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OBSERVATIONS
z z ( x1 x1 ) ( x2 x 2 )
Z
X 1
x1
2
Z
In matrix form:
Z
X2
x2
Z A x AT
A = Z Z
x
1 2
X2 1 X 1 X 2
X 2X1 X 2
Z Z2
Matrix A:
Linear function, A = [c1 c2 cn]
Non-linear function,
Z 1
Z 1
x
x 2
1
Z 2
A = Z 2
x
x 2
1
........ .......
Z m Z m
x 2
x1
Z 1
x n
Z 2
x n
......
Z m
xn
Z
Z
X 1
X 2 ......
Xn
x1
x2
xn
2
Z
where
X 1X 2 0
S
n
Example
10.560m 0.012m
A
x1
120.370m 0.015m
x2
Z
2
Z X 1
x1
Z
X2
x2
120.370m 0.015m
10.560m 0.012m
x1
x2
Z A X AT
A 1 1
1
A
1
T
X2 1 X 1 X 2
2
X 2 X 1 X 2
2
0
0
.
012
=
2
0
0
.
015
2
4
3
.
7
x
10
Z Z
A straight line PT was measured in sections and the measured length with its
standard deviation are shown in the following table. In matrix form, compute the
standard deviations of the length PT.
Sections
Length
(m)
Standard deviation
(m)
PQ
157.694
0.018
QR
381.978
0.024
RS
182.124
0.018
ST
227.325
0.024
Z = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
Answer = 949.121m +/- 0.042m
Z = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
A(1x4)
1
Sigx(4x4)
0.000324
0
0
0
At(4x1)
1
1
1
1
Z A X AT
949.121
0
0.000576
0
0
0
0
0.000324
0
0
0
0
0.000576
Asigx(1x4)
0.000324 0.000576 0.000324 0.000576
ASigxAt(1x1)
0.0018
std dev
0.042
A R 2 (37.163) 2 4338.818m2
A
R
R
2
A
A
2R 2 (37.163) 233.502
R
(233.502)(0.021)2 4.904m2
A = pi()*R
A(1x1)
233.502
sigr(1x1)
0.000441
At(1x1)
233.502
Asigr(1x1)
0.102974
AsigrAt(1x1)
24.04473
std dev
4.904
H B H A AB
Answer = 130.930 +/- 0.019m
Hb = Ha + dH =
130.93
A(1x2)
1
At(2x1)
1
1
Asig(1x2)
0.000225 0.000144
AsigAt(1x1)
0.000369
std dev
0.019
sig(2x2)
0.000225
0
0 0.000144
L1
L2
a
154.338
136.729
80-50-37
L3
rho
189.206
206265.000
A(1x3)
0.701
0.593
+/-
80.84361
1.410987
(deg)
(rad)
110.111
At(3x1)
0.701
0.593
Asig(1x3)
0.002781
110.111
AsigAt(1x1)
0.003
0.063
0.063
15
sig(3x3)
0.003969
0
0
0.002353
m
m
(")
0
0
0.003969
0
0
5.28849E-09
5.82318E-07
std dev
0.058
A
F
D
B
E
C
Back
Stn.
Inst. Stn.
Fore
Stn.
A
B
C
D
B
C
D
E
C
D
E
F
Measured
angles
Standard
deviation
()
(0
)
89-17-22
4.2
109-27-05
5.1
283-33-52
5.3
117-35-19
4.5
Y
S
S 305.35m 0.07m
4 0 00 ' 0 0 01'
D
The slope distance (S) and vertical angle ( ) between points X and Y
were measured and their results are as shown;
i.
D sCos
ii.
The distance (d) and bearing (b) of a traverse line PQ are as follows:
d = 456.87m 0.02m
b = 23 35'26"09"
0
200.00m 0.05m
Answer:
Easting Q = 282.838 0.054
Northing Q = 618.689 0.054
RANDOM ERRORS
IN ANGLE AND DISTANCE
OBSERVATIONS
REDUCTION OF ERRORS
Errors in instrument leveling, reading and pointing can be reduced by
increasing the number of angle repetitions.
Errors in instrument and target setup can be reduced by increasing the sight
distances
READING ERRORS
Quality of the instruments optic
The smallest division of the circle
Operator abilities
POINTING ERRORS
Quality of the instruments telescope optic
Target size
Operator abilities to bisect cross-wire on a target
Weather condition
Pointing error ()
D3
D1
r
p
i
D2
r2 p2 t2 i2
D32 D12 D22 2D1D2Cos
p
t
er
ep
D12 D22
et
D1 D2
D3
D1 D2 2
ei
Example
An angle is measured four (4) times using a Total Station. The observer reading
error is1 and pointing error of 1.5. The observers centering error of the target
0.001m and centering error of instrument is 0.001m. The horizontal distance
from instrument to backsight target is 76.505m and foresight target 105.765m.
The measured angle is 650 37 12.
p
t
er
ep
D12 D22
et ( p)
D1 D2
D3
i
ei ( p)
D1D2 2
D3 D D 2D1D2Cos
2
2
1
2
2
r2 p2 t2 i2
(a b)
Target and instrument centring
ppm
D i2 t2 a 2 D *b2
Constant error (a)
Scalar error (b) in ppm 10 6
Instrument centring error
Exercise
D a D * b 0.006m
2
i
2
t