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PRACTICAL HANDOUTS
Table Of Content
1.
1.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.
Theory ............................................................................................................................................ 7
1.2.1. Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve Elbows: ...................................... 7
1.2.2. Short bend....................................................................................................................................... 8
1.2.3. Sudden enlargement and sudden contraction ................................................................................. 9
1.2.4. Sudden enlargement ....................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.5. Sudden contraction ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.6. Gate valve ..................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.
1.4.
1.4.1. Objective....................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.2. Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4.3. Observations and calculations ...................................................................................................... 12
1.5.
1.5.1. Objective....................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.2. Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 13
1.5.3. Observation and calculation ......................................................................................................... 13
2.
2.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.
Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.
2.4.
3.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 21
3.2.
Description ................................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.
Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 22
Observations: ................................................................................................................................ 25
Pipe Friction Apparatus .......................................................................................... 27
4.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 27
4.2.
Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 27
4.2
4.3
4.4
5.1.
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 34
5.2.
Specifications................................................................................................................................ 35
5.3.
General requirements.................................................................................................................... 36
5.4.
Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 36
5.5
Dynamic Pumps............................................................................................................................ 36
5.8
Experiment 2 ................................................................................................................................ 44
6.1
Control unit................................................................................................................................... 46
Theory .......................................................................................................................................... 46
6.3
6.5
Experiment: Relation between differential pressure across fan and volume flow rate ................ 49
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And Fittings
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1.2. Theory
When fluid flow through typical pipe fittings such as an elbow or a bend, this result in energy
loss. These energy losses, which are termed as minor losses, are primarily due to the change in
the direction of flow and the change in the cross-section of the flow path typically occurs in
valves and fittings. Experimental techniques are used to determine minor losses. Tests have
shown that the head loss in valves and fittings is proportional to the square of the average
velocity of the fluid in the pipe in which the valve or fitting is mounted. Thus the head loss is
also proportional to the velocity head of the fluid.
1.2.1. Characteristic of Flow through various Pipe Fittings and Valve Elbows:
45degree elbow and 90 degree elbow Figures below show flow round a 45 degree elbow and a
90 degree below, which has a constant circular cross section respectively.
90degree elbow
elbow
45 degree
The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the pipe inner
diameter D. As this ratio increase, the value of K will fall and vice versa.
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LONG BEND
SHORT BEND
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contraction and the subsequent expansion generates energy loss, which is given by fig 5.
6. Pressure Gauge
7. Gate Valve
8. Pressure Gauge
9. 90o Elbow
10. Water Inlet
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1.4.2. Procedure
1. Attach pipe with hydraulic bench fitting and inlet of apparatus.
2. Open the gate valve 4 turns. Now start the hydraulic bench pump and slowly open the
valve. Open valve to that extent so that all tubes of manometer get flushed out.
3. Now slowly close the valve so that all a tubes of manometer have water in them.
4. If water level in the manometer is too high use the degassing valve to lower it.
5. Now at different flow rates (adjusted by the hydraulic bench valve) note the manometer
readings.
6. Calculate the flow rate with a stop watch and hydraulic bench tube.
Volume V
(litres)
Time T
(sec)
Flow rate Q
(m/s)
Manometer Reading(mmH20)
1
No.
of
Obs.
Flow
rateQ
(m/s)
Velocity
in small
bore pipe
(m/s)
4Q/d
Velocity
Differential Piezometer Head h (mmH2O)
head
90
Sudden
Sudden
45
Short
(mH2O)
elbow enlargement contraction elbow
bend
v/2g
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 2: Observations and calculations
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1.5.2. Procedure
1. Place apparatus on bench, connect inlet pipe to bench supply and outlet pipe into volumetric
tank.
2. With the bench valve fully closed and the discharge valve fully opened, start up the pump
supply from hydraulic bench. Slowly open the bench valve until it is fully opened.
3. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the bench
valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
4. Slowly open the gate valve to 2 turns position and measure and record the differential
pressure reading across the valve.
5. Then, measure the flow rate with the volumetric tank. Repeat the differential pressure
measurement with different decreasing flow rates.
6. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing the bench flow control valve. Plot graph
differential piezo meter head, h against velocity head for the gate valve and determine the
loss coefficient. The experiment can be repeated with different gate valve opening.
Flow rate
(m/s)
Differential
pressure
across
valve
(psi)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 3: Observation and Calculation
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No. of
obs.
Flow rate,
Q
(m3/s)
Velocity in
small bore
pipe, v
(m/s)
4Q/d
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Velocity
head,
(m H2O)
v/2g
Differential
pressure
across valve
(m H2O)
Valve
position
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Table 4: Observation and Calculation
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FLOWGuide
OVER
Experiment
WEIRS
APPARATUS
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2.2. Theory
The theoretical discharge for the rectangular weir is given by
Qtheo = (2/3) (2g)(1/2)x B x H(3/2)
(1)
(2)
Where
B = Breadth of rectangular notch
H = Height of flow over notch
= Angle of Vee notch
g = Gravitational acceleration
To the contraction of the flow area downstream of the notch, the actual discharge Q is
considerably less and may be expressed as:
Where
notch:
(3)
Qact = Cd x Qth
(4)
Cd : the coefficient of discharge for the rectangular notch. And expression for Vee
Qact = Cd x (8/15) x (2g) (1/2) x tan(/2) x H(5/2)
(5)
Qact = Cd x Qth
(6)
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Weirs are normally categorized by their shape as either sharp-crested or broad-crested. This
laboratory experiment focuses on sharp-crested weirs only. Two different types of weirs will be
introduced, The V-notch weir and the rectangular weir (horizontal weir with end contractions).
Figure 8 represents the rectangular weir while figure 9 represents a Vee notch weir.
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Types
Broad rectangular
weir
Narrow rectangular
weir
Breadth
Depth
Fig 11: the Vee type Weirs (a angle 90o and b angle 42o)
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2.4.2. Procedure
1. Install the weir plate on the upstream side of the weir carrier and secure it using the thumb
nuts.
2. Position the hook and point gauge, mounted on the instrument carrier, on the side channels
adjacent to the weir plate.
3. Start the pump, and admit water to the channel by opening the flow control valve. Allow the
level to rise until water discharge over the weir plate. Close the flow control valve and allow
the water level to stabilize. Set the height gauge to a datum reading using the top of hook.
4. Admit water to the channel and adjust the flow control valve to obtain heads H increasing in
steps of about 1cm.
5. For each flow rate allow conditions to become steady, measure and record H and take
readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine the flow rate.
6. For ach notch obtain five readings of H and Q.
Time
(sec)
Qact
(m3/sec)
H
(mm)
Qtheo
(m3/sec)
Cd
1
2
3
4
5
Table 6: Observation and Calculations
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PELTON WHEEL
TURBINE
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3.2. Description
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4. Nozzle inlet
5. Turbine housing
3. Nozzle valve
6. Nozzle adjustment
3.3. Theory
Hydraulic machines are defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy (energy
possessed by water) into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Turbines are defined as hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical
energy. hydraulic turbines are of different types according to specification and pelton wheel is
one of the types of hydraulic turbines.
3. Casing
The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge water to tail
race. It also acts as safe guard against accidents. As pelton wheel is an impulse turbine, the
casing of the pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
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4. Breaking Jet
When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction the amount
of water striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a
long time. To stop a nozzle in a short time a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of
water on the back of buckets. This jet of water is called breaking jet.
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3.4.2. Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(8)
(9)
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3.5. Observations:
No. of obs
N
(rpm)
Force F1
(N)
Force F2
(N)
1.
2.
3.
Table 7: Observations.
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(10)
hv = h1 h2
(11)
(12)
w = V/A
(13)
V = volume flow and A = cross-sectional area of the pipe and A = x d2 /4 and d = 4mm
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The fall hv is set with the drain valve. From the fall the pipe coefficient of friction is calculated
as:
= ( 2 )/(. 2 )
(14)
th =
64
Re
(15)
hv
= h2 h1
th =
(16)
0.314
1
(17)
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Now close valve 2, 4 and open valve 1 and reverse the direction of valves 5 and 6. Now start the
hydraulic benchs pump. Extremely slowly increase the flow through the hydraulic bench valve
and drain valve 7 so that there must be an air column between water coming from pipes through
valve 5 and 6 the water in manometer.
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Note: If water is filled more than 1/3rd of the manometer tubes then use the degassing valve to
lower the level of water.Now measure the difference hv and flow rate with help of measuring
thank and stop watch.
Note: Be extremely careful when taking values for turbulent flow. The water level is adjusted
very carefully by using hydraulic bench valve and valve 7. The water in the manometer should
not be getting mixed with water coming from the water through pipes. This condition can only
be achieved by adjusting hydraulic valve and valve 7.
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The situation shown in the figure must be avoided. But if water from the pipe goes in the
manometer then switch off the pump. Open the degassing valve to drain water from manometer
and fill it again as mentioned earlier. Also blow air from both the pipes. Pipes should be clean
and there should be no water droplets in it.
4.4.3 Observations
No.
of obs
1.
hv
(mm)
T
(s)
v
(l)
V
(l/s)
W
(m/s)
Re
th
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table 8: Observations for Pipe Friction Apparatus.
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MODEL: ME-FM-3777
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5.2. Specifications
Before operation, students must familiarize themselves with the unit. Please refer to Figure 1 to
understand the process. The unit consists of the followings:
a) Pumps
Two units of Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump (P1) and (P2)
b) Circulation Tank
A stainless steel water tank is provided to supply water to P1 and P2.
e) ON/OFF switch
Two On/Off switches allows the selection of system operates either with 1 pump or 2 pumps
(series/parallel).
Flow indicator: Indicated value is in Liters Per Minute (LPM).
Pressure Indicator: Indicated value is in bar.
Pressure Gauge 1 (PT1)
-1 to 3
bar
0 to 6
bar
0 to 16 bar
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Water
5.4. Theory
Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to
produce the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive displacement
and dynamic.
5.5Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the
velocity of the fluid. Figure 2 shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most
commonly used type of dynamic pumps.
IST-MECH-PTB-EXP05/01
whose increased flow area causes the velocity to decrease. This action results in a decrease in
kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.
The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the direction of
flow to produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of housing and
discharge opening. Although centrifugal pumps provide smooth and continuous flow, their flow
rate output (also called discharge) is reducing as the external resistance is increase. In fact, by
closing a system valve (thereby creating theoretically infinite external system resistance) even
while the pump is running at design speed, it is possible to stop pump output flow completely. In
such a case, no harm occurs to the pump unless this no-flow condition occurs over extended
period with resulting excessive fluid temperature build up. Thus pressure relief valves are not
needed. The tips of the impeller blade merely shear through the liquid, and the rotational speed
maintains a fluid pressure corresponding to the centrifugal force established. Figure 3 shows the
cutaway of a centrifugal pump.
5.5.2 Pump Head versus Flow rate Curves for Centrifugal Pumps
Figure 20 shows pump head versus flow rate curves for a centrifugal pump. The solid curve is
for water, whereas the dashed curve is for a more viscous fluid such as oil. Most published
performance curves for centrifugal pumps are for pumping water. Notice from Figure 4 that
using a fluid having a higher viscosity than water results in a smaller flow rate at a given pump
head. If the fluid has a viscosity greater than 300 times that of water, the performance of a
centrifugal pump deteriorates enough that a positive displacement pump is usually
recommended.
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The maximum head produced by a centrifugal pump is called pump shutoff head because an
external system valve is closed and there is no flow. Notice from Figure 4 that as the external
system resistance decrease (which occurs when a system valve is opened more), the flow rate
increases at the expense of reduced pump head. Because the output flow rate changes
significantly with external system resistance, centrifugal pumps are rarely used in fluid power
systems. Zero pump head exists if the pump discharge port were opened to the atmosphere, such
as when filling nearby open tank with water. The open tank represents essentially zero resistance
to flow for the pump. Figure 20 shows why centrifugal pumps are desirable for pumping stations
used for delivery water to homes and factories. The demand for water may go to near zero during
the evening and reach a peak during the daytime, but a centrifugal pump can readily handle these
large changes in water demand. Since there is a great deal of clearance between the impeller and
housing, centrifugal pumps are not self-priming, unlike positive displacement pumps. Thus if a
liquid being pumped from a reservoir located below a centrifugal pump, priming is required.
Priming is the prefilling of the pump housing and inlet pipe with the liquid so that the pump can
initially draw the liquid. Priming is required because there is too much clearance between the
pump inlet and outlet ports to seal against atmospheric pressure. Thus the displacement of a
centrifugal pump is not positive where the same volume of liquid would be delivered per
revolution of the driveshaft.
The lack of positive internal seal against leakage means that the centrifugal pump is not forced to
produce flow when there is a very large system resistance to flow. As system resistance
decreases, less fluid at the discharge port slips back into the clearance spaces between the
impeller and housing, resulting in an increase in flow. Slippage occurs because the fluid follows
the path of least resistance.
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rates. Centrifugal pumps with forward-curved blades generally have a lower maximum
efficiency. Forward-curved pumps are for high flow, low pressure applications.
Pump Head
Water Density
Table 10: Formula for calculations
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Running Pump
Both Pump, P1 & P2
Both Pump, P1 & P2
5. Turn on the pumps and slowly open V4 until maximum flow rate is achieved. Follow the
experiment procedures to determine the desired flow rate.
6. Close V4 accordingly to get desired flow rate.
7. Note down flow rate and pressures.
5.7 General shut-down procedures
1. Turn off the pump.
2. Make sure valve V4 is in fully close position.
3. Turn off the pump switches on the panel.
4. Switch off the main power supply.
Note: For each experiment refill the water tank and after experiment empty it.
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Fully Open
Valve
Variable
Parameter
Pump ON
V1 & V3
V2
V4
Both Pump
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5.9Experiment 2
5.9.1 Aim
To study the characteristics of pump-in-parallel operation with variable flow rate.
Fully Open
Valve
Variable
Parameter
Pump ON
V2
V1 & V3
V4
Both Pump
5.9.3 Procedures
1) Follow the basic procedure as written in previous section.
2) Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.
3) Test the pump characteristics by changing the flow rate from V4.
5.9.4 Assignment
1) Plot pressure difference pump head (m) vs. flow rate for condition.
2) Plot efficiency vs. flow rate for condition.
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6.1.2 Orifice
An orifice is situated at the inlet of the main air flow tube which is useful for accelerating the air
flow. It is also useful for the flow measurement in the tube.
6.1.5 Damper
At the outlet, a damper is situated which can be moved inward or outward to produce or reduce
the air cushion at the outlet.
6.2Theory
Most manufacturing plants use fans and blowers for ventilation and for industrial processes that
need an air flow. Fan systems are essential to keep manufacturing processes working, and consist
of a fan, an electric motor, a drive system, ducts or piping, flow control devices, and air
conditioning equipment (filters, cooling coils, heat exchangers, etc.).
Fans, blowers and compressors are differentiated by the method used to move the air, and by the
system pressure they must operate against. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) uses the specific ratio, which is the ratio of the discharge pressure over the suction
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6.3Types of fans
There exist two main fan types. Centrifugal fans used a rotating impeller to move the air stream.
Axial fans move the air stream along the axis of the fan.
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6.5 Experiment: Relation between differential pressure across fan and volume
flow rate
6.5.1 Aim
To identify the relation between differential pressure across fan and volume flow rate.
6.5.2 Procedure
Close the damper tightly.
Turn on the control unit and start increasing the rpm.
Note the readings on the control unit indicator when rpm is approximately near
10,000.
Then open the damper a little bit and note down the readings again.
Note down 5 to 6 readings in the same way.
6.5.3 Observations and Calculations
Sr. Differentia Differenti Voltage
No l pressure
al
(V)
across
pressure
orifice
across fan
( dPo )
( dPf )
-2
Nm
Nm-2
V
1
2
3
4
5
6
Current
(I)
RPM
Temperat
ure
T
Rev/min
(18)
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(19)
Where
Q = volume flow rate at inlet
M= mass flow rate at inlet = mass flow rate at outlet
M = Q*
A2 = Area of orifice = r2 = 0.00441 m2
A1 = Area of pipe = R2 = 0.01038 m2
dp = differential pressure across orifice
Cd = Discharge co-efficient = 0.6
= Density of air = 1.18 kg/m3
Sr.
No
Volume
flow rate
Q
Mass
flow rate
M
m3/s
Kg/sec
Power
provided to
fan of Fan
Pf
Watt
Power
transferred
to air
Pa
Watt
Efficiency of
fan
f
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 12: Calculations
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