

"

fife,

IN SELF

said,

"you

at all."

Nevertheless, Japanese warriors

still

took the precaution of wearing

armor

elaborate, extremely effective

themselves from

in order to protect

their

opponents' swords.

The procedures

on the

for putting

armor were complicated and timeconsuming. The

shown

steps,

first

here, consisted of

donning

a series

of undergarments: a special loincloth,

a

kimono

of fine linen or brocade,

and baggy

These layers of

trousers.

cloth acted as padding over

the armor itself

was strapped.

warrior's next defense

skill at fighting,

which
was

his

acquired through

COTTON BREECHCLOUT

was

the basic

that extended

up over

the chest

undergarment of a samurai's costume.

years of rigorous training designed to

build strength of character as well as

physical prowess. Future samurai

were apprenticed

to

masters of

archery and swordsmanship,

toughened

their bodies

and

who

spirits

with extended fasts and barefoot

treks through the snow.

These

hardships were to be endured without

complaint, for as

character in a

Japanese epic explains,

samurai,
it is

"when

his

if

man

stomach

a disgrace to feel

is

is

empty,

hungry."

A SHORT SLEEVED KIMONO. Or "armor robe," was

snugly

at tlie waist

with a special knot (lower

tied

right).

BILLOWING PANTALOONS, woni over the armor robe,

ted loosely

iti

the legs to allow freedoryj of

fit-

movement.

AN EXQUISITE BROCADE,
sign of peonies,

materials used in

richly

worked with

a de-

was one of the extravagant

an armor robe that may have

been made for a 14th Century imperial prince.

STURDY SHINGUARDS of
with strips of iron

to

cloth or leather were reinforced

give pTrotection from the front.

ARMOR TO ABSORB THE SHOCKS

PLIABLE

Despite the rigors of

training, his

OF BATTLE

samurai's

methods of combat were

based on a principle of deftly applied

similar to

The technique was

that of modern jujitsu

(literally,

"the gentle art"), in which

an adroit

flexibility of

"gentleness.

"

movement

wins out over brute strength.

The same

principle applied to the

construction of Japanese armor,

which protected
flexibility

its

wearer with

and "give" instead of

rigid

bulk. Unlike European armor, with

steel plates,

Japanese

armor consisted of tiny

scales of

its

massive

lacquered iron, or lamellae, laced

together in rows with silk cords (far
right).

The

was

result

fabric, as pliable as

a metallic

European chain

mail, but considerably tougher.

Combined with

flexibility,

DISPOSABLE THIGH GUARDS, ivorn while on horseback,

Japanese

were often taken off for easy movement on

foot.

armor had the added advantage of

being relatively

light.

While European

knights were so encumbered by

heavy

steel that derricks

to lift

them onto

were needed

their horses, a

samurai's armor weighed only about

25 pounds, allowing
leap with

and over

agility

its

wearer

through

rice

to

paddies

castle walls. In addition,

it

could be folded into a compact box

for easy carrying

and

if

when

cut by a sword

mended by

lacing

it

not in use,

could be

on new

lamellae.

METAL-CASED SLEEVES consisted of a Japanese type of

cliain mail and iron splints sewn onto heavy cloth.

A SHEATH FOR THE TORSO, made from rows of iron

mellae,

included armored skirt-panels for the

la-

hips.

MULTICOLORED STITCHING

of braided silk cord

covered the outside surface (top) of Japanese

armor. The cords held rows of lamellae, seen

J?-

clearly

BROAD SHOULDER GUARDS

like epaulets

of threaded lamellae

from the armor's

hung

from the shoulders of the torso sheath.

I

[IIIMIIIM

underside

(bottom).

HEADGEAR TO THWART AND TERRIFY THE FOE

In the

man-to-man combat

that

characterized Japanese battles,

samurai sometimes took as trophies

the heads of their

more important

opponents. These they severed with

the smaller of their

two swords,

carried especially for that purpose.

This grisly custom prompted soldiers

wear particularly sturdy

to

head-and-neck armor

order to

in

avoid decapitation.
In addition to a helmet of riveted
iron, warriors

\.

used special neck

protectors and a metal face mask.

The mask was usually shaped

into a

ferocious-looking countenance

designed to intimidate the enemy.

(Even before donning his mask, the

samurai

at the right

has acquired an

increasingly terrifying scowl.)

Despite their

observed

fierce aspect,

AN IRON COLLAR, with

warriors

tection,

helped guard

a metal bib for additional proits

wearer against decapitation.

a strict set of courtesies

before tangling with an adversary.

Each combatant would announce his

name, ancestry and previous deeds

When

of heroism.

the fight

was

over,

a victorious

samurai would often

compliment

his defeated

on

One

courtesy extended past death

itself;

before a battle,

burned incense
if

opponent

his bravery before taking his head.

in his

samurai

helmet so

that,

he were decapitated, his head

would

still

smell sweet.

A COTTON SKULLCAP, which helped

weight of the helmet,

is tied

to

cushion

the

over the warrior's head.

A GLOWERING MASK, made of lacquered

enough

to

blunt

spear

point,

iron

covered

and strong
the

face.

IRON-RIB PROTECTION for the head came from

the

riveted metal strips of this

helmet.

The

neck fringe of stitched lamellae turns back at

the side

A VISORED HELMET, with an armored fringe

that

guarded

the hack of the neck, completed the samurai's costume.

to

reiteal

the

warrior's

family

crest.

LIFELONG CONDITION OF
Fighting was a samurai's
to

be ready

answer

a call to

have no time

by

piece

ensemble

to

on

to

armor

his

and he would be

scramble into the whole

once, by one of the

all at

emergency methods shown

Combat

He had

arms. Often he would

to fasten

piece,

compelled

life.

moment's notice

at a

COMBAT READINESS

here.

readiness extended beyond

matters of equipment, and

good

samurai was so thoroughly

indoctrinated that he reacted
instinctively to attack.

story

who

tells

Japanese

young swordsman

of a

apprenticed himself to

fencing master.

cooking

famous

day, while

he was given a painful

rice,

whack with

One

wooden sword by

his

master. This treatment was repeated

at

unexpected hours of the day and

night, until the

to relax his

youth learned never

guard, and became the

swordsman

greatest

Once

in the land.

samurai had mastered the

techniques of his craft, he never

them drop. He trained

daily,

let

and

often traveled about the country in

search of ever-more-exacting teachers.

His commitment

was

to the art of

and unceasing,

total

war

for

according to his military code,

samurai should
hand.

must be

To

live

and

die

"A

sword

in

be brave and warlike

his invariable condition."

UP FROM UNDER, a samurai climbs quickly from below
into a suit of

armor that dangles from a hanger.

IN

FROM THE

SIDE, a warrior hurriedly slips into

armor

thai has been preassembled on a special armor-staiui.

A WARLORDS SLEEVE,
ed armor

is

leader of the

tilis

piece of engraved, gild-

believed to have been

Minamoto

clan,

worn by

one of the prin-

cipal military families of 12th Centi<ry Japan.

A STRENUOUS TUSSLE resu/ts u;^en donning armor taken

directly from its box a method for emergencies only.

and

age was

feudal

Japan's early

born

violence,

in

put hard-bitten provincial warriors in con-

it

was nevertheless

the country. But the age

trol of

one of progress and change, and not

traditions, attitudes

few of the

and institutions that are char-

Japan today had their origins

acteristic of

the

in

12th and 13th Centuries.

During the
(1185-1333),

known as the Kamakura period

when the Shogun Yoritomo and his
era

Hojo successors ruled Japan from military head-

quarters at Kamakura, trade flourished and towns

number and

increased in

Japanese

size.

and artisans improved the remarkable

MONKS AND

swordmaking, that would

pecially

fame

MEN-AT-ARMS

from
cal

win them

the world. The samurai code of

named bushido, began to develop

later

simple set of loyalties into

code that

is

powerful ethi-

Buddhism, once

influential today.

supported mainly by nobles attracted by

thetic

es-

skills,

later

over

all

honor,

artists

qualities,

and became

es-

its

monasteries

the

national religion, producing several

popular sects that are

The bulk

beyond

spread

still

important in Japan.

of Japan's people in the

early feudal

age were peasants, as in any simple agrarian society.

Most

of

them were

serfs

they cultivated and forced

bound

to the land

surrender

to

part of their crop to a landlord, usually a

or a monastery.

these masses

comparative

the

soil,

To

early feudal

and

the

tilled

by

the

change, but

little

had far-reaching consequences

nobleman

imposed

stability

brought

rulers

who

large

for the

merchants

whose numbers increased

skilled artisans,

it

in

Kamakura times. The coming and going between

the imperial capital, Kyoto, and the shogun's head-

quarters

Kamakura, some 300

at

stimulated travel and thereby opened

areas

much

merchant

the

to

growth

of

same way

the

class.

commercial towns,

This

miles

apart,

new market
led

the

to

which formed

in

as trading centers in medieval

Europe. Settlements of merchants gathered

at

road

junctions, at the gates of important monasteries,

strongholds

near the

good protection and

seacoast.

BUDDHA holds a medicine pot in one hand and raises

blessing. As Buddhism became a popular religion in Japan in

A HEALING
in

of

noblemen who offered

at natural

The merchants

harbors along the

attracted artisans

and en-

the other

the 12th

Century, such Buddhas were venerated by lords and commoners alike.

couraged them
sold,

sent

to

to

produce goods that could be

other districts

or

shipped

abroad.
75

Mongols conquered China,

Until the

with

trade

The main

war

subject of the

tales

the long,

is

the Chinese increased, and included such articles

savage struggle for supremacy between the Taira

as delicate lacquerware, gracefully decorated

fans

and Minamoto

some

The heroes

families.

fabulous

are

them from the ranks

weapons.

The

fighters,

fact that the finicky Chinese were eager to

buy

ple,

such goods was proof

and

wonderfully vivid, and great numbers of enemies

and screens and

wrought

finely

Japanese

that

taste

workmanship was catching up with China's.

In spite of the increasing importance

bite

mer-

of

chants and craftsmen, there was no doubt as to

which

was the dominant one.

class

riors,

whose

cipal

bond

was the war-

It

was the

loyalty to their chiefs

of

dust.

the

loud example, from

fine,

Tales of the Heike,

lied

of the peo-

The language

but glorified nevertheless.

how

tells

is

The

warrior-priest al-

way

with the Minamoto fought his

across a

bridge from which the planking had been removed:

prin-

[He] sprang forward alone onto the bridge

among

held society

that

men were

these fighting

mounted, armored knights of

who had

lower status

elite

and shouted

samurai the

the

birth

aristocratic

many accomplished

were

but there

The

together.

fighters

of

acquired good armor, weap-

ons and even horses, perhaps by pillage or by

robbing the bodies of slain warriors.

not

uncommon

for priests or

Buddhist sects to win fame on the

The dominance

of

was

also

militant

of

field of battle.

warriors

the

It

monks

vividly

is

il-

Kamakura

times,

which was largely made up of vigorous

stories

lustrated

by the

of

literature

about the exploits of fearless men-at-arms, and

mighty

in a

those that are near can

at a distance listen;

see;

am

Tsutsui lomyo Meishii, the priest;

who IS there in Miidera who does tjot

know me, a warrior worth one thousand
men? Come on anyone who thinks himself
someone, and we shall see!" And loosing
off his

24 arrows

like

poems

different

of the

wounded

11 more.

strels

and

recounted

Heian

literature,

creat-

They were

tales.

many
by monks

in

versions

before

or scholars.

which was written by

tocrats for aristocrats,

were enormously

who

one knows

music by wandering min-

to lute

they were put on paper

like

the

Kamakura war

popular

with

Unaris-

stories

classes,

all

the glorified warriors that they portray

and

ideals

of

valor

and

the

of

bridge

mighty deeds. Artists painted

tures

on

scrolls that

their

adven-

were as popular as the

themselves. This popularity

of the crafty Yoritomo

is

still

were

All

he strode across.

afraid to cross over, but he walked the bro-

who walks

along

With

five of

hut with the sixth

the erxemy,
.

and

flinging

dreio his sword, wielding

it

it

zigzag

the

in

[it]

away he

style, the interlacing, cross, reversed

fly,

his

mowed down

"naginata" [pole sword] he

snapped asunder

the

dragon-

waterwheel, and eight-sides-at-once styles

of fencing, and cut dowti eight men.

The heroes who fought such

persists;

in

full detail as

furious battles are

they rode ahead of the

behavior.

Children with wooden swords re-enacted the he-

76

his foot-

became na-

honorable

roes'

he

gear and springing barefoot onto the beams

described
tional

[He] cast off

street Ichijo or Nijo of the capital.

No

Kamakura war

probably chanted

flashes

from the delicate novels and

Heian Age.

ed the rousing

lightning

slew 12 of the Heike [Taira] soldiers arid

ken bridge as one

was very

"Let those

voice,

an enemy champion

in

tactics, to

single combat.

challenge

Gorgeous

they were indeed:

tales

the age

Japan's heroic age.

army, disdaining strategy and

Hon-sammi Chujo Shigehira

tired

that

day

in

[robe]

of

was

dark

at-

blue

which

cloth on

was embroidered

hirds

and sea-

a pattern of rocks

and armor with purple lacing deepening

hue toward the

its

with

a helmet

sword

skirts.

was mounted

also

On

golden

tall

posite

light yellow silk,

in

in

and

horns,

his

He was mounted on

dhist idea that

and

renowned

legends,

readers of

these

gloriously

remarkable feature

the

is

are

women

girls,

same

would be

that

the

war

age

the

their posture

They were expected

in later centuries.

loyalty and bravery as the

to

exhibit

men, and occa-

woman exceptionally endowed

qualities won an honored place in the

sionally

these

in

feudal

early

of

of Japan had not yet been reduced to the

humble submissiveness
the

the

in

for

hood,

played

role

by women. Some of the champions

tales

bloody

rior coterie.

Tomoe

have been such

and a

liair

was

and her face

the

nor

horse

to

for a

field,

armed

slain

when

or

had

there rode

all

fled,

the

in

had

among

the

last

centuries.

soldiers

tales

the

The

symbol of the martial

material

the times

straightforward hero stories

and the righteous win out

in

of

was the warriors principal weapon,

his

years

later

in

the

of

privilege

carrying

sword was

however,

not,

during the Kamakura

had swords

of lower birth also

to

his

way
weapon

carve their

it

sword was

this

to sleep

when

was the

to lose his

to

glory.

only;

to

A
the

central object of an

when

honor. Samurai were

with their swords beside their

young samurai was about

born, a sword was brought

into

the

to

be

room, and

samurai died his sword was placed beside

seven

deathbed.

and

fighting

that

are

not

prayed

at

good

asking

why

Many

stories

end.

the

razor-sharp blade came to be reserved

some men

pillows;

been

tales

which

killed

spirit

and used them

his

amount of
Kamakura war

who

civilians

II

makura Age.

accustomed

Tomoe.

In spite of the great

tradition

World War

chanted by the minstrels of the Ka-

first

Swords were thought

they describe,

and

In

the

render were 20th Century products of the heroic

from

encounters

others

for death

elaborate cult of honor. For a samurai to be parted

times

in

many

samurai especially

she

at all points,

and so

with the bravest captains,

fight,

Many

devil.

and won matchless renown

last

that

thousand warriors and

meet either god or

tlie

dexterously

bow

handle sword and

had she taken

Japanese

period

nei-

roughest

the

and contempt

for the knightly samurai, but

lovely;

idealizing the hardi-

themselves rather than endure the dishonor of sur-

this deadly,

uyhom

a fearless rider

fiercest

was a match
fit

must

shaping the

uncompromising samurai

and

fair corrt-

very

ground could dismay, and so

did she

faction

uncertain

short,

they helped establish

heroes,

that lasted for

sword. In

long black

moreover she was

ther

Minamoto

war-

a one.

Tomoe had
plexion,

of the

with

feudal

spartan

Bud-

the basic

is

is

effect in

By

character.

loyalty, self-sacrifice

the

the

profound

modern Japanese

To modern

fall

were more than popular entertain-

tales

ment; they had

were resplendent with ornaments of gold.

on earth

life

the

is

sorrow and suffering.

full of

The war

war-horse called Doji-kage, whose trappings

heads cut

their

and running through

glory,

the scenes of battle and death

were feathered with black and white falcon

plumes.

mighty from

of the

His arrows

in gold.

may even have

The commonest theme

off as trophies.

head was

his

most attractive characters almost

true; the

is

always lose and

the

The op-

lives of their

to

have miraculous powers

own. Soldiers defeated

the shrines of the

their

swords

in battle

war-god Hachiman,

had

lost

their

spirit.

have come down about the spiritual

77

powers of

notable

One

blades.

these

of

tells

solved this problem closely resembled the method

about two famous swordsmiths, named Muramasa

used by

and Masamune, who were almost equal

and the Spaniards who made Toledo blades

When

in

skill.

sword made by Muramasa was held up-

running stream, every dead

right in a

mous. Layers of

hammered

in

two.

sandwich. The sandwich was then reheated, folded

together

weld them

to

After this had been repeated about

Masamune sword was

put to the same

avoided

leaves

floating

and

edge

its

passed unhurt on either side; Masamune's blade

therefore possessed spiritual

and was superior

power over

the leaves

honored

and

class,

they

ap-

and

nations of hard

ground

thin

again.

dozen times,

metal.

soft

sharp edge, the hard

to a

When

it

was

stood out

steel

resisted dulling while the soft steel kept the

blade from snapping.

mystical significance attached to them, the sword-

makers were an

metal

the steel consisted of thousands of paper-thin lami-

and

to its rival.

Because of the importance of swords and the

and

itself

into

hammered out

When

fa-

that

back on

the

Damascus

of

varying hardness were

of

steel

This was a good performance, but not the best.

test,

But to produce their best blades, the Japanese

used

much more

intricate process. For the core,

proached their task with great solemnity. Before

or interior, of such a blade, they used comparative-

forging their blades they underwent

ly soft,

and they worked

ritual purification,

and forges
priests.

white

in

clothes

perior to

any made elsewhere

development of modern

make

19th

the

in

steel in quality, or

anese did

had

the world.

Not

scientific

met-

Europeans

could

Century Japanese

13th

even understand

how

their superlative blades,

to

resolve

has confronted

the Jap-

all

stubborn

Japanese ar-

dilemma

that

armorers since earliest times.

steel

very hard so that

it

would

sharp edge through violent use in battle,

but swords

made from

cause such steel

soft

far su-

steel

that

is

quickly in use.

It

it

would be apt

not

made

in

break be-

but

the

keen,

and

it

as

make

also

break,

edge
dulled

could not hack through armor

and do the other things, such

and heads, that

to

They could

brittle.

would

then could not be

One way

The

laminated metal that would

blade's

made

as lopping off

proper sword

is

arms

expected to do.

which the Japanese swordsmiths

and

exterior

resist

breaking.

were

however,

edge,

of different grades of hard steel welded to-

gether

into

sandwich

hammered out
more than

many

as

was

that

20

as

folded

and

giving

times,

it

million laminations. This outer "skin"

of steel could

be

made even harder by heating

and sudden cooling. As

final

step

master

the

smith carefully covered the roughly finished blade

with

thick

clay, leaving

They could make

a

of

it.

To produce

hold

in

Century

approaching

steel

tisans

robes

Century Japanese swords were

until the

allurgy

at their anvils

the

like

and

fasting

Their efforts were well rewarded; as early

as the 13th

78

steelmakers

leaf

was cut neatly

drifted against the edge

Saracen

the

to the
al

layer

adhesive material, mostly

of

only the edge exposed, and heated

proper temperature, until the glowing met-

reached the right shade of color. The best

to judge this crucially delicate stage

at

it

dawn

in a

was

to

way
work

darkened room. Then, with prayer,

the smith plunged the blade in water.

The exposed

edge cooled instantly and became extremely hard,

but the rest of the blade, protected by the clay,
cooled

The
tle

slowly and

final result

was

remained comparatively
a

sword blade of

soft,

nonbrit-

metal enclosed in a thin layer of hard

About

one fifth of an inch of

of metal so hard that

during repeated use

it

held

in battle.

its

its

soft.

steel.

edge was made

razor sharpness

These marvelous blades were

hands, and cutting

them. So

with long

fitted

with

wielded

they could be

that

so

hilts

human heads was

off

common was

both

easy for

this conclusive stroke that

warriors sometimes wore steel antidecapitation collars

prolong their careers, but a really good

to

sword could hew through armor and even cut

man

in

two

The most admired swords were those

in battle.

looms passed down

samurai families for

in

Many

generations and were not plentiful.

samurai was

forced

know

eager to

accept

to

its

heir-

many

<jVV*>

young

newly

forged

was naturally

pedigree, and he

had

that

They were

been tested repeatedly

sword without

blow.

at a single

worth. He, or the swordmaker

!)*.

himself, might

straw simulating
it

was

tested

pended

in

on

human flesh. If a sword qualified,

human corpse that might be suspositions

various

permit

to

criminal

condemned

who

a burly robber

When

ecution.

the

to death.

different

was

cutting strokes. Sometimes a sword

a

One

of

tells

awaiting ex-

swordsman walked up with

"Is

it

you who

me

will cut

the kesa [shoulder to side] style.

had known

it

had
the

its

new sword,

body

of a

beheaded criminal (above).

from one across the hips

(1),

(16).

in

kuTuma "pair

of wheels"

Tyo

iai-ta'i "very

couple of big stones to

karigane "u)i/(i goose"

big"

4 chiwaTi "splitting the breast"

5

o-kesa "priest's robe"

Ka-

kami-tatewari "top vertical split"

that

wakige "armpit"

of the 12th

kurumasaki "cnii of

the glorification of the warrior in

makura times came

to

hand

."

your sword."

Along with

samurai

Cuts, which had exotic names, varied in

blade extensively tested often on

before," said the robber, "I

would have swallowed

began

NEW SWORDS

the hardest, to lopping off a

"Yes," was the reply. ... "I shall cut you

spoil

Before accepting a

difficulty

down?"

TESTS FOR

on

tried

story

sat in the stocks

naked blade he asked:

"If

15

on bundles of

the blade

try

first

religious

awakening

sweep Japan toward the end

the

wheel"

9 suTitsuke "rubbing in"

away from orthodox

Century. Dissenters broke

many new
Some of them

Buddhist doctrines and practices, and

and popular

sects

were founded.

were "redemptionist," offering hope of paradise

10 shimo-tatewari "f70f(om vertical split"

11

san-no-do "f/iir(i body cut"

12 ni-no-do "second body cut"

13 ichi-no-do "first body cut"

14 ko-kesa "small priest's robe"

in the life to

come.

One

sect

adapted

its

philo-

sophical principles to the warrior's spartan traditions

and

his

cult

of

the

sword,

and

15 tabigata "socfe" region"

16 sodesuTi "cutting the sleeve"

another
79

sometimes resorted

sword

the

to

spread

to

its

born

throughout the country.

faith

numerous

All these
of a religion

that

from the upper

rived

japan

in

Sixth Century,

at

sects
first

from

broadened the appeal

drew adherents mainly

Soon

classes.

and

As

artistic

earth. This

its

it.

temples

and mon-

from

and

rich

gifts

that

ties

readings and other austeri-

fasts, prayers,

held

doctrines

their

They were often oppressors

on the

lived

lands

rich

of

important.

be

to

owned, and

The

ther handicapped

insistence
life.

lies,

on the

Buddhism were

popular

as
evil

by

religions

and vanity of

all

men who were willing to desert

become monks and withdraw from

For

furtheir

worldly

describes

ing

blossomed;

trees
.

The

ic

kind of

During most

to life.

of the

ous

lives.

women

with

naked appeared

his

this lofty, ascet-

man's

These basic

beliefs,

generously mixed with primitive superstition, were

the chief contribution of early

Buddhism

But Buddhism was not

been
its

centuries
a

numerous

before

it

single

family of religions,

divisions and sects were

not

all

those in

fetters of

Indeed there was cheer in Buddhism for those

who would
of

of the

it

see

it,

and

after

thousand

years

reached Japan via China, in the form

worship of Amida, one of the innumerable

gods that the

old,

Amida, the Lord

many-sided

had acquired.

faith

was believed

of Boundless Light,

have been an Indian prince

leagues

who

earned en-

pious believers

ries

to

glo-

of his western paradise. Later, as the golden

Heian Age sank into decay and pessimism and

dis-

order increased, the news of Amida's welcoming

paradise began to spread.

religion.

had

that

the best

the

Pure

or

name.

watch the sunset while meditating about the

book. The

monkish

his

welcomed

devotees in the monasteries were accustomed

ment was

and some of

who invoked

he

first

For

it

where

west,"

Amida was worshiped in Japan as mereone of many gods and godlike beings, and

At
ly

Pure Land, "millions and billions

the

in

the

Japan

reached

and the

bondage were loosened."

to

spiritual life of the general population.

many

clad,

The

delivered.

safely

lightenment by arduous devotions and established

Heian Age the typical

all.

were

child

to

controlled by his behavior in previ-

That was about

re-

the world,

reincarnation and karma, the doctrine that

life is

fruit.

The insane

their fami-

Japanese probably held such Buddhist beliefs as

present

bore

trees

covered their reason; the sick were healed, and

appeal as a guide

little

fruit-bearing

blind saw; the deaf heard.

of

Buddhism had

Buddha:

unsightly rocks,

all

the

of

visit
.

covered with masses of flowers. Flowering

it

a paradise, the

hopes and his troubles,

gravel and pebbles disappeared into the earth, leav-

ordinary man, with his much-loved family,

his

the Mahavastu, an Indian sa-

into the city.

such an attitude was not unattractive, but for the

home,

80

"As he came

some

they were consequently hated.

how

is

cred scripture,

who

people

the

they

that

early Japanese types of

as a joy-

the

in

more concerned with wealth and ostentation than

with the

had developed that saw the

sects

suffering,

Buddha

Korea

and some of them became corrupt and

legacies,

was pain and

life

all

and

objects associated with

grew enormously

asteries

that

ous savior bringing hope and happiness to the

China

passed,

the centuries

taught

it

ar-

appreciated the gorgeous rituals, impressive

literature

about the Sixth Century B.C. and where

Buddhism

supported by the court and the ruling nobility,

who

in

where Buddhism was

India,

in

after

became an established church

it

withdrawn. Even

monk named

Essentials

way

Land

Amida Butsu,"

was
a

move-

Genshin, author of
Salvation,

of

for a

leader of this

that

person to be reborn

to

phrase

repeat
that

piously

was

taught
in

"Natuu

called

the

nembutsu and meant "homage

When

such

devoted person

Amida Buddha.

to

"

wrote Genshin,

dies,

One

"the Lord of Compassion brings a lotus flower to

carry

and

soul,

of

man who suddenly

recovers

like

is

the

in

blind

and finds

sight

his

Might

of

Born

man

pious

the

Purity,

Lord

the

him welcoming hands.

reaches

Land

pious

the

himself surrounded by radiant beams and brilliant

jewels of untold price.

Some

of the beings in

Buddha

paradise are singing in adoration of

while others are poised in the

tion.

Amida Buddha

golden mountain

The Lords

of

sits

air in

on

seat

like

surrounded by his

Compassion and

of

newly born before the Buddha's

proselytizer.

death

in

Not

Might

seat."

after

nembutsu

is

etitions

him

low religious

and enjoy
salvation.

could

Pure Land. This was great good news

troubled age.

Many

into the

in

people were convinced

rep-

Some

in austerities or fol-

could marry, have children

on earth without jeopardizing

his

Shinran himself married and had

six

priests of his sect,

men

strong, are usually married

which

still

is

today.

have seen in such "salvation"

scholars

the Amidists, a

striking

warthat

Europe's

of

such as giving property

parallel

the

to

by

faith

"For

is

to the

Reformation.

found

whosoever

Both

Church, or obeying

Scriptural authority

religious rules.

for

salvation

Apostle Paul's declaration,

in the

upon

shall call

name

the

of

Lord shall be saved" (Romans 10:13), which

nembutsu.

they were sin-

would surely win them admission

He

rules.

life

and the

children,

even by the worst of sinners, and

it

monk, indulge

to live as a

markably

cere,

further

were unnecessary. There was no need for

be used by people of any class and any condition,

if

paradise,

taught salvation by faith instead of by "works,"

the Jodo, or Pure

It

person was thus assured

western

the

his

In 1175

absolute and universal.

Once

sufficient.

reaching

of

name

invocation of Amida's

Protestant sects

Land, sect and began preaching that the power of

the

was

Honen's followers, Shinran, taught that

of

in-

1017 did his glorious vision of Amidism

monk named Honen formed

Amida's delightful paradise.

a single sincere

sects as

long

until

even

lead the

really take hold outside the monasteries.

a

saints.

Genshin was an inspired prophet but an

different

serene medita-

lotus

nembutsu would gain them

in the belief that the

rebirth in

like

Other

tantism and

married

their

resemblances

Buddhist

the

clergy,

is

recommendation of

Honen's

the

between

salvation
revivalist

Protes-

sects

were

fervor

that

they shared, and the tendency in both toward a

the dark "latter days of the law," long predicted

church governed by independent congregations

and

that

stead of by high prelates.

man was

own

spir-

the

too degenerate to depend on his

powers.

power

It

was therefore proper

of another, such as

to

appeal to

Amida.

dise, the

among all
One Retired

Pure Land sect spread rapidly

classes, the

high as well as the low.

Emperor during the Kamakura period

to

have

repeated

times and
fierce

to

the

nembutsu

is

several

have died while reciting

samurai joined the

sect.

parently tired of a warrior's

Some

life,

The popularity

reported
million
it.

Even

of them, ap-

killed

themselves

of

new

Amidists

the

rivals.

The Emperor Go Toba

Honen's disciples were exiled

Japan, others beheaded.

was sent
lowed
died.

When

brought
their

into exile

to return to

the

did what they could to

threw his weight against the Amida

of

enraged

in-

who

older Buddhist sects,

suppress their

Bringing consolation and hope of rebirth in para-

re-

the

by Buddhist sages, had come indeed,

itual

the

for

In

sects.

Some

to wild northern

1207 Honen himself

four years, but was

Kyoto

al-

short time before he

he was on his deathbed, his followers

small

custom,

tied

image of

Amida

one end of

and,

cord to

as
its

was

hand
81

-iOiKr-

and offered the other end

Buddha could

Honen

to

so that the

Honen

into paradise.

saw

he

Already, he said,

fused.
great

him

lead

crowd of Buddhas waiting

sky

the

in

rea

welcome him

to

into the Pure Land.

Shinran, as well as most of their

Honen and
were

lowers,

and

tolerant

but

benign,

fol-

later

reformer monk, Nichiren, was intolerant and ag-

The

gressive.

Hokke,

the

Buddhism.

kinds of

other

to

had

that the other Buddhist sects

founded,

he

that

religion

violent

or Lotus, sect,

resemblance

little

Nichiren

believed

were spoiling the Jap-

anese national vigor and corrupting the country's

secular rulers.
the

He

taught that truth

Buddhist

an ancient

Lotus Sutra,

written in India, and that the only

son to enter paradise

only in

lies

way

scripture
for a per-

do

Nichiren

this,

is

Buddhism
tacked
liars,

said, will

go to

flam-

a luridly

and any recognition of other kinds of

ing hell,

will land

thieves,

him

hell also.

in

denouncing

sects,

all

Nichiren

at-

leaders

as

their

hypocrites, fiends, devils and brig-

ands. Naturally he met opposition; he was repeat-

edly persecuted and twice exiled.

On

planned

one occasion

to

Holy See

its

as

found

could

in Japan.

Nichiren's followers became even more violent

than he. They armed themselves and roamed the

country burning the buildings of

asteries

the

like

of

ball

fire"

ex-

and temples had been burned before, but

armed monks so

plentiful

monk

disasters

if

all

invasion,

had not suffered

in

its

Mongols did attack

he claimed

credit

for

won many samurai to

Like many another
his doctrines

sorts of
to the

others. In 1260 and 1268 he pre-

dicted a foreign

the

all

were not followed

his teachings

exclusion of

foretold

in

Japanese

earlier

in

history had fought for power, property and privilege;

Nichiren's Lotus sect was the

religion as a

motive for

its

first

militancy.

Its

to

use

claim to

be identified with the country's welfare was later

interpreted as desirable

patriotism,

and the

sect

among extreme
World War II, when

the militarists were taking over the Japanese gov-

ernment, their cause was aided by a program of

ecutioner that he could not use his sword.

Tirelessly the furious

Mon-

rival sects.

nationalists. Shortly before

object

He even

leader.

account,

bright

he

world-conquering religion with

has been popular in modern times

"a

unless

thrive

religious

its

not

he was about to be executed hut, according to his

blazed across the sky and so frightened the

82

were accepted

by repeating the formula

"Namu-myoho-renge-kyo" (homage to the wonderful law of the Lotus Sutra). Whoever neglects
to

claimed that Japan

terror carried out

members
still

by fanatical assassins

of the Lotus sect.

It

is

who were

active today

and

possesses a flavor of superpatriotism.

something that Japan

recorded

history.

1274 and again

miraculous

When

in 1281,

foresight

and

Strikingly different from

dhism was

Zen,

mystical

Japan from China and

Kamakura

other

won

sect

military rulers because of

his militant sect.

the

phasis on discipline and austerity.

state.

He

is

that

reached

great influence with

prophet, Nichiren identified

with the well-being of the

kinds of Bud-

Zen

its

(the

emword

derived from Sanskrit and means "meditation")

A PICTURE OF THE UNSEEABLE,

Zen enli;}htenment:
tea."

drawing of a circle represents

and have a cup of

this

the script says, "Eat this

The itnphcation

by nourishing

that

is

through meditation one

may

the

spiritual

was supposed

to

have been founded

monk named Bodhidharma, who

India by

in

and stared

sat

blank wall for nine years. Such admiration

at a

of extreme asceticism

typically Indian, and

is

has some other Indian

traits,

Chinese creation

like

reached

The
a

self

grasp the true meaning of existence.

that,

but

it

Zen

was mostly

other things Chinese,

Zen

central idea of

sudden enlightenment,

is

recognition of the illusory nature of

Enlightenment was held

existence.

all

be beyond

to

high-ranking nobleman of the Im-

Court but on

perial

his return

Court

perial

Kyoto and the shogun's

at

Kamakura. He spent most

of his

price,

all

"sitting

in

meditation"'):

many

allay the passions of anger,

direct

to

communication with the soul

Buddhism

taught that enlightenment must be earned painfully

by study, prayer and holy

many

usually comes as the climax of

carnation.

Zen taught

come

flash

in a

and physical

mind

the

as

result

from the sayings of

Zen masters. These problems

is

are deliberately illogi-

even absurd. Perhaps the most famous of

"When both hands

is

produced; listen

It

and bring

it

to

into enlightenment
in

him with

to jolt the disciple's

in

in

his

ear

Japan), or beating

Eisai

is

sometimes considered

pioneer was an aristocrat

who

temperament

modified

more

influen-

named Dogen (1200Zen to fit the

Chinese

of Japan's military governing class.

maintained for

was intended

hours,

to

vexation and selfish-

ness while composing and emptying the mind. In

one of

from

Dogen wrote:

"Free yourself

attachments and bring to

rest the 10,000

his

all

of will

treatises

Think neither good nor

things.

and of consciousness; bring

must be maintained upright.

ders,

an end

to

concepts and judgments.

sires, all

and judge not

evil

wrong. Maintain the flow of the mind,

right nor

The tongue

is

palate,

and

are

lips

teeth

in

de-

alignment

kept against the

to be

kept

firmly

closed,

while the eyes are to be kept always open.

Dogens

all

The body

Ears and shoul-

nose and navel must be kept

respectively.

disciples held to a strict

"

and rigorous

re-

gime. For breakfast and supper they got a small

amount
frugal.
lent,

of rice,

and lunch was no doubt equally

Every day for long periods they sat

motionless zazen.

If

stick.

Sleep

so

each

was broken by several short

stints

was permitted
night,

and

of zazen.

it

for

only

six

hours

or

The reward might be enlightenment.

Zen made few converts among

but had

warriors of

powerful appeal

Kamakura

their regents

common

to

the

times. Several

had

peo-

dominant

shogun and

through

passed

physical and moral training, and

them

the

became Zen converts. These hardy

soldier-aristocrats

ural for

in si-

they drowsed, the Zen

master woke them up with his ready

ple

a stick.

the founder of Japanese Zen, but the

1253),

on the mind

by shouting

China, "Katsu!"

A monk named
tial

anything

sudden enlightenment.

The Zen master often helped

("Ho!"

or

to

wholly irrational

strain

to the brink of

sound

one hand."

of

currents
to be

put

koau had nothing

air

was meant

and was intended

sound

of this

do with sound waves,

else rational.

are clapped,

the

to

The proper handling

mind

the

concentrates on problems,

it

called koan, that are derived

them

effort

this

not supposed to be thinking in the or-

is

dinary sense. Instead

cal or

may

mental

intense

of

During

it

lives of rein-

enlightenment

that

discipline.

and that

living,

kind

special

of meditation in a cross-legged position. This posi-

by some

Buddha. Most other kinds of

secluded

His methods were drastic and based on zazen

(literally

tion,

the

capital at

in

life

monasteries where he guided his disciples toward

more valuable than any teaching and compared

of

from China, where

he attained enlightenment, he avoided both the Im-

sudden enlightenment.

highest development in Japan.

its

Dogen was

to

it

rigorous

was only

nat-

applaud the discipline required

83

Zen devotees. They

of

also

made

a fetish of strict

obedience, on which the structure of feudal society

depended, and therefore they admired

way

the

that Zen disciples obeyed every word of the Zen

Another quality of Zen that delighted

masters.

the often illiterate

warriors was

anti-intellectu-

its

and mercy. The

fact

and the sword that gives

used by

kill.

with the one

who

made much

but other Zen masters

bookish knowledge and rejecting

mental

skills.

and

of a good

Zen master.

fortitude,

soldiers,

is

of

instead they laid

the physical details of fencing;

to

on correct moral

According

attitude.

one Zen master writing about 1600,

good Zen swordsman must

of

all

watch

would be
stant

really

free his consciousness

thought of death while in combat. Then he

will not

opponent's sword. Such action

his

fatal, for his

and permit

mind would stop

opponent

his

for

to deal

an

in-

deadly

blow. Instead he must ignore his opponent's deathdealing efforts.

all

"stops,

give

him

"

his

Once

his

sword

mind

will

is

fluid

become

and

free of

fully alive

and

Some Zen masters must have had uncomfortable

Buddhist feelings of guilt about the bloodshed associated

with swordsmanship. At

zations.

least,

Zen contains some remarkable

Says D.

T.

expounder of Zen:

Suzuki,

"The sword

leading
is

sociated with killing, and most of us

it

function of justice, which

the

lit-

rationali-

modern

generally as-

wonder how

can come into connection with Zen, which

is

.When

the

sword

human

of self-defense or

is

life,

the

is

expectis

it

no

an instrument

of killing."

Zen was, and

still

As soon

as

is,
it

an extraordinarily adapt-

became powerful

and 14th Century Japan,

in

many

in

The

directions, eventually

Zen temples

early

the

of

13th

began branching out

it

touching and in-

fluencing most sectors of Japanese cultural

Kamakura

life.

period

were as plain and austere as Zen principles, but

soon they began

due

to

grow more

to the sect's popularity

ing

Zen temples

class.

patrons of the
in wrestling,

arts.

elaborate, probably

among

also

Besides

the wealthy rul-

became

important

sponsoring contests

fencing and archery to please their

simpler soldier patrons, they also encouraged popainting, calligraphy and flower-arranging

etry,

that

the victory.

erature of

its

weapon

able sect.

did not themselves teach

that

itself

though the sword performs

self a victim. It is as

the leading ela-

borators of Japan's ancient cult of the sword.

sword

the

more

shedding

the sword.

to lift

He has no desire to do harm to

anybody, but the enemy appears and makes him-

ed to play this sort of role in

all

is

killing.

strong influence on the

to

kills

that

altogether different

is

kind of Buddhism and

Zen masters quickly became

their stress

case

compelled

function of mercy

Zen masters, however,

is

really not he but

is

it

The

the principal patrons of

therefore ostensibly opposed

blood,

was

For

does the

automatically

who were

Although Zen

said,

and of course the guidance

Zen, seem to have had

sect.

and other

was needed, they

All that

discipline

The

of scoffing at

logic

that

The one

life.

he never appeals to the sword unless

he intends to

learned

swordsman-

technician cannot go any further than

killing, for

urged his followers to read the Buddhist Sutras,

love

the gospel of

that the art of

is

ship distinguishes between the sword

man, who

Dogen himself was

alism.

84

Buddhism teaching

school of

charming and most Japanese

They gave

artistic activity.

special attention to the art of gardening,

and many celebrated Japanese gardens with

carefully

positioned stones,

moss

Zen

are

creations.

In

pools

their

and banks of

an era dominated by

warriors, Zen's support to artists and intellectuals

laid the
in the

ments

foundation for

renaissance that would

following age carry Japan's cultural achieveto a

new

level of brilliance.

Deliberately stark, islands of rock rise out of a calm sea of sand in the garden of the

Zen Buddhist Ryoanji Temple

in

Kyoto.

THE WORLD IN A GARDEN

The ancient gardens

in

and around Kyoto are among the foremost creations of Oriental

they were designed not so

much

Contemplation of man's place

to

produce esthetic pleasure as

in the

to

art.

And

yet

promote a meditative calm.

cosmos plays an essential part

in

Zen, a Buddhist sect that became

Japan's most influential religion in the 13th Century; accordingly, the gardens that Zen priests and

laymen studied during

their meditations

were symbolic, miniature versions of the world of nature. The

profundity of nature could best be rendered, Zen gardeners thought, not by ornate statues and brightly
colored trees, hut by evergreens, dark mosses and rustic paths, or by a stark design of black rocks on

white sand. Such gardens, they believed, preserved some of the mystery and the
taught by the Buddha who,

when asked

to define

spirit of a lesson

ultimate reality, silently pointed to a flower.

85

jlat

cone of sand, designed

to

appear

in

moonlight as a study

in white, gleatns in the

garden of the Silver Pavilion in Kyoto.

In the solemn beauty of sand against foliage,

gardens that were inspired by Zen ink paintings

One

of the strongest influences exerted o

were attempts
or "sumi-e,"

to translate

was

Zen gardening was ink

many sand gardens

two-dimensional pictures into three-dimensional landscapes. Ink painting,

a highly suggestive

and deceptively simple teclmique; with only a few strokes of

black ink on white silk the artist could evoke a mountain lost
of the leading

painting, and

Zen painters were

also gardeners

who

natural materials, employing sand to represent the

in

mist or a bottomless ravine. Several

duplicated their mo)iochromatic paintings in

silk,

and dark stones and greenery

to

stand for the

brushwork. Like the paintings, these gardens were kept simple; as one 16th Century paintergardener wrote, "Caution should he taken not
it

86

more

interesting.

Such an

to

be too anxious to overcrowd the scenery to

effect often results in a loss of dignity

make

and a feeling of vulgarity."

Clipped azalea bushes border a 17th Century sand garden near Kyoto and suggest mountains seen across an expanse of water.

87

88

The hidden symboUsm

of a sacred grove

Although Kyoto's Saihoji garden

looks at

glance like a beautiful

first

segment of untutored nature,

it

was

actually planned with infinite care.

pond was dug around two

to

form the Japanese character

meaning "heart"

Zen term

or "soul," a

islands

key

that denotes an unself-

conscious spontarieity considered

very desirable. Maples were planted

so that their

autumn

brighten the

shadowy grove, and

more than 50

would

different varieties of

moss were cultivated

ground with

colors

to

cover the

a velvety carpet.

So

luxuriant did Saihoji become that

legends claimed

it

ivas the sacred

precinct of beneficetit spirits.

89

The teahouse garden

a retreat

from the world

and 16th Centuries

Duriiig^ the 15th

Japan was constantly

wars. The

men

torn by internal

of this period,

however, found a refuge from

constant

strife in the tea

ceremony,

a ritual of elegant simplicity that

developed

in this period.

ceremony was

Essentially, the tea

nothing more than a gathering of a

few friends

small house, set

in a

in

a secluded garden; the purpose in

meeting was
a
in

work

drink tea and discuss

to

of art often a utensil used

making and

servirjg the tea.

The teahouse garden was

to a

prescribed plan.

path

(left) led to the

a small shelter

An

laid

out

entrance

outer garden and

where guests gathered.

After the tea master arrived, the

guests proceeded into an inner
garden. There they performed ritual
purification by rinsing their hands

and mouths

basin (above, right)

in a

before entering the low door of the

teahouse (below,

right).

Every detail of the tea garden had

to

have the correct natural charm,

which one

tea master,

Rikyu,

understood better than anyone

how

to achieve.

else

Once, after he had

ordered his son to sweep a path twice

until

it

was spotlessly

clean,

Rikyu

shook a branch and carefully

the neat stones with leaves.

90

flagstone path leads to

tlitj

entrance of ilra-Senke, a Kyoto tea garden.

littered

dipper

The door

lies

across a water basin at Ura-Senke. Originally, such basins were located neai temples for the ablutions of worshipers.

to a

teahouse at Uni-^inkr

i>

^c /iuc ihul ym'sis ,uii-l kiicci lo enter:

such a doorway

is

called

"a liumble cnluini

91

92

priest's

garden

study and a

to refresh the spirit

Gardens played such a

the meditations of
their residences

as

little

vital role in

Zen monks

that

were often planned

more than

a frame for the

view. The uncomplicated interior of

this part of the

16th Century

Daisenin monastery

in

Kyoto

led the

eye irresistibly to a carefully designed

landscape of rugged stones, raked

gravel and trees outside. Within the

confining area of only a few square

yards, the gardener constructed a dry
facsimile of a watery paradise.

small bridge and an adjoining wall

in the

center of the picture spanned

a stream of gravel; to the left of the

bridge, stones
waterfalls,

were placed

dams and

to

represent

islands.

93

Scenic wonders for

aristocratic excursions

As

the influence of

Zen gardening

spread throughout Japanese culture,

its

precepts were adopted and

sometimes ridiculously exaggerated

by wealthy dilettantes. In Zen
temples and monasteries, gardens

were small, symbolic and designed

be looked at from one viewpoint.

many

to

On

private estates, however, huge

tracts of land, like the Jojuen

garden

showtj at right, were turned into

parks for strolling; here the emphasis

was not on

religious meditation but

upon secular amusement. Miniature

artificial hills

resembling

Mount

Fuji

were created, as well as replicas of

famous beaches and

rivers.

Nobles and samurai vied with one

another

in

paying fabulous sums for

unusual rocks,

in

employing

thousands of people
pines,

and

in

to transplant

building scores of

bridges, verandas

and tiny pavilions

for the viewing of cherry blossoms.

Expeditions for looking at the

blooming cherry

trees

were such a

craze that one poet, holding fast to

that true beauty lay in

the

Zen notion

the

more subdued aspects of nature,

wrote: "To those

the cherries to

show

who

only pray for

bloom/How

wish

the spring/That gleams

from a

patch of green/In the midst of the

snow-covered mountain-village."

94

to

95

Century

14th

the

In

the

military

was

that controlled Japan

dictatorship

new

seized by

rulers,

the Ashikaga clan. Politically, their regime

They were unable

disaster.

the fractious

provincial

keep

to

nor

barons,

was

could

on

rein

they

prevent the country from breaking up into more

than 60 principalities, each semi-independent and

mainly

each

neighbors.

preoccupied

And

and anarchy,

Japan

inaugurated

period of

with

on

warring

its

midst of this bloodshed

yet, in the

The

prospered.

memorable

Ashikaga

when

glory,

population and wealth increased, the arts shone

and

as never before,

THE COUNTRY AT

WAR

the

for

from

their sheltered

Century,

the 15th

their

made themselves felt

By the close of

history the Japanese people

far

time in

first

islands.

Japanese

traders pirates

sea

more often than not had extended Japanese

fluence
island

over

Asian

East

though

nation,

and cultured, ready

rich

ropean

and

seas

hopelessly

in-

shores.

The

divided,

was

to bedazzle

Eu-

first

its

visitors.

Both the successes and the failures of the Ashiwere

kaga shogunate

by

affected

seemingly

minor matter of geography. The Ashikaga made

their

main headquarters

of Kyoto.

When

Japan's

had assumed power

capital

shogun, Yoritomo,

first

late

ancient

the

in

Century,

12th

the

in

he deliberately avoided Kyoto for fear that his

warriors would be corrupted by the
tocrats of the Imperial Court.

immediate successors

felt

that

subtle

aris-

He as well as his
Kamakura was a

healthier place for the apex of the feudal pyramid.

But the Ashikaga shogun had no taste for

in

crude,

the

rough

they maintained

headquarters

makura, they spent most of

nificent

palaces

Kyoto known
result

dicted:

was
a

just

their

they built

that

Though

provinces.

eastern

branch

in

Muromachi

life

Ka-

at

time in maga

section

of

quarter.

The

what Yoritomo would have

pre-

as

the

softening

of

by association with the

the

shogunate's

officers

aristocratic court.

There was another result

as well that

Yoritomo

might not have predicted, or cared much about.

The
A MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE. sensit(De/y painfed by an
period, evokes the delights of waterfall-viewing.

uge from the

era's political strife in

artist of the

Many

Muromachi

Japanese sought

the beauties of both art

ref-

and nature.

part of the Japanese capital

where the Ashika-

ga shogun set themselves up in great luxury gave

name to a time in the 15th and 16th Centuries

known as the Muromachi period, when Japan's
its

97

art

and culture reached a glorious high

At

veaux
but

who came

to live in

attracted to

sults they

and

erty-stricken

Kyoto acted

contemptuous of

riches,

still

higher culture

their retainers offered

exquisites

On

warrior.

member

shoot

warrior

the

"What

cried,

you mean

If

Then

it!"

one oc-

(called

an

on

the

of the royal retinue re-

proved him, the soldier

you speak of?

and

drunken and insolent

the capital by a

When

Emperor

was rudely addressed

Japanese)

in

the pov-

to

metropolis,

the

of

casion, for example, a Retired

streets of

nou-

like

Stories survive of the in-

it.

even to the powerless Imperial Family.

In

Ashikaga

the provincial nobles of the

first

faction

point.

an

is

Inu

and

this

[dog],

his

In
I'll

followers

shot arrows at the In's carriage and cut the har-

away.

ness of the oxen so that the animals ran

The

Emperor was

Retired

standing

left

with tears

his eyes filled

street,

the

in

the indignity

at

This period of tension did not

last

long.

The

Ashikaga supporters were soon making friends

as

best they could with Kyoto's aloof aristocrats, imi-

and

courtesies

elaborate

modern

employing

them

as the equivalent of

Some

of the provincial barons married into ancient

families.

During the time

the Ashikaga, Yoshimitsu,

1367

to

and

1394

until his death in

ful

then

of the

most notable of

who was shogun from

from

ruled

had moved

mansions there and

Yoshimitsu

social secretaries.

retirement

1408, many of the most power-

families in Japan

built

in cultivating

were

to

the

capital,

competing with

and practicing

the arts

With

this infusion of

revived,

attracted

and paid them

aissance

well.

power and wealth the old

artists

and

intellectuals,

leading role in this

had become the leading upper-class

98

ren-

was played by Zen Buddhism, which

early feudal

to
tile

imposing

with

buildings

meditation.

They entered

visers,

priests

silence

and

the service of the

new

to

made themselves

military rulers and

her-

sweeping

Zen monks and

and

roofs,

humble

from

were no longer recluses devoted

political

ad-

diplomats and legal and financial experts.

They perfected

new system

of bookkeeping to as-

sure the proper investment of their temples' large

They ran Japan's

funds.

which

leading college,

taught Chinese philosophy and other classical Chinese studies, and set

up an

system of

elaborate

young people

schools to instruct

reading and

in

writing and moral behavior.

Much

the

clerics of

same was

also

done by the Christian

Europe's Middle Ages and for the same

reason, to compensate for the ignorance of the feu-

Zen

dal aristocracy. But

went even further

clerics

by financing and organizing Japan's foreign

trade.

times

and was

now

religion

stronger

in

than

and reckless building of

costly art collections

pal-

aces, temples and monasteries ran up debts that

the government's

from
tute

the

revenues

tax

his family estates

Zen monks had

profits

trade with

to be

solution

made from

China,

the

and

income

the

The

could not cover.

for

this

as-

deficit:

stimulated

officially

source of

many

luxuries

for which wealthy Japanese were willing

to

pay

heavily.

The monks were no newcomers

commerce. As early
the

first

stirrings of

trade;

its

many

advantage of

as 1342, taking

had sponsored

profits

temple. Thereafter

the field of

to

Chinese rebellion against

gol oppression, they

China

good manners.

city

mitages

curved

had grown

centers

Its

Yoshimitsu was an extravagant shogun, and his

he had suffered.

tating their

ever.

the

were expected
traffic

Mon-

ship for the

to

endow

grew slowly, with

temples and monasteries, as well as feudal

lords in southwestern Japan,

The
Ming em-

taking a hand.

ships generally carried presents for the

peror.

The

gifts a

kind of tribute, but the Japanese did not

self-centered

Chinese considered

the

FLOOR MATS.
tegral part

Or "tatami," were an in-

of house

design

the

in

mansions of 15th Century

Each mat measured about

aristocratic

Kyoto.

three by six feet,

and

the size of a

room was determined according

the

number

of mats

it

was

to

to contain.

Small rooms commonly had six mats

(above) or

eight

mats

mats were arranged

which

terns,

bled

tightly

(right).

in larger designs

coiled

The

in decorative pat-

spirals

resem-

(below).

may have seemed

these articles

important as

as

The

trade with China, particularly the influx of

Chinese coinage, gave the western parts of Japan

Many

a hectic prosperity.

and wealth, and

in size

clustered around

class

seaport towns increased

prosperous merchant

The most im-

their harbors.

portant was Sakai, today

near the great

port

industrial center of Osaka. Its rich merchants

sued

exchange somewhat similar

bills of

checks, hired armed

and

money

lent

the neediest of

fleets to

thriftless

to

to

whom was

aristocrats,

his

one of

enormous

elegant

res-

Pavilion, an elaborate

The

Yoshimitsu

building

that

coma

many

in

yo

felt

but

not

so

less pro-

strong;

as

different ways.

More and more daim-

strong enough to challenge the shogunate,

ruling their domains as virtually independent ter-

wars of conquest became com-

ritories,

and

mon.

weakly ruled provinces secondary vassals

In

local

their

own

vassals.

granaries.

and

led

fiefs,

assaulted

and threatened Kyoto with starvation.

Robbers and hoodlums swarmed on the

them

daylight, broke into houses or set

was

time,

in

streets in
afire.

"the low oppressing the high."

During

almost

this period of

total

disorganiza-

grandson, Yoshimasa,

He was

who became shogun

remarkably ineffective

decrees

reckless

of governing ex-

debt

of

that only increased the confusion.

women, both by

fluenced by

cancellation

He was much

tax-collectors,

and plundered

Sometimes the peasants were organized

by ji-samurai, small independent land-

weapons and knew well how

to use

efficient

them.

These rebellious agrarian bands drove the sho-

in-

bevy of favorite

mistresses and by his rapacious wife. This shrewd

and unscrupulous

permitted to pad

manipulating

income generously by

private

her

woman was

the rice market and accepting bribes from nobles

and commoners

alike.

Nor

did

Yoshimasa stop

her from levying illegal taxes; in one instance she

sums by appropriating money

for alleged repairs of the Imperial Palace.

but elsewhere even the peasants

in 1449.

indeed, he

ruler;

way

did hardly anything in the

man

Yoshimitsu's

amassed

to protect their ship-

It

shocked Japanese phrase, of

the

fortified

owners of warrior ancestry who possessed

100

rice

Conspiring merchants

lords.

turn by

towns and hired soldiers

revolted,

cornered

armed themselves and

of Amidist sects

overthrew the feudal

provinces lower-class

in

and were defied

ments from bandits. Some daimyo kept reasonable

order in their

and defied the now pow-

itself

Guilds of merchants

defied their overlords

their

members

cept issue

they grew progressively feebler the country broke

up

invaded the capital

erless shogunate. In several

Japan's government was headed by a

Ashikaga shogun were hardly

than

provinces near Kyoto. In 1441 rebellious farmers

typified the quixotic Ashikaga:

gilded

peasant uprising threw into uproar most of the

tion,

for quiet meditation.

later

1400 they grew continuously stronger. In 1428

who

bined living quarters, entertainment halls and

fligate

their stead. After

in

Kyoto. For

of

monastery, part of which was the famous Golden

chamber

daimyo and ruled

he had built a splendid

Muromachi quarter

his retirement in 1394,

modern

Ashikaga Yoshimitsu

the Palace of Flowers,

idence in the

is-

guard their shipping,

himself. While shogun, he had lavished

sums on

gun's officers out of whole provinces or deposed

the local

the financial profits.

large

saying

ular

of

the

day

claimed

levied

pop-

into

that

her

grasp poured the "wealth of the realm."

In spite of such failings

bered affectionately by
for

he was

a sincere

Yoshimasa

patron of the

doing any previous shogun.

that the cultural

urious
tury

It

section

attained

its

arts,

was

renaissance, begun

Muromachi

earlier,

is

many modern

in

more than
greatest

in

remem-

Japanese,
far out-

his

day

Kyoto's luxa

half cen-

brilliance.

In

Yoshimasa's palaces, amid carefully displayed masporcelain and cal-

terpieces of Chinese painting,

ligraphy, gathered
lectuals of the

leading artists and

the

time.

The shogun

intel-

more than

did

merely encourage these creative people;

en-

his

and the host serves

guests are invited,

the

later

tea

period, survives in

strained style of art that

as ever,

Among

anything but restrained.

were his

were

of Yoshimasa's activities, however,

his extravagances

which, according to

festivals,

contempo-

The

rary record, almost bankrupted the country.

why

they were so costly:

delicacies

cursion.

was prepared

"A feast of

The

tea that provides the focal point of the cere-

mixed with

wood and

in-

pawn

Taxes were levied on

but

Without the means

to

continue planting and harvesting, they abandoned

whatever

Most

hands and

their

begging and lived on

to

could bring them.

feet

of the hamlets and villages throughout the

country reverted to uncultivated

Yoshimasa was

also

the

great

the tea ceremony, that remarkable

tleties that is

peculiar to Japan.

patron of

complex of sub-

The ceremony

is

essentially a quiet meeting of friends with similar

esthetic interests

miring objects of
the ritualized

setting

is

gather to drink tea while ad-

art displayed

manner

ducted that gives

The

who

it

in

which

by
this

their host.

It

meeting

con-

is

is

significance and great beauty.

preferably a special small building,

plain but artistically furnished, tucked in the cor-

discovery

its

monk, Bodhidharma, who

that Indian

blank wall

in

coming

Buddha.

to

stared at a

meditation for nine years before be-

Legend

says

was

he

that

troubled by sleep during his long devotions and

he cut off his eyelids and threw

to forestall this

them on

They took

the ground.

whose

into tea bushes

caffeine that

was

it

drink that

admired

for

Zen became

popular

that

first

its

room and drank

tea to
sect,

Japan long bebut

in

plain,

was

in

powdered green

austere
tea

out

before an image of a Buddha.

Their words during this communion,

were low pitched, and

was akin

it

few monks or disciples who

boiled,

common bowl

sociable,

at-

ceremonial use became im-

were good friends gathered

at all,

its

contains.

Zen monasteries

of a

tea

and grew

Bodhidharma, by the sleep-preventing

Buddhist monks brought

fore

made

leaves

later

root

and aroma. The early monks were more

tracted, like

portant. At

fields."

first

ginger or even onions),

salt,

popular myth attributes

taste

and turned

mak-

motion.

and household taxes was pressed. Farmer and land-

their fields

are also

ing the most of fine utensils, costumes and graceful

banished sleep. Only

suffered dreadfully.

girls

trained to serve tea in the prescribed manner,

people in the provinces, and collection of the land

lord

as strong

thousand

their holdings in

to sell their valuables.

although nowadays young

of Chinese origin (the Chinese originally

preparing their costumes. So great was the expense,

and

Muromachi

modern Japan almost

it

with precious metals. People ran about madly

all

dating from the

ritual,

is

The shogun's attendants were supplied

they were forced to put

leisurely

mony

with eating sticks of gold, while the other guests

laid

that

drank

for the flower-viewing ex-

received sticks carved from scented

way

clear

them makes

record's description of one of

meal and

formal
time for

gives

few

appreciation of the art objects from his collection.

This charming

Some

slow,

takes several hours and

influenced them and helped to establish a quiet, reprevails in Japan.

in

itself

thusiasm for Zen principles of esthetics actively

still

planned garden. Only

ner of a carefully

to the

if

they spoke

mood, although

their

meditation that dominated

early Zen.

This simple ceremony developed during the

romachi period into an elaborate

great influence

on Japanese

art,

cult

that

Muhad

architecture and
101

Yoshimasa's

social customs. In

circle

religious

its

element was outweighed by esthetic appreciation.

The Zen monks who advised

him

couraged

make

to

some

and admire while enjoying

The

room

considered

is

primarily an esthetic experience.

lows

a ritual as

classical

which

The

many

utensils,

of

are depicted in the piece of brocade

above, are often treasured art objects, and

the rules for handling

Water
a

for

them

brewing the

are strict.

tea

brocade) over

charcoal

is

charcoal

Extra

fire.

kept in wicker baskets (bottom

row). Using a

wooden dipper (above

kets,

the tea master scoops hot

to left),

water into
into

kind of green

spooned

has

the mixture with a

actly three sips

whisk
it

(left

of urn)

to the others, takes ex-

and passes the bowl

houses even today.

are

pre-

still

war and destruction

centuries of

they have been hidden, protected, hurried out of

danger. Careful records have been kept

their

of

owners and adventures. Though most of these "Higashiyama pieces

now

they are

virtually

unpretentious,

Probably

priceless.

pottery tea

is

and

small

are

"

jar.

is

It

only four

inches high, and except to true connoisseurs

not

But

impressive.

brought

with him

it

China

studies in

in

loving Japanese this

the

Zen

when he

the

it

is

Dogen

patriarch

returned from his

1227, and for the antiquityis

enough

to

make

it

na-

tional treasure.

The admiration

of simple but elegant beauty fos-

to

rim with

its

tered

by

the

influence on a

ceremony

tea

number

became

of Japanese

strong

arts

around

Yoshimasa's time. Esthetic appreciation was then

no longer limited
circles, as

it

to effete aristocrats

had largely been

and monks'

Now

in earlier ages.

warrior barons in the provinces became connois-

delicate regard for cleanliness

an important part of the

which according

to

itself is

tea

one master

"to cleanse the senses

mind

froths

to the first guest.

his neighbor, after cleaning

He

right).

to

and decorously passes

Each guest bows

special

later

all

taken from a lacquered

tea,

caddy (above urn,

a tissue.

bas-

small bowl (left of dipper),

which he

of

sur-

simple but tasteful de-

treasures

two-handled iron urn (middle row of

the

is

Through

served.

most famous

heated in

is

prototype

still

fol-

It

formal and exquisite as a

ballet.

its

Yoshimasa's

of

small,

on Higashiyama

built

reflected in Japanese

is

Most

in

near the so-called Silver

the

Japanese tearooms, and

sign

old, for

Kyoto. This tearoom, which

Hill outside

vives,

of

was usually held

ritual

in a building

which Yoshimasa

Pavilion,

them very

of

pictures and ceramics,

their tea.

The Japanese tea ceremony, as developed

by Zen masters in the 15th Century, is

collection

his friends to discuss

plain

THE FINE ART OF SERVING TEA

shogun en-

the

lavish

...

ceremony,
is

designed

so that the

cleansed from defilements."

seurs not only of fine swords but also of paintings

and

delicate porcelains,

huge sums

An

and

rich

merchants spent

to collect rare objects of art.

important

art

that

came

to

flower

under

Yoshimasa's patronage was ink painting, the severely simple

102

renderings

in

wash and

line

that

rank among the

The

anese.

accomplishments of the Jap-

finest

usually

paintings,

and im-

idealized

pressionistic representations of landscapes, figures,

and flowers, drew

birds

technique and in-

their

spiration from similar Chinese art. But

Japanese

fashion,

acteristic

char-

in

modified

artists

Chinese heritage, imbuing their work with

was

tality that

Among
ing

all

Yoshimasa's day

for

set the

standards for

superb landscape

his

all later

Two

scrolls.

in

Jap-

famous

especially

is

these

of

sweeping panoramas

of

water,

mountains

and

snow-dappled temples

still

survive, the longer

mea-

performance
officials last-

ed for a

full

1464

in

week, several plays being given on

each alternate day.

perhaps symbolic of the character of the ar-

but also belligerent Japanese that while the

tistic

was communing with

esthete shogun, Yoshimasa,

poets and playwrights and elaborating the

artists,

nuances of the

ceremony, the violence of Jap-

tea

anese politics hit a horrible climax. In 1467 began

Onin War,

the

prelude to

the

civil strife Sengoku Jidai, the

War which

was

Age

bloody era of

and subtle simplicity admired and encouraged by

loth Century. The pretext for the Onin

sketch

few

bent by the wind

tree

rocks beneath
sea; against a

distant

more than

was

No,

still

misty lake or

mountains

often

are

scarcely

from Yoshimasa's

art to benefit

the

drama

Japanese

distinctive

uniquely native

form

theater

veloped under previous Ashikaga shogun

and

highly refined

an times or
liberal

earlier.

support

Presented on

torical

it

received

was usually

romance combining

flute

still

(as

Hei-

enthusiastic

the

today) a his-

music

of

drum

with dancing, beautiful costumes, poetic

the principal

sculpture

from

in

further polish.

is

it

that

actors

were often

represented

supernatural

the end

the

of

War was

dispute over the selection of Yoshimasa's suc-

No

cessors.

principles

pretended devotion

to

were

involved,

emperor

the

The war was no more than

even

not

shogun.

or

greedy struggle for

advantage between groups of nobles

led

by pow-

So

mies marched
streets,

city
fled.

or

and

and

Kyoto. Great ar-

near
forth,

battling

in

the

burning temples and palaces. Most of the

of the population

After major battles the streets were choked

with corpses, and cartloads of severed heads were

collected as trophies.

wrote

short

poem:

One of Yoshimasa's officials

"Now the city that you

knew has become an empty moor, from which

the evening skylark rises while your tears fall."

Yoshimasa's palace and

his

Silver Pavilion es-

caped destruction, but when the Onin

ended

of

less

human

in

back

was destroyed, and much

of

attracted

fighting continued for almost 11 years

was fought mostly

The masks

not only

characters.

The

masterpieces

dialogue and symbolic pantomime.

also

simple stage without any special

scenery, the play

and

With Yoshimasa's

de-

into

entertainment

stylized

dancing and singing performances popular

and

that

modern Japan. The No play had

lives in

until

last

erful warrior families.

suggestion.

Another kind of
patronage

sky of delicately graded washes the

peaks of

called

and the jagged

ships float on

it;

brush

deft, bold strokes of the

to

Country

of the

at

out-

attended by the shogun and his high

suring some 55 feet; they epitomize the restraint

Yoshimasa.

enter-

made No performances

he

standing court occasions;

It is

Sesshu

ink painters.

form of

sophisticated

this

to

that

vi-

Zen monk named Sesshu, who

tainment

own.

the great masters of this kind of paint-

was

anese

their

the

Yoshimasa

in 1477, the

puppets

in the

War

finally

Ashikaga shogun were powerhands of whatever

but

controlled the capital.

was

of the

The emperors,

local

warlord

the puppets

puppet shogun, were not only powerless

103

but penniless as well. At no other time in Japan's

Their

history were they in such dire straits.

to selling
a

offi-

income had vanished, and they were reduced

cial

empty honors whenever

One emperor

buyer.

ported his family by

own

is

even said

them

elegant calligraphy and selling

In

lectors.

Tsuchimikado was

want

of

money

left

in

his

to col-

Emperor Go

the

of

have sup-

to

poems

unburied for

six

weeks

for

for the funeral, and the ceremonial

enthronement of

had

his successor

to wait for

20

With

the practical disappearance of the central

government went disintegration

order, a

of the old social

process that had long been

Ashikaga shogun grew weaker and weaker.

In the

Age

Country

War many

at

ancient

families were reduced to poverty or exterminated.

Those

that took their place were often

upstart soldiers with

headed by

or no aristocratic back-

little

modern

and the ambition of every

man was

or marriage,

to increase his
tige as

much

immediate family's wealth and pres-

tions,

one of which was

During the

14th Centuries

kind of primogeniture.

among

cluding the daughters. Even

power of

him

in

its

in

all
if

his

the

the

13th and
to

make

children in-

each received only

and therefore had few

firm

social innova-

landowner had dared

will dividing his land

a little land

many

Hojo regime

stable

retainers,

the

Hojo government would protect

enjoyment. But under the now-powerless

Ashikaga shogunate such evenhandedness was no

longer prudent.

If

there were too

many

inheritors,

they might not be strong enough to defend themselves individually

new custom

to

from greedy aggressors. They

developed.

an adopted son

Daughters were

father

willed

most promising,

none

if

of

his

own

out almost entirely because

left

they were not considered able to keep land in the

By

family.

the start of the

Age

went

such extremes

to

Country

of the

was already

ages,

in later

at

women, which

the subordination of Japanese

well advanced.

Along with these new inheritance customs,

new and more mature kind of feudalism developed.

The rules and relationships were no longer imposed
from above as they had been in Hojo times. The
ghost of

power

central

government

Kyoto had no

in

impose anything. Instead, each daimyo

to

possession of a self-governing

own

laws,

customs with new regulations

Most

territory

which usually combined

of these family codes

to

made

traditional

the

fit

times.

were rigidly autocratic,

permitting few rights to anyone except the daimyo,

but their regulations were seldom obeyed

and the picture of

as possible.

This preoccupation forced

whole

sons seemed likely to maintain the family prestige.

in

by blood

as a

This was to be

level.

at all cost.

or even

his

day; their families were families in the

lower social

the bulk of his property to one of his sons, not nec-

spreading clan like the Taira or Hojo of an ear-

sense, groups of people closely related

to a

essarily to the first-born but to the

ground. They did not owe allegiance to any great

lier

104

So

accelerating

as the

of the

avoided

War

years because of lack of funds.

and the family

lose their land,

might sink

they could find

writing out

1500, the body

might

life

literally,

they present does not give

an altogether accurate view of Japanese society as

it

really was.

Actually, the

Age

of the

Country

something of an age of freedom

classes.

In

at

for Japan's lower

some provinces the small landholders

banded together, swept aside the laws

myo and

of the dai-

got full control of the local government;

in others the ji-samurai (rural

rior descent)

belligerent

had

War was

landholders of war-

were so numerous, well armed and

that

their

wishes,

not

to be respected. Artisans, too,

the

daimyo's,

were often bet-

than they had been;

in

spite

laws intended to keep them

at

home, many

ter

off

of

drastic
of

them

growing towns,

fled their native fiefs for the

where

As

new

the

feudal system took shape, growing

from below, Japan came

many

to be divided into

compact, independent domains with well-defined

sometimes

though

head of each was

have inherited
it

warrior daimyo,

his position, or

won

it

back him,

as in

or increased

power

to

times, his strength and se-

Hojo

now depended

curity

the

who may

war. Since there was no central

in

At

boundaries.

shifting

altogether on the support of

He

the lesser families holding land in his domain.

defended them and watched over them carefully

combine against him

to see that they did not

fall

under the influence of another

fiefs

the daimyo managed

and prestige of

own

his

to

who

warrior barons

led these armies

no longer ex-

posed themselves recklessly, as the knights had

their skills were better paid.

some

In

lord.

or

power

reinforce the

family by keeping control

done,

romantic

in

them learned
vantage of

among

to

The

combat.

single

When

terrain.

they noticed

might

for this kind of fighting, they

even

or

tell

now

an

daimyo what

independent

him

raise

was no power

there

talent
to

high social rank. This

to

would have been almost unthinkable

but

of

soldier

lowborn followers who showed

their

officer status

ages,

best

marshal their forces and take ad-

in

earlier

in

Japan

to

he

could

or

could not do.

When

was no war on land

there

men

them, the young fighting

an outlet for their energies

now

thriving once

the 15th

Century

more.

occupy

which was

piracy,

in

the

In

fleets of

to

of Japan could find

second half of

hundreds of pirate ves-

sels

were crossing the East China Sea and attacking

marriage, not only of samurai but also of lower

the

whole coast of China. The marauders

ranks. Lesser families did the same; every smallest

only pillaged seaside towns but also penetrated

of every sale or division of

decision

ways

was made by the head

Thus,

while

the

Age

its

of

individual members.

the

brought some measure of

class

individual freedom; within

tiative

For

of the family, al-

trying to keep the family's position as high

as possible at the cost of

away

property and every

was possible

for

Country
freedom,
a

family

anyone but the

most young men such

many

Most

advantage

and

swallow

his

took

of the Vikings

would

dis-

And

the

at

for successful aggression, never lacked

adventurous

all

reputation

such recruits were of

samurai rank; the gorgeous mounted knights of

ancient tradition had given
that included

many

way

foot soldiers

to

larger

units

armed with spears

or other comparatively inexpensive weapons.

the

The

who

different

burst out of Scandinavia in

and

sails

in

many

ways,

ships propelled by

small, fast

oars,

and

at-

resembled those

10th Century. The two races

were

leader.

predatory enterpriser, a chieftain with

young supporters. Not

suddenness and ferocity these pirate

In their

it

little ini-

were forever on the

territory.

sea.

tacks launched by the Japanese

system

prowl, hoping to catch some neighbor

country around Nanking,

the

War

of the great landholders, and

of the lesser ones too,

raid

to

at

have been unbearably oppressive except for the

outlet of war.

far inland

150 miles from the

not

built to

but
a

make

sea

rover

both

used

of

combination of
surprise landings

on beaches and river banks. Both were better fighters

than

most

of

the

whom

people

they

en-

countered, and both acquired fearsome reputations,

inspiring such terror that they often

met

little

re-

sistance.

At

first

the pirate depredations elicited

ful reaction

merely prohibited Japanese and

trade, but this irrational action
fect of leading coastal

Soon

no force-

from the Chinese. The Ming court

the ships of the

Chinese

Wako

(a

all

other foreign

had chiefly the

ef-

to join the pirates.

name

for

Japanese
105

from

pirates derived

"dwarf") were

Chinese epithet meaning

manned by Chinese

extensively

and Koreans.

navy of

built a

The Wako learned

coast.

to

ble with peaceful

make

to

though

the

with

with Chinese

pirate admirals led

They

farther south.

fleets

could

along

their raids

illegal trade

The more adventurous

ports.

Wako

places

combine them whenever possi-

more caution and

their

many

fortified

strongly,

reacted

that the

large ships

and

not defeat

raided

the Phil-

up old graves

ippines, sometimes digging

in

hope

of finding antique Chinese pottery for use in

ceremony back

tea

the

They reached Thai-

in Japan.

and the Malacca

land, Java

between Sumatra

Strait

In the early loth

Century the

make permanent

settlements.

Japanese colonies

in

in
a

began

and what

to

in

is

now

good deal of peaceful

settlers did a

but they kept their warlike

political

local

and

spirit

struggles.

point, the self-governing Japanese colony

Thailand had grown strong enough to enthrone

Thai king.

The

fitters

and

of

Wako

the

were

and wealth flowed back

protectors,

the

exceedingly

to

daimyo

their

out-

southern

of

Japan. Perhaps the most important of these were

the great barons of western
dal

lords

of

trade.

Honshu, but many feu-

Kyushu and

enriched by the

and

peculiar

Around

their

Shikoku

Wako

competed

poets and scholars

away from

If

cities

nothing had happened

Wako

were

also

blend of piracy

strongholds grew pros-

that

perous

to

attract

artists,

the rest of Japan.

to

expansion, Japan might

interfere with

well

the

have gained

permanent control of the Philippines, much of

In-

donesia and perhaps part of the Southeast Asian

106

side

the

of

any Japanese, were

if

emerged from the long impotence of

to

Dark

the

and Middle Ages and was reaching out

the

to

greater world. Portuguese navigators were probing

down

West

the coast of

Africa,

and

1488 Bar-

in

tholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope.

Ten years
India,

and

Gama

sailed across the In-

merchant

the

to
in

first visit to

Calicut

of

city

in

1513 Portuguese ships made their

China.

sweep

so clean a
lightly

Vasco da

later

Ocean

dian

Now

the

Wako

no longer had

Asian waters. Instead of

of East

armed Arab dhows, there

sailed the

massive

pable of sinking any ship that sailed the China

Sea.

The Wako must have seen

least

but

Far East,

there

is

have

set foot in

venturers

who

first

Europeans known

Japan were three Portuguese ad-

landed from a junk on the island of

Tanegashima south
is

what they

no record of

thought about them. The

to

the Portuguese or at

heard of them soon after they arrived in the

the date

activities

profitable,

few

to

hey-

in their

far

course of world history. Europe had just

alter the

the Philippines, Formosa, In-

were often embroiled

At one

Wako

There were strong

Thailand

Malaysia,

Vietnam. The
trading,

known

were

the

Portuguese carracks, carrying cannon that were ca-

and Malaysia.

donesia,

momentous events on

earth,

Ming government

Later the

Wako

mainland. But, while the

day,

of

uncertain).

Kyushu
They

in

1542

(or 1543;

carried arquebuses, a

matchlock musket that was the

latest

product of

Europe's rapidly developing firearm industry.

The Lord

of

Tanegashima welcomed the

three

strange-looking foreigners and treated them well,

and

his interest increased

enormously when one of

the Portuguese demonstrated the deadly effective-

ness of his arquebus.

As

practiced and pragmatic

warriors, the Japanese realized at once the impor-

tance of this novel weapon, which could

fiercest

kill

samurai long before he could get within

sword range. The lord bought the arquebuses

generous

price,

and

ing copies of them.

able

the

set his

armorers

to

for a

work mak-

Something new and unpredict-

had entered the Country

at

War.

SLIDING SCREENS, of
cent paper

pasted

wooden

delicate

the doors

translu-

against
lattice,

are

and sometimes even

the walls of Japanese

houses.

Called "shoji," the screens are

fitted into

wooden

allow them
shut.

slots,

chrysanthemum

motif shown

here.

have a

tradition

things never change in Japan.

The most common

objects of Jap-

the

same forms developed

mono worn by

in the early years of

Japanese culture. The

modern businessman home from

the office

type of loose-fitting garment worn by his ancestors.

The

is

sliding

ki-

same

the

paper

woven straw matting that covers its floors have been used in Japanese homes for centuries.
The quality that makes these everyday objects survive is economy of de-

screens (above) that wall his house, and the

sign.
left

for

Most

are

over from

made from common raw materials wood, paper and straw

winnowed rice. But all have been designed with an eye

beauty an appreciation

thetics of

of simple, natural

Zen Buddhism, which emphasizes

forms similar

of these articles are used in the Zen-inspired tea

great value

on

rustic, utilitarian shapes. All are

the

es-

Some

ceremony, which places

supremely functional. Be-

cause of this conscious blend of simple beauty and

objects have left a

to

severity and restraint.

utility,

these ordinary

permanent imprint on the texture of Japanese

life.

But even

adornment,
restrained,

beauty belonging

anese Ufe combs, sandals, fans and umbrellas survive today in virtually

are

de-

signs, like the

without

Some

they

simple

Occasionally,

ornamented with

DESIGNS FOR LIVING

which

be slid open and

to

of

to

"shoji"

functional
the finest

Japanese design.

CHOPSTICKS come
are

among

and most

and

in pairs

the world's simplest

versatile eating uten-

They have been used for

sils.

more than a thousand years

Japan, where they are
as "hashi."

in

known

They usually mea-

sure about eight inches long.

Larger varieties are

used

for

cooking and serving, and also

for stirring the fire in charcoal

Most
shown

braziers.

the ones

"hashi,"
here, are

like

made

out of wood, but bone, ivory,

have

gold and silver as well

been

fashioned

simple and

in

flowers

form.

functional

FESTIVE SWEETS, in
of

same

the

and

shape

the

leaves,

have

been served ever since Heian

times on ceremonial occasions,

such as weddings and formal

teas.

As with many Japanese

delicacies, their
just as
vor.

appearance

important as their

Made from

is

fla-

more

little

than sugar and rice flour, these

simple sweets,

known

as

"hi-

gashi," are sensitively molded

to

form

maple

leaves,

chry-

santhemums, cherry and plum

blossoms motifs that are
ten

used

in

Japanese

of-

design.

WOODEN

DIPPER,

called

"hishaku," consists of an unadorned bowl of cedar wood to

which a slender wooden handle has been fitted.

This stark

simplicity of design

makes

the

dipper an ideal utensil for use

the

in

tea

among

which

ceremony,

other things celebrates

the beauty of rustic objects. In

the traditional ceremony,

dipper

basin on the path

house.

(Often

shown

it

bamboo

rack of

the

placed beside a stone

is

the tea

to

on

rests

tike

the

one

here.) Guests

use

the

dipper for scooping up water

cleanse

to

their

hands

and

mouths before entering

room where tea is served.

their

the

TEA WHISKS, or "chasen," are

made by

splitting the ends of

short pieces of

bamboo

into a

They

nest of wirelike

loops.

are essential for

preparing

variety of

powdered green

commonly used

a
tea

in the tea cere-

i.wny. The "chasen" are used

to

whip

a mixture of the

pow-

dered tea and hot water into

a foaming brew, which sometimes has the consistency
thick pea soup

of

and which has

been described by a poet as

"the froth of the liquid jade."

THE FOLDING FAN.

senSU,

Or

was supposedly invented in

the Seventh Century by a ]apanese craftsman
its

pivoted

who modeled

construction

ingenious

wooden

of

ribs after the

folding wings of a bat. "Sen-

su" quickly became an indispensable part of Japanese

life

and manners. They were

al-

ways

carried at court,

and em-

perors frequently handed them

out as

they

Invariably

gifts.

were ornamented with a poem,

or

crest

family

painting,

other design. The dark circle on

the fan

shown

round

the

traditional

here represents

of

sun the

the

emblem

WOODEN CLOGS came

as the

Japan.

of

into use

customary footgear for

out-of-doors wear during the

Sixth Century,
al of

when

the arriv-

Buddhism put an

erul

to

the killing of animals for shoe

leathers.

The

clogs,

known

as

"geta," are attached to the foot

by a cord that passes between

the

first

and second

toes,

and

they are raised off the ground

on blocks.
tion not

This added eleva-

only gave the wearer a

statuesque grace:

it

also

had

the practical advantage of protecting his

kimono from mud.

A DECORATIVE KNOT,

made

in

a special type of colored string

known

"mizuhiki,"

as

way

accepted

The

Japan.

the

is

up

of tying

gifts

exchange

of

presents has always been

an

important part of Japanese

eti-

in

quette; gifts are presented not

otily at

holidays and weddings

but also at housewarmings, on

and during

the eve of journeys

ordinary social
centuries,

Over

calls.

special

the

have

rules

evolved governing the manner

which presents should be

in

wrapped:
gar,

it is

considered vul-

even insulting,

gift that is

to offer

improperly

BOXWOOD COMBS,

tied up.

in a variety

of different shapes, are

used

both to arrange the hair and

as ornaments in the elaborate
coiffures

sometimes worn

by

Known

as

Japanese womett.

"kushi," the combs were very

fushionable even before Heian
times,

when

they were regard-

ed as good-luck charms

that

protected the wearer's virtue.

Originally

they

were

ments only for married

en:

if

adorn-

wom-

a man's wife plucked a

comb from

her hair and threw

away,

was considered a

it

it

sign that she

wanted a divorce.

SLIPPERS, called "zori," are classic

examples of economical de-

woven

Their

sign.

soles

bindings

ropelike

and

some-

are

times fashioned eritirely from

rice

straw, the most abundant

by-product of Japan's annual

Because

rice harvest.

cheap, rice straw

is

is

it

made

so

into

a variety of utilitarian objects.

Straw rope

used to bind up

is

farm produce, which

wrapped

and

straw. Screens
cles

of

often

is

matting of woven

in

certain arti-

snow-

clothing even

shoes are made out of straw.

INTERLOCKING "TATAMI,'

floor

mats made from woven straw,

are

among

features

the

of

most distinctive

Japanese

houses.

During the Heian period, they

were

laid

out like rugs wherj

needed and folded away wheti

(The name "ta-

not in

use.

tami"

derived from the Japa-

is

nese word meaning "to fold.")

But

later,

tury,
ly

during the 15th Cen-

"tatami" became virtual-

permanent

flooring consist-

ing of matted rice straw

two inches
a

thick,

smooth surface

some

covered by
of

woven

reeds

and bound together

their

edges

by

cloth

at

tape.

lM

iW, H H

(Mfti

4^^UiArfA

A RUSTIC RAINCAPE made of

straw

is

is

it

as practical in use as

shaggy

appearance.

in

Called "mino" in Japanese,

it

worn by fieldhands and

is still

laborers in the rural areas.

Its

overlapping straw layers, sewn

together at the neck, shed wa-

overlapping feath-

ter like the

ers

on a duck: the layers also

provide an effective insulation

against hot and cold weather.

With

the

often

wears a conical

hat that

is

"mino," a

laborer

straw

almost waterproof.

A COLLAPSIBLE PAKASOl^whose
intricate
ribs

framework of bamboo

makes a

against

its

of oiled

crisscross design

waterproof

cient protection

sun and

cover

paper provides

rain.

against

effi-

both

In medieval Ja-

pan, parasols, or "kasa," were

carried by aristocrats,

and warriors:
affected

paying

The
is

later

priests

they were

by courtesans
calls

while

on their patrons.

art of fashioning parasols

so highly regarded

in

mod-

ern Japan that today's leading

parasol

maker has been

des-

ignated an "intangible cultural

property" by the government.

mi

-^^^^^^^'^
'i'^-C/j'-'

*^**^

?^S^^S

'i^-m
'"^f^j

5w

rf^.

;><":Of*/

*1 -

^r: \,/:^;

v^

'^

'^''r^^.

v^:
i *>

^i

.Jff^^

With

Europeans

of

arrival

the

mid-loth

the

in

Century, Japanese history and cuhure come into

The

sharper focus.

many

eyes saw

and wondering

foreigners' fresh

things

fascinating

Japanese

that

historians of the time took for granted and never

bothered to mention.

and seamen who

visited

few

of the foreign traders

Japan wrote good accounts

were

of their experiences, but the best observers

articulate

the

missionaries;

Jesuit

reports

their

give a wonderfully vivid view of a country where

nearly everything was strange and unexpected.

contemptuous

from being

Far

what

of

they

saw, the Jesuits were highly appreciative, often

ways superior

judging Japanese

THROUGH

They made
master

to

EUROPEAN EYES

the

Japanese

difficult

the

gave close attention to

that played so important

Much

own.

their

Japanese

the

formalities

part in Japanese

of the value of their accounts

when

and

language,

intricate

made

the fortunate fact that they

tions

to

great efforts not always successful

were

life.

comes from
observa-

their

toward

friendly

by

Europeans but had not yet been influenced

them. Without the reports

would be known about

less

The

first

country with
could

they

much

Jesuits,

early Japan.

Europeans to reach Japan were the Por-

They were

tuguese.

the

of

delighted to find an Oriental

temperate climate whose people

and

like

Their

admire.

experiences

with the Indians living near their stronghold

Goa and

the natives of Malaysia and the Spice Is-

lands of

On

at

Indonesia

aroused

but

little

contempt.

the other hand, they found that the Chinese

treated

them

like

sire to fraternize

barbarians and showed no de-

with them. The Japanese seemed

agreeably different.

They were not only

civilized

but friendly as well, and although they thought

very highly of themselves they were interested

in

everything the Portuguese could show them. Eu-

ropean ships and weapons were the leading attractions,

but

the

Japanese

Portuguese clothes, food

ly

were

fascinated

with

and drink, and they eager-

questioned the newcomers about the Western

world. Although the Portuguese had few European

A RICE-PLANTING CEREMONY, depicted on a screen, shows rows of
placing seedlings in the paddies to the

band. This sacred

colorful

customs

ritual,

that

women

accompaniment of dancers and a

life, was among the

celebrating ]apan's staff of

impressed

early

Portuguese

visitors

to

fapan.

wares

to offer,

prices,

mostly in

the Japanese

willingly

silver, for the silks

paid high

and other lux-

ury goods that the Portuguese brought from China

trade

area

closed

to

the

Japanese

by

the
115

Chinese government because of the depredations

who

about what he saw.

was almost

1547,

in
"It

Kagoshima

of

port

the

visited

southern Kyushu

in

ecstatic

a beautiful and pleasing

is

country," he reported, "and has an abundance of

such

trees,

the

as

plum,

cedar,

pine,

cherry,

peach, laurel, chestnut, walnut, oak (which yields

many

acorns).

be found

bages,

There

much

also

is

fruit not to

our country; they grow the vegetables

in

which we have

rest

Portugal, except lettuces, cab-

in

and even mint;

corianders

drills,

they have.

They

the

all

also cultivate roses, carnations

and many other scented flowers,

well as both

as

sweet and bitter oranges, citrons (although

Capt. Alvares was an excellent observer.

hilltop castles

weapons. He notes the

pride

fierce

women

and remarks that

of

the

de-

and

men

go about the streets un-

chaperoned, which they were not accustomed to

doing in Portugal

at that time.

He

is

shocked, or

pretends to be, by the freedom with which both

He

sexes bathe naked in the sight of passersby.

was

interested in the elaborate etiquette.

jiro,

Spanish

the
later

the sons of the greatest nobles of the

serve him.

look

down on

demands

They

"The peo-

kingdom
softly,

to

and

us for speaking roughly. Etiquette

that a

man

by kneeling with
they are seated.
is

speaking

like

receive guests of equal rank

his

hands on

When

the

floor

until

the king goes abroad, he

attended by his guards.

When

Francis

Jesuit

the

title

who would

Xavier,

of Apostle to the Indies.

was delighted with the Japanese

saint

Here was

try.

the

ideal

missionary endeavor: a

coun-

thought,

he

land,

rich,

their

for

populous, temperate

country inhabited by people as civilized as the Chinese but without the Chinese haughtiness.

Xavier took Yajiro and his followers to Goa,

the people meet

Roman

into the

Catholic faith. In April 1549, a

small expedition Xavier, two other Spanish

At Malacca they took passage on

for Japan.

junk,

nese pirate

August

Je-

Japanese and two servants started

suits, the three

the

15, the Feast

only

Day

of

Chi-

On

available.

craft

Our Lady

of the

sumption, the pirates put into Kagoshima,

Asand

Xavier went ashore in the land that he dreamed

of

making

tion

When

until he sailed.

and with the captain's descriptions of

high honor for

reckoned

is

on shore, and concealed

in trouble

be given the

The future

ple greatly venerate their king [the local daimyo],"

it

Japanese named Ya-

ship reached Malacca, he introduced the three to

ent.

he reports, "and

who was

him and two followers

where they learned Portuguese and were received

He

scribes Japanese food, houses,

Capt. Alvares was in Kagoshima harbor,

he gave refuge on his ship to

did

not see any lemons), pomegranates and pears."

the

He and

first

Christian country in the Ori-

companions got

his

friendly recep-

from the powerful daimyo of Satsuma, the

feudal lord of Kagoshima,

mission

to

preach

whomever they
by

spectfully

Buddhist

their

could.

people

priests,

who gave them

full per-

and

convert

doctrines

They were
of

all

listened to re-

classes,

and before they

left

including

Kagoshima

they had baptized 150 converts.

There

is

doubt about the depth of these conver-

own

account

never

made

their

sions.

Xavier by

shoes in their hands until he passes. Inferiors do

much

progress in speaking Japanese, and explain-

him
the

in

the streets, they

same

for

superiors,

all

and

bow low with

if

they meet noble

and honorable people they take

and bow very low with
116

When

Portuguese merchant and sea-captain, Jorge

Alvares,

they finish speaking, they cross their

arms and depart."

Wako.

of the piratical

when

thighs;

their

off

their

hands between

shoes
their

his

ing Christian theology through his poorly educated

interpreters

must have been

early converts

may

difficult.

Some

of the

have been under the impression

that they

were merely joining

Buddhist

sect.

use

ilaritiesthe

prayer

of

Even the central idea

The
was

Jesus,

pellent

been

beads,

for

Redeemer

of a

To some

Japanese.

people to the Christian faith.

The most

attractive.

Redeemer,
re-

may have

it

heroic characters in Japa-

who

those

are

life

suffer

warm welcome

he got the same

first

many

in

in

Kagoshima, and

his

report to his superiors in

Goa glowed with

en-

thusiasm. "The people

far," he

wrote,

"are

been discovered, and

never find

whom we

the
it

have

met so

who have as yet

me that we shall

best

seems to

Early in his

among heathens another race to equal

They are a people of very good man-

good

men

of honor to a marvel, and prize honor above

all else in

the world.

and not malicious; they are

They

are a poor people in gen-

among

but their poverty, whether

eral,

those

or

in general,

who

not

are

so,

shame. They have one quality which

their

the

any people of Christendom;

in

call

gentry howsoever poor they

commoners howsoever

much honor

cannot

re-

writing

have been reacting more

Spanish nobleman,
birth,

than

He was

like a

not at

all

Xavier

paragraph,

all

In

rope.

like

which
disciple

is

of

any case

poor and proud

the

he

found

was

humble

Jesus.

shocked by the warlike character

that he should visit

made

the

be seen.

Deciding that he could do nothing in

of western Japan.

Traveling

among

the

daimyo

in Japan.
a

He found

that every lord

it.

and carried effective

the only

artillery,

Xavier's

large

and so they offered

means by which valuable cargoes from

ferried across the
to

China seas with-

Even

pirates.

cargo of Chinese silk safely landed in

harbor brought wealth to him and to his

that

Japanese

the

single

daimyo's
fief.

placed

on

Por-

tuguese shipping gave the Jesuits great leverage

in

Japan, since the missionaries could exert con-

siderable influence on

men. All during

whatever

the

their stay

Portuguese merchantin

treat

Japan the

their personal nationality,

tuguese merchants

followed

possessed

These ships were comparatively

and rank.

Jesuits

who

harbor was eager for Portuguese merchantmen

to enter

political officials in the Far East.

their 90-year stay in Japan, they con-

made

there, Xavier

another observation that would affect Jesuit policy

ful

Succeeding

to

Kyoto, Xavier returned to the friendly communities

key of Japanese society: the importance of birth

During

as

painful

long,

emperor was not

the powerless

that

of the Japanese and he had put his finger on the

lead.

rulers,

its

The shogun was away, and he

in turmoil.

told

out great risk of loss

what he was by

be his military depu-

to

obey these shadowy po-

journey on foot to the ancient capital, which he

China could be

to

Kyoto and the

in

Japan by starting with

and

seems

lived

the Jesuits often tried to do in heretical parts of Eu-

The value
this

common

the

them nevertheless. He may have thought he could

that

he were

if

to

is

rich they be, render as

bring

tentates, but Xavier decided

passing rich."
In

one seemed

be,

this

may

poor gentleman as

to a

the gentry

considered

not

is

No

ty.

and

nobles

the

Xavier became aware of the

who

shogun who was supposed

the Japanese.
ners,

would

visit,

mysterious emperor

convert

Xavier's doctrines were understood or

parts of Japan as he had

conversion of

the

expectation that the upper classes' ex-

in

ample or command

defeat and death for a noble cause.

not,

samurai

common

was apparently not too

crucified

nese fiction and real

Whether

centrated on

instance.

is

Christian

the

that

fact

the

to

interesting

and the Amidist branches of Bud-

to Christianity

dhism.

new and

The two reUgions have outward sim-

backing

of

Portuguese

the

and

them with the

Jesuits,

had the power-

crown

and

its

Therefore the Por-

seamen were forced

to

deference

in

greatest

and,

117

A MIGHTY PORTUGUESE
gasaki harbor, while

SHIP,

its

shown

in a Ibtli

swing

sailors

Century Japanese painting, anchors

in the rigging

Na-

in

and yardarms Uke monkeys. The

Japanese were impressed by the square-rigged ship, since they had no comparable vessels;

but they called the Portuguese sailors "namban," or "southern

any

case,

some

them

of

felt

genuine reverence for

lived

by elaborate

rules of re-

spect for social superiors, noticed the high position

of the Jesuits

of great

and concluded that they were men

power among the

foreigners

that they selected.

As soon

and could

any

harbor

as the Jesuits

became

Portuguese ships to touch

order

at

well established, they actually acquired this power,

and

it

was one

of

the

main reasons why they

118

left

Japan

in

1551,

way

to

convert

never

head of

its

Japanese,
heart.

sion

"

civilization,

whom

Other

he

but he did not forget the

called

"the

delight

of

to

return.

my

Jesuits replaced Xavier, but the mis-

grew slowly.

missionaries in

all

In

1560 there were only

six

Japan, and in 1570 about 20.

They soon discovered

that Japanese life

quite as idyllic as Xavier had described

pression "Country at

War" was no

it.

idle

was not

The

ex-

phrase.

There was no effective central government

were treated so well by the Japanese.

Xavier

Later he concluded that the best

the Far East was to start with China, the fountain-

the missionaries' reUgious calling.

The Japanese, who

barbarians."

and

peace was not to the taste of the bellicose sam-

Conflicts between feudal lords were apt

urai.

break out

from invasion,
were held

and destruction. The

pillage

killed

bloody

in

these

to

full-scale

which often amounted

fief to

another

when

a friendly

tumults,

wars of con-

move from

quest; but they were often forced to

one

Jesuits

high respect, and apparently none

in

them were

of

to

any moment, and no place was safe

at

daimyo was

dis-

campaign

Jesuit

to cultivate the aristocracy

was quite successful. Most of the missionaries

men

were

high

of

few months

all

out leaving

so that our
er

single gentile or trace of a bonze,

Law and

power and

Some Buddhist

whose education and

birth

demanded by

the

leaders

of

and proudly accepted by the underlings

even

or

the admiration of the feudal lords.

persuaded

Through-

neighboring

seem

leaders

suit

of fortune

of aristocrats accepted bap-

tism because they hoped the missionaries

would

unavoidable, for
Christian

each

the

at

anarchy

other

fief

and

which they were expelled.

ships

failed

were

these "converts"

arrive

to

apt

to

as

If

but

good many noblemen did become permanent Christians

atives

and communicated

and

continued

associates,
to

their faith

to

their

rel-

and some of the commoners

attend the Christian churches even

after their feudal lords

had recanted.

very gradually,

Christian

Kyushu and

lesser

to

The

expected,

backslide;

In this

way,

community grew

in

extent in other parts of

converts

Jesuits finally

found

in

the

the

all

mis-

things

went

move

to an-

and often they

again,

try

good number of

too.

exclude

badly for the Jesuits they could always

manded

become Christians

to

for

their cause.

to

When

as

made

that

was,

uncertain

advantageous

from the country.

sionaries

them

accepted

feudal

success
least,

come

to

Je-

have

to

bring trade to their ports, and they sometimes comtheir people to

lords

were trying, but the

There was no paramount power

class.

in-

fa-

honored associates of the ruling

Their success in winning actual converts was

and

who

time being

Portuguese

passionate

with an army and overthrow any daimyo

out their stay in Japan the Jesuits were treated as

number

short-lived.

stigated popular revolts to expel the missionaries,

Such changes

spotty. Quite a

done previ-

were

were corrupt and unpopular,

sects

vored Christianity.

won

acquired great-

but others had powerful backers and

Japanese gentlemen. They were not soldiers, but

their order

triumphs

such

good manners made an excellent impression on

the rigid discipline

now

the padres

prestige than they had

Often

ously."

the heathen of those lands, with-

adherents. Sometimes the bonzes rallied

placed by a hostile one.

The

bonzes [Buddhist monks], and converted within

left

from

places

secure headquarters

by cooperating with Portuguese merchants. As Porwith

tuguese trade

Japan

increased,

it

became
have

essential for the silk-laden "Great Ships" to

Japanese base. Most of the harbors along

a safe

the

Kyushu

coastline were too shallow or exposed

to provide shelter for the

clumsy, deep-riding Por-

tuguese carracks, and there was always the possibility that

if

captain entered a harbor without

Japan, where the Jesuits and their converts were

being sure of conditions on shore, both his ship

given permission to preach and where they collect-

and

ed small congregations.

of

Occasionally the missionaries showed an excess

of zeal.

"God gave such

strength to the padres," re-

ported one Jesuit, "that

burned

all

the

they destroyed and

monasteries and

temples

of

the

its

some

precious cargo might

were therefore eager

their
this

fall

into the

hands

hostile force. Portuguese trade authorities

friends

were

to find a

always

in

good harbor where

firm

control,

was what the missionaries managed

About 1569,

and

to provide.

the Jesuit Caspar Vilela visited a

119

small fishing village in northwestern Kyushu, ruled

important

daimyo

whom the missionaries had converted and

Dom Bartholomew. Father Vilela seems to

renamed

by

Christian vassal

an

of

have ap-

"Country

War." Even

at

wrote, "have a

high opinion of themselves because

no other nation can compare

no doubt by the daimyo's favor, he converted

with them

as regards

they look

down on

burned the Buddhist

temple and built

Soon

Christian church on

Portuguese ship arrived

after these events a

Dom

from China and found other parts of

tholomew's

blazing with

fief

site.

its

Barthe

against

revolt

Christians. Father Vilela's seaside village remained

peaceful, however, and

it

had

magnificent, deep-

water harbor that was easy to defend. After some

Dom

negotiation,
lage

the

to

Bartholomew presented the

as

Jesuits

permanent

and

safe

vil-

which was

gasaki,

seaport of
in 1945,

grow

to

an

into

modern Japan, and achieve

when

it

was

important

fame

tragic

by the

largely destroyed

sec-

Nagasaki quickly became

Christianized town

with churches, schools and a fortlike Jesuit respopulation

Its

increased

Portuguese,

as

moved

merchants

Chinese

and

enjoy

trade advantages. Christian Japanese driv-

its

Japanese

en from hostile

fiefs

that

weapons and

valor,

foreigners.

They

all

their

good weapons, decorated

more than anything else

a

and prefer

arms,

with

and so
greatly

and

gold

in the world.

have

to

silver,

They carry

sword and dagger both inside and outside the

when they
met people who
sleep. Never in my life have
They
are very wartheir
arms.
much
on
so
rely
house and lay them

at

pillows

their

like

and are always involved

the ablest

Among

man becomes

""I

mind

his

Valignano,

Alessandro

birth:

and thus

these proud and well-armed people the

foreigner did well to

ther

wars,

in

the greatest lord.""

manners. Wrote Faa

Jesuit

of

Italian

fancy that there are no people

in

settled

who

near

villages

harbor. The town was governed by

in

to

the

board ap-

the Japanese, for they will not put

gle insult or

even

word spoken

up with
in

the

in

world more punctilious about their honor

ond American atomic bomb.

idence.

think

prize and value

Na-

terminal for Portuguese trade. That village was

he

Japanese,"

"The

samurai.

the

they

of the vassal's 1,500 retainers,

com-

bativeness of

preciated the potential value of the village. Helped

all

in the flush of his first en-

thusiasm Father Xavier noticed the extreme

than
a sin-

Thus

anger.

you speak (and, indeed, must speak) courteously

even

to the

most menial laborers and peasants, be-

cause they will not have

otherwise, for either

it

they will drop their work without giving

ond thought

to

what they stand

to

lose,

sec-

or else

they will do something even worse."'

port

dues

and divided them with

Dom

Father Valignano realized, however, that the Jap-

Bartholomew. The only fault that the missionaries

anese had developed an elaborate system of be-

could find with this arrangement, as one of them

havior

pointed by the Jesuits,

from

the shipping

explained in
order

the

Without
trol a

this

was

letter,

summary

collected

they

that

execution

power, he

said,

it

of

was

could

not

lawbreakers.

difficult to

con-

settling

down

ed no opportunity
telligent,

lively

their superiors

in

to

reports

Kyushu

the Jesuits wast-

study Japan, and

that

they

sent

the

back

into

gave unforgettable pictures of the

from ending

in

deadly violence. "In order not to become heated

in their dealings

with others," he wrote, "they ob-

serve a general custom in Japan of not transacting

any important or

Japanese population.

While

keep minor disputes

to

difficult

business

face

with another person, but instead they do

through messages or
is

so

thers

much
and

in

a third

vogue that

it

person. This
is

their children, masters

face

to
it

method

used between

and

all

fa-

their servants,

and even between husbands and wives,

maintain that

anger,

to

only prudent to

it is

may

person such matters which

a third

and

objections

As

quarrels.

give rise

resuh

they live in such peace and quietness that even

the children forbear to

pean

show each

to

each other like Euro-

hit

instead they speak politely and never

lads;

fail

show such

other

respect.

men than

they seem more like solemn

they

fact

and maturity that

gravity

incredible

In

children."

Father Valignano also recognized that these very

courtesies might well cover

up

dangerous

deceit.

"Although two men may be deadly enemies,

'

he

wrote, "they will both smile at each other, and neither will

fail

perform any of the customary

to

courtesies toward the other. Their conduct in such

cases

beyond both

is

and

belief

to take

show him much

revenge and

affection

and

and joking with him. Seizing

is

completely

off his guard,

understanding;

when

things reach such a pass that

determined

they are most

somebody, they

kill

familiarity, laughing

their

"They have another

they

for

conduct through

chance when he

they draw their heavy

each

wrote, "held

and

people,

some out

ple

calmly as

if

by the

first

or second

nothing had happened and do not give

the slightest indication of passion or anger either

And

by word of mouth or change of expression.

thus they
tient

all

give the impression of being mild, pa-

and well disposed, and

that they are superior to

it

The

Jesuits

were naturally

which they saw

proselytizing.

monks

critical of

as the principal obstacle to their

They often denounced

as greedy

Buddhism,

and

dissolute,

the Buddhist

as well

agents of the devil, yet they did not

preciate the touching sentiment of
festivals. In 1561, Father Vilela

ous sympathy the Buddhist

as

fail

being
to

come
them.

quest

in

Some

whilst those

some Buddhist

Day

of the Dead.

and oth-

On

going on.

many

peo-

where they

place

of,

offer

to

them

others

who are
many

rice,

'come and welcome!

We

you must be

little,'

vermicelli,

very poor proffer hot water,

offerings,

time;

converse with

they begin

together with

saying unto them

have not met for a long

pray be seated and eat a

tired,

and suchlike words. They then place what

they have brought on the ground, and wait for

about an hour, as
time to rest and

give their unseen guests

to

if

This done, they ask them to

eat.

come home, and say they

For no matter
offers

will

go on ahead

Returning to

them.

rice

an

altar,

and other foodstuffs.

how poor

what he can

may

they

to

house,

the

table after the fashion of

whereon they place

everybody

be,

the souls of his forebears,

to

and whosoever does not

is

regarded as beyond

"

the pale.
If

the Jesuits admired, with reservations, certain

customs,

native religious

amazed,

"

table

they expressed

manners.

"They are

ing with the hands and wiping

this causes

much

them on napkins,
stains,

and

them both nausea and disgust."

Japanese customs were

is

delight

wrote Father Joao Rodrigues, "at our eat-

which then remain covered with food

ap-

watched with obvi-

is

imagine that they can meet the souls they have

over Japanese

respect."

reaching

their ancestors and,

cannot be denied

other peoples in this

all

the

of

sets light-

go outside the city to receive the souls of

killed

what

the evening of this day of All Souls,

they arrange

is

memory

Everybody

of devotion to the dead,

ers out of curiosity to see

him

replace their swords quietly and

he

night long the streets are thronged with

all

for

Then they

the

in
.

Bon,"

called

ed lamps in the streets, decorated as best he can,

make ready

that generally he

year

souls of their forebears.

swords, which are as sharp as razors, and so attack

blow.

festival

much more

civilized.

It

hard to imagine, wrote Father Valignano, "what

their food

and drink

for they observe

is

much

like,

and how

cleanliness

it

is

served,

and solemnity
121

at table

own

his

are quite unlike us. Each person has

and

but there are no tablecloths, nap-

table,

forks

kins, knives,

two small

spoons.

or

sticks,

do not ...

on

let

to the table.

good manners

crumb

They

rules at table as they

Far more exotic

do

meals was the elaborate

tomary with

such modesty and

many

as

just

ceremony.

and

ordinary

than

Jesuits

tea

noble

the

their plate

in other things."

the

to

they

skill that

from

observe

they

that

fall

eat with

is

which they ma-

nipulate with such cleanliness and

even

have

they

All

hashi,

called

"It

wealthy

cus-

is

Japanese,"

wrote Father Luis d'Almeida, "when they have an

honored guest ...

to

show him

A CAREFULLY FITTED JOINT between two

veloped

they use in drinking

called cha,

which

accustomed

is

powdered herb

a certain

who

very pleasant to those

to drink

...

it

The caddy

The girders

the Fifth Century.

column and were held

fitted

are

the most

The

like

they scoop them, the ladle with which they take

ashes on which the glowing charcoal lay looked

the water from the kettle, and the stove all these

like finely

form the jewelry of Japan,

as rings, necklaces

rubies and

experts

same way

and ornaments of magnificent

diamonds do with

who

in the

us.

And

who

appraise these utensils and

act as

parties to drink this herb (of

costs nine or ten ducats a

whiqh the best

pound) and

sort

display

to

ground and

as to be

serve

the

Japan

is

taken our places, they began

repast.

do not praise the food,

whole wide world would

rank will allow."

meal better served and appointed than

Father d'Almeida attended one of these parties

house of

"We

cho.

a rich

convert

emerged into

whom

he

courtyard

wrote, "and entered the house where

eat.

This place was

little

San-

calls
.

,"

we were

he
to

larger than the court-

Sancho with
which

the cha,

than

the kettle

hands of angels rather than of mortal men.

On

hand.

one side was

here,

and

a sort of

have

built

cupboard such

right in front a

enware about

been

as

is

usual

hearth of black earth-

yard in circumference, that shone

his

the

in

Japan.

own hands made and

served

powdered leaves

spoke

span round, on which they put the

the

to

is

it

the

in

be possible to find a

of.

Afterwards he showed me, among many others

of his treasures, a small iron tripod, little more

by

yard and appeared

for

and uten-

these utensils, each one as best as his wealth and

at the

to

but poorly provided in this respect; but

can confidently affirm that nowhere

Everything

as regards the service, order, cleanliness

sils,

out with such order

set

beyond description.

"When we had

mirror.

sifted eggshells.

was exquisitely clean and

they have

brokers in selling or buying them. Thus they give

polished

highly

It

when

it

is

taken

off.

was so worn with age

was soldered

in

took this
in

two places where

parts
it

me

one of the most valuable of

kind in

its

of

lid

my

in

that

it

had broken

through sheer decay. He told

that

this
all

exactly

by wooden pegs.

in

they place the cha leaves, the spoon with which

utensils

122

in

into the corner

which

in

(A

16th Century version of a technique Japanese builders de-

sign of esteem. These treasures consist of the utensils

floor girders

and B) and a corner column (C) was a sophisticated,

their treasures as a

was

Japan,

ways admired. One such report was written

1565 by Father d'Almeida after

"This Lord being, as

wealth and lands, and

pose he occupied

same

powerful

so

and

hill

in

obeyed," wrote Fabuild

to

Nara.

at

fortress

customary with them. For

is

in

this pur-

excavated

the

it,

made many towers

stone being very soft, and

the

to the cas-

visit

said,

strictly

ther d'Almeida, "resolved

this city as

daimyo Matsunaga

of the powerful

tle

in

of

middle thereof was

material. In the

large space, about one third of the circuit of the

city of

much

A SUPPORT JOINT, also made by precise carving, consists of

individual pieces

(A)

is

made

to

that

snugly.

fit

Here an eave's beam

over a ceiling beam

fit

since

wells,

He

then invited his chiefest and wealthiest noblemen

These are

(Bj.

many

Goa, wherein he sank

water was found three fathoms down.

and those of

whom

their retainers

he trusted

to

locked together by the wall column (C), which comes up

through them. Japanese builders

use both techniques.

still

their

began

this five years ago,

ous of each

and that

had cost him 1,030 ducats, although

it

he personally considered that

it

was worth much

sumptuous
.

and

and

walls than

silk bags,

each

valuable

in its

little

box."

thing Japanese that none of the missionaries

admired was Japanese music. Wrote Father Louren(;o

who sounds

Mexia,

natural and

artificial

music

harsh to our ears that

to

it

for a quarter of

an hour; but

we

hours.

They themselves

obliged

do not think there

is

to

it

to

is

regarded by

put on

many

much

so

is

many

that they
it

in

the

melodious,

them with repugnance. They

plays

wholesome and

for

it

anything to equal

wide world, and although our music

it

to listen

trial

to please the Jap-

listen

like

"Their

dissonant and

so

is

quite a

is

it

anese

are

long-suffering:

and

dramas

about

various

joyful things during their festivals,

but they are always accompanied by this music."

Much more

pleasing to the missionaries was Jap-

anese architecture.

Some

of their reports of castles

and palaces aroused resentment

in

Rome, where

high praise of heathen achievements was not

al-

other,

this

circuit.

and they
the

built

He

being envi-

all

and

richest

most

houses that can be imagined.

storied

All these, as likewise the circuit of the castle

more. All these things were kept in fine damask

One

within

houses

build

its

towers, are built with whiter and smoother

ever yet

saw

Christendom. For

in

they mix no sand with the lime, but only knead

it

with

they

town

for this purpose.

(for so

streets

which

special kind of very white paper

make

may

seems

call it)

and

To

enter in this

walk about

to

to be like entering Paradise.

clean and white that

it

looks as

if

It

its

so

is

the build-

all

ings had been finished that very day.

"I think there can scarcely be a

more beautiful

sight in the world than this fortress seen

side,

for

it

inside to see

them

sheer joy to look on

is

its

palatial buildings,

would need reams

walls are

cient stories
pillars are

all

on

it.

and

human

it

hands.

went

does
.

decorated with paintings of an-

background

of

gold

sheathed with lead for about

the top and

to describe

of paper, since

not appear to be the work of

The

from out-

leaf.

The

span

at

bottom respectively, and gilded and

carved in such

way

that everything looks as

if

123

it

were covered with gold. ... As for the gar-

dens

which

saw

the palace grounds,

in

cannot imagine anything more delightfully

and
it

fresh. ...

am

cool

sure that in the whole world

would be impossible

to

more

anything

find

might be excused
sionary was

suspecting

for

who was

the one

in

Rome
mis-

the

that

being converted.

But actually the charming palace that he described

could serve very well as
than-perfect

few years
in

symbol

Japanese

of

state

the

of

society.

less-

Only

Matsunaga's fortress was burned

later,

across

the

boundaries

Monks, pilgrims and

the

of

in

powerless obscurity, but

the time
sition,

when

this period,

of the

"Country

turning point.

about 1570, the bloody pol-

War" was approaching

at

Japan's

feudal

had

principalities

been virtually independent domains since the end

of the

Onin War

1477, and

in

their ruling

lords

acted like kings and were often called kings by Eu-

varied a good deal in power and

They

ropeans.

independence, from petty barons whose few

tainers

and

lived

fertile

the larger

poverty

in

to

rulers

rich

of

re-

large

provinces. All during the 16th Century,

domains had tended

to

pense of the smaller ones until

grow
a

at the ex-

few powerful

Japanese dreamed of

they would regain their ancient po-

and peace would return

over lands as rich

kingdoms, and

were plotting

Japan's disunity had been advantageous to the

who

Christian missionaries,

could play the daimyo

against each other by offering the prize of Por-

tuguese trade, but

the

arrival

of

it

hard to estimate whether

is

Europeans hastened the uni-

the

selves

the

all

most of them

Japan.

Their

immediate

motive was undoubtedly greed for power, but

least

some

of the lords entertained the

at

more honor-

its

political divisions

essential attributes of a nation;

the

124

its

Japan had the

people spoke

same language and followed customs

were more or

less

vessel.

Here was power

in disquieting

form, and after Portuguese seamen began to fre-

quent Japanese ports,

tales

"Southwest Barbarians

Even before
rates

of the

of

threat

the

must have spread widely.

that time, the far-ranging Japanese pi-

presumably

odd-looking

"

men from

Muslim power

back

brought
far

reports

of

the

away who had broken

in the Indian

Ocean,

ing posts on the coast of China

the Spice Islands of Indonesia.

set

up

trad-

and dominated

The

pirates

must

have heard that Portugal was one of the smallest

ing the oceans of the earth.

until late in the 1500s did Japanese in au-

Not

show much concern about the menace of

West. Perhaps such fear was more widespread

thority

the

than the records show. But by the end of the

16th Century, open hostility was directed toward

both the Christian missionaries and the threatening

able ambition of unifying the country.

In spite of

any Japanese

and stranger Westerners were aggressively explor-

safe to say that

of

strong impression,

Some of them ruled

as many European

subdue the others and make them-

rulers

especially with their heavy guns that could sink

European nations and that armed ships of stronger

and populous

it is

to

to the land.

the

daimyo controlled by possession or alliance

greatest part of the country.

living

they survived as

still

and many

Ships of the Portuguese made

During

whole

traders traversed the

fication of the Japanese state. Certainly the Great

one of the innumerable wars of the times.

itics

domains.

lords'

country. The emperor and shogun might be

symbols of unity,

splendid and attractive than this fortress."

Perhaps Father d'Almeida's superiors

news, fads and innovations spread quickly

freely;

that

uniform. They communicated

Western nations from which

again Japan was

doing

so,

to

once again

shut
it

was

they

itself

to

in.

came.

Once

And

while

become

unified

country, ruled by a succession of military dictators.

A POETIC
When

Portuguese

the

the 16th

OF

LIFE

reached,-

J4pan in

SLICE

Century

thfey

'found

long and

highly developed tradition of poetry writing. Poets

many

recorded

different facets

"of th^ times, and one of the best records

we
:'

'Kave of working-class

life

in this

pe-

comes from the unlikely source of

poetry contest, beautifully illustrated on

riod

scroll. It reveals a society of great diversity

not
also

just carpenters

stonecutters,, but

such specialists as dancers and picture

framers, each
a

and

poem

that

shown

at his

was intended

work alongside
to relate his oc-

cupation to the general theme of flowers.

Even the judge

of the poetry competition

was not overlooked;

one of 36 included

his

in the

portrait (left)

complete

=P"^~

PHOTOGRAPHED

THE JUDGE of the contest a monk shown here with a

ladle

bols

used for dipping water was versed

and philosophy of

classical

esoteric principles guided his

Chinese

in

the

sym-

literature. Its

judgments of the poems.

BY T TANUM.4

is

scroll.

'-''I

With cherry Blossoms

Out on

the

People are
'

first

day of spring,

restless.

They clamor

for spring

To wear viewing spring

costumes
flowers-

'i

A TEXTILE WORKER, preparing

cloth for spring clothes,

starches a long piece of material that will be

kimonos. To hold

it

rigid while she

inserted thin strips of curved

bamboo

made

into

works, she has

into the cloth.

A PICTURE FRAMER mounts a painting on wood

a folding screen, before matting

piece of brocade.

orations

to

make

the picture loith a

These screens were used as dec-

and room dividers

in

weahhy

people's houses.

Soon the temple

tree's

Branches will be stripped away;

Its

bark will be slashed.

Enjoy the
Its

tree's

aroma,

scent of temple incense.

A TREE PEDDLER walks

fl/ong selling hroad-leafed

ergreen branches from the sacred "shikimi"

branches were stripped from the

ings both at Buddhist temples

tree

tree.

and used as

and Shinto

Be*'

ev-

The

offer-

shrines.

11--'

In the

Stars

sky at night

known

Blossom
All day
'^^C"-'.-*')

^t

as "the rice basket,"

like flowers.
I.

night

make
I

rice baskets;

view these flowers

A BASKET PEDDLER
house: a

rice

the grain from

food

in

se//s

an item used

in

every Japanese

basket for winnowing, or separating,

its

chaff. Rice

was not only the staple

Japan, but also an offering in Shinto shrines.

-Ji

*)

(>

-r
^"

>

ix

^A

When the spring arrives

And I sit outside, working,
I am never bored.
With a chisel in my hand
'i

J\\";>,
1

i/t'

l>^

^-

t>

can raise flowers from stones.

C
'\!l)fc

:^i:>^

A STONECUTTER chiseh chips as delicate as flower

als

from a

hloclc of stone.

Tliis

^PiM/

piece loas frohably

mtemieii for use as a steppiii^stoiie or a itecorativc

lect,

p>et-

oIj-

such as a lantern, for a formal Japanese varden.

,,l-\4
yitSl'

*^"'"'"'

'ifJi^'in

Ml

^w

TWO SAWYERS
their

hiimhoo

rip

plunkn from

fuiniileti

snw

-a

piece of wood, y,mdin<i

alon*i strai^^ht Inie^

by touching the hoard with an inked ^fnn;^

phnik^ were used as beams, rafters and

floor

madt

Wood
hoards

.;''-}.'!

+
4>
At Nara

city

The double cherry blossoms

Are known

far

In the streets,

Two

')

A BRAzrER SELLER was a

in

common

figure

on the streets

Ibth Century Japan. Every house had at least one

big,

brazier, or hibachi,

front. Tlie smaller

hke the one he

is

carrying, in

ones were used in tea ceremonies.

and wide.
sell braziers,

pieced, just like those blossoms!

A COOrER, or harrelmaker,
ple used for waslihiji,

made small buckets

and

that peo-

larger ones in xvhich they

stored everything from water to j?'"- Here the coo-

per hinds a

wooden

tith

with hoops of ^reen hamhoo.

/(^

^^

M^'l

<
>

4^

This monkey, once free,

Would shake

the branches to

The blossoms

scatter.

For their sake

tie

him up

To keep him out of

o appeared at jcslivak,

d
'

Irickf.

He was

Toorknicn dm

iIh'

d/so
job-

make

tlie trees.

'$M'
a<.'
:^^^^&^i'J

M^

x^

ft

v^
C--

The

lion

K.

dances

Under the spring

tree's

shadow

To the drum's cadence.

Flowers will blossom faster

To

the cadence of a dance.

DRUMMKR

Tlii'^c iiu'ii

accomfiaiiics (tniicers drcs^i'tt ns a

mere seen

nt

Neiv Year. The\/ inarched

from house

(o

/inn.

festivah, fmrticularly during:,

in

liouse chasinn

luiradea

away

and also went

harnijid

sfiirits.

The chaos

of the

brought

finally

Age

an

to

Country

of the

end

War was

at

two

by

remarkable

men, Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, whose vigor and

ambition made Japan

was

unified

member

Nobunaga was born

leading family.

Neither

nation.

prominent daimyo nor even

of a

very minor

feudal lord, and Hideyoshi was that great rarity

Japanese high politics a commoner below samu-

in
rai

But both were masters of

rank.

politics

as

well as warfare, and they and their successor, To-

kugawa

leyasu, determined

course of Japan

the

for the next three centuries.

In

spite

deyoshi

THE NATION UNITED

fact

new

Nobunaga and Hi-

that

come from

not

did

society, the

The commoner
made no concessions to

particular,

went

but

ranks

top

the

of

period saw no diminution of aris-

Hideyoshi,

control.

tocratic

birth,

the

of

great

to

lengths

lower classes in their place.

In

in

own humble

his

keep

to

the

however,

spirit,

Japan did change from the ways of the old

There was during

istocracy.

period

this

ar-

new

flamboyance and an outburst of unrestrained

and architecture that was

from the

far

art

delicate un-

derstatement of earlier times.

The
less,

first

of the great unifiers

was

Oda Nobunaga,

single-minded autocrat named

whose family were

a fierce, heart-

retainers of aristocratic land-

Owari near

holders in the province of

the present

Nagoya. Gradually the Oda family had

city of

Nobuna-

creased their estates and influence until

ga's

was important enough

father

in-

buy

to

an

honorific rank from an impoverished emperor.

when Nobunaga succeeded

1551,

father

his

head of the family, he was not yet 20 years

and some of
cept

his relatives

leadership.

his

were not willing

Nobunaga

reacted

In
as

old,

to ac-

to

this

challenge with the vigor that was to prove char-

him.

of

acteristic

He

raised

about 1,000 and took the

sidents.

It

was

local

field

war,

rustic

army

against

the

typical

of

many

it

Nobu-

others fought at the time. In the course of

naga

killed

his

younger brother, stormed one of

the family fortresses and

A GREAT UNIFIER, Hideyoshi was one of the outstanding military leaders
who helped consolidate the warrirjg feudal states of Japan in the 16th Century.

The

portrait

angular robe and a

is

done

in

a traditional Japanese style, with a

realistic face.

sions of the head, and

The

artist

in

That was only

had driven the

subdued the
first

step.

hostile rel-

By 1559 he

aristocratic constable out of

Owari

stiff,

attempted several different ver-

Hideyoshi's favorite one was pasted

atives.

of
dis-

place.

and made himself master of the province.

In

spite

of

this

early

success

Nobunaga was
137

petty lord, governing

still

stood squarely in the

tious daimyo,

way

land

snnall

that

powerful and ambi-

Imagawa, who was bent on

conquest of Kyoto. In
of 25,000

of a

men toward

1560 Imagawa
the capital,

the

an army

led

much

encounters

his first

ing.

His advance guard captured

fort fell.

Nobunaga

much

he
try

less

refused

swordsmen. But times and tactics were changing.

and sent

fort

the

same

time had

this

at

on

to

go

deal.

make

to

the

defensive,

When

he learned

that

Imagawa's main force was resting strung out

in a

narrow

on

defile,

to

risk everything

bold attack, counting on his boyhood knowl-

edge of the country

On

he decided

to

make up

for his

weakness.

June 22, 1560, he led his small force through

mountain

that flanked

trail

the defile

and

fell

Large

bodies

common

of

armed

soldiers,

long spears and trained to fight

had already proved that they

order,

close

in

could

with

defeat

the

noble warriors. So the more progressive samurai

up

gradually gave

knightly

combat

single

and

acted as officers leading spear-armed privates.

This change by

mentous;

Japan the sword of the samurai had

in

been for centuries

terror

trained to use
of

tion

a quasi-religious

anyone who

to

would have been mo-

itself

But

it.

tried

to

symbol and

oppose

man

second change, the adop-

was even more

firearms,

drastic.

The

matchlock muskets that the Lord of Tanegashima

1542 had

on Imagawa's army, which was taken wholly by

bought from Portuguese adventurers

surprise and further confused by a blinding rain-

multiplied with amazing speed. These simple guns

The

storm.

soldiers

and one

ravine,

of

This battle
but

it is

tory.

Nobunaga's followers cut

and the Japanese soon found that they were not

off

faults,

difficult

comparatively

few

men,

as a turning point of Japanese his-

Nobunaga's audacity and triumphant general-

much appreciated by other commanders.

He suddenly became a national figure, and many
ship was

chieftains

but they were effective nevertheless,

had

involved

famous

in

stampeded up and down the

Imagawa's head.

came over

his

to

side.

The most im-

new allies was a former opponent,

Imagawa officer who had spearheaded the inva-

to

reported

manufacture.
the

that

One

Portuguese traveler

armorers of the Lord

six

months

after first seeing them.

itary circles.

called

them

Many

the

soldiers

weapons

commanders took

despised

them and

of cowards, but enterpris-

them remarkably

the

considering the well-known conservatism of

Under the name

of

collected those souvenir heads.

Tokugawa

be a leading general and

leyasu, he rose to

eventually became the

At
myo,

this
at

time
least

control, but he

Nobunaga was
in

military mind.

terms

of

still

territory

minor
under

daihis

had some important advantages.

to

fast,

Gunshops quickly sprang up

the
all

over the country and were soon making improved

models: guns that threw heavier bullets able
kill a

ruler of all Japan.

in

Firearms roused great interest in Japanese mil-

ing

Owari and

Ta-

of

negashima turned out 600 of the new weapons

portant of these

sion of

138

recruits

to create.

Nobunaga,

hardly more than 3,000 men; but in spite of the

bad news

army he planned

Japanese battles in the past had been chiefly

back seven severed heads as souvenirs;

day another

for the new-style

multiple fencing matches between skilled samurai

Owari were encourag-

and

These would make good

with.

fight

to

and owned weapons

fight

to

He

trouble from
in

province, Owari, abounded in spirited

yeomen who loved

where he hoped

to take control of the enfeebled shogunate.

did not anticipate

home

His

man

Besides

in

armor

their

to

at a considerable distance.

virtue

of

long-range

deadliness

new weapons had the advantage of being

much cheaper than good swords. They were also
the

Long training was unnecessary; and

easier to use.

sturdy young peasants could be

and

musket

fire

in

taught

load

to

few weeks. This quality

made them doubly attractive to upstart military

leaders who lacked large companies of skilled samNobunaga was one

urai.

his rapidly

and

career,

were due

for

growing armies of high-spirited but un-

He began

trained countrymen.
in his

weapon

the

just

to

some

least

at

musketry

use them early

to

of

tactics that

his

victories

Nobunaga strengthened

in 1560,

by dealing with neighboring

tack his rear

when he

planned

as he

do.

to

his position

who might

lords

at-

younger

or

the important legitimacy that

not secure.

Others

marriage.

in

he

By 1567 he had achieved

important

his

victories

him

secret

same year

position

On

the strength of these

Nobunaga considered himself

to take control of Japan.

He

such
favor.

regaining

claimant to the sho-

gunate, Ashikaga Yoshiaki, asked for

support.

of

message praising
help in

for

Nobunagas
authorized

ordered engraved on

"Rule the Empire

death

the

who seems
hated them

with Yoshiaki,

At

first

series

of

1568 he marched into Kyoto

whom

he installed as shogun.

the sophisticated capital treated

barons

held his

who had

troops

occupied the

city,

under firm discipline.

not rape or pillage, and he issued

that

guaranteed protection

to

and

all,

this

is

one reason

Nobuna-

all

Nobunaga
They did

strict

civilians.

order

This

To

he

him with

was

in-

Father Frois's surprise,

whom

the cruel master of Kyoto,

received

why

to Christian missionaries.

troduced to Nobunaga.

everyone feared,

cordial friendliness.

His report

of the interview gives a living picture of a great

who was seldom as pleasant

own countrymen as to this alien priest.

but ruthless man,

his

"He would be about 37

ther Frois,

with

"a

tall

a clear voice,

cises,

man,

years old," wrote Falean,

bearded,

hardy, disposed to temper justice with mercy,

a

great stickler for

most expert

in

honor,

very secretive

the wiles of warfare,

from

his subordinates, but greatly feared

is

He

rough-mannered, contemptuous of

brusquely over his shoulder as

... He

is

and

does not drink wine,

other kings and nobles of Japan

ors.

scantly

greatly addicted to military exer-

respected by everyone.

he

to

or nothing disposed to accept reproof or ad-

little

vice

ga as an uncouth upstart, but unlike other provincial

Nobunaga,

shrines.

its

have had no religious sympathies,

proved so friendly

proud,

In

and fought

to their religion

protect

to

to

in his plans,

in

but

obey

sects. Some of the

monks were mercenaries whom anyone could hire.

him, but he brushed them aside

battles.

Kyoto,

munities of warlike Buddhist

by Force." Alarmed daimyo formed leagues against

bloody

around

of the country refused to

rest

him. Even close to Kyoto were strong, hostile com-

two requests,

officially

his seal the grandiloquent motto:

Nobunaga was

In 1569 the Jesuit missionary Luis Frois

sought his

allies

and begging

lost estates; in the

control

central Japan, the doz-

provinces

rich

to

sisters

sent

more

en or

ising rewards to their followers.

The emperor

He dominated

and enjoying

came from

over both emperor and shogun,

Others were devoted

them he placated

destroyed by direct attack or undermined by prom-

strength that

in control of the capital

Some

by the time-honored method of giving them daughters

Although

himself marched on Kyoto,

of

emperor had

as the

done, to help them get back their estates.

most of the

he developed.

After his great victory over the ambitious Ima-

gawa

Nobunaga and asking him,

of

and he quickly

of these,

muskets were

realized that

was something new and welcome in a city that

had been trampled by countless unruly armies.
Soon even the court nobles were thinking better

whom
if

all

the

he addresses

they were inferi-

nominal adherent of the Hokke

[Lotus] sect, but he openly proclaims that there

139

are

as a Creator of the Universe

no such things

nor immortality of the soul, nor any

He

death.
dress

The

life

extremely refined and clean in his

is

not even a prince dare appear before

him with

after

sword ..."

with

Jesuits' first interview

this

of a

site

castle being built for the puppet shogun. Nobuna-

was

around

striding

with

which employed some 25,000 men. The

pious Father Frois was

delighted to note that

much

of the stone for the castle

was coming from shrines

of the infidel Buddhists.

"As

available

many

ment

was no stone
'he

ordered

stone idols to be pulled down, and the

and amaze-

to the site. All this struck terror

in

men

around the necks of these and dragged

tied ropes

them

there

work," he wrote,

the

for

hearts

the

of

Kyoto

citizens,

for

they

Father Frois had had the good fortune to meet

as

the Japanese ruler had de-

war on the Buddhist

clared full

them

after

principal

the

and therefore

the

threat

He

sects.

missionaries

of

regarded

supremacy,

his

to

the

foreign,

may have seemed welcome

sympathizers. He favored Father

anti-Buddhist religion
allies,

or at least

Frois

with

many

tried to

the Shinto god

Father

that he

to

long interviews,

during which

de-

gave the Jesuits authority to

Kyoto and preach Christianity

do

determined

anything

about

to destroy their

freely.

The

Nobunaga

it.

was

the

ancient

center on Mt. Hiei, north of Kyoto. This

its

rich

happened

next:

on the top

of the

set fire to

Sakamoto and

put to the sword

to

those found within the town.

to

show

And

[monks] the

the bonzes

in order

regard he

little

had described

paid to the chimeras (which they

to

to
all

him) of the punishments of Sanno, the second

thing he did was to burn

... he

idol

versities so that

nothing

the temples of this

all

by

also destroyed
at

with the men,

was

all

all

left

of them.

advance

the order to

The bonzes were unable

top.

ous assault and were

the seven uni-

fire

such

to resist

the

to
a

furi-

put to the sword, together

women and

children of Sakamoto."

The bloody massacre on Mt. Hiei was only a

sample of cruelties to come. Nobunaga attacked
the Buddhists wherever he could find them.
the west coast of

Honshu he

one stubborn stronghold,

to

around

the encircled

up 20,000 people who had taken

When

it.

built a wall

set fire

On

provincial lords

came

to

the

help of the Buddhists, his new-style army defeated

them

easily.

One
tle

of

of these actions against the

Nagashino

in

1575,

stand with

paltry

is

force

daimyo, the Bat-

landmark

Nobunaga
of

3,000

in

the

took his

musketeers

religious

and awaited the attack of traditional samurai cav-

was one

alry.

of the holiest places in Japan, sacred to both

dhist and Shinto gods, but

all

history of Japanese warfare.

power.

In 1571 Father Frois reported with obvious satisfaction the destruction of

had them

mountain, Nobunaga immediately gave orders

Buddhists were furious, but they were in no position

When

mountain

of the

what

describes

Frois

"Knowing

shelter in

effect

mountain. The monks

the

with 500 bars of gold.

their tributary villages.

area and burned

in

30,000

of

and took with them most of the inhabitants of

and discussed Christianity. Finally he issued

live in

off

Sanno on the top

he questioned the priest about Portugal and Europe

cree that

140

buy him

Then ... he gave

"

deeply venerated their idols.

Nobunaga soon

He assembled an army

men and surrounded

robe

tiger-skin

thrown over rough clothes supervising the construction,

enemies.

his

he refused they retreated to the great temple of

uncompro-

mising character was conducted on the

ga

had offended Nobunaga by supporting

prelates

Bud-

and powerful

The gorgeously armored horsemen came

in

waves, swinging their terrible swords, and each

wave was mowed down by

disciplined

volley.

'l

Not

of the musketeers fired at a

all

one group had discharged

back
to

to

reload while another group

When

fire.

musketeers

the

time:

weapons,

its

after

stepped

it

made ready

had

slaughtered

four waves of horsemen, the battle was over.

Other commanders learned

became ceremonial

alry troops
in action,

this lesson well.

Cavused

fixtures, rarely

and the muskets became the preferred

weapon. Those monasteries that Nobunaga

had

not yet destroyed set up gunshops, and the free

city of Sakai

became

to all buyers.

It

busy arsenal ready

can be argued that

to sell

1575 Nobu-

in

naga's armies were more advanced in the rational

use of small arms than any

army

in Europe.

After the Battle of Nagashino, Nobunaga's most

troublesome opponent

central

in

Japan was the

great Honganji monastery at Osaka, the holy center

of the rich and powerful Amidist sect.

It

was

strongly fortified and supported by devoted sec-

many

tarians in

besieged
ships

it,

and

to cut

armed with

the

years

American

the

Civil

from the sea he used

off

it

cannon

small

with iron armor. These

nearly 300

Nobunaga

parts of the country.

and

"iron-clads

protected

preceded by

"

Monitor and Merrimac of

War.

The Honganji monks

finally

surrendered after

being urged to do so by the emperor, whose intervention saved

face

for

them and trouble

for

Nobunaga. But the Amidist power was broken,

and Nobunaga was master of Osaka.

Though Nobunaga fought almost continuously,

he also showed considerable
statecraft.

inside

He

the

skill

nonmilitary

in

well understood the value of working

traditional

forms.

moves on entering Kyoto was

One
to

of

his

first

rebuild the di-

lapidated Imperial Palace and provide the emperor

with sufficient income

militant

ale at

monk

Honganji, which resisted Nobunaga's attempts

These monks,
'ng

with his lethal swords at hand was one of the defenders of the fem-

who

spent

much

of their time

making

to

their

conquer

it

to

maintain

nificence. For a while he also

proper mag-

supported his puppet

for 11 years.

own weapons and

practic-

archery and musketry, believed that death in battle was a means of salvation.

shogun, Yoshiaki, but drove him into exile when

he showed

tendency

to

act

on

his

own. That
141

Mile:

THE PORTUGUESE IN ASIA

1510-1569

Route from India to japan

|M
'

was the end

CJ.^

Bases of Portuguese missionaries

and traders

Ashikaga shogunate, and Nobu-

of the

naga would have curbed the emperor

also,

had been necessary. He told Father

if

Frois:

it

"Do

not worry about either the emperor or the shogun.

I

am

in

complete control of everything."

More than most

Nobunaga

of the military lords,

appreciated the importance of trade and finance.

He

not attempt

did

conquer the commercial

to

city of Sakai,

but instead

porters of

richest

became

its

his

made

merchants, so that the city

dependable source of firearms, ammuni-

and other war materials. He also understood

tion

show and pageantry. He

the role of
rale of his

low-born soldiers by dressing them

in formation.

and

mo-

raised the

handsome uniforms and drilling them

grand review of his troops that he held

1581

may have been

were

costumes

told
to

to

in

similarly inspired. His gen-

appear in their most

lead a

in

march

to

may have been European,

Both ideas

erals

full

and sup-

friends

KOREA

brilliant

troop of 20,000 horsemen at

gallop past the emperor's reviewing stand.

This splendid ceremony marked the peak of Nobunaga's career.

year

1582 his generals were

still

was dead.

he

later

In

KOREA

")*H

"i^

STRAIT

fighting hold-out dai-

myo, but they were making good progress, and

Nobunaga was planning

to take part in

the final

campaigning. His end came suddenly. While lodging in Kyoto, he

soldiers of

was surrounded

Akechi Mutsuhide,

general. Father Frois

Akechi's

men

tells

reached

at

dawn by

the

supposedly loyal

what happened: "When

the

palace gates

once entered, as nobody was there to

they

resist

at

them

because there had been no suspicion of treachery.

Nobunaga had just washed

and was drying himself with

his
a

TANECASHIMA

in

the

side

weapon with

long

made after the fashion of a scythe. He

fought for some time, but after receiving a shot
142

Kagostiima

when they

with an arrow. Pulling the arrow out, he came

blade

SEA

hands and face

towel

found him and forthwith shot him

out, carrying a naginata,

EAST CHINA

Nagasaki

Many

Japan.

common

soldier of peasant origin.

man

Japanese history no

In

of

all

of such low birth

had

Hideyoshi had plenty of fighting

but he

knew

He

the value of timely compromise.

by giving him charge of the

made

and

provinces,

ern

do,

to

still

of

ished, often

Japan, Hi-

all

power by means

to consolidate his

of far-reaching political

moves. Through

a variety

coun-

of repressive laws, he set out to freeze the

try

in

The

and

especially

other ambitious

of

rise

like himself.

the

feudal pattern

rigid

prevent the

chief targets of his

laws were

who

as free or as prosperous as in the

During the

late 1500s.

to

commoners

armed peasants and small landowners

had never been

had banded together

to

civil

many

wars

them

of

defy feudal overlords and

have

While
a

it

new

the

repellent

as

hit the

was

and

to a city,

Vil-

one

if

would be pun-

his relatives

that,

social

system

as

looks

it

in

could

on

peasant farmers hard

good deal of freedom

truth

must not

by death.

practice

been

rigid

of the pop-

permitted

it

towns and

not

paper.

The

cities.

the ceaseless fighting

in spite of

under Nobunaga, Japan was progressive and prosperous, and

it

deyoshi began

became even more so when Hienforce

to

Production

order.

of

food increased; towns and villages that had been

burned were quickly

The new

rebuilt.

taxation sys-

tem, rigorously applied, funneled a swelling stream

of revenue into the treasury,

and Hideyoshi found

unexpected wealth, which

chase tax collectors out of their villages. Those

himself in

who had good weapons were

he invested in castles and palaces more gorgeous

lest

without the support of

too dangerous to

a large

this large

and obstreperous

class,

member

them; he saw clearly that they

were

to the military aristocracy to

now

them down. His

all

moved

belonged, and he
first

step

was

firmly

years and

who

try people,

was

to

The

bitterly resisted

hold

job took

by the coun-

realized only too well that

intended only to determine the

which

survey assessing

lands in terms of productivity.

many

maximum

it

survey

round-up of
all

firearms.

metal

used

in
to

went Hideyoshi's

revenue

The

their

"sword

hunt":

commoners' weapons, including

all

villagers

surrendered

construct

were

that

told

weapons would

gigantic

statue

of

gether a more agreeable person

He was not notably

the

be

Buddha

convivial,

alto-

than Nobunaga.

cruel; he liked

wine and enter-

tainment and collected pretty young concubines

in

He was

numbers.

large

man, but he sought

the arts

an

hardly

educated

to be considered a patron

of

and gathered around him the country's

leading painters, poets and actors.

During

was

that could be squeezed out of them. Along with

the

of

Hideyoshi was expansive and

of

but he showed

for

he

control

than any that Japan had ever seen before.

no sympathy
a threat

mo-

army.

Hideyoshi himself had been born

144

them "absconded,"

with

publish

to

member

proper place. Peasants

must not move

lage artisans
of

In

Even before he was master

daimyo

all

Hi-

stability,

social

on pain of severe punishment.

leave their land

several hold-out daimyo.

deyoshi began

of

codes designed to keep every

east-

peace

bloodless

sure

deyoshi encouraged

his

come.

their welfare in the life to

To make doubly

ulation in

ever risen as high.

conciliated leyasu

and so promote

was the son

his success, for he

been shocked by
of a

must have

Japanese

conservative

(named
It

rule

his

after

the

Momoyama

period of

one of his palaces) came

has been called Japanese rococco;

its

to

flower.

character

was probably determined by the confident

of the age

art

spirit

and by the new wealth that peace, na-

tional unity

and foreign trade had made possible,

may have
Gone was the

but Hideyoshi's flamboyant personality

had something

to

do with

it,

too.

Ashikaga times.

severe and subtle simplicity of

Momoyama

paintings glowed with bright colors,

backgrounds of

against

often

were the

and discipline

restraint

Buddhism.

Gone
preached by Zen

gold

Momoyama

of detail that sometimes

leaf.

Momoyama
carvings,
leaf.

of

wood

intricate

and fittings kettles,

bowls,

Castle.

common

the

visitor,

utensils

hinges-

and

locks

The bed was

bedding and

the

to

He

Jesuits.

also

told

invade and conquer Chi-

his plan to

and he made the padres

a surprising offer. If

two

they secured for this adventure the use of

large Portuguese ships, he

churches

all

re-

Nobu-

would promise

over China and order

to build

Chinese

all

to

become Christians.

made what was

Father Coelho then

sidered

He promised

bad mistake.

con-

later

not only the

Portuguese ships but also other help from Por-

eight feet long, with scarlet

tuguese India, and he offered to bolster Hideyoshi's

daimyo

influence over the Christian

headboard encrusted with gold.

he chatted from time

feet

were of gold. Hideyoshi's bedroom was 54

square.

na,

sword on her

carried his

whom

the special rights and privileges that

them about

were anything but

who

richly

After the tour of the castle, Hideyoshi

naga had granted

which were covered with gold

one

to

to time."

ex-

Even more ostentatious were the furnishings

According

girl

shoulder, and with

overwhelmed by sheer

Hideyoshi's favorite residence, Osaka

of

dressed young

newed

were lined with

many

Father Frois reported, "by a

riot

buildings, too,

Castles

alert

painting gloried in a

uberance the general effect of the composition.

austere.

as the

of

Kyushu.

interested in religion

Hideyoshi seemed pleased, but the more experi-

much opposed

enced Jesuits were uneasy.

One

was

Alessandro Valignano,

conjectured that

with considerable hope that the Jesuits began to

deyoshi was thinking:

Hideyoshi was not

was

as such, but he

at

all

just as

to the

Buddhists as Nobunaga had been, and so

him.

cultivate

many
when

They noted with

it

pleasure

that

converted daimyo were his intimates, and

the

court

who was

physician,

considered

one of the leading scholars of Japan, was converted

too,

they began to

Nobunaga's death

that

feel

had not been too great

cause. Hideyoshi pleased

them further by

their

church

ing priest.

in

The only thing he

man's having many

The
tail

Christian

the

really disliked

was

women.

said, "I will

their

dictator

faith,

could

this

"If

was nevertheless

felt

a friend,

be

"

become

but they

about

opposition to

its

that

and

this

the

this

de-

new

impres-

"This

war against me
against

Nobunaga."

that Hideyoshi
ever.

seemed

Then, only

to

remain as friendly as

few months

after the Christian

party's visit to Osaka, he suddenly

titude

100 of them

Then

now to

leave Japan. Father Coelho

but this seemed only to infuriate Hithe vice-provincial

military

help from

Macao and Coa and

ippines,

to

to

resist

Castle. Hideyoshi himself

tian party

showed

the Chris-

around his gorgeous palace, preceded.

in

organize
the

the mistake

Portuguese

the Spaniards

and by trying

Christian daimyo

made

the

the

surely reported

to

in

Phil-

league of

expulsion

Portuguese ship out of the country.

1580 when Father Caspar

his at-

the missionaries more than

tried pleading,

deyoshi.

changed

all

and ordered

Osaka

in

Honganji

In spite of these forebodings, the Jesuits noted

Coelho, the vice-provincial of their order, visited

was reinforced

is

make

he will

as did the abbot of the

Much of this was

who insisted that

sion

Hi-

father-provincial

One day

very rich and influential.

of asking

convert.

Jesuits could not promise to alter

of

visiting

Kyoto and chatting with the presid-

Christianity, he explained,

changed," he

for

loss

later

them. Father

of

order.

Hideyoshi,

the missionaries take the

first

This decree of expulsion was never enforced.

145

Only

few

went

Japan;

actually left

Jesuits

into hiding for a while

the

and then emerged

to

carry on their proselytizing as inconspicuously as

possible.

They observed

to satisfy

that their restraint

seemed

Hideyoshi, but they debated long and

any

In

rest

of the Christians

He

mind.

was not uppermost

he collected

leyasu,

the east-

in

Working with

his

and

in

army,

great

Hideyoshi's

in

had stubborn enemies

still

ern provinces and the far north.

ally,

minor problem

the comparatively

case,

earnestly the reasons behind the expulsion decree.

April 1590 marched out of Kyoto at the head of

Some

Jesuits thought

Others feared

act.

it

was merely an impulsive

indicated suspicion that the

it

This

The

seems

certainly

1587 the Japanese knew

By

logical.

good deal about the

Western world. Some of them had

visited Europe,

and what they saw there could not have been

assuring.

Most

bloody

the

wars

of

religion

and Protestants, and the

in

between Catholics

Jesuits,

who were men

were active leaders of the war-

of peace in Japan,

European Catholics. Perhaps even more

like

re-

Europe was then embroiled

of

dis-

quieting was the arrival of the Spaniards in the

Far East.

The Portuguese usually confined them-

selves to peaceful trading, but the Spaniards

were

bent on conquest and did not conceal their in-

Luzon
ful

1575 they had conquered the island of

In

tent.

in the Philippine Islands

outpost

about

at

Manila.

this, since

of their

and

built a

all

they had Philippine settlements

likely

heard the Span-

campaign was

objective of the

Hojo

distantly connected with the

down

tled

besiege

to

it

early

head-on,

bloody business; he

While waiting

it.

the

who were

rulers of

feudal times. Hideyoshi did not attack

which would have been

in

Odawara, be-

fortified castle of

longing to the powerful Hojo family,

for

set-

the

defenders to be starved out, he wrote to his wife

a

touching

that

letter

he was

hints

moved not

only by sentiment but also by patriotism. "I long

Young Lord

for the

son Tsurumatsu],"

[his little

"but
must give up my longing. If we
Odawara the way is clear to Dewa and
Mutsu. That means one third of all Japan, and al-

he wrote,

destroy

though

am

getting

future and what

He

power-

The Japanese knew

own, and they very

first

east the strongly

independence.

its

thesis

latter

men

200,000

carrying the latest weapons.

Christians were a threat to Japan's newly gained

unity, or even to

well-disciplined force of perhaps

is

old

must

think

of

the

best for the country."

him

also asked his wife to send

his favorite

concubine, Yodogimi, the mother of Tsurumatsu.

For the entertainment of other besiegers, he round-

ed

up

local girls

and brought dancers, musicians

iards

boasting quite correctly that Spanish mil-

and courtesans from the

itary

power was the

permitted to send for their wives, and merchants

If

terror of the

Western world.

Hideyoshi feared that the Christians, especial-

came from

all

over the country

ly the

well-armed and notoriously aggressive Span-

plied with luxuries.

iards,

might

and comfortable

form

nucleus

of

overthrow him, he had grounds

for

the

His expulsion order

ed as

Japanese

warning

league

the

Jesuits

to

to

wariness.

may simply have been

to

politics; its

his

intend-

keep out of

enforcement was probably de-

Hojo,

who

to

officers

siege

were

much

too

surrendered after

were

keep them sup-

These preparations for

for

long
the

few months. Hi-

deyoshi treated them rather generously, requiring

only two of the leaders

him

to

valuable Portuguese trade passing through the Je-

than 100 years Japan was

suit stronghold of

time, also,

little

it

later.

was

to

kill

themselves.

The

Dewa and Mutsu submitted

northern barons in

liberately ignored, for fear of interfering with the

Nagasaki.

His

capital.

For the
at

first

time in more

peace. For the

united nation.

first

MANY-ROOFED TOWER,

seeu througfi

tlie

bars of a storeroom wi}uiow,

is

the charming but almost impregnable

main defense of the White

Hero}i.

A
FEUDAL
LORD'S

FORTRESS

OF BEAUTY
The Japanese feudal

lords of the late 16th

and early

Heron because

of

its

white plaster

finish. Its

234 acres

17th Centuries needed sturdy, heavy-beamed castles to

of land

defend their tiny kingdoms in an almost continuous se-

thine paths designed to channel attackers toward bot-

quence of

petty

wars.

striving for security

thetics.

The

castle exteriors

enhanced by flowering

Such

Yet,

a castle

true

to

was matched by

tradition,

their

concern for es-

were decorative, the grounds

trees

was the one

and
at

still

ponds.

Himeji, called the White

were crossed by heavy stone walls and labyrin-

tleneck traps before they reached the main strongholds

four towers, or donjons. Situated on

castle dared warriors to

storm

it.

the challenge, and today Himeji

relic

of the

hilltop,

the

But no one accepted

stands

untouched,

day when feudal lords ruled the manor.

147

AN
UPHILL

COURSE
TO THE
CASTLE

No

White Heron
their

had,

they

if

task would have been

able one.

the

castle;

the

to

siege

attackers ever laid

a formid-

The outer works began

bottom of the

strongholds were at

the

at

donjon

the

hill;

(top

crest

right), the approach paths steep and

diers

Attacking

dangers.

with

beset

from above and swept by

fired

sol-

could be bombarded with rocks

through

The

fusillades

holes in the walls.

defenses

elaborate

White Heron were

the

of

justified

by the

strategic value of the site. Himeji controlled the link

pan and the

between western
city

capital

Kyoto.

of

named

In 1581 a future ruler of Japan

Hideyoshi built

Legend has

it

a small

that

there.

castle

when

Ja-

newly

the

completed three-story donjon began

mason climbed

to lean, the chief

the

top

the

of

threw himself
in his

by

mouth,

suicide.

completed
the

to

tower

tilting

off,

chisel

restore

148

and

wedged

his

honor

The White Heron was

in

1609 by

powerful Tokugawa

workmen had toiled for

to make the fortress one of
est

to

and strongest

general of
clan

after

nine years
the loveli-

castles in all Japan.

149

STRONGPOINTS

TO
REPEL

THE
ENEMY

For the White Heron to be captured,

an army would have had to fight

way through no fewer than

that

its

11 gates

guarded the pathways between

and the donjons.

the lower entrance

The

gates directly in the enemy's

were

path

reinforced

wooden

bar-

ricades designed to halt an onslaught

by

The most

their sheer bulk.

one

to

main entrance
troops

to

had

make

to

breached

way

the

boards and

Even

past this

gate,

make

if

remove

down on
they won

murderous

line

they
in

floor

the attacktheir

way

of defense,

would again have

sharp turn, climb

stairs and

If

defenders

fire

the assault troops

of

they could be

nearby tower.

chamber above could

to

a 90-degree

from the gate

it

upon from wallports and win-

dows and

ers.

Enemy
toward

funneled

approach

below; along the

fired

to the

of the donjons.

who were

this barrier

turn

difficult

storm (right) was close

then find

a flight

themselves

confronting yet another strong point.

A SECRET

EXIT, this gate

needed no door, for

it

could be sealed with stones.

AN IRON-PLATED DOOR

protected a main entrauce; the small door permitted routine

traffic to

pass through whenever the large door

was

safely locked.

r
^^^-i'^*

152

^-j

-_

A HALL
TO ARM
THE
"RUNNING
SOLDIERS"

The strongholds

of the castle

complex

were the four donjons, which were

interconnected by spacious, enclosed

each having a special military

halls,

function.

The

was

(left)

biggest of these halls

musha

called the

which

literally

diers."

At the

room

would run

receive

to

sol-

threat of attack,

first

the defending soldiers

this

bashiri,

means "running

and be mustered into

weapons

their

units.

between the windows

to

The racks

at right

were

intended to hold firearms, the dowels

above the windows were for pikes.

This room, with

appointments,

its

suggests a Japanese version of

the

stone keeps of medieval Europe.

The

resemblance

is

not entirely accidental.

Japan's great era

came

after

with

tales of

signed

the

of

castle

Portuguese

building
arrived

European fortresses de-

to resist

attacking hordes.

The

Japanese, quick to take advantage of

new

ideas

from abroad, may well have

adapted the Portuguese

to

improve

their

own

suggestions
fortification.
153

THE PRINCESS' APARTMENT (above),

its

liixKiiou^ li(}iuti<re

now

(juiit',

was linked

to

lli.

.i

LOnuior (top) that once had polished wood

floors.

ROOMS FOR
PLEASANT
LIVING

A
STRONGHOLD
IN

Life

was relaxed and gay,

if

unevent-

White Heron. The 3,000

the

ful, at

samurai stationed there were seldom

engaged

even though they

in battles,

kept the castle stripped

action

for

in case

an attack should come. The

women

of the castle, wives of the sol-

enjoyed

diers,

any peacetime military

The lady
to

routine

easy

the

of

installation.

from 1616

of the castle

1626 was Princess Sen, for whose

comfort

sumptuous apartment was

added onto the

(below,

left).

Here she presided over popular

social

castle

such

activities,

moon-viewing,

as

which was accompanied by the

ping of

and

sake

the

sip-

reciting

of

poems. But when her husband died

in

moved

she

1626,

to

castle

at

Edo, and there, bored and distraught,

she caused a minor scandal by waving the sleeves of her

a

window

to attract

passing by.
lords
of

were

the

The

kimono from

the

young men

families

of

later

The leaders
Tokugawa clans re-

less fortunate.

ruling

quired the lord's wife and children

to live

apart from

him

at

Edo

as vir-

tual hostages in the event that the lord

revolted against

Tokugawa

authority.
A

DOOR

IN A

DOOR

led to the

women's area and was used whenever

the

bi\^

dooi ioas closed.

HEAVY TRAP DOORS, shown

closed at

left,

could be opened, as one

is

at right, to give defenders access to floor ports for use against

enemies

BENEATH
EVERY

DECORATION,
IRON
SHIELDS

The

architectural features of the castle, decorative

as

they might appear, always had a bearing on defense.

No window was

without bars, no outside wall without

shooting holes, and even the balconies, such as

the

one below, served military as well as esthetic functions.

stones to be dropped or boiling water poured down.

The

materials used in the construction of these win-

dows show how

carefully the castle

was conceived

blend the warlike and the beautiful. The bars

made

wood and then covered by iron

even an enemy who climbed up to the

entirely of

to

were
plat-

Placed at strategic points on the donjons, these balconies

ing so that

provided perches for soldiers firing guns or arrows be-

could not saw through them. But finally the functional

Should the enemy advance beneath

iron plates were covered with a finish of white plaster, to

tween the

bars.

them, trap doors

in the floors

could be raised

(left) for

make

the

windows harmonize with

bars

the all-white castle.

A GRACEFUL BALCONY, which overhangs the wall, was equipjped with large floor-openings through which missiles could be dropped on attackers.

THE ORNATE

TOWER
THAT
STOOD FOR
FEUDALISM

The main donjon

castle,

with

sculpted
(right),

its

barred windows,

and

roofs

tile

White Heron

of the

many

scrollwork

symbolized the power of the

feudal lord. Under attack, the donjon

was the headquarters

forces.

of the defense

peacetime,

In

monument

stood as

it

around

authority;

to

a
it

gathered nobles, peasants, merchants

and

soldiers

to

seek protection, do

business and carry on the daily work.

The feudal power represented by

the

White Heron donjon

slacken

for

nearly

three

did

not

centuries,

while the castle passed through the

and 32 different

hands of

six families

masters.

Then armed

uprisings

re-

established imperial power, and feu-

dalism ended in 1869.

During

this

time of upheaval, the White Heron

was

on

fired

few token
off

for

rifle

harmlessly.

Heron and scores

national

shots

Today,

first

time

that

glanced

the

White

of other castles are

monuments,

memorials
158

the

preserved

as

to the age of feudal lords.

159

The Japanese
of

in

reversals

their

They slammed

made another

the 17th Century

of

toward

attitude

foreigners.

the door in the face of the outside

world. For more than two centuries alien influences

were kept out of Japan, while the Japanese were

held inside their homeland. In their isolation they

missed completely the intellectual, social and eco-

nomic developments that transformed the West

during this period.

But

They progressed on

modern

role in

world

ideas,

a state of seclusion, called

European

a reac-

religion, technol-

which were considered

the established order.

own

to slip readily into their

Country" by the Japanese, was

tion to the influence of

ogy and

stagnate.

affairs.

This withdrawal into

the "Closed

not

did

course uniquely their

would prepare them

that

A CLOSED JAPAN

they

threat to

brought an abrupt end

It

to a

period of expansion that began in the 16th Centu-

When

ry.

Hideyoshi unified Japan

country was interested

self.

in foreigners

1590,

in

his

and sure of

it-

So confident was Hideyoshi that he decided on

move unprecedented

Japanese history: large-

in

scale foreign conquest.

Hideyoshi planned
a project that

to

invade and conquer China,

has been called a product of megalo-

mania, but although

it

was certainly

reckless

was by no means absurd. Japanese

had

fighter-traders

many

in

won power and

easily

distant

far

if

it

and

wealth

and Hideyoshi may

lands,

well have reasoned that

pirates

these small groups of

his

countrymen had had such remarkable success,

his

own

large armies,

should be able

fare,

earth.

released from civil war-

march

ten with

internal disorder
its

to

him

rather
rot-

and beset by nomadic

northern frontier. Indeed,

soon be overthrown by one of those

Manchu,

like

Ming Dynasty was weakening,

Its

on

ends of the

to the

China may have looked

easy prey.

tribes

now
to

people less advanced and

it

would

tribes,

the

numerous

less

than the Japanese, and no more warlike.

In

May

1592, Hideyoshi's expeditionary force-

some 150,000 men supplied with plenty

landed

in Korea, then a

as the first stage of

EUROPEAN MISSIONARIES, painted by

a Japanese artist, walk with Japanese

ital

converts: a boy
are Jesuits,
ciscans,

and an old man holding a

whom

rosary.

The

priests

at

Peking.

its

march on

The Chinese

at

the

first

state,

Ming cap-

did nothing.

left

the Japanese generally respected; at right are two Fran-

who many

at

of firearms

Chinese tributary

Japanese feared were agents of Spanish colonialism.

The Koreans

resisted but

soon collapsed, and Hi-

deyoshi's generals plunged forward. Their armies

161

swept up

with

peninsula

the

one of then\ took Seoul and

Korea

Pyongyang, now

North Korea, and chased the king

the capital of
of

Yalu River where he pleaded for

to the

help from China. At

last the

in

MacArthur

mustered

army and forced

momentum and

never

Japanese

a sec-

regained

While Hideyoshi was preoccupied with

The

lier.

was

a respite

from the repressions

of

edict

his Chi-

1587 ordering

initiated ear-

expulsion

their

not enforced; native converts were seldom dis-

turbed, and

they continued

numbers and

influence. But

grow rapidly

to

the Jesuits

in

ran into

trouble from quite another quarter: persistent ef-

by the

forts

order of

rival

Franciscan

friars

to

enter Japan from the Spanish-occupied Philippines.

The

was

lay

suit

classes,

they

believed

convert-

mass

in

of

commoners

in

the

streets.

The

that these aggressive, revolutionary

out,

few arrived

in

They were

delighted with Japan;

came from Manila and acted

edict

as

had ever been issued. For

crucified at Nagasaki. For a while

Her

looked as

if

Hideyoshi, having suppressed the Franciscans, in-

tended to

eliminate

Christianity

altogether,

probably

because

but

the

persecution

still

considered the Jesuits necessary for promoting

slackened,

he

by way of Portuguese ships. In the next

trade

and the Christians got another

year, 1598, he died

respite.

Hideyoshi's

and

was

successor
his

deputy

Tokugawa

place

shi's

that

by dominating

had been created

to

provinces

in the eastern

Honshu. leyasu moved smoothly

a

leyasu,

into Hideyo-

regency

council of

govern

in

whom

name

the

of

leyasu later

almost immediately, but leyasu was victorious in

and got

an

Hideyoshi.

more

of

them

no expulsion

few years

their

1596

great

Spanish galleon from Manila was driven ashore on

the island of Shikoku.

it

Je-

were

mistake)

deposed. The inevitable rebellion of barons came

if

in

by

(included

Hideyoshi's five-year-old son,

aggressive proselytizing aroused no special antago-

nism among the Japanese, but

1597, the savage sen-

5,

would

from

reception

February

who

the Franciscans to

feared

1593

friendly

On

Hideyoshi,

to

tactics

In spite of Jesuit attempts to keep the Francis-

apparently

pave the way

Jesuits

rouse the opposition of Japanese authorities.

cans

condemning

brothers

his old ally

first

friars to

carried out. Six Franciscans, 17 of their

of

upper

stra-

the cargo were not

Japanese friars-in-training and three Japanese

stead of Christianizing a country by

evangelization with emotional appeals to crowds

162

crucifixion.

policy as the predominantly Portuguese Jesuits; in-

the

monumental

a
if

These remarks were repeated

reacted quickly by

same

Spanish Franciscans did not follow the

ing

made

Spanish conquest.

for

tence

eventually withdrew.

nese adventure, the Jesuit missionaries in Japan

enjoyed

officers

threatened that

custom of using missionary

the Japanese

back down the peninsula. In 1597 there was

their

also

an over-extended condition),

the

He

tegic error.

returned to him, the king of Spain would conquer

in

ond invasion, but

one of the ship's

the ensuing dispute

in

Japan. Unhappily, he also mentioned the Spanish

American general Douglas

large

and

local representatives,

1950 when

do

reached the Yalu

a

b> both the samurai of Shikoku and Hideyoshi's

Chinese pulled them-

selves together (as they were to

the

opposition;

httle

later

rich cargo

was claimed

the Battle of Sekigahara in IbOO,

made him shogun

old.

in 1603,

when he was

61 years

So began the Tokugawa shogunate that was

to rule

Japan for 264 years, until 1867.

During the early years

was

and the emperor

tolerant of Christianity

of

able. Like

if

his

regime,

leyasu

not actually favor-

Hideyoshi, he was eager for European

knowledge and trade and feared that the flow of

both would be cut
suits.

But events

in

off

if

he persecuted

Europe were soon

to

the

Je-

change

A MAP PAINTED ON A FAN

said to have been carried by

IS

deyoshi while his armies were

his attitude. For

some years

Dutch had been defying

the sea

Spain and Portugal, and

the Jesuits in

retical

Dutch were only

power

1600 the

in

of Catholic
first

Beppu Bay

ship, the Liefde, put into

When

the vigorous Protestant

Dutch

Kyushu.

in

Nagasaki heard that the hea

few miles away, they

allegedly urged the Japanese authorities to crucify

the Protestants as

not

in

pirates.

crucifying

The

mood;

local

daimyo was

gave

he

Hairs" (as the Japanese called the Dutch)

pitality,

and leyasu invited the Liefde's

Englishman
This was

yasu the
religious

no doubt

named Will Adams,

setback for the Jesuits.

first

Protestant

to

"Red

the
full

hos-

pilot,

visit

him.

Adams gave

account of

an

le-

bloody

the

wars that were devastating Europe and

stressed

the

them by the European

militant

Jesuits.

It

part

played

was not

in

pretty

right,

divided into provinces.

left,

China:

and

picture,

and

cities

in

At

rivers

Korea. Japan
top center
of

both

is

is

shown on

Korea and

lands

to

Hithe

the

marked.

are

must have made leyasu think hard

it

about the Christian minority that was growing so

fast in Japan.

leyasu was

and made him

rived

much impressed with Will Adams

a close adviser. More Dutch ar-

and were granted the

trading

post

Adams

or the

at

Hirado

in

Dutch got

right

to

Kyushu.

establish

Whenever

chance, they pointed

out to influential Japanese that in case of an uprising

against

many

of

part of

the

whom

Kyushu

shogun,

the

until

to arrive

leyasu had heard

this

now

good

all

by

sea.

from the Buddhists,

he began to listen more carefully. In Japa-

nese eyes the missionaries had

for

converts,

Spanish soldiers and weapons

from Manila had time

but

Jesuits'

were warriors, could hold

the worse.

recently

changed

The aggressive Franciscans, tem163

Hideyoshi,

porarily suppressed by

and their conspicuous methods

alarmed the authorities,

had returned,

of

proselytizing

who wanted

least of all a

popular religious upheaval under foreign control.

tuguese ships out of the country.

smaller

number

hid or disguised themselves thinly as foreign mer-

chants. For a few years the Japanese

Christians

In the early 1600s there were probably 300,000

were not actively persecuted; leyasu apparently be-

Christians in Japan, and they seemed to be coalesc-

lieved that they were not dangerous without their

ing into a tight minority that valued

foreign leaders, and observed with pleasure

above everything

else.

religion

its

This sectarian partisanship,

which cut across feudal

seemed

of loyalty,

lines

He saw andreaded Spaniards who were

to leyasu a serious threat to his regime.

other threat in the

increasingly in evidence. In 1611-1612, a Spanish

navigator, Sebastian Vizcaino,

made

hydrograph-

When

survey along the east coast of Japan.

ic

after

derground, foreign trade was hardly affected. Even

the pious Portuguese kept

on

visiting Nagasaki.

leyasu died in 1616 at the age of 74 and was suc-

harder on

Christians.

the

Four clandestine mis-

and beheaded

sionaries were caught

who

native Christians

be executed in considerable numbers.

had probably already

broader

his

own

conquer

to

island country, England, in 1588.

leyasu

made up

mind

his

refused to recant began to

attack on Christianity

movement

Japan.

in

was only

As

part of a

familiarity

country or

leaders was be-

at least of its

coming more and more

hostile

foreign

to

weighing the threat of the growing Christian mi-

ences, secular as well as religious. Japanese

nority against the benefit of the European trade

had journeyed

and contacts

ports. Europe, with

mind with

that

had

been associated

the missionaries.

in

new

strong

his

factor

reasoning was his conviction that the Prot-

in his

Dutch and

estant

the

English,

whose

first

ship

its

if all

the Catholic missionaries were expelled.

In 1613, a
to

crowd

pray and sing

of 30,000 Christians gathered

hymns

eral co-religionists.

When

at

the execution of sev-

the

news reached leyasu

he decided to eliminate Japanese Christianity.

decreed that
try; all

dhist

all

He

missionaries must leave the coun-

Japanese Christians must join some Bud-

sect

and

convince

Buddhist

priests

that

they had really changed their faith.

Unlike Hideyoshi's anti-Christian decrees, this

Na-

influ-

who

Europe brought back alarming

its

was an obvious

re-

warlike religious factions,

its

clashing

political

threat to the feudal system

dominated by the shogun and his advisers.

Apparently no Japanese of

time

the

realized

that the cause of Europe's turmoil and the source

great vitality was an intellectual

awakening

of

its

of

overpowering significance. Since most of

their

information had come through missionaries whose

church was largely

antiscientific, the

Japanese got

only the haziest notion of the scientific and technical

revolution

that

was sweeping Renaissance

Europe and would soon give

small countries control over

one was enforced, though not hurriedly. Most of

the foreign missionaries were concentrated at

to

powerful weapons and

ideas,

reached Japan in 1613, would continue to trade

even

with

the outside world increased, the intellectual climate

of the

apparently

slowly,

The

and

in 1617,

Adams what he thought about

Adams answered that in Europe such activities
were considered preliminary to an invasion. He
about the great

who was

ceeded in power by his son, Hidetada,

leyasu asked Will

told leyasu

that

had departed or gone un-

the missionaries

it,

Spanish Armada that had attempted

164

where more than 90 of them took Por-

gasaki,

its

much

comparatively
of the earth.

Perhaps the three great unifiers of Japan Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and

leyasu would have under-

stood this portentous truth

if

it

had been

fairly

They were

presented to them.

venturesome men, and open

most

Japan

ideas.

presumably been

and

respects,

its

prompt adoption

arms showed how quickly

it

of fire-

could master

and useful European technique.

new

the political

If

cli-

were

corrupted,

come home under pain

17th Century was not behind Europe

in the early
in

new

to

and

intelligent

all

bloody rebellion of thousands of Christian

exiled the Portuguese

merchants,

who were

the revolt,

and forbade them

as effectively as

did in the 19th,

it

between them was much wider.

pened, Japan might

have become

well

But Hidetada and the

had no such

feudal pyramid.

great

purpose was

structure.

political

rigid

influence,

re-enter

to

Japan.

Portuguese ship brought a mission

Na-

to

gasaki to plead for reconsideration, the Japanese

executed

Tokugawa shogun

and so when

moderate Hidetada

the comparatively
in

this

was such an

When

believed to be implicated in

and most of the ship's

the envoys

all

crew, a total of 61 persons.

own position at the apex of the

Any influence from outside they

as a threat to

Christianity

later

vision. Their overriding

to preserve their

shogun

had hap-

that

If

the gap

power controlling much of East Asia.

colonial

saw

when

was cruelly

policy of withdrawal. After the revolt

stamped out, the government

mate had been favorable, Japan's technology might

17th Century

to

peasants near Nagasaki in 1637 accelerated Japan's

have caught up with Europe's

in the

forbidden

of death.

retired

as

1623 and was succeeded by his son

le-

After this emphatic gesture Japan was almost to-

shut

tally

off

dangerous

from

Europe

Dutch ships

was limited

with

Contact

world.

the

one

to

two

or

licensed each year to visit Nagasaki.

All Europeans were expelled from the country ex-

cept for a handful of

to a small island in

eign goods, the

Dutch merchants confined

Nagasaki harbor. Besides

Dutch ships brought

for-

trickle

of

mitsu, there began a period of persecution in which

Western knowledge, but

thousands of Christians were martyred.

For more than two centuries, while the Western

Much
but

it

has been written about this savage period,

must be remembered

the only 17th

women were
gion.

In

that

Japan was not

Century country where men and

forced to die painfully for their

Europe

the

Spanish

Inquisition

routinely burning thousands of heretics.

War,

Years'

ty

essentially

had hardly any

world passed through the rapid evolution of the

its

preindustrial culture.

The

was

between

was

policy

basic

of

the

Tokugawa shogunate

to preserve Japan's traditional type of military

feudalism, and to perpetuate

its

concentrating on these objectives,

would quickly reduce

buttressed

parts of Central Europe to

No

Japan for

share of the horrors of the age.

In 1633

its

Westerner can justly condemn

to

whose aim was

world.

Japanese

subjects

were

for-

bidden to go abroad or to build ships capable of

ocean voyages. Those

for

One

more than

who had been

living abroad

a specified length of time,

and had

of the

power.

In

shogunate

the

No

one

in

machinery of

modern

Japan was supposed

unwatched, no one was supposed

level in

own

position with rules and requirements

that strongly suggest the

break almost completely Japan's contacts with

the outside

its

police state.

the shogunate began to issue a series

of edicts, the Exclusion Decrees,

in-

dustrial revolution, Japan elaborated in seclusion

Catholics and Protestants, was already raging and

cannibalism.

effect.

reli-

The Thir-

conflict

it

to

to

change

go
his

life.

important step toward insuring the power

Tokugawa, however, was an innovation

of

leyasu, founder of the line. In the early 1600s, he

had moved the shogunate headquarters from Kyoto

to

Edo (now Tokyo), an

easily defensible site

in
165

ODA NOBUNACA

was probably

the rich eastern provinces. This

conscious return to the policy of Japan's

gun, who, more than 300 years

first

sho-

had made

earlier,

his headquarters in the eastern provinces to avoid

the intrigues and softening culture of the emperor's

The emperor and

Kyoto.

capital,

courtiers

his

stayed in Kyoto where leyasu supported them in

modest

affluence,

and watchful

none of the emperor's

that

made

officials

circle

TOYOTQMI HIDEYOSHI

sure

had any contact

with potentially dangerous daimyo.

For a while the static society enforced by the To-

kugawa was
daimyo were

and

stable

lordly

but some of them

rich,

still

The

successful.

were

who had
submitted to leyasu only after he had won control in the Battle of Sekigahara, were known as
hardly more than bureaucrats. Others,

"Outside Lords

"

and were carefully watched by

the shogun's officials. Their marriages and succes-

were supervised. They were

sions

improve or repair

when

gun's permission, but

to build a castle,

for large

then

to

the

shogun wanted

TOKUGAWA

lEYASU

he called on the Outside Lords

amounts

made them

forbidden

without the sho-

their castles

of

poor, so

money.

much

If

the

the better.

expenditure

They were

less likely to start trouble.

Perhaps the greatest burden on the more important

daimyo and

most effective

the

their rebelliousness was

on

restraint

the requirement that

they spend part of each alternate year in Edo and

leave their wives and heirs there as hostages

ever they visited

their

fiefs.

Their

when-

journeys

to

and from Edo, accompanied by throngs of servants

and

retainers,

came

be

to

colorful

but extremely expensive ones.

Edo were

to

"sword and

where guards watched

All

processions,

roads leading

women" check

for

any

illegal

points,

weapons

being smuggled into the capital and for the families

of

daimyo being smuggled

out.

Either

was

THE FAMILY CRESTS of the three men who unified

Japan in the 16th and 17th Centuries Nobunaga,
Hideyoshi and leyasu are styUzed depictions of
flowers

used

considered an indication of intended rebellion.

The
166

classes

below

the

daimyo

were

closely

and

leaves. Originally a crest, or

could he worn only by a noble;

crests.

actors

later,

"mon,"

samurai also

During the Tokugawa period Kabuki

and other commoners devised "mon"

their families

and wore them on

their

for

kimonos.

watched

also.

The proud samurai were no longer

country gentlemen

and ready

on

living

arms

to spring to

own

their

lords com-

their

at

mand. The higher ranks were bureaucrats or the

equivalent of army
soldiers.

Almost

The lower ranks were

officers.

them

of

all

lived

on

attracted skilled workers from

The shogun

estates

salaries paid

by the daimyo. Their weapons were provided

for

quieting

daimyo
about

it

of

result

to

other thing

they could

some

tent for

sam-

system based on

commoners.

startling advantages over the

by

he had been insulted

that

urai felt, for instance,

If

person of low birth, he could cut him in

two with

sword and suffer no punishment.

his

many

amount

centuries, but

the

rice,

it

of rice (about five bushels)

average Japanese ate in

economy
when food was consumed by

who were

manufactured goods brought from

their crops

and

collectors took about

tried

leave

to

keep the cultivators alive and

fortunate

commoners were

artisans earned a fairly

and money lenders grew

ment

barely enough
at

the

good

half of

well

fairly

who

the people

quired

less

and

silver coins

had

govern-

This archaic social structure did not remain un-

distance re-

were

wide use; by 1700 Japan

in

money economy using

great variety

The people who understood money and

the as-

sociated mysteries of money-changing, credit and

finance

efforts to restrict their activities.

food and

supplied with

of coins.

and merchants

rich in spite of

full

and by others nearby.

it

cities

cumbersome medium. By 1600 gold

to

townsmen. Skilled

raised

keep large

to

work. The most

living,

an

would

be exchanged for other things, this barter

But

Tax

ex-

that

year. Since rice

was called "permission to cut down and leave."

As the Tokugawa regime hardened, the peasants,
the bulk of the population, lost almost

some

to

being the koku,

worked

their rights.

An-

also used a barter

unit

This privilege, which was not exercised frequently,

all

little

was money

not control

and finance, japan had used coinage

the

the

do

could

return to ancient simplicity.

closely restricted. Nevertheless they enjoyed

movements and

making

of

they

except issue endless decrees urging the

were

their

and

townspeople

activities

them and

policy

their

Edo,

at

live

over the country.

all

certainly had not foreseen this dis-

were not

daimyo

the

or

samurai,

were essentially warriors, uneducated

in

commerce. Money was the familiar

the

who
ways

modified for long. Even with Japan secluded from

of

the world, the forces of change were too strong

city-dwelling merchants, and soon they were using

to

be checked by the rather fumbling measures

of the shogunate.
cities
ities

were growing

For one thing, the towns and

fast,

and interests of

and the complicated

their inhabitants did not

into the feudal fabric of lords, soldiers

ants.
it

fastest of

all.

When

the capital of the shogunate,

than
its

Edo grew

a village,

activ-

but in 1700, about

it

fit

and peas-

leyasu

made

was no more
century

later,

population was something like 500,000. Those

daimyo who were required

lives

their

in

elaborate

swarms

to

spend part of

Edo vied with each other

palaces

of retainers,

and

and

staffing

their

demand

in

their

building

them

with

for luxuries

it

to concentrate in their

of the national wealth.

in

rice,

whose

price

own hands

tool of the

large part

They grew

rich speculating

fluctuated

violently.

money

they multiplied their capital by lending

the daimyo,

who were

And
to

passionately fond of display

and often short of cash

to

underwrite

it.

con-

temporary author estimated that around 1700 the

debts of the daimyo were one hundred times as
great as

all

money

the

The townsmen's
ocal

position.

in the country.

affluence put

Traditionally

speculators and other people

ing

by

trading

instead

of

them

in

an equiv-

merchants,

bankers,

who made

their liv-

by producing

were
167

accorded low social rank. The shogunate frequently

districts of the cities the old rules of

warned prosperous townsmen not

did not apply. In the Floating World, a

They should

social betters.

to imitate their

dress plainly,

told

it

them, and never give lavish entertainments. The

such thing, and they usually had enough purse-

power

to

evade

coercion.

official

About

their

only

concession was the clothing they wore in public;

often

was ostensibly plain but the

it

of

linings

and the garments worn under

their outer robes

he

developed

raffish culture

in the thriving

While the aristocracy clung

cities.

older

to

arts

townsmen acquired samurai

most often by paying

tionship were

felt

even

World

titutes
ers.

It

and

was

many

them highly

erotic,

prints illustrating the vivid

One

of the

still

may

be

and

life

in

wood-block

of the big

and not

them

traditions

The audiences

of early

established

centuries

Kabuki theaters includ-

many wives and daughters of the merchant

class who found in the performances, and sometimes in the actors, a way of escape from their
ed

dull,

subordinated

Indeed,

World and
Sometimes

of
a

the

of

the

Floating

townsmen who supported

it.

merchant or banker would make too

great a display of wealth,

the

of samurai

and the shogun would

did interest in

some European techniques,

manufacture

and

use

preserve

to

ion.

firearms,

of
the

prestige

swordsmanship. But nevertheless Japan

kept pace with the Western world in

Education spread

its

own

fash-

estimated

to all classes. It is

that before 1850, while Japan was

"closed,"

still

perhaps 40 per cent of Japanese males were

erate, a

lit-

proportion that most European countries

of the time could not match.

entific

the power-driven machines and the sci-

methods of thought

that produced industri-

alism were wholly lacking, Japanese artisans were

as highly skilled as

quickly learning

any on earth and capable of

new

Japanese com-

techniques.

merce and banking were elaborate and

and easy

to

mesh with Western

after

to

nation

American

Edo Bay

reopen the closed

country

was not an "undeveloped"

a

the
into

214 years of nearly

vanced,

flexible

practices.

When, in 1853, the Black Ships of

Commodore Matthew Perry steamed
and forced Japan

lives.

The shogunate disapproved

businesses

century after 1638 practically

West reappeared

until the

revive.

Though

form of popular drama,

where

villages,

small

no European ideas entered the Closed Country,

cities.

has great appeal in modern Japan and

which preserves
ago.

life

permanent achievements of the Float-

World was Kabuki,

which

pros-

and danc-

surviving popular novels of the times,

in

ing

theaters,

world whose colorful

glimpsed
of

and

of restaurants

bath-girls, wrestlers, singers

the

rela-

and freed themselves from feudal bondage.

No

Floating

in

enterprising peasants organized

were largely eliminated

tea

debt-ridden samurai to

such as

plays and the restrained eloquence of the

rank,

adopt them into his family. Changes of social

and entertainments traditional music, the formal

ceremony the townsfolk demanded lusty pleasures. These they found in what was called the

whose

total

land.
last

seclusion,
It

Japan

was highly ad-

two centuries

development had followed non-Western

lines.

of

So

"caught up" with the West with remarkable

summarily confiscate everything he had. This did

it

not happen very often, for

ease while preserving for the world's pleasure the

cepted
168

it.

of the

For more than

the end of the 17th Century, a brilliant

and rather

Uke

felt

Some

them might be bright brocade.

Toward

townsman

could show off his wealth whenever and however

no

merchants and bankers, of course, did

rich

social class

that

within

the

it

came

licensed

to

be tacitly ac-

entertainment

greater part of

its

distinctive culture.

KABUK.I

A THEATER

OF ESCAPISM

^' *^^ beginning

came

of the 17th Century, Japan closed

a rigid, isolated

its

doors to the world and be-

country; paradoxically, this same period

saw

the birth of

Kabuki, an extremely colorful and melodramatic form of theater. While the

ers of

Japan were enforcing

a stultifying political status

flocking to bright, bizarre spectacles.

who were

quo, the people were

Most Kabuki patrons were merchants,

forbidden by the government to wear sumptuous clothes or even

change professions. Starved

zled

rul-

for excitement

and lavish display, they were daz-

by the Kabuki's resplendent costumes, such

as

the one

worn by

the

courtesan pictured above. The audiences delighted even more in scenes that presented clever

combat. In

commoners outwitting

fact, a battle

between

the subject of one of the Kabuki's

eroku, a melodramatic
Photographs by Norman Snyder

work

that

is

their social superiors

young commoner and

in love or physical
a

samurai bully

is

most famous and enduring plays, Sukstill

performed

in

the traditional manner.

169

The strange conventions

jsar--

of a theatrical tradition based

on mus

ancing and stylized acting

i(s*:.a9ik

to^
m,...M

"..

'^>

Sukeroku, the hero of the play of the same

name, enters and jauntily twirls an umbrella.
His costume establishes him as an "otokodate," or a
classes

man

ready to defend the lower

against bullying

warriors.

Only

samurai could wear two swords; Sukeroku

reveals,

a social

by carrying one sword, that he

position

commoner's and the samurai's. That he

in

is

somewhere between

the
is

odds with the established order of society

at
is

suggested by his purple headband: this color

was customarily worn only by

172

the shogun.

The entrance

of the

hero an impressive display

of courage,

manly grace and wild bravado

Ikyu,

infuriated

self.
is

He

Sukeroku's

by

nence, reaches for his

sword but

does not draw his sword because

a stolen one, a precious

Tomokirimaru, which
to

imperti-

stops himit

heirloom called

rightfully

belonged

Sukeroku's family. Ikyu, realizing that

he has been insulted to provoke him into betraying his

After his

dance Sukeroku

lounges

on

theft,

now smothers

his

rage.

bench before the admiring eyes of the courtesans.

When

the

villain

the

of

play,

samurai named Ikyu, envies the attention

Sukeroku

is

courtesies,

Sukeroku

receiving

and

seeks

incites his

ger with a contemptuous

similar

enemy's an-

rebuff:

he offers

Ikyu a pipe, ordinarily a polite gesture but

insolently presents

it

held between his toes.

173

The

heroine: Agemaki, a courtesan

whose beauty and refinement have won her

Alone with
love,

sirahility in

the

his sweetheart, the courtesan

which she

returns.

Sukeroku's

The

fact that

eyes. For

men, therefore, often turned

the love of

Sukeroku

Agemaki, Sukeroku assures her of

Agemaki

is

his undyi>

a courtesan does not detract from her d

most Japanese men, marriages were arranged by parent

to

courtesans for the love they could not find at horn

Carried

away by

his rage,

with his fan. The fan

is

the

Ikyu strikes Sukeroku

most frequently used

stage prop in Kabuki, and, depending on

moved, can be employed

tions, as well as

to

to

how

it is

express a host of emo-

stand for such objects as a

sword, chopsticks, fluttering leaves, wind or waves.

Ikyu enters and

tries to

hidden under her

since

it

make

loi'e

The heavy

many

to

Agemaki, unaware

folds of her

that

Sukeroku has

costume conceal him

kimonos and a huge sash, or

obi.

At

last

easily,

From
Sukeroku provokes Ikyu. Every time Ikyu draws near the

consists of

this hiding place,

girl,

skirts.

Sukeroku mutters an

eroku emerges from

layers of

insult (top) or pinches Ikyu's legs.

his mistress's skirts

Suk-

(bottom) and confronts his enemy.

175

In a tableau of frozen action, dramatic poses designed to

As
in

the

argument becomes more heated, Ikyu forgets

Sukeroku's presence, and pulls

out of

it

legged incense burner near him and cuts

sees that

it

moment

is

his family's heirloom,

it

in

to

his resolve not to

scabbard.

half.

He aims

Sukeroku looks

draw

his

sword

a blow at a threeat the

Tomokirimaru. This dramatic moment

as the actors freeze into a tableau.

buki actors

its

draw attention

sword and
is

held for

Frozen poses are often assumed by Ka-

emphasize a crucial turning-point of the

plot,

and

directors

compose

them carefully so that they form memorable visual images tense with contained energy.

176

to a

significant turn of events

The formalized

violence of a duel to the death, a conflict conveyed in the

duel between Sukeroku and Ikyu has become inevitable

man who
The two combatants strip down to

Sukeroku knows Ikyu

sword.
dinarily

wear

as

is

the

stole

the

the white

undergarments, and Ikyu's

family

death.

parry

178

in

the shoulder,

The
is

entire scene

and Sukeroku
is

more

like a

falls

to

the

that

heirloom

kimonos they

retainer

presents them with swords. In the ensuing conflict, Ikyu

roku

now

or-

ceremoniously

wounds Suke-

ground,

feigning

dance than a duel; each thrust and

choreographed with precision and performed

in

slow motion.

measured sequence of dancelike motions

Believing that Sul<eroku

Ikyu prepares

dead or dying,

is

deliver

to

coup de

the

grace (right). Sukeroku, however, avoids

the blow, throws Ikyu off balance, hurls

him

ground and slays him (below).

Sukeroku has not only recovered

to the

Now

his family

sword, but he has also ob-

tained revenge. Such a climactic

moment,

however, does not necessarily represent

a highpoint for Japanese audiences. Un-

Western playgoers, the Japanese do

like

not go to the Kabuki theater in order to

witness a suspenseful plot or a deep psychological study of a character. Attend-

ing a play

is

as

much

a social event as an

artistic experience; ordinarily the

theater

is

Kabuki

a beehive of activity as the au-

dience eats and chats.

Most

of the plots

are well

known and

sists of

one act from one play, another

act

The

often a program con-

from a different work, and so

real

appeal of Kabuki

on.

lies in

the ac-

tor's skill, particularly his skill in

assum-

ing a beautiful
in
If

and forceful pose, which

Kabuki terminology

is

called a "mie."

a "mie," such as the one

Sukeroku below,
the

audience

"This

is

is

will

ivhat I've

assumed by

unusually striking,

shout

in

approval,

been waiting for!"

179

The

closing

moments

of the play: the hero's

narrow escape and happy reunion with

In

the

his brave mistress

scene of the play, Sukeroku hears

last

the shouts of an angry

of Ikyu's death

Seeking
ceals

to

and

crowd that has learned

coming

is

avenge him.

to

hide from the crowd, Sukeroku con-

himself

in

wooden

huge

tub which

contains real water. Such a realistic effect was

rare for

Kabuki, though playwrights did occa-

sionally delight their audiences with flashy scenes

of this sort.

Kabuki theaters had trap doors and,

after 1758,

revolving

stages

from below by stagehands:

were turned

that

this

equipment was

used for quick set changes, sudden appearances

of ghosts, convincing depictions of trees falling

and mansions collapsing

violent earthquakes.

in

Other devices were employed

through the air and

sound
in

Butterflies

to

whisk actors

strange optical and

and

birds

were flown

on slender poles and costumed actors pranced

about

180

effects.

to create

the

stage

as

bears,

horses

and

lions.

^^^P'^^H

APPENDIX

AD

100

CROSSROAD
CIVILIZATIONS BETWEEN
EAST AND WEST
1200

The

chart at right

is

designed to show

the duration of early Japanese civiHzation,

and

to relate

it

to others in the

<
H
<

<
2
I

1300

"Cross1400

road" group of cultures that are

con-

sidered in one major group of volumes

in

this

from

series.

This

chart

excerpted

is

comprehensive world chronology

that appears in the introductory booklet

of the

series.

Comparison

the

of

chart

with the world chronology will enable

the reader to relate
to

Japans early culture

important cultural

parts of the Far East

periods

and

in

other

Western ex-

to

ploration and colonization.

On

the following pages

cal listing of

is

chronologi-

important events that took

place in the period covered

by

this

book.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following volumes were selected during the preparation
book for their interest and authority, and for their

cific points.

usefulness to readers seeking additional information on spe-

GENERAL HISTORY
Boxer, C. R.. The Christian Century in ]apan, 15-J9-J650,

Rev ed

University of Cali-

fornia Press, 1967Boxer, C. R.. ed.,y4 True Description of the Mighty

of Japan

and Siam. by Fran-

versity Press, l^ob

asterisk (*)

Munsterberg, Hugo
The Folk Arts of Japan Charles E Tuttle, 1958
Zen and Oriental Art Charles E. Tuttle, 1965
Newman. Alex R and Egerton Ryerson, Japanese Art,
.

Kingdoms

cois Caron and ]oost Schouten. London, Argonaut, 1935.

CipolU, Carlo M.. Guns, Sails and Empires.* Funk & Wagnalls, 1967.
Cooper, Michael, SJ.. ed.. They Came to Japan, An Anthology of European Reports on
Japan. 1543-1640. University of California Press. 1965,
Cressey. George B -Asia's Lands and Peoples. 3rd ed McGraw-Hill, 1963
Hall. John Whitney, Government and Local Power in Japan. 500 to 1700. Princeton Uni-

and Richard K Beardsley, Twelve Doors to Japan McGraw-Hill, 1965.

Keene, Donald, Japanese Discovery of Europe. Grove, 1954
Murdoch, James, History of Japan. 3 vols, Frederick Ungar, 1964,
Reischauer, Edwin O., Japan, Past and Present. 3rd rev. ed. Alfred A Knopf, 1964
Reischauer. Edwin
and lohn K Fairbank, East Asia: The Great Tradition Houghton
Hall. John

An

marks works available

hard cover and paperback editions,

availability only in paperback.

of this

a dagger

Collector's

ftJ

both

in

indicates

Guiide. A 5

Barnes,

1965.

Noma

Seiroku. The Arts of Japan, Ancient and Medieval. Transl, by John Rosenfield
Tokyo, Kodansha International, 1966, (U.S, Distrib., Japan Publications Trading Co., Rutland. Vt.)

and Alexander Soper. The Art and Architecture of Japan. Rev,

Paine. Robert Treat

ed.

Pen-

guin Books, 1960,

Tatsuo Shibata et al., eds., Japan. Art and Culture- Tokyo, Government of Japan, 1964
Yoshida Tetsuro, The Japanese House and Garden. Transl from German by Marcus G.
Sims. Frederick A. Praeger. 1957.

Mifflin. 1060
Sansom. George

GENERAL CULTURAL STUDIES

Arai Hakuseki:

The Armour Book in Honcho Gunkiko. Transl. by Y Otsuka, rev. and ed by H RusRobinson Charles E Tuttle, 1964
The Sword Book of Gunkiko. JTan'i\hyH L Joly. Charles E, Tuttle. 1963.
Bush, Lewis, Japanalia. David McKay, 1959.
Ernst. Earle, The Kabuki Theatre.* Evergreen. 1959.
Halford, Aubrey S. and Giovanna M The Kabuki Handbook. Charles E Tuttle, 1965.
Japanese National Comm. for UNESCO. Japan: Its Land, People, Culture. Government of

B.

History of Japan. 3 vols Stanford University Press, 1958-1963,

Japan, A Short Cultural History. Rev ed Appleton -Century-Crofts. 19o2.

sell

The Western World and Japan. Alfred A. Knopf, l^oS.

Onin War. Columbia University Press, 1967.

Varley, H, Paul, The

RELIGION

AND PHILOSOPHY

japan Printing Bureau, 1958.

Mock. Things Japanese. 5th rev, ed,, Tokyo, Tokyo News Service, 1964,
Keene, Donald, No, The Classical Theatre of Japan Tokyo and Palo Alto, Kodansha International. 1966
Morris. Ivan. The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan Alfred A
Joya.

Ancsaki Masaharu, History of Japanese Religion. Charles E Tuttle. 1963

Berry, Thomas, Buddhism. Hawthorn Books, 1967,
Dumoulin, Heinrich, S J,. A History of Zen Buddhism.* Pantheon Books, 1963.
Reps. Paul, comp., Zen Flesh, Zen Bones: A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings.*
Doubleday Anchor Books, 1957
Suzuki. Daisetz T
An Introduction to Zen Buddhism.* Black Cat, 1964
Zen and Japanese Culture. Pantheon Books, 1959
Zen Buddhism: Selected Writings of D. T. Suzuki. Ed by William Barrett Doubleday

Anchor Books,

1956,

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

Knopf, 19o4

Nakamura, Julia V The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Peter Pauper Press. 1965
Okakura Kakuzo, The Book of Tea.* Dover Publications, 1964.
The Arts of the Japanese Sword. London, Faber & Faber, 19cil,
Robinson, B.
Robinson. H, Russell, Oriental Armour. Walker, 1967
Sadler. A L,, Cha-no-yu, The Japanese Tea Ceremony. Charles E. Tuttle, 1963.
Sakakibara Kozan, The Manufacture of Armour and Helmets in 16th Century Japan
Transl by T Wakameda Rev and ed by H. Russell Robinson. Charles E. Tuttle. 1963
Smith, Bradley, Japan, A History in Art. Simon and Schuster, 1964
.

Smith, Cyril 5

Painting. Skira. World Publishing, 1961.

The Traditional Arts of Japan. Doubleday, 19b4

Akiyama Terukazu. Japanese

Boger.

Batterson,

History of Metallography. University of Chicago Press, 1960.

TRANSLATIONS OF JAPANESE WORKS

The Museum of Modern Art, 1955

The Japanese House, A Tradition for Contemporary Architecture. Charles

Drexler, Arthur, The Architecture of Japan

Enge\.V\einr\ch,
E.Tuttlc, 1964.

Futagawa Yukio and Itoh Teiji, The Essential Japanese House. Tokyo, John Weatherhill,
jutsu Shuppan-sha, joint publishers, 1967. {U.S. Distrib., Harper & Row.)
Iwamiya Takeji, Katachi: Japanese Pattern and Design. Harry N. Abrams, 1963,
Edward. Jr,:
Kidder,
Japanese Temples. Amsterdam, Harry N, Abrams, 1964.

Bi-

Masterpieces of Japanese Sculpture. Charles

Lee.

Sherman

E. Tuttle,

1961

Press. 1961
Keene, Donald. Anthology of Japanese Literature.* Evergreen, I960
McCuUough, Helen Craig, transl,, The Taiheiki. A Chronicle of Medieval Japan. Columbia University Press, 1959
Murasaki, Lady, The Tale of Genji * Transl by Arthur Walev Modern Library, 1960
Theodore de Bary and Donald Keene, comps.. Sources of JapRyusaku Tsunoda.
anese Tradition* 2 vols. Columbia University Press, 1965
Sadler, A, L,. transl.. The Ten Foot Square Hut and Tales of the Heike. Sydney. Angus &

Wm

E.-

Japanese Decorative Style. Cleveland Museum of Art, 1961

History of Far Eastern Art. Harrv N. Abr.ims. 10d4

Morse, Edward S

Bownas, Geoffrey, and Anthony Thwaite, transls The Penguin Book of Japanese Verse,
Penguin Books, 1964
Chikamatsu Monzaemon. Major Plays. Transl by Donald Keene Columbia University

Japanese

Homes and

Their Surroundings.* Dover Publications,

Robertson, 1928,
Sei

Shonagon, The Pillow Book. Transl bv Arthur Waley London,

Allen

& Unwin,

1957.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF QUOTATIONS
Page 13 from Sources of Japanese Tradition, vol 1. comp by Ryusaku Tsunoda et al, Columbia University Press, 1964, pp. 4-5, Pages 36-37, 37-38. 38: from The Pillow Book of
Sei Shonagon. transl, by Arthur Waley. George Allen and Unwin, 1928, pp. 118-119, 126127, 133-135. Page 39 from The Tale of Genji, by Lady Murasaki, transl, by Arthur

Waley, The Modern Library, 19o0. p. 79. Page 53 adapted from A History of the Japanese
People, by Frank Brinkley. Encyclopaedia Britannica Corp., 1915, p 255 Page 57: from
Japan, a Short Cultural History, by G. B, Sansom, rev, ed,, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962,
Reischp. 295, Page 58 from Translations from Early Japanese Literature, by Edwin O
auer and Joseph K Vamagiwa, Harvard University Press. 1964, p 408 Pages 76-77: from

The Ten Foot Square Hut and Tales of the Heike, transl. by A L Sadler. Angus &, RobPage 84 from Zen and Japanese Culture, by Daisetz T.
Suzuki, Pantheon Books. 1959, p, 145 Page 101 from The Onin War. by H. Paul Varley. Coertson. 1928, pp. 54, 138, 154,

lumbia University Press. 1967.

p.

141

Pages 116, 120. 120-121, 121

(col,

1),

121

(col.

2,

bottom). 121-122, 123, 140. 142-143: from They Came to Japan, ed by Michael Cooper, S. J.,
University of California Press. 1965. pp. 6-7, 41-43, 45, 55-56. 94, 99, 103. 193, 201, 256257. Pages 117, 118, 119, 121 {col. 2. top), 122, 122-123, 123-124. 139: from The Christian
Century in Japan, by C, R, Boxer, University of California Press, 1967, pp. 37. 40. 51-55,
58, 138,

Page 146 from G,

B.

Sansom, op.

cit..

p. 410.

ART INFORMATION AND PICTURE CREDITS

The sources

for

the illustrations in

book are

this

set

by semicolons, from top

forth

below. Descriptive notes on the works of art are included.

Credits for pictures positioned from left to right are separated

to

bottom by dashes. Photographers'

names which follow a descriptive note appear in parentheses.

Abbreviations include "c." for century and "ca." for circa.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Pau73Armor sleeve, embossed iron over gilded and enameled leather, black
lacquered chain mail on brocaded cloth, 13th c, Kasuga Shrine. Nara (T Tanuma),

COVER The samurai Kumagai Naozane. detail from six-part painted screen by Yuselsu
Kaiho, 1650-1670. Sogoro Yabumoto. Osaka (T Tanuma) 8-P-Map bv Ed Young

iron with gilded leather-lined turnbacks, ca. 1750.

1: 10 Sword guard with crab design, school of Owari openwork, iron, 16th c,
Tokyo National Museum (Benrido) IZ^Haniwa figures: head of a woman, from Yanagimoto. Tenri, Nara Pref.. fired clay, Kofun Period. Matsubara Collection. Tokyo (M,
Sakamoto), male dancer, from Konan, Saitama Pref fired clay. 7th c Tokyo National Muse-

CHAPTER 4: 74 Yakushi Buddha, bronze, 10th c, Horyuji Temple. Nara (Norman Snyder). 79
Tameshigiri (testing of sword blades) of the Yamada School, from Henri L, )oly and
Inada Hogitaro, The Sword and the Same, Charles E- Tuttle, New York, 1963 82Zen painting, bv Sengai (1750-1837). Indian ink, Idemitsu Art Museum. Tokvo 85 Fosco Maraini 86
Yukio Futagawa 87 Hiroshi Hamaya from Magnum SS-S"^- Brian Brake from Rapho
Guillumette 90 Ken Domon 91 Haruzo Ohashi Ken Domon. 92-93 Brian Brake from
Rapho Guillumette 94-95 Haruzo Ohashi.

CHAPTER

um {M

Sakamoto); monkey, from Tamatsukuri, Ibaragi Prefecture, fired clay, 7th c

Collection. Tokyo (M Sakamoto) 17 Sketch of Cigaku dance mask, ink on
wood, 7th c, Horyuji Temple. Nara (M. Sakamoto). 19 Geomancer s diagram, from Bruno
Taut. Houses and People of ]apan. Sanseido Co.. Ltd Tokyo, 1958 21 Brian Brake from
Rapho Guillumette 22 \ oichi Midonkawa 23 Brian Brake from Rapho Cuillumette 24
Norman Snyder 25 Lynn Millar from Rapho Guillumette 26-27 Brian Brake from
,

Nakazawa

lus Leeser).

Rapho Guillumette, 28-29 Hiroshi Hamaya

2: 30 Page of calligraphy, from the Collected Poems of Ise (Ise-shu), ink on orearly 12th c
Philadelphia Museum of Art (Robert Crandall), 33 The
guardian king Zochoten, Japanese cypress covered with dry lacquer and foil, 1124. Chusonji Temple. Hiraizumi, Iwate Pref (Kazumi Yahagi) 37 Emperor's livmg quarters in
Fujiwara mansion Higashi Sanjo-den, from the Kiiiju Zatsuyo-sho, Kadokawa Publishing

CHAPTER

namented paper,

40 Muroji Temple plan, woodblock print, late Tokugawa period. Bijutsu-Shuppan.

Tokyo. 43-53 Scenes from the illustrated scroll Genji Monogatari (Tate of Genji). attributed to Fujiwara Takayoshi, watercolor on rice paper, 12th c, Tokugawa Reimei-kai
Foundation, Tokyo.
Co.

CHAPTER

3:

54 The samurai Taira Atsumon, detail from six-part painted screen by YuYabumoto, Osaka (T Tanuma) 56 Feudal estate of the

5; 96 Waterfall scene, detail from six-part painted screen of the Four Seasons by
Kano Motonobu. early 16th c. Freer Gallery of Art (Ray Schwartz), 99- Arrangement of tatami mats, from Edward S Morse, Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings, Ticknor and
Company. 188o 102 Utensils of the tea ceremony, detail, satin brocade, 19th c. The Metropolitan Museum of Art 107 Take)i iwamiva. 108 Yukio Futagawa Takejj Iwamiva 109
Yukio Futagawa, 110 Yukio Futagawa Takeji Iwamiya. Ill Yukio Futagawa Takeji
Iwamiya. 112 Takeji Iwamiya. 113 Takeji Iwamiya Yukio Futagawa

CHAPTER

114 Rice-planting ceremony of ta-ue, detail from eight-part painted screen,

Tokyo National Museum. 118 Portuguese carrack, detail from Southern Bar(Nambam-byoyu) by Kano Naizen, color on gold paper, early 17th c, Kobe
Municipal Art Museum (T Tanuma). 122-123 Carpentry drawings by Teiji Itoh. Institute
of Japanese Architecture, Tokyo 125-135 Scenes from the illustrated scroll Sanjuniban
Shokunin Uta-awase E-maki, mineral paint on rice paper. 16th c. National Museum,
Kyoto, courtesy of Shizuhiko Kosetsu, Osaka (T Tanuma),

CHAPTER
late

b-

16th c.

barian Screen

setsu Kaiho, 1650-1670, Sogoro

Nakajo family, color on paper. 1292, Nakajo Town Office, Niigata Pref (Chuo Koronsha) 58
Portrait sculpture of Minamoto Yoritomo, polychromed wood, 13th c
Tokyo National
Museum (Kodansha International) 63 Map by Rafael D Palacios 65-73 Illustrations
from the Tankt Yoryaku (horseman's armor-wearing manual), by Masahiro Mura, printed
on rice paper, 1837 rev. ed.. The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Charles Phillips) d7 De-

CHAPTER?; 136 Portrait sketch of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, by Kano Sanraku. charcoal paint
on strips of paper, late 16th c, Itsuo Art Museum, Osaka (T, Tanuma). 141 Portrait of
Ryokei. ca. 1570, Stanford University Press. 142-143 Map by Rafael D. Palacios. 147-159

Tokyo National Museum (T Tanuma)

69 Detail of armor lacing and lamellae, made by Isagaru Miochin Ki Muneyuki, iron lamellae coated with lacquer and laced with green silk, ca, 1750, The Metropolitan Museum
of Art (Paulus Leeser)- 71 Helmet, made by Isagaru Miochin Ki Muneyuki. lacquered

CHAPTER

tail

of Yoroj-Ziifflture (armor robe), brocade, 14th c

Munekazu

Inoue.

160 Jesuit and Franciscan priests, detail from Southern Barbarian Screen (Nambam-byoyu) by Kano Naizen. color on gold paper, early 17th c, Kobe Municipal Art
Museum (T Tanuma) 163 Hideyoshi fan, Indian ink, gold and red color on paper, late
16th c, Kinta Muto (Chuokoronsha). 166 Kosaku Ito. 169-181 Norman Snyder.
8;

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For help given in the preparation of this book, the editors are particularly indebted to Marius B. Jansen, Professor. Department of History, Princeton University, Princeton. New
Jersey The editors are also grateful to Shujiro Shimada, Professor, Department of Art and
Archaeology, Princeton University; Carl Sesar, Instructor. Department of Asian Languages
and Literature, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut. John Max Rosenheld. As-

Professor of Fine Arts. Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University. Cambridge,

Massachusetts; Walter W, Ristow, Associate Chief, Geography and Map Division, and Andrew Y. Kuroda, Orientalia Division, The Library of Congress, Washington. D C Soshin
S, Hayasaki. Tea Ceremony Society of Urasenke, New York City; Gordon Washburn, Director. Asia House Gallery. New York City; Cyril S Smith, Professor. Metallurgy and
Materials Science Department. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Cambridge. Mas-

sociate

Randolph Castile, Educational Director. Japan Society. New York City,

Harold P Stern, Assistant Director, and Ray Schwartz, Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. D C
Helmut Nickel, Curator. Arms and Armor, The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York City; Ludwig Glaezer, Ass'ociate Curator, Architecture and Design. The Museum of Modern Art. New York City, Reiko Uyeshima and Hirotake
Suzuki, New York City. Ken Harada, Grand Master of Ceremonies, Toshio Tsuji and Sueyoshi Abe. Board of Ceremonies, Imperial Household. Tokyo; Nagatake Asano, Director, Jo
Okada, Chief Curator, Hisatoyo Ishida, Head of Research, Kiyoshi Imanaga, Sadao Kicuchi, and Junji Nakajima. Tokyo National Museum; Kairchiro Nezu, Director, and Hisaw
Sugahara, Associate Director. Nezu Art Museum, Tokyo; Yoshinobu Tokugawa, Director,
and Masana Kamimura, Assistant. Tokugawa Reimeikai Foundation, Tokyo, J. Edward Kidder jr
Professor of Art and Archeology, International Christian University, Tokyo;
Kanichiro Kubota, Director, Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai. Tokyo. Kyotaro Nishikawa, Curator, National Commission for Protection of Cultural Properties. Tokyo. Atsushi Oshita.
sachusetts.

Editor in Chief, Bijutsu

Piovesana. S

J..

Masao Tsuchida, S
S

Shuppan-Sha. Tokyo, Yoshitomo Okamoto, Tokyo; Father Gino

Director of the Board of Regents, Takanao Nakada, Dean, and Father

J

Department

of

Japanese Literature, Father Fernando

Gutierrez,

Assistant Professor of Art History, and Father Arcadio Schwade, S J

Assistant ProTokyo; Ruy G de Brito E Cunha, Second Secretary,
,

fessor of History. Sophia University,

Portuguese Embassy, Tokyo; Teiji Itoh. Institute of Japanese Architecture, Tokyo. Keizo
Saji. Director, Suntory Museum of A't, Tokyo. Shinkichi Osaki. Curator, and Nobuo Shi-

Deputy Curator. Okura Shuko-Kan Museum. Tokyo. Kanamaro Kaneko, Chuo

Koron, Tokyo, Sazo Idemitsu, Director, Idemitsu Art Museum, Tokyo; Ataru Kobayashi,
Tokyo, Charles E Tuttle, Tokyo; Kikutaro Saito. Tokyo; Hiroshi Doi. Director, Executive
Offices, Shosoin. Nara. Osamu Kurata, Director, and Shoichi Uehara, Curator. Nara National Museum. Nara, Saneharu Sanjo, Chief Priest, and Suketada Chidon, Priest, Kasuga
Shrine, Nara, Zenryu Tsukamoto, Director, Jiro Umezu. Chief of Research, and Motoo Yoshimura. Curator of Applied Arts, Kyoto National Museum, Kyoto, Ruth Fuller Sasaki. Ryosen-An. Daitoku|i, Kyoto, Soshitsu Sen, Tea Master, and Soshin S Havasaki, Ura-Senke,
bata.

Kyoto.
Ernest Salow, Kyoto, Kazuo Shibata, General Affairs Section, Shiga Prefecture
Government. Shizuo Sudo. Director, and Shoun Ishimrau. Biwa-Ko Bunkakan, Otsu; RyoiOkamoto. Director, and Shingo Akiyama. Researcher, Osaka Castle, Osaka; Yoshiro
Kitamura. Director, Namban Culture Center, Osaka; Goroku Kumazawa, Director, Tokugawa Art Museum. Nagoya; Yasuo Orimo. Director, Kobe Municipal Art Museum of
Namban, Rihei Okada. Director, and Kokichi Ono, Curator, Itsuo Art Museum, Ryosaku
Murata, Director, Kanagawa Prefectural Museum, Yokohama; Nishikawa Takeshi, Director
of Administration, Himeji Castle, Himeji; Marguerite Deneck, Assistant Curator, Musee
Guimet. Paris. Roger Goepper, Museum Fur Ostasiatische Kunst, Cologne; B- W. Robinson. Victoria and Albert Museum. London
1i

chi

187

INDEX
"

This symbol in front of a page

number

indicates an illustration of the subject

lapanese proper names are given in their Japanese order, that

MAPS

IN THIS

is,

VOLUME

family

name

mentioned

first.

144; emergence of, 56-57; samurai

vassals, 57. 59. ol, *65-73, static system
of

Tokugawa. 165-167

Finance.

Tokugawa

period. 167, 168

for decline of, 41-42, 55-56. as reflected

The Tale of Genji. "43-53: religion.
39-40, 80. social life. 33. 34, 35-40
Heian-kyo (later Kyoto), map 8, 20. 31in

Floating World, 168

Floor mats, *112, arrangements. "99

Flower-arranging, 84

Flower-viewing, 35, 95, 101

Food. 39, llo, 122. 129
Footwear, '110, *112

Formosa, Japanese colonization. lOo

Fortresses. See Castles
Franciscan missionaries, '160. 162. lo3-

Fruit,

decUne

63:

of, 42;

145

*28-29,

and, 139-140, 143; place:

Hidetada. See Tokugawa

Mo

146;

of, 34.

map

Jujitsu.

31. 32, 41

fiouse of, '37; Kiyohira. 33;

Hishaku

community

Dutch trading post

at,

lo3

at,

Lotus

68

ceremony dipper),

'91, '109

Hoganji monastery, Osaka, 141

Hojo family. 60-61, 64. 75, 104.146

Ainu people

map

of.

missionaries on,

9, 11.

map

Honshu,

map
map 63;
map

island of,

city sites on.

map

63;

143

9. 11.

31, capital

Christian
142-143, daimyo

missionaries on,

94

wealth, lOo. expansion of early Japanese

also

Buddha

Genghis Khan, ol
Genji, The Tate of, Murasaki 5hikibu, 3839. 40. 43. scrolls.

'43-53

expansion on, 41,

57; growth of provincial independence,
late Heian Age, 41
Horyu|i monastery. lo. ceiling sketch at.
state to. 14, frontier

'17

Genshin (Buddhist monk), 80-81

Geography of Japan, 11
Geomancy, 19. "compass," *19

Housing: feudal

map

Muromachi

rules.

period, P7-98, 100,

Retired Emperor." 42, 59,

Taika Reform. 17-19, 41; Tokugawa

shogunate, 165-167
Great Hall of State. Heian-kyo. 35
Gyogi (Buddhist monk), 17

Khubilai Khan,
Kicho (piece of furniture), 36. 37
Kimono, 107
Kivomori. See Taira family
Koan, in Zen Buddhism, 83
Koken, Empress, 20
Koku (barter unit of rice). 167

map

8,

map

Tokugawa family
map 8, map 142. Mongol

levasu See
Iki,

island of,

seizure of. bl, pirate base. 99

Imagawa (daimyo).
Immigration

138, 139

to Japan,

Mongoloid, 13

Imperial Court: Ashikaga period. 103-104,

of feudal age. 55; Heian, 34. 35. 44;

ranks system, 18,

Tokugawa

sites of.

map

63;

period, 166

Imperial Family 18, continuity of, 13, 14.

of,

Kumaso

map

143; civil war of

58; gardens of. '85-93:

1150 in,
Hideyoshi in, 143, Muromachi quarter.
97, 100; occupation by Nobunaga, 139142; Onin War and destruction, 103.
peasant revolt of 1441, 100, rejected as

59 See also Emperor

31,32.35, 141; at Nara. 20

Iname See Soga family
India
in,

Buddhism
lOo, 115,

in, lo,

map

Kyushu, island

80, 83: Portuguese

142, trade route to

map 142
map 142

Inland Sea,
of

1185

map

in,

8. '22. 31

naval battle

of,

map

8, 11.

map

63.

beginnings of lapanese state on, 14;

community of, 119, 120. map

daimyo wealth, 106. Dutch traders

independence, late Heian Age. 41

Portuguese trading, 116, 120, map 142;
1274 Mongol invasion of, 61-62; 1281
Mongol invasion of, 62-63

59; piracy, 42, 62

Nobunaga. 141
Shinto shrine. 17

Islands: main,

23

map

8-9. 11,

number

Mino

(straw raincape), '113

Jesuit

t's

Hideyoshi and, 145-14o;

Franciscan, 162.

Nobunaga

and, 139-140. 143. places of activity of.

map

142-143

Mizuhiki (decorative knot), "111

Momoyama period of arts, 144-145

Mon

(family crests), 'lo6

Monasteries, Buddhist, 15, 19, 20, 31, '40,

by Nobunaga,
Zen gardens. '92-93.

42, 80; destruction of.

140-141, Zen, 98;

95

Money economy, emergence

of,

167

Mongoloid immigration, 13
Mongols: expansionism, 13th Century,

61,

62; invasion of japan in 1274, 61-62,

invasion of Japan in 1281, 62-63, rule

over China, 61, 62, o4. 98

Murasaki Shikibu
Muro. Mt.. "40

Muromachi

(writer),

38-39

period, 97-106; arts. '96, 97.

100-101. 102-103; Europeans in Japan.

115-124; independent principalities. 97.

100. 104. 105, 124, piracy, 97, 90, 105106, 116; social changes, 104-105, trade.

Land tenure: feudal grants,

of, 22-

Minamoto shogunate. 59-61

Ming Dynasty. China, 98, 105-106,

98-100, 106. 115-110: warfare and

62-63

8, 23;

rise

64. 75, 76, 97

Muramasa (swordsmith), 78

1d3. growth of provincial

Iron-clad ships of

map

Masa-ko, 60;

56-58. 59: Yoritomo. *58. 59-60.

142;

Mongoloid peoples, 13; by

Mongols, in 1274, 61-62, by Mongols,
in 1281.

of, 42.

Monks- See Clergy

Invasions:

Ise,

family: feud with Taira family,

55, 57, 58-59. 65, 76;

Christian
in.

Hokke

Warfare

146, 162-164,

shogunate headquarters by Yoritomo, 60,

97; rejected as shogunate headquarters
by leyasu, 165-166. under Taira control.
59

14, 32,

"82. 83, 85,

"160. 163-164; expulsion decrees, 145,

15. 17. 41

marriages with daughters of ruling clans,

Imperial Palaces: at Heian-kyo (Kyoto),

Zen Buddhism.

93. 101
Merchants, 75-76. 99. 100; of Tokugawa
period, 167-168, 169
Mexia, Lourenco, 123

Missionaries, Christian, 115, 116-124,

97-98. 100. 139; Christian

in.

Meditation.

70, "71

161

142;

tribe. 41

missionaries

governing families, 14, 32, 59

Masa-ko See Minamoto family
Masamune (swordsmith). 78
Masks: No drama, 103; samurai,
Matsunaga (daimyo), 123. 124

Minamoto

Kushi (combs), '111

Kyoto (formerly Heian-kyo). map 8. 20.
33, 55. map 63, 75; Ashikaga shogunate
in, 64,

invasion of China, 161

Marriage. 105, political use of, by

(Lotus) sect, 82; samurai. 57. 77. See

6l

map

106

Manchu

also

142; furthers spread

8, 11,

Malacca. Portuguese in. map 142

Malacca Strait, Japanese trade, 106
Malaysia, Japanese trade and colonization,

Militarism. 11, 12, 55-56, 77; of

descent from sun-goddess. 13-14, 17, 32;

Ink painting, 86, 102-103

Heian Age, 31-42; architecture, 35-36.

calligraphy, *30, 36: Chinese influences.

Strait,

map

width of, 11
Kotoku. Emperor,

106, Portuguese trade, 115.

Hair fashions, 35, 111

Hakata, map 8; Christian community at,
map 142
Hakozaki Bay. Mongol invasions at, 61,
62
Hashi (chopsticks), '108, 122

of,

of

Inhabitants, prehistoric. 12-13

(war-god). 20, 60. 77

143

invasions across, 13. 61, 62; piracy, 99,

Japan,

Hachiman

map

Buddhism to Japan. 14-15; Japanese

invasions of (15Q2, 1597). 161-162,
'Io3; kingdom of Paikche in, 14-15.

palaces, 100. 101. 123

Indonesia: Japanese trade and colonization,

63, 64, 75,

61. 62, 64

Korea

Kamakura

map

60, 76-79
Kamikaze. 63
Kammu. Emperor. 20. 31
Karia, syllabic system of writing, 34
Kanazawa. map 143
Karma, concept of, 80
Kasa (parasol). *113
Kegon, waterfall at. "25

Mongol invasion

and

62,

o0-64, 75-84; government,

eO-ol. 64; literature of. 76-77; religious

Korea,

Hurricanes, 11

Age. 60-61, 64, Minamoto shogunate,

58, 59-61. minimal role of emperor in,

Muromachi

geomantic

Huns, 13

feudalism, 55-56; Heian Age. 31,

103-105; by

'99;

56; floor

"19; of Heian aristocracy. 3o. '37;

Goa, Portuguese trading post at, 115, map

142
Gods, Shinto: Amaterasu (sun -goddess).
13 14. 17, Hachiman. 20; Sanno. 140
Golden Hall, Horyuji monastery, 16,
ceiling sketch at, "17
Golden Pavilion, Kyoto, 100
Government Archaic period, 14, Ashikaga
shogunate, 64, 97-98. 100, 103-105;
Bakufu system of, 60, 64, Chinese

32. 41-42; of Hideyoshi, 144.

manor houses,

mat arrangements,

'110
143
Daigo, Emperor. 64
Sanjo, Emperor. 42
Shirakawa, Emperor. 59
Toba, Emperor, 81
Tsuchimikado, Emperor, 104
(clogs).

influences, 17-18; failure of central,

castles. 123-124, 145,

'154-155; feudal

center of

awakening during, 79-84, warriors

101. Zen-inspired. 84. '85-89, *92-93.

Gautama Buddha, 15-16 See

82

Macao, Portuguese trading post, map 142

Mahavastu (Buddhist scripture), 80

map 142

97; Christian missionaries in,

Hokke sect, 82
Honen (Buddhist monk), 81-82
Gardens. 12; of aristocrats. 36. 94-95.
124; Heian Age, 36, teahouse, *90-91.

", as

government, 60-01,

Kamakura Age.

Christian

of, 12.

sect,

also

Kabuki.168. "109-181
Kagoshima, map 8, llo.

Kamakura. map

Hokkaido, island

40, 76;

Lotus Sutra, 82

8; Christian

(tea

Heian Age. 34. 36-39,

Kamakura war tales, 76-77 See

Drama; Novels, Poetry

center on, 140

Higashi (sweets). "108

map

scholars. 15, 33

Literature

sect, 81

Hiei, Mt.. 31; destruction of religious

142.

140-

Literacy. 168

emperor), 14

Jojuen garden, '94-95

map

in late feudal age. 139,

Liefde. the, 163

first

Ji-samurai, 100. 104

family

daimyo

141, 142, 144, 166; and feudalism. 5657.64

Landscape. 11. "21-29
Language, 12-13, 34, 124; Chinese writing
system adapted to, 34; use of Chinese

by

142-143

Hideyoshi. See Toyotomi family

Hiroshima,

Nara period, 20

12, 14.

Nobunaga

Jimmu Tenno (half-legendary

of activity of.

map

Furniture, Heian, 36 See also Screens

rise of

Franciscans. 1d2; Hideyoshi and, 145-

population

Hirado,

control of, 42. 55. 56. 57: Heian Age,

Go
Go
Go
Go
Go

decrees, 145-146, 162, 164; us.

159

map 63
map 9.
Fujiwara family. 15, 17, 59; decline of

Gifu,

lo2, 163; vs. Dutch, 163, expulsion

life in, 35-40;

See also Kyoto
Heike. The Tales of the, 76
Helmet, samurai, *71
Hibachi, '132

116

Fuji, Mt.,

Geta

Jesuit missionaries. 115, 116-124. '160,

descriptions of social

Higashiyama pieces (art collection), 102

Himeji. 148. White Heron castle at, "147-

164
Frois, Luis, 139-140. 142,

map

32. 33-34. 35.

suppressed

Java, Japanese trade, lOb

daimyo,

aristocracv. 18, 32, 41-42;

64, 100. 104. 105. 106, 124:

42. literature, 34, 36-39, 40, 76; reasons

Firearms. 106. 138-139, 140-141;

prohibition of. 168

Landed

33; fashions, 35. government, 31, 32, 41-

Ib4-lb5, land grants, 60. 61, 64; return

to rigid patterns of. under Hideyoshi,

60, 61, 64;

loss of taxable state land, late

Age, 41-42; Taika Reform,

Heian

17, 18, 41

revolts. 100. 103, 105, 118-119

Music, 123, 168: Kabuki, 170, No drama,
103
Mutsu, 146
Mythology, of Imperial Family, 13-14

189

trade of, 115-116,

U7, 119-120, map

142, 143, 146. 164; in Japan, 106, 115,

Nagaoka,

map o3
map 8, 143;

Nagasaki,

community

at,

120,

Christian

map

Jesuit missionaries

Prehistoric inhabitants of Japan. 12-13

142, 164,

Christian peasant revolt of lo37, lo5;

execution of Christians

lo2; harbor,

in.

and trade, '118, 120, map 142. 163

Nagashino, Battle of (1575), 140-141
Nagoya, map 8, 137; Christian
missionaries at. map 143
Nara. map S; Buddhist center, 20. 31;
Buddhist pagoda at, *2t>. first capital. 19>nap 63, Matsunaga fortress

20,

at,

123-

See Clergy
Primogeniture. Japanese form
Priests-

Muromachi

Principalities.

104

of,

Seii-taisho^un

period. 97. 100,

Protestantism, comparison to Buddhist

5o; feudal age

growth

government

in. 42.

in, 60,

of independence, late

55-

64,

Muromachi

26

Heian Age,

124; Japanese, 163; prolonged

Nichiren (Buddhist monk), 82

No drama, 103, 1d8
Nobunaga See Oda family
Nonviolence, Buddhist doctrine

backwardness

of,

31-32; revolts, 15th

Century, 100
Provincial barons, 18, 19, 41-42; and

feudalism, 56-57, 64. See also

of, 32, 58,

Tokugawa

Pure Land sect. 80-81

period, 168

Pyongyang, Japanese occupation

of,

162

R
Ranks, Imperial Court, 18
Reformationist sects, comparison to
Buddhist Amidism, 81
Reincarnation, concept of, 16, 39, 80, 83
Religion: Chinese influences, 15-16, 17;

family. 137, family crest. 'Ibo.

Nobunaga, 137-138, 139-143,

144, 164,

166

Odawara

castle,

146

and stewards of
Taika Reform,

Officials: constables

Minamoto

119. 120.

103, 124

map 8, 100; Christian missionaries

map 143; Hoganji monastery at,

Osaka,
at.

141

to

map

Christianity. 116-117.

Castle. 145

79-84,

nature-worship, 13, 16, 26; reconciliation

of Buddhism with Shinto, 16-17;

Buddhism;
Zen Buddhism

superstitions. 39-40, See also

base, 137-

138

performed by emperors,
planting, *114

35; rice

Pagoda. Buddhist,

at

of.

Palace of Flowers, Kyoto, 100

map

Nagasaki, lo5; Kamakura Age. 75, land

tenure and taxation. Taika Reform. 17-

laws of Hideyoshi,
period,

167. revolts of 15th Century, 100

Perfume blending, art of, 12, 34
Perry.

Christian missionaries

8.

in,

145,

at,

143, trade center. 100, 141,

66, *67-73, 77-79, 172, code of honor,

comparison with

European medieval knight.

Commodore Matthew. lo8

map 142; Japanese trade and

colonization, 106, 146; Spaniards

14d. 1o2

map

142
Sakamoto, destruction of. 140
Samurai, 11, *54, 56. 57. 59, o5-73, 76,
77. armor and weapons of. "54, 57. *65,
57, 61. 65, 72, 75, 77;

Philippines,

57, 65, 68;

estate plan, 56, Francis Xavier on, 120;

supremacy, 105, 138.

of prestige and privileges,

loss of fighting

140-141

loss

Tokugawa

period, 167;

meaning

of term,

Pillow Book. Sei Shonagon, 36

57; purchases of rank, 168; in repulsion

Pimiko, Queen, 13

of

Mongol

invasions, 61-62, 63; training

105.

compared with Viking raids,

Muromachi period, 97, 99. 105-

Samurai-dokoro, 60

106.

Wako, 105-IOd. 116

Sanno (Shinto

Piracy. 42, 62,

Poetry, 125-135; contests. 35, 125; Heian,

34,36; Zen, 84

Polygamy,

3o, 3, 44
Population figures Edo (1700), 167, Heian
Age. 32; Heian-kyo, 34, loth Century.
143
Ports. 100, 119-120

Portuguese: exploration. lOo; Far Eastern

190

Sadako, Empress, 36
Saihoji garden, Kyoto, 88-89
St- Francis Xavier See Xavier
Sakai,

Parasol, *113

Peasants: Christian, 1637 revolt at

Tokugawa

Teahouse garden, *90-oi, 101

Technology: archaic period, 13, carpentry,
'122-123; Chinese influence, 19; lack of
progress. Closed Century. lo5, 168,
steelmaking. for swords, 78- See also
Crafts

Temples: Buddhist, 16, 20. 31, 80;

Buddhist pagoda, '2o; Shinto shrines,
26;

of, 6o.

72
god), 140

Zen Buddhist.

84. 98;

Zen gardens,

85, 95

Shirakawa, Emperor, 42
Shizuoka. map 143

Textiles: brocades, '67, *102; worker. '126

Shogunate Ashikaga, &4. 97-106. 124. 139,

141-142; Minamoto, 59-61; Tokugawa,

106
Theater: Kabuki, 168. '169-181,

Thailand, Japanese trade and colonization,

Shoi'i (screen).

"107

Tokugawa

Society feudal, 56-57. Heian, 31, 33. 34,

35-40; immobility, compared to Chinese

mobility, 18, importance of birth and
period, 168:

Muromachi

164, 165-166

Tokugawa shogunate,

lo2-lo8, and
Europeans, 1&2-165. society and
government, 165-167; urban culture,
167-168
Tokyo. See Edo

Tomoe

return to rigid feudal pattern, under

Tone

of.

(lady warrior). 77

map 63
Tools and utensils, 107. '108-113. eating,
River,

lOS, 122, tea ceremony, '102. '109, 122-

period, 100-167. 169. 170;

123.132 See

class, as reflected in poetry,

Southeast Asia; Japanese colonization and

trade in, 106: Portuguese trade, map
142
Spaniards, in the Far East, 145, 146, 162.
164 See also Franciscan missionaries
Steelmaking, for swords. 78
Stewards, feudal age, 60

Hidetada, 164. 165; lemitsu,

165; leyasu, 137, 138, 143-144. 146, 162-

period, changes during, 100. 104-105;

Hideyoshi, 144, static system

family, 148, 155. 165; family

crest, '166,

ink painting on. So

Silver Pavilion, Kyoto. 102, 103; garden,
'86

Tokugawa

No

drama. 103. 168

Thirty Years' War, Europe, 1d5

162-168

South China Sea, map 142

102-103; scrolls, *125-135; The Tale of

Genii scrolls. '43-53, Zen. 84, 86

Towns See

flistt

Toyotomi family: family

Trade with China. 33. 61, 76, 98-100.

106, 115-116. 143; Dutch and English,
163, 164, lt>5; European, prohibition of,
165; internal commerce and banking,
Tokugawa period, lo7. 168, Japanese

Kamakura period. 61.

Muromachi period. 97, 98-100.

overseas, 97. lOo,

75-76;

106; Portuguese. 115-116, 117. '118,

map

119-120,

142, 143; products, 76, 99

Sukerokti. Kabuki play, 169, '170-181

Trees, 116. '128

Sumatra, Portuguese in. map 142

Stimt-e, 8{j See also Ink painting
Sun-goddess, descent of Imperial Family
from, 13-14, 17, 32
Superstitions. '19,39-40

Tsushima, island

of,

18

Swordmaking.

75, 78
Swords, 77; cuts. '79; of samurai, '54,
57, 65, 70, 77-79; use of, Zen Buddhist

rationalization, 84

crest, *166;

Hideyoshi, '136. 137. 143-146. 148, 161162, Io3, 164

Stone Age people, 12

Sustenance households, system

Sutras, 16. 82
Suzuki. D-T, 84
Sword guard, *10

Weapons

Cities

Mongol
Typhoons,

of,

map

8,

map

142;

seizure of. 61; pirate base, 99

II, 24,

o3

U
Umako. See Soga family
Unification of Japan, 146

Ura-Senke. teahouse and garden

at,

91
Utensils, See Tools

and

utensils

Saracens, steelmaking of, 78

Scholarship, 98; Chinese influence on, 15,

34,98
Schools. 98
Science, lack of interest

in, 39,

164
Screens; decoration, '107, *114: folding,
*127; sliding. '107, trade objects, 76,

'132

Teahouse, '91, 101. 102, 122

15

Kamukura war tales. 76; Momoyama

period. 145; Muromachi period, *96,

144; repression of.

Shinto, 15, lo, 20, 2d. 140; and Buddhism.

16-17; shrines, 26. See also Gods.

Merchants; Peasants; Samurai

Soga family, 14. 15, 32; Iname, 15; Umako,

14-15

Painting, *54. '136, ink. So. 102-103;

18. 41; repressive

map
on, map

125, '126-135. See also Aristocracy;

Nara, '26

"0, 101-102, 122, 168.

utensils. '102. 107, '109, 122-123,

142, daimyo wealth, 106

Shimabara Peninsula, rnap 142
Shinran (Buddhist priest). 81. 82

working

Rodrigues, Joao, 121

Ryoanji Temple garden, Kyoto, "85

period, l67

Tea ceremonv,

rank. 16, 18, 117; limited mobility.

growing, 13, 19; planting ceremony,

114
Rituals, sacred:

Paikche. Korean kingdom

Sesshu (Zen monk-painter). 103

Shikimi tree, *128
Shikoku, island of, map 8, 11, 31,

Tokugawa

Rice, 129; as barter currency, 167;

Owari province, Nobunaga 's

100, 101; Taika Reform. 17, 41;

Tokugawa

Serfs, 75

Silk,

Renaissance Europe, 164

Retired Emperor, rule by, 42, 59. 61

Otokodate. l&P. 172

"Outside Lords." 16c>

Seoul. Japanese occupation of,

Shotoku. Prince, 15

142, 143. 162. lo4;

Christianity, Shinto.

Osaka

Taxation: under Hideyoshi. 144; lack of,

early feudal age. 64; Muromachi period,

Portuguese merchantmen,
106,117, '118

Kamakura Age awakening.

Onin War,

'99

War

pirates, 105;

conversions

rule, 60;

18

See Country at

Shinto
Shipping: iron-clads of Nobunaga, 141;

Occupations, 125. *126-135

Oda

Jidai.

Sensit (fan), '110

o3. lo2; Christian missionaries

Daimyo

Public works, 17, 60

Novels, Heian, 34, 38-39, 43-53;

Tanegashima, island of, map 8, map 142;

Portuguese in, 106. 138
T ang Dynasty. China, 15. 17, 19, 33
Tatami (floor mats), '112; arrangements,

162

period, 97, 100, 104, 105,

Nembutsu. SI

84

60

Sekigahara, Battle of (1600). 162,

Sengoku

76;

39. 40. 43; scrolls, '43-53

Sen, Princess. 155

Sendai. map 143

Amidism, 81
Provinces, banditry and warfare

t>5,

Tale of Genii Encyclopedia, 38

Tales of the Heike. The, 76

166

41-42; independent realms of

16,

(title),

family, 55. 57, 58-59.

Tale of Genji, The. Murasaki Shikibu, 38-

104. 105.124

124

Nature-worship, 13,

Minamoto

Kiyomori, 59, rise of, 42, 56-57, 58-59

Takauji. See Ashikaga family

Sea of Japan, map 8. map 63,

map 143
Sea of Okhotsk, map 9
Sei Shonagon poet), 36-38

116, 117, 124, 153. 162, 165. See also

20,

99. use of. 36. '37

Sculpture. '12, *33. '58, *74

Table manners, 121-122

Taika Reform, 17-19, 41
Taira familv

fall of, 59,

Valignano. Alessandro, 120-121, 145

Vegetables, llo
60; feud with

Vietnam, Japanese colonization, lOo

'90-

Vikings, comparison of Japanese pirates

with. 105

Caspar, 119-120, 121

Vizcaino. Sebastian, 164
Volcanism. II, 28
Vilela,

Writing Japanese syllabic, 34; use of

Chinese system. 15. 33. 34. See also
Calligraphy

Yodo

River. 31,

map

63

Yoritomo See Minamoto family

Yoshiaki See Ashikaga family
Yoshimasa See .Ashikaga family
Yoshimitsu- See Ashikaga family

140-141, 168; of foot soldiers. 105. 138-

W
Wa

Nobunaga. 137-141; samurai, 57, 65-73;

samurai man-to-man tactics, 62, 105.
138; tactics of Age of the Country at
War. 105. 138. 139.140-141
Warrior class, 55. 57. 60. 76-79, and Zen
Buddhism. 83-84. See also Samurai
Weapons, *10. 77; firearms. 106. 138-139.

Xavier, Francis, 116-117, 118.

139, of samurai, ^54. 57, '65, 77-79,

swords. 70, 77-79
(early southwestern Japan). Chinese

reports of, 13

Wako
War

Women,

(pirates). 105-106,

tales.

Warfare

116
Kamakura, 76-77

Heian Age, 41-42, 55. love

Minamoto

us. Taira,

58-59;

of, 11, 12;

Muromachi

period. 100, 103, 105. 118-119. of

Zazeti (meditation), 83

Zen Buddhism.

82-84, 98. esthetics of. 84,

86, 101, 107; gardens. 84. "85-89, "92-

116, early standing of. 13; of

Heian aristocracy,

castle defense. 148, 150, 155,

157. early feudal age. 55-56, 76-77; late

120

White Heron castle, at Hime|i, '147-150

Winding water banquets. 36
3ti-38; as

warriors, 77; poets of

Kamakura

Heian Age,

104

Working class, "126-135

World War il, 63-64. 77, 82

and ink painting, 86; origin of

ceremonv in. 101 secular activities

93. 94;

34, 36-

39; as rulers, 13; subordination of, 13.

tea

Yamato
Yamato

court, 14-15
plain. 14. 19

Yayoi culture, 13
Yellow Sea. map 8

of clergy. 98, 99, temples and

monasteries. 84. 98; and violence by

sword. 84; Zen drawing, "82
Zori (slippers), "112

PRrNTED IN U 5 A

xzzx
191

-J

mm

*''v'*.'7't'sl