CHEMISTRY

FORM 4
CHAPTER 9 :
MANUFACTURED
SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY

NAME:
CLASS:
TEACHER:
SCHOOL:
CONTENT

Content Page
Introduction 3
9.1 Sulphuric acid
9.1.1 Properties of sulphuric acid 4
9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid 5
9.1.3 The industrial process in manufacture of sulphuric acid 9
9.1.4 Environmental pollution by sulphuric acid 12
9.2 Ammonia and its salt
9.2.1 Properties of ammonia 13
9.2.2 The uses of ammonia 16
9.2.3 The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia 17
9.3 Alloys
9.3.1 Physical properties of pure metals 18
9.3.2 Meaning and purpose of making alloys 20
9.4 Synthetic polymers
9.4.1 The meaning and types of polymers 21
9.4.2 Advantages of synthetic polymers 23
9.4.3 Environmental pollution caused by synthetic polymers 23
9.4.4 Methods to overcome the environmental pollution caused 23
by synthetic polymers
9.5 Glass and ceramics 24
9.6 Composite material 28
Conclusion 30
References 31

INTRODUCTION

All the objects that exist around us are made up of chemical substances.

These objects exist an element, compound or mixture. All these objects contribute

benefit to humankind. As time goes on, human has done many researches to ensure

all these chemical substances will be enough for the use of themselves.

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 Chapter 9 of Form 4 syllabus introduces the students with manufactured

substances in industry. This is important for the students to appreciate the

knowledge of chemistry that is still new for themselves. Personally, I think that

this chapter is an interesting chapter as it revealed the way of scientist produces

the material around me. It also gives me new knowledges of the uses of chemical

substances that I usually found in the laboratories.

I hope, by learning this chapter, I will be more interested in learning

chemistry as it will help me in the future. All the equations from this chapter make

me more understand of the previous chapters.

9.1 SULPHURIC ACID

9.1.1 Properties of sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is a strong mineral acid.

Figure 9.1
2. Its molecular formula is H2SO4.
A molecule of sulphuric
3. It is soluble in water. acid.

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4. Sulphuric acid is a non-volatile diprotic acid.

5. It is a highly corrosive, dense and oily liquid.

6. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous colourless liquid.

Viscous colourless liquid

Soluble in water Dense

Properties of sulphuric

Oily liquid
Non volatile

Diprotic acid
Highly corrosive

Figure 9.2 Properties of sulphuric aci

9.1.2 The uses of sulphuric acid

1) To manufacture fertilizers

There are many fertilizers that can be made of sulphuric acid. Some of them are:

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a) Calcium dihydrogen phosphate (superphosphate)

2 H2SO4 + Ca3(PO4) 2 → Ca(H2 PO4) 2 + 2CaSO4

sulphuric acid + tricalcium phosphate → calcium dihydrogen phosphate

b) Ammonium sulphate

H2SO4 +2NH3 → (NH4) 2SO4

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia → ammonium sulphate

c) Potassium sulphate

H2SO4 +2NH3 → (NH4) 2SO4

sulphuric acid + aqueous ammonia → ammonium sulphate

2) To manufacture detergents

Sulphuric acid reacts with hydrocarbon to produce sulphonic acid. Sulphonic acid is

then neutralized with sodium hydroxide to produce detergents. Examples of

hydrocarbon

3) To manufacture synthetic fibres

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Synthetic fibres are polymers ( long chain molecules). Rayon is an example of a

synthetic fibre that is produced from the action of sulphuric acid on cellulose.

4) To manufacture paint pigments

The white pigment in paint is usually barium sulphate, BaSO 4. The neutralization of

sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide produces barium sulphate.

5) As an electrolyte in lead-acid accumulators

6) To remove metal oxides from metal surfaces before electroplating

7) To manufacture pesticides

8) The uses of sulphuric acid in school laboratories are:

a. As a strong acid

b. As a drying or dehydrating agent

c. As an oxidizing agent

d. As a sulphonating agent

e. As a catalyst

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 Remove metal oxides Manufacture
from metal surfaces pesticides As an electrolyte in
before electroplating lead-acid accumulators

Manufacture Uses of sulphuric Manufacture paint

fertilizers pigments
acid

Manufacture Manufacture
detergents
Metal cleaning synthetic fibres
Synthetic
2%
fibres Dyes
9% 2%
As an As an acid
Figure 9.3 Uses of sulphuric acid
electrolyte 2%
10%
Fertilisers
32%
Detergents
12%

Paint pigment
Other
15%
chemicals
16% 7
 Figure 9.4 Uses of sulphuric acid in industry

9.1.2 The industrial process in manufacture sulphuric acid

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process.

2. Sulphuric acid is produced from sulfur, oxygen and water via the contact

process.

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 3. The Contact process involves three stages.

Sulphur → Sulphur dioxide → Sulphur trioxide → Sulphuric acid

I II III

4. Stage I: Production of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2.

This can be done by two methods,

a) Burning of sulphur in dry air.

S + O2 → SO2

b) Burning of metal sulphide such as zinc sulphide in dry air.

2ZnS + 3O2 → 2SO2 + 2ZnO

5. Stage II: Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide SO 3.

This is then oxidised to sulfur trioxide under the following conditions:

a) The presence of a vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst.

b) A temperature of between 450°C to 550°C.

c) A pressure of one atmosphere

  
2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

6. Stage III: Production of sulphuric acid

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 a) Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, H 2SO4 to

produce oleum,

H2S2O7

H2SO4+ SO3 → H2S2O7

b) Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated H 2SO4.

H2S2O7+ H2O → 2
H2SO4

7. In stage II, sulphur dioxide is dried first before being added to dry air

to produce sulphur trioxide. This is:

a) To remove water vapour

b) To remove contaminants

8. In stage III, sulphur trioxide is not dissolved directly in water to produce

sulphuric acid. This is because:

a) sulphur trioxide has low solubility in water

b) sulphur trioxide reacts violently and mists are formed

instead of a liquid.

Sulphur or metal sulphide

burned in air

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 Sulphur dioxide, SO2
a) the presence of a vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst.

b) a temperature of between 450°C to 550°C.

c) a pressure of one atmosphere

Sulphur trioxide, SO3

dissolved in sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Oleum, H2S2O7

diluted with equal volume of water H2O

Concentrated sulphuric acid H2SO4

Figure 9.5 Flowchart of Contact process

9.1.3 Environmental pollution by sulphuric acid

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1. Sulphur dioxide is the main byproduct produced when sulfur-containing

fuels such as coal or oil are burned.

2. Sulphuric acid is formed by atmospheric oxidation of sulphur dioxide in

the presence of water. It also produces sulphurous acid.

3. Sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid are constituents of acid rain.

4. Acid rain can cause many effects such as:

i. Corrodes concrete buildings and metal structure

ii. Destroys trees and plants

iii. Decrease the pH of th soil and make it become acidic

iv. Acid rain flows into the rivers and increases the acidity of water and

kill aquatic living things.

5. Hence, we must reduce the sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere by:

i. Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide in

exhaust gases

ii. Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air by treating it with calcium

carbonated before it is released

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 9.2 AMMONIA AND ITS SALT

9.2.1 Properties of ammonia

1. A colorless, pungent gas.

2. Its molecular formula is NH3

Figure 9.6 A molecule of
ammonia.
3. It is extremely soluble in water.

4. It is a weak alkali.

5. It is about one half as dense as air

6. It reacts with hydrogen chloride gas to produce

white fumes of ammonium chloride.

NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl

7. Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts with dilute acids in

neutralization to produce salts. For examples:

NH3 + HNO 3 → NH4NO 3

2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4) 2SO4

8. Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH − ions (except Na+ ion, K+ ion,

and Ca 2+ ion) forming metal hydroxides precipitate.

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 Fe3+ + 3OH− → Fe(OH) 3
Brown precipitate

Mg2+ + 2OH− → Mg(OH) 2

White precipitate

9. Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide and copper (II) hydroxide

dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form complexes.

Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3→ [Zn(NH3)4] 2++ 2OH−

Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3→ [Cu(NH3)4] 2+ + 2OH−

Extremely
Weak soluble in
alkali water

Properties of ammonia

Colorless Pungent
smell

Figure 9.7 Properties of ammonia

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9.2.2 The uses of ammonia
1. The major use of ammonia and its compounds is as fertilizers.

2.Ammonia is also used for the synthesis of nitric acid.

3. Ammonium fertilizers contain ammonium ions, NH4+, that can be converted into

nitrate ions by bacteria living in the soil.

4.Nitrogen is absorbed by plants to produce protein in the form of nitrates,

NO3−, which are soluble in water.

5.The effectiveness of ammonium fertilizers is determined by the percentage

of nitrogen by mass in them. The fertilizer with a higher percentage of

nitrogen is more effective.

6.The percentage of nitrogen by mass can be calculated using this formula:

Mass of nitrogen
X 100%
Molar mass of fertilizers

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9.2.3 The industrial process in manufacture of ammonia

1. Haber process is the industrial method of producing ammonia.

2. It needs direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen under high pressure in

the presence of a catalyst, often iron.

3. Nitrogen gas used in Haber process is obtained from the frictional

distillation of liquid air.

4. Hydrogen gas used in Haber process can be obtained by two methods:

a) The reaction between steam and heated coke (carbon)

C + H2O → CO + H2

b) The reaction between steam and natural gas ( consisting mainly of

methane)

CH4 + 2H2O → CO2 + 4H2

5. In the Haber process:

a) A mixture consisting of one volume of nitrogen gas and three volume of

hydrogen gas is compressed to a pressure between 200 – 500 atmospheres.

b) The gas mixture is passed through a catalyst of powdered iron at a

temperature of 450 - 550°C.

c) At this optimum temperature and pressure, ammonia gas is produced.

N2+ 3H2 → 2NH3

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 9.3 ALLOYS
9.3.1 Physical properties of pure metals
1. Pure metals have the following physical properties

a)Good conductor of electricity

b)Malleable

c) Ductile

d)High melting and boiling point

e)High density

2. Pure metals are weak and soft because the arrangement of atoms in pyre

metals make them ductile and malleable.

a) A pure metal contains atoms of the same size arranged in a regular

and organized closed-packed structure.

b) Pure metals are soft because the orderly arrangement of atoms

enables the layers of atoms to slide over each other easily when an

external force is applied on them. This makes the matels ductile and

metals can be drawn to form long wires.

c) There are imperfections in the natural arrangements of

metal atoms. Empty space exist in the structures of pure metals.

When hammered or pressed, groups of metal atoms may slide into

new positions in the empty spaces. This makes metals malleable, able

to be made into different shapes or pressed into thin sheets.

3. The strong forces of attraction between metal atoms requires high

energy to overcome it. Hence, most metals have high melting points.

4.The close-packed arrangement of metal atoms results in the high density

of metals.

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 Good conductor of electricity

High melting and boiling point

Properties of metals
High density

Malleable

Ductile

Figure 9.8 Properties of metals

9.3.2 Meaning and purpose of making alloys

1. An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain

composition in which the major component is a metal.

2. in the process of alloying, one or more foreign elements are added to

a molten metal. When the alloy hardens, the positions of some of the

metal atoms are replaced by the atoms of foreign elements, which

size may be bigger or smaller than the original metal atoms.

3. In an alloy, these atoms of foreign elements disrupt the orderly

arrangement of the metal atoms and also fill up any empty space in

the metal crystal structure.

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 4. Hence, the layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over

each other easily. This makes the alloy harder and stronger, less

ductile and less malleable than its pure metals.

5. The properties of a pure metal are thus improved by making them

into alloys. There are three aims of alloying a pure metal:

a) To increase the hardness and strength of a metal

b) To prevent corrosion or rusting

c) To improve the appearance of the metal surface

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9.4 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

9.4.1 The meaning of polymers

1. Polymers can be defined as large molecules composed of numerous

smaller, repeating units known as monomers which are joined by covalent

bonds.

2. Polymerisation is the chemical process by which the monomers are joined

together to form the big molecule known as the polymers.

3. There are two types of polymerization process:

a) Addition polymerization

b) Condensation polymerization

4. A polymer is a very big molecule (macromolecule). Hence, the relative

molecular mass of a polymer is large.

5. The properties of polymer are different from its monomers.

6. Polymers can be divided into two types:

a) Naturally occurring polymers

1. This type of polymer exists in living things in nature like the plants

and animals.

2. Examples of naturally occuring polymers are:

a) Protein

b) Carbohydrate

c) Natural rubber

3. Naturally occuring polymers are formed by the joining of monomers

by polymerization.

4. Protein is formed by the joining of monomers known as amino acid.

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 5. Carbohydrate is formed by the joining of monomers known as glucose.

6. Natural rubber is formed by the joining of monomers known as

isoprene.

b)Synthetic polymers

1. This type of polymer are man-made by chemical process in the

laboratories.

2.The raw material for synthetic polymers are obtained frompetroleum.

3.The types of synthetic polymers include:

a) Plastics

b) Fibres

c) Elastomers

4. Examples of plastics are

polythene(polyethylene),polyvinylchloride(PVC), polypropene

(polypropylene), polystyrene , Perspex and bakelite.

5.Polythene and PVC are produced by addition polymerization

6. Examples of synthetics fibres are nylon and terylene. They are

produced by condensation polymerization.

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9.4.2 Advantages of synthetic polymers
a) Strong and light

b) Cheap

c) Able to resist corrosion

d) Inert to chemical reactions

e) Easily moulded or shaped and be coloured

f) Can be made to have special properties

9.4.3 Environmental pollution caused by synthetic polymers

a) As most of polymers are non-biodegradable, they will

not decay like other organic garbage.

b) Burning of polymers release harmful and poisonous

gases.

9.4.4 Methods to overcome the environmental pollution caused

by synthetic polymers
a) Reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic polymers

b) Develop biodegradable polymers

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9.5 GLASS AND CERAMICS
1. The main component of both glass and ceramic is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO 2.

2. Both glass and ceramic have the same properties as follow

a) Hard and brittle

b) Inert to chemical reactions

c) Insulators or poor conductors of heat and electricity

d) Withstand compression but not stretching

e) Can be easily cleaned

f) Low cost of production

3. Differences between glass and cerement are, glass is transparent,

while ceramic is opaque. Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature than

normal glass.

4. Types of glass are

a) Fused glass

It is consist mainly of silica or silicon dioxide

It has high heat resistance

b) Soda lime glass

It cannot withstand high temperatures

c) Borosilicate glass

It can withstand high temperature

d) Lead glass

High refractive index

5. Uses of improved glass for specific purpose

a) Photochromic glass

It is sensitive to light intensity

b) Conducting glass

It conducts electricity

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 6. Ceramic is a manufactured substances made from clay, with

the main constituent of aluminosilicate with small quantity of sand and

feldspar.

7. Superconductor is one improved ceramics for specific

purposes.

Glass

1. Glass is made up from sand.

2. The major component of glass is SiO2.

3. There are four types of glass which are as follows:

 Fused glass

 Soda-lime glass

 Borosilicate glass

 Lead crystal glass

Chemical
Name of glass Properties Examples of uses
composition
Fused glass
Very high softening Telescope
SiO2 (99%)
point (1700 °C) mirrors,
Ba2 O 3 (1%)
hence, highly heat Lenses

resistant Optical fibres

Transparent to Laboratory glass

ultraviolet and wares

infrared light

Difficult to be made

into different

shapes

Does not crack when

temperature

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 changes (very low

thermal expansion

coefficient)

Very resistant to

chemical reactions

Low softening point

(700 °C), hence,

does not withstand

heating
Bottles
Breaks easily
Windowpanes
Cracks easily with SiO2 (70%)
Light bulbs
sudden temperature Na2O (15%)
Mirrors
Soda lime glass
changes (high CaO (3%)
Bowls
coefficient of Others (5%)
( The most widely
expansion)
used type of
Less resistant to
glass)
chemical reactions

Easy to be made into

different shapes

Borosilicate SiO2 (80%) Laboratory

High softening point
glass Ba2 O 3 (15%) apparatus
(800°C). Thus it is
Na2O (3%) Cooking utensils
heat resistant
Al 2 O 3 Electrical tubes
Does not crack
Glass pipelines
easily with sudden

temperature

changes

Transparent to

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 ultraviolet light

More resistant to

chemical reactions

Does not break

easily

Low softening point

SiO2 (55%) Decorative items
(600 °C)
PbO( 30%) Crystal glass-
High density
K2O (10%) wares
Lead crystal High refractive
Na2O ( 3%) Lens
glass index
Al2 O 3 ( 2%) Prisms
Reflects light rays
Chandeliers
and appears spar

kling

Ceramics
1. Ceramic is a manufactured substance made from clay that is dried and then

baked in a kiln at high temperature.

2. The main constituent of clay is aluminosilicate, (which consist of aluminium

oxide and silicon dioxide) with small quantities of sand and feldspar.

3. Kaolinite is an example of high

4. Red clay contains iron (III) oxide which gives the red colour .

5. General uses ceramics are as follows of :

 very hard and strong but brittle

 inert to chemical reaction

 has a very high melting point

 good electric and heat insulator

 able to withstand compression

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9.6 COMPOSITE MATERIAL
1. A composite material is a structural material formed by

combining two or more materials with different physical properties, producing

a complex mixture.

2. The composite material produced will have different

properties far more superior to the original materials.

3. The composite material produced are harder, stronger,

lighter, more resistant to heat and corrosion and also for specific purposes.

4. When composite material is formed, the weakness of the

components will not exist anymore.

Composite material Component Properties of Properties of

component composite
Concrete Hard but brittle, Stronger, higher

With low tensile tensile strength,

strength not so brittle, does

Steel Hard with high
Reinforced not corrode easily,
tensile strength
concrete can withstand
but expensive and
higher applied
can corrode
forces and loads,

relatively cheaper
Glass of low Transparent, does Reflect light rays

refractive index not reflect light and allow light rays

Fibre optics rays. to travel along the

Glass of high Heavy, strong but
fibre
refractive index brittle and non-

flexible

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 Glass Heavy, strong but Light, strong,

brittle and non- tough, resilient and

Fibreglass flexible flexible, with high

Polyester plastic Light, flexible,
tensile strength
elastic but weak
and not flammable
and inflammable
Glass Transparent and Sensitive to light:

not sensitive to darkness when

Photochromic glass light light intensity is

Silver chloride, or Sensitive to light
high, becomes
silver bromide
clear when light

intensity is low

Figure 9.9 Composite material and their new properties

CONCLUSION

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 We must appreciate these various synthetic industrial materials. One of the way

is by doing continuous research and development ( R & D ) to produce better

materials used to improve our standard of living. As we live in a changing world, our

society is getting more complex. New materials are required to overcome new

challenges and problems we face in our daily lives. Synthetic material are developed

constantly due to the limitation and shortage of natural materials. New

technological developments are used by scientists to make new discoveries.

New materials for clothing, shelter, tools and communication to improve our

daily life are developed continuously for the well-being of mankind. New needs and

new problem will stimulate the development of new synthetic materials. For

example, the new use of plastic composite material will replace metal in the making

of a stronger and lighter car body. This will save fuel and improve speed. Plastic

composite materials may one day used to make organs for organ transplant in human

bodies. This will become necessity with the shortage of human organ donors.

The understanding of the interaction between different chemicals is

important for both the development of new synthetic materials and the disposal of

such synthetic materials as waste. A responsible and systemic method of handling

the waste of synthetic materials and their by-product is important to prevent

environmental pollution. The recycling and development of environmental friendly

synthetic material should be enforced.

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REFERENCES

1. Tan Yin Toon, Loh Wai Leng, Tan On Tin, 2008, SUCCESS

Chemistry SPM, Oxford Fajar Sdn.Bhd.

2. Website http://www.answers.com

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