Chapter

FRACTURED

11

FORMATION

EVALUATION

In view of the influence

of fractures on tool
responses, and of their contribution
to the productivity of formations,
it is appropriate
to devote a
whole chapter to the study of fractured formations.

11 .l. INTRODUCTION

-I
Undeformed

Fracture is a general term that indicates all

breaks or ruptures in a rock, whether accompanied
by a displacement
or not. It corresponds
to a
surface along which there is a loss of cohesion.
These ruptures are caused by tectonic forces
(tension, compression or torsion), or by changes of
temperature,
by drying out, or by leaching in the
plane of stratification
or schistosity.
Generally grouped in the category of fractures
are :
crack is a partial or incomplete fracture;
fissure is a surface of fracture or a crack
along which there is a distinct separation, often
filled with crystals;
- joint is a surface of fracture without displacement; the surface is usually plane and occurs
with parallel joints to form part of a joint set
(Glossary of Geology, 1980);
- gash is a small-scale tension fissure of several
centimetres
to a few decimetres
in length, and
several millimetres to a few centimetres
in width.
It may be gaped or, most often, filled with crystals.
Several gashes are most frequently arranged in en
dchelon (Fig. 11-1). They are produced by simple
shear;
fault is a fracture or a zone of fractures along
which there has been displacement
of the sides
relative to one another parallel to the fracture
(Glossary of Geology, 1980).
Calling a joint or fault a fracture depends on the
scale of observation.
The fractures
may be cemented
(filled with
crystalline material) or open. Clearly it is the open

Deformed by simple shear

Fig. 11-l. En &helm tension gashes produced by simple

shear. (a) : Theory. (b) : Phatograph of an actual case (from
Ramsay. 1967).
fractures
which are of interest for production,
because they create substantial permeability,
and
a preferred flow path for the fluids. The latter are
largely caused by tension or torsion, while closed
fractures are generally associated with compression.
Fractures are usually perpendicular
to the plane
of stratification,
and are usually more or less
planar. Moreover, the occurrence
of fractures is
not random (Fig. 11-2). In a constrained formation,
the fractures
appear as interconnected
systems,
each system consisting of a group of more or less
parallel fractures. They result in the rock being

239

broken up into small volumes or parallelepipeds

which can be broken off by the drill-bit or the
rotating drill-pipe.
The average gap of a fracture,
or fracture
aperture, is often less than 0.1 mm, and so the
porosity of fractures is generally negligible [less
than 2%). Boyeldieu et al. (1982) have estimated
that, if the fracture system breaks the rock into
cubes with 10 cm edges, a gap of 1 mm would be
necessary to create a porosity of 3 %.
Fractures appear predominantly
in brittle rocks,
hence in consolidated
formations.
Very often they
disappear on entering formations
which are more
plastic (clays or halite), or friable (sands).
11 .l .1 Fracture

However, although the orientation may be statistically significant, it must be remembered that there
can be considerable
dispersion.
11 .1.2. Importance

of Fractwes

In formations
of low porosity and permeability,
the production
potential
relies on an extensive
system of open fractures. The productivity will vary
greatly according
to the number.
extent and
opening of the fractures and to the porosity and
permeability
of the matrix.
As already mentioned, the porosity of fractures
is insignificant
in all but a few exceptional
cases
(highly compacted
rocks), and makes no significant contribution
to the reserves. However, the
presence of fractures
may significantly
enhance
the drainage surface, and thereby the contribution
of the matrix porosity to the production.
Open
fractures considerably
increase the permeability

Orientation

It has frequently
been observed that the fracture system, or network, in a given region tends to
have the same orientation
as the fault system.

240

but may cut the potential output of a reservoir if

they are not taken into account during the secondary recoven/ phase.
A subvertical fracture system may be fed by an
underlying reservoir. Finally, in the case of injection to maintain pressure, they act as preferred
paths for the injected fluids with the risk of
isolating formation
blocks which are still hydrocarbon-saturated,
and of having early production
of injected fluids.

11.2. REVIEW

OF GENERAL

CONCEPTS

Fracture creation and propagation

being dependent on mechanical
behaviour of rocks, it is
useful to review the general concepts involved I_
11.2.1. concepts

of stress

Every element of a rock is subject to a series of

forces. These forces are of two types :
The first type corresponds to the forces that
are applied to the whole body of the rock. These
are called body forces, and are proportional to the
mass of the substances,
e.g. gravity, centrifugal
forces, magnetic forces. They are measured in
force unit per unit volume (dimension : mLTe2) 2.
- The second type are known as surface forces.
They act on the surface of a body and, because of
this, are measured
in force units per unit of
surface area (dimension : mLT-IL2 = mL-Te2).
In a solid, the force per unit area, acting on any
surface within it, is termed stress (Glossary of
Geology, 1980). Stress is equivalent to a pressure,
in which the SI unit is pas&. Taking into consideration all the elements of a rock or bed (Fig. 11.3).

Fig. 11-3.

surface

forces

acting

the surface forces acting on any imaginary surface

are represented
by :
the weight of the above sediments,
or the
geostatic
pressure, S, and the reaction of the
material below;
the fluid pressure pP; if the fluid is in equilibrium (no movement) the fluid pressure is equal to
the hydrostatic
pressure;
the tectonic forces, T.
One must distinguish
between
the external
forces that act on a body, and the resulting
internal actions and reactions that constitute the
stress. If the forces acting on a body are equal on
all sides, the body is in equilibrium.
The all-sided
pressure is called the confining pressure, C.
In many cases the forces acting on a body are
not equal in all sides. This will cause deformation.
If the external forces tend to pull a body apart, the
body is said to be under tension. If it is subjected
to external forces that tend to compress it, it is
said to be under compression.
If two equal forces
act in opposite directions in the same plane, but
not along the same line. we have a couple, and the
body is said to be under distortion
(Fig. 1 l-4).
Torsion is the state of stress produced by two

on a body.

241

force couples of opposite moment acting in different but parallel planes about a common axis (Fig.
11.4d).
Let us take A as a point in a rock (Fig. 1l-5). and
X as a small plane surface, defined by the intersection o a plane P passing through A. A pressure.
?;= A+ /AZ will act on X. We can break theadown
into two components : (cr) normal to Z, called the
normal stress, and (r), parallel to Z, called shear
stress.
Generally, the pressure$
as well as o and t,
varv, in maanitude
and dire&n
depending on the
orientation
of the surface on which they are
applied. The set of all the pressures exerted on
point A on all planes that pass through this point
is called the state of stress.
The state of stress at any point may be described in terms of nine stress components of which
only six are independent
if the body is in equilibrium. The stresses on each face of a cube (Fig.
11-6) can be resolved into three parts, one normal
stress, and a shearing stress which itself can be
resolved into two components
parallel to the
direction of two of the coordinates.
There is no direct way to measure the stresses
in a body, but they may be calculated
if the
external forces are known.
But it is possible to calculate all the stresses at
any point of the body if the applied stresses at this
point on three mutually perpendicular
planes are
known. It is also possible to demonstrate
that at
each point A, there exist three orthogonal planes,
called principal planes of stress, for which r = 0,
and therefore the stress is perpendicular
to them.
They constitute symmetry planes for the state of
stress.
The three normal vectors to these planes are
called the principal stress axes. On these three
mutually perpendicular
axes, the three principal
stresses are ai follows (Fig. 11-7) :
- greatest or maximum principal stress, 0,;
intermediate
principal stress, CB;

least or minimum principal stress, 03;

with cr, > 0~ > 03.
When the normal stresses are equal no shearing stresses exist in the material. This state of
stress is known as hydrostatic
stress. When they
are different, shearing stresses appear. The geometric representation
of the state of stress at a
point is known as the stress ellipsoid (Fig. 11-7).
One can demonstrate
that six planes of maximum
shearing stresses exist associated
in pairs each
pair countaining
one of the principal
axis, and
forming between them an angle of 900 (Fig. 11-8).

242

the magnitude
0 is :

The greatest shearing stress always occurs on the

planes which contain o2 axis (z is maximum the
stress difference,
crl - oz being maximum),
and
make an angle of 450 to the principal stresses o1
and 0~ irrespective
of the signs or values of the
principal
stresses
(ruptures
and slippages
are
produced more or less along these planes, Figs.
11-7 and 11-9). In fact, fractures form an angle 0
less than 450 and close to 300 with the principal
axis. By reference to Coulombs work, this can be
related to the concept of internal friction which
suggests that, at failure, the relationship
between

of shear stress ITI and normal stress

where G is the cohesive strength (sometimes

expressed as c for cohesive);
w being the coefficient
of internal friction of the
material which is related to the angle of internal
friction $ by :
P = t!d
4 being related to I3 by the following

equation

(b)

(4

Fig. 11-11. Marble cylinder deformed in a laboratory by

compression. (a) : undeformed; (b) : 20% main. 270 am.
confining pressure; (c) : 20 % strain, 445 am. confining pressure. 0, indicates the direction of maximum principal *tre**
(adapted from Press & Sever, 1978).

Fig. 11-12. (a) : Mohr stress envelope (adapted from Billings,

1972). (b) : Different types of Mahr tiress envelopes in relation
with the rock type : (A) : wet clay: (6) : dry sand; (C) : rock
materials (adapted from Ramsay, 1967).

The relation between stress and rupture may be

determined
graphically
by the Mohr stress circle
(Fig. 1 l-10) which is a graphic representation
of
the state of stress. To determine
the cohesive
strength and angle of internal friction, a series of
experiments with different values of the confining
pressure must be run on cylinders submitted
to
compression
tests (Fig. 11.11). and the results
reproduced
as a Mohr stress circle (Fig. 11.12).
The lines drawn tangent to the successive circles
define the Mohrstress
envelope. Their intersection
with the vertical axis define the cohesive, or shear,
strength of the rock r,, which corresponds to the
inherent
strength
of a material when normal
stress across the prospective surface of failure is
zenf (Glossary of Geology, 1980). The slope of
each of these tangents defines the angle of internal friction q5, for each state of stress.
Strain is the deformation
caused by stress. This
deformation
may correspond to a change in volume which is called dilation or compression.
It
may also result in a change in shape : distortion.

11.2.2. Mechanical

Behaviour

of Rocks

Every stress field imposes a strain field, but the

resulting deformation
also depends on the nature
and the mechanical
behaviour of the deformed
medium.
There are three mechanical behaviours :
- Elastic behavicur :
This is characterized
by a possible return to the
initial state. Deformation
appears
immediately
after the force is applied and strain does not build
up. The deformation
obeys Hookes law, which
states that strain is proportional
to stress. The
solid regains its dimensions
and its shape when
the stress is removed (Fig. 11-13). However, this
return to the initial shape is not necessarily imme-

244

St**
r.pl.r*
(T
k!-

Fig. 11-13.

Linear

(I =E*
e

elastic stressstrain
Ramsay, 1957).

PM.

law

(adapted

from

Fig. 11-14~.
Differential
stress (a? 6%) versus strain diagrams
explaining the transition from brirde to dunile bahaviourwhen
the confining pressure increases (c,).

diate, and may indeed take some time. An elastic

solid stands up until a certain limiting stress, called
the elastic limit. If this is exceeded, the solid does
not return to its original shape. When the stress
exceeds the elastic limit, the deformation
is plastic. It means that the solid only partially returns to
its original shape. When the stress increases, at a
certain value the solid fractures.
We reach the
rupture point. The relation existing between stress
and strain is expressed by a stress-strain
diagram
(Fig. 11.14).
The resistance of a material to elastic deformation is defined as the srress-strain
ratio. This ratio
is the Youngs modulus E :

Fig. II-Ma.
Stress-strain
diagrams for different
rock behaviours. A : elastic; S : elastic-planic;
C : elastic-plastic
with
strength
hardening;
D : actual e&tic-plastic
(from Billings.
1972).

E=O
E
with :
0 = stress
E = strain. E is equal to the ratio of the change
in length, Al, to the original length, I,,

Rigidity
shape.
Fig. ll-Mb.
Spectrum of behaviour illustrating
the transition
from perfectly brink (A) to perfectly ductile(E)
behaviour. The
shape of the specimen is indicated
along with the manner in
which it deforms under compression
or extension,
and the
shape of the stress-strain
curve (adapted
from Griggs &
Handin. 1960).

measures

the resistance

to change

in

G=1
Y
where G is the rigidity modulus,
stress, and y the shear strain.

245

T the shear

Fig. 11.16.

Rheologic
model of ela*tic strain
(from Ramsay, 1967).

: elastic

Fig. 11.18.

spring

Fig. 11-19.

-Bz2:;.:.;,.<
+:.:.y...
Fig. 11.17.

Rhedogic

model of plastic
Ramsay. 1967).

G may also be expressed

Some

strain : a sliding

in another

(from

material

its strain

is a function

The rate of shear strain y is measured

angular Shear variation .

values

Table 11-l
of viscosity in poises
fluids and rocks
(from Billings, 1972).

of time

way :

Lava, Mt. Vesuvius.

14OOT
Lava, Mt. Vesuvius,
llOOC
Rock salt. near surface
Rocks in general
Mantle of earth

2(1 + v)
where v is the Poissons ratio equal to the ratio
of transverse strain to axial strain in elastic deformation by uniaxial stress.

by the

for different

Water at 100C and one atmosphere

Water at 3OT and one atmosphere
Water at OT and one atmosphere
Corn syrup, room temperature and pressure
Roofing tar. ready to apply

G-E

where Ad is the change in diameter.

The bulk modulus or incompressibility
by :

In a vi*cous

(a). and the rapidity of its strain is a function of its viscosity (b).

0.00264
0.00801
0.01792
7 x 10
3x
2.66
2.83
10
10
1023

10
x 102
x 104
to 102

Plastic behavioor :
As previously explained, deformation
is permanent only above a certain threshold. Before this
point is reached the substance behaves elastically
(Fig. 11-16). Plastic deformations
result from processes such as intergranular
movements, dislocation glide (intragranular
movements),
and recrystallization (including diffusion).
The rheologic
model is a mass moving with
friction. Movement
will only take place above a
certain value of traction (Fig. 11-17).

K is given

K=A!L
AVIV.
where Ah is the change in hydrostatic pressure,
and AV the change in volume compared to the
original volume V..
The rheologic
model of an elastic body is a
perfect spring without mass (Fig. 11.15).

Viscous behaviour :
In viscous material deformation
appears immediately and the strain is unrecoverable
(Fig. 11.18).

248

Fig. 11-20. Rhedogic model Of viscous behavio : a damper.

Viscosity, 11.is the property that has a substance

to offer internal resistance to flow. It is equal to
the ratio of the shearing stress, r, to the rate of
shear strain, y. per unit of time, or dy/dt. The rate
of shear strain, y. is measured by the change in
angle I+I per unit of time t (Fig. 11-19) :

The viscosity unit is called poise. Viscosity is

very high for rocks but decreases when temperature increases (Table 11-l). Viscosity is an important property in geological processes. It determines, for example, the flow of magma or lava during
intrusive or volcanic activity, and the velocity of
displacement
in plate tectonics.
The rheologic model for viscous behaviour is a
damper, a perforated piston moving without friction in a-fluid (Fig. 11.20).
11.2.3. Factors

Controlling

Rock Behaviour

In addition to their inherent properties (mineralogy, texture), the mechanical behaviour of rocks is
controlled
by several factors such as confining
pressure. temperature
and time.
11.2.3.1. Confining

pressure

The strength
of a rock increases
with the
confining
pressure. Figure 11-21 illustrates
the
effect of confining
pressure
on the breaking
strength of several standard rocks. At low confining pressure, all the rocks deform only a few
percent before fracturing.
Under a high confining
pressure. we observe a different behaviour for the
rocks.
When fractures appear at less than 3-51 plastic
deformation,
the rocks are said to be britth?. When
rocks are able to sustain. under a given set of
conditions, 5.10 96 plastic deformation
before fracturing. they are ductile. Ductility is a measure of
the degree to which a rock exhibits ductile behaviour under given conditions, commonly expressed
by the strain at which fracture commences
(Glossary of Geology, 1980). As a consequence,
when
the confining
pressure increases a brittle rock
becomes ductile (i.e. limestone).

Fig. 11-22

Effect of temperature on deformation of marble

(from Griggs. 1939).

11.2.3.2. Temperature
The elastic limit decreases when the temperature increases. Moreover, less stress is necessary
to produce a given strain when the temperature
increases (Fig. 1 l-22).
11.2.3.3. Time
Time plays a very important
part in the behaviour of the rocks. Rocks may exhibit elastic
behaviour
if they are subjected
to very short
duration stresses, becoming plastic if these stresses are applied over a long time. This effect is
observed in creep experiments, where a small load
applied for a sufficiently
long time produces a
strain that may continue
and eventually
cause

Fig. 11-24. Change in shape without change in volume under

shear stress. (adapted from Lee, et a/., 1978).

Compressive,

Fig. 11.23. - Ideal creep cwve. A : instantane-xs deformation.

8 : primary creep. C : secondaw creep. 0 : tertiary creep (from
9ioings. 1972).

Table 11-2
tensile, and shearing
some rocks
(from Billings, 1942).

strengths

of

Sandstone ..........
Granite.. ..............

rupture. The same stress in instantaneous

would not cause any measurable
strain.
11-23 illustrates an ideal creep curve.
11.2.4. The Actual
of Rocks

tests
Figure

Gabbro.. .............. 1 Wo to 1900

8aSalt.. ...................................
Fekite.. ...................................

...................
...................

Behaviour
11.2.5. Types

In nature, rocks have a complex behaviour of all

three types of response visco-elasto-plastic.
One
of these components
may dominate according to
physical conditions
(temperature
and pressure)
and the way the stress is applied.
At low temperature
the elastic deformation
of
the crystal of quartz shows an almost perfect
reversibility.
Rocks which show a good reversibility
and
admit the greatest elastic deformation
are :
quartzite, plutonic rocks;
- slates.
Such rocks are brittle.
Some other rocks are more or less ductile, or
show an elasticoplastic
behaviour. Few rocks, such
as halite and undercompacted
shales, may have a
plastic to viscous behaviour.
According to the previous factors, it is possible
to determine the different kinds of strain following
the depth :
an upper zone, where most of the rocks have
an elastic (brittle) behaviour;
an intermediate
or middle zone. where the
rocks have an elasticoplastic
to elasticoviscous
behaviour (ductile):
- a deep zone, where rocks will show a plastic
behaviour. This zone is characterized
by the appearance of schistosity,
and then of foliation.
It
corresponds to anchimetamorphism
and to metamorphism. This type of rock has no interest in oil
exploration, since porosity and permeability disappear.

of State

of Stress

These are three types of state of stress :

tension or traction : stretches the material and
may increase its volume;
compressional:
leads to a decrease in the
volume of the material;
pure shear stress:
produces
a change in
shape, but not in volume (Fig. 11-24).
11.2.6. Rock Strength
Rocks are more or less resistant to stresses. The
strength of a rock corresponds
to the stress at
which the rock starts a permanent deformation.
Rocks show different
types of strength,
because they respond differently to various stresses.
Hence. there is, for each rock, a compressive,
tensile and shear strength.
The compressive
strength for a brittle rock is
sometimes
10 to 30 times more than its tensile
strength (Table 11-2).
11.2.7. The Results
Strains

of Stresses

The reaction of rocks to stress falls into two

categories :
- continuous strains which are folds and flows.
They will be studied in the chapter : Information on
Tectonics;

248

discontinuous
strains which
are fractures
(studied here after), faults (studied in the chapter :
Information
on Tectonics),
and pressure-solution
(stylolites) studied in the chapter : Information on
Diagenesis.

11.3. MECHANICAL
EVALUATION

PROPERTIES
FROM LOGS

Knowledge of the mechanical

properties
rock is required in several domains.
11.3.1. Mechanical
Behsviour
Stress Computations

of a

of the Reservoirs

To know if reservoirs require tubing or gravel

packing, or if they can be produced in open-hole
conditions, or if they will collapse, it is necessav
to estimate the critical wellbore pressure P.. It can
be demonstrated
that PC is expressed
by the
following relation using the Mohr-Coulomb
failure
criterion :
1.50. - 0.5ci - 0.5 a P,

Example of borehale damage due to breakout

Fig. 11.25.
effect along the borehole wall. On these images, obtained by
the Formation MicroScanner
tool. compare the right figure to
the left one which shows a series of natural fractures
in a
cemented
sandstone
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

1.732~,

P. =
where ox and ciVare the minimum and maximum
horizontal stresses respectively. I+ is usually defined in terms of the tectonic
imbalance
factor
oY/op Existence of tectonic
imbalance
can be
inferred from borehole deformation
tests, or from
break-out identification
with the aid of multiplediameter caliper logs or, better, from Formation
MicroScanner
images (Fig. 11-25). Pore pressure is
obtained from measurements
with the RFT tool in
new wells, or from pressure build-up
tests in
producing
wells. T., is the tensile strength.
In
Terzaghi or hard rock options, a is assumed to
be equal to unity.
To compute the fracture re-opening pressure Pt,
the tensile strength is set equal to zero. So we
obtain :

where a = 1 Cd&. C, and Cb being respectvely the rock compressibility

(at zero porosity) and
the bulk compressibility
(with porosity), P, is the
pore pressure. q is the initial shear strength (= b),
and v the Poissons ratio. ox is the minimum
horizontal stress. It can be obtained assuming a
horizontally
constrained
elastic model and is expressed, following the Griffith and Mohr-Coulomb
-failure criteria, by :
ox =

&

(PO, -UP,)

+ CCP,

where Pob is the overburden pressure, assumed

to be equal to crz. In the simplified
Terzaghi and
hard rock options a is assumed equal to unity.
Only elastic constrains determine oz = Pob. The
laws of elasticity associate to this vertical stress a
minimum
horizontal
stress ox, and the tectonic
stresses are estimated
through the value of o,
which can vary between ox (in a non tectonic
regime), and 0;.
11.3.2. Fracture-Pressure
The fracture initiation
of several parameters.
following
relation :

Pf, = 31sx- D -

Pp

These parameters are computed and displayed

in the MECHPRO program (Fig. 11-26).
11.3.3. Dynamic

Elastic

Properties

Computation
of some of the previous factors
require the knowledge
of the dynamic
elastic
properties. If a sonic waveform recording has been
made using a Long Spacing Sonic tool (LSS) or
the Array Sonic Service, Ato and A& can be
obtained from the waveform analysis. By combining these two data with the corrected
bulk
density, it is possible to compute the dynamic

Computations
pressure P, is a function
It is expressed
by the

Pb = 3ox - 0 - UP, + To

249

MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES

WELL B-10

.Yi
-4

COlllpUtCd
1.oo psi/A

0.96 pa

Re-opening

0.95 pat

0.96 psi/A

ClCISUR

0.80 psi/A
11710 psi

Fig. 11.29.

Test

Initiation

139UOps.i

14050 psi
0.81 psi/A
1185Opsi

Example of a display of the mechanical properties of rocks computed with the MECHPRO program (from Edwards.
1985).

250

CiiOO

Yh%E

L
Pa
1

CB

Fig. 11-27.

Example of a display of the elastic properties and formation strength computed with the MECHPRO program (from
Edwards. 1985)

251

Dynamic

Table 11-3
elastic parameters and how they can be
computed from wireline log data.

Uniaxial

Table 11-4
compressional
and tensile
rocks.

strengths

for

Uniaxial Compressional and Tensile Strength+ fw Rocks

Quart&z, Cheshire
Granite, Westerly
Diabase, Frederick
Sansdtone, Gosord
Marble, Carrara
coulombs

G
MPa

3,

461
229
466
50
90

28
21
40
3.6
6.9

elastic parameters at each sampling level (Table

11-3). This is achieved by the MECHPRO program.
An example of the display of the results is given in
Figure 11-27.
11.3.4. Inherent

Strength

Computations

The inherent rock strengths are computed

by
the MECHPRO program. They are related to one
another by simple functions expressed below.
Initial shear strength
%
This parameter is derived by an empirical model
based on Deere & Millers work (1969) and elaborated by Coates & Denoo (1981).
z, = !=$[O.OOSV,,,,
Uniaxial

compressive

+ 0.0046(1 - /,I.,)]
strength

C,

q5 is the angle of friction in the Mohr-Coulomb

failure model. It is set at 300.
Tensile

strength

r.

The tensile strength is set at one-twelfth

as the average value (Table 11-4).

of C,

In addition to these applications

mechanical
properties evaluation can be used for :
_ mud weight control to avoid hydraulic fracturing and loss of circulation;
- drillability
of the formation : adaptation
of
drilling parameters,
choice of rock bit. of the
rotation speed, weight on the rock bit ... .
_ dipmeter interpretation
by enabling a choice
between the faulting or folding of rocks.

16.5
10.9
12.2
13.9
13.0

p and e for Rclcks

P

Granite
sandstone
Marbre

c.
70

0.64
0.51
0.75

ML
0.31
0.29
1.1

11.4. EFFECTS OF FRACTURES

ON THE RESPONSES
OF THE LOGGING TOOLS
With the exception of the Borehole Televiewer
and the Formation MicroScanner
tools, which can,
in favourable circumstances,
see fractures directly,
the responses of the logging tools are affected
only indirectly by the presence of fractures. It is
only by these indirect effects that the fractures
can be detected.
With this in mind, we will now examine, tool-by
-tool, the effects of fractures on their responses,
and so get an idea of the capacity of each tool for
detecting them.
11.4.1. Natural

Gamma

Radioactivity

To the extent that the circulation of fluids may

have contributed
to the precipitation
of uranium in
the fracture system, the standard gamma ray tool,
or the spectrometn/
of the natural gamma ray, will
show increased activity levels or increased uranium content
in front of fractured
zones (Fig.
11.28).
Similarly, a comparison
between two successive gamma ray measurements.
the first with a
non-radioactive
mud, and the second over the
same section after a radioactive tracer has been
circulated briefly in the mud, may show up fractured zones. The tracers invade the permeable zones
and cause the open fractures to exhibit increased
radioactivity.
A further measurement
made some
time later, or after the start of production,
should
show decreased radioactivity
over the fractured
ZClC?S.

NOTE: In cases of deep invasion, the start of

production
may cause a temporary
increase in
activity by bringing the radioactive mud closer to
the borehole wall.

GAMMA RAY

SPECTROMETRY

Fig. 11.29b. Natural Gamma Ray Spectrometry log over a

fractured section (from Schlumberger. Well Evaluation Conference. Egypt, 1984).

an increase in hole diameter due to crumbling

of the fractured zone during drilling resulting in
chunks of various sizes falling away.
These phenomena can best be seen by a fourarm caliper tool. such as the BGT, or dipmeters
rather than the standard two-arm
calipers (Fig.
11.30).
An increase on only one of the diameters is due
to the presence of fractures
and follows their
orientation
(Fig. 1 l-31). The orientation
can be
obtained from the inclinometry
measurement. The
direction of elongation
is often that of a major
system of faults and fissures, as has been shown
by various researchers (Babcock, 1978 (Fig. 11-32);
Bell 8, Gough. 1979; Cox, 1983).
11.4.3. Thermometer

Log

The temperature gradient in the mud is affected

by the presence of open fractures
due to the
invasion of the fracture system by the drilling mud
which has the effect of cooling the formations.
This phenomenon
must not be confused with gas
production which also causes a drop in temperature.
The circulation
of mud disrupts
the normal
distribution
of heat which depends partly on the
difference
in temperature
between the mud and
the formations,
and partly on the thermal conductivity of the rocks. The latter varies considerably as
each type of rock has its own thermal conductivity
(Table 11-5 and Fig. 11-33). For this reason, a
thermometer
log recorded immediately
after drilling and measured on the run-in can be a good
indicator of the types of rock encountered.
The mud at the bottom of the well is usually
cooler than the formations,
while near the surface
it is hotter. When circulation has been stopped for

Fig. 11.%a. Fractured zones in this Ordovician formation of

Algeria identified by uranium peaks (from Schlumber9er. Well
Evaluation Conference. Algeria, 1979).

11.42. Caliper
Fractured
zones may appear on the caliper
log(s) as :
a reduction
in hole diameter
in compacted
zones which are in gauge, most probably due to a
deposit of mud cake, especially if lost-circulation
material has been used (Fig. 11-29);

253

1
Fig. II-SO.

Hole ovali~ation in fractured zones [from Babcock.

1978).

some time, the mud temperature

tends to homogenize
by thermal
exchange,
horizontally
by
conduction,
and sometimes
vertically
too, by
convection.
Thus. temperature
changes
at all
depths are slow, and some time is required before
the temperatures
revert to their original values.
Thus. the mud becomes heated in the deeper part

Fig. 11-31. Three possible reasons for the barehale ovalisation. (A, : single steeply di,,,,ing fracture: (B) : closely spaced
steeply dipping fractures; (C) : intersecting fractures.

r
I

Fig.

11-32.
sandstones

[a) : Relationship
between
the hole avalisation
and the direction
of pnts
on outcrops
(Cretaceous
to Devonian
in Canada); (b) : Remarkable
consistency
in direction
of hole ovalisatian
over a large region (from Babcock. 1978).

of the well. This means that the temperature

gradient of the mud intersects
the geothermal
gradient at a certain depth (Fig. 11-34). Above this
point of intersection
the mud is hotter than the
formations, while below it is cooler. Consequently,
mud invasion in the upper zone increases the
formation temperatures,
while in the lower zones
they are decreased. Clearly, the interpretation
of
temperature
logs must take account of the position of this point of intersection.
When a cool fluid such as the drilling mud
penetrates the formation
it displaces the formation fluid. The time taken for the formation
to
revert to its normal temperature
will depend on the
duration of circulation and on the degree of invasion (Fig. 11.35).
Zones which have been more deeply invaded
will thus appear as cooler zones on the temperature log. This will be particularly
noticeable
in
zones with open fractures where there has been a
partial or total loss of circulation.

Fig. 11.33.

255

Theoretical
temperature
profile
lithology
and depth.

as a function

of

11.4.4. Formation

Density

In the case of the compensated

formation
density tool, two measurements
may be considered : the density
measurement
itself, and the
density correction.
Being a pad-mounted
device, the density tool
may face in different directions on two successive
runs over a fractured
interval. One would then
expect a drop in density if on one of these runs the
pad was facing an open fracture. However, the
dense, compact
formations
in which fractures
usually occur will produce low count rates on the
detectors,
and hence a high level of statistical
variations.
The resulting
poor repeatability
between successive
runs, which
is a feature
of
high-density
formations,
whether they are fractured or not, makes it impractical
to look for a
variation in density as an indication
of the presence of fractures across one axis of the hole.
The fact that the tool is unidirectional
and not
free to rotate does not simplify matters. However,
it may be assumed that, if the hole is eccentric, the
long axis will have the same orientation
as the
vertical fractures. as long as these are more or less
unidirectional.

The readings of pad-mounted

tools will be
affected by small depressions in the borehole wall
which are the result of small pieces of rock falling
away. The short-spacing
detector is more influenced by the mud filling these small cavities than is
the long-spacing
detector.
In zones where the caliper indicates a smooth
borehole wall, the Ap curve will show a higher
correction than normal in the case of baryte muds
(Fig. 11-36). This is often accompanied
by a very
low density reading, but may be localised. blurred
or even hidden by the time constant
of the
measurement
circuit.
- The caliper may indicate sudden changes of
hole diameter. When these changes are due to
scaling of the formation wall, they can be seen
by the short-spacing
detector.
11.4.5. Photoelectric
Cross-Section

However, the measurement

is very sensitive to
baryte, and so can detect fractures which have
been invaded by baryte muds. When the pad of
the tool passes a fractured zone, the photoelectric
capture cross-section
will show very high values
(Fig. 11-37). This is due to the high atomic number
of barium compared
to those of the elements
making up the majority of sedimentary
rocks. This
property can be useful for estimating the porosity
of the fractures (see below).

Capture

This measurement,
which is made with the
Schlumberger
Litho-Density
tool (LDT], is more or
less independent of porosity. Consequently
it is of
no use for detecting
fractures
in normal muds.

257

11.46.

Neutron-Hydrogen

Index

wave train, resulting in erratic increases in the

apparent travel time (so-called cycle -skips, Fig.
11.38). This phenomenon
is detected more easily
with the older, uncompensated
tools. Newer tools
are capable of detecting cycle-skip conditions and
may automatically
take steps necessary to avoid
cycle skipping that may be due to presence of
fracture.
The shear wave velocity, on the other hand, is
more affected by fractures than that of the compressional wave. It is seen to decrease while the
compressional
velocity remains constant. Thus, by
comparing
A& with AL possible fractured zones
can be identified
when A& increases while Att,
remains constant. These measurements
can be
made with the Schlumberger
Array Sonic Service.

This measurement
responds essentially to formation fluids, and so it is a measurement
of total
porosity. Since the porosity of fractures is usually
small compared to that of the matrix (e. g. in chalk
or compacted
clays), it is difficult
to identify
fractures because the small variation in porosity is
masked by statistical
variations.
In any case,
because it is not a directional
measurement,
the
CNL tool will give a more stable measurement.
This is especially true in dense. compact formations because of higher count rates and lower
statistical variations.
11.4.7. Sonic Travel

Time

11.4.8. Attenuation

In theory, the travel time of the compressional

wave is unaffected by fractures which do not cross
the shortest time path. This is the case with
subvertical
fractures, or more correctly fractures
which are parallel to the tool axis, and these are
generally not detected by the sonic tool.
Whenever the fracture system is more complex,
diffraction
and reflection will attenuate the compressional wave to such a degree that detection
may not occur until the second or third peak in the

of Acoustic

Waves

In general, the amplitude of an acoustic wave is

decreased when it crc~sses a fracture. This is the
result of a transfer of energy. The coefficient
of
transmission
is a function of the apparent dip of
the fracture relative to the direction of propagation. Energy transmission
across a fracture depends to a large extent on the efficiency of mode
conversions at the fracture interface. For acoustic

258

memorandum)
this contrasting
behaviour
could
suggest a conversion from one mode to the other
(compressional
to shear) for certain values of
inclination
of the fractures. The attenuation
decreases with increasing dip. It becomes very small
when the dip of the fracture is above 650 (250 to
the axis of the tool or borehole).
A technique
for measuring the attenuation
is
the acoustic Variable Density Log (VDL). It involves presenting the shape of the wave train in a
continuous
manner. The values of amplitude
are
represented
by varying shades of grey.
In this measurement,
zones with fractures at an
angle to the tool axis will be characterized
by
distortion
and interference
due to reflection
and
refraction at the fracture planes. This disrupts the
normally parallel appearance of the waves on the
VDL, and causes a reduction in the density of the
grey band. This is accompanied
by blurring and
loss of vertical coherence in the wave train (Fig.
11-40).
In addition, the appearance of chevrons, associated with a reduction of amolitude without any
change in At may indicate the existence of fractul
res at a high angle (Fig. 11-41).
The interpretation
of these measurements
is not
always straightforward,
because other phenomena
can produce the same effects.
11.4.9. Stoneley

Wave

The Stoneley wave, and especially its low frequency component

known as the Tube wave, is a
borehole fluid mode that propagates as a pressure
wave along the borehole.
The way fractures affect the Stoneley wave is
quite different compared to the way they affect
compressional
and shear waves. Acoustic energy
is not lost through inefficient
mode conversions.
but more as a result of moving the fluid in the
fracture system, resulting in a pressure drop in the
borehole. As a result, the direct Stoneley wave is
attenuated. and a reflected Stoneley is generated.
Three advantages of the Stoneley wave analysis
can be considered.
In fast formations,
where we generally look
for fractures,
Stoneley wave amplitude
is much
higher than the other two arrivals (compressional
and shear Fig. 11-40). so it is more straightforward.
The Stoneley wave, being mainly influenced
by borehole fluid, does not react much to changes
in lithology.
Thus, a strong Stoneley
reflection
most likely indicates an open fracture, not a bed
boundary.
- The roughly constant Stoneley velocity eases
the signal processing task of measuring the reflected signal.
Stoneley wave attenuation
may correspond
to
fractures
if other possibilities
such as caves,
change in rigidity, and crossing a bed boundary
can be eliminated
by analysing the other openhole logs.

energy to cross a fracture, a propagating

compressional or shear wave must be converted to a
fluid wave at the first fracture interface and then
converted back again at the second. Obviously, the
inclination
of the fracture is crucial here. Figure
11.39, from Morris et. a/. (1963). is based on
experimental
results and shows that compressional waves suffer little attenuation
on crossing
fractures which are parallel or perpendicular to the
tool axis. The attenuation is high when the angle is
between 350 and 800. Shear waves on the other
hand, are strongly attenuated by fractures at low
angles. According
to J. Gartner (in a personal

259

, --.

260

11.4.10. Resistivities
The electrical system consisting of the formation, the borehole and the fracture
network is
represented
by the diagram in Figure 11-42. The
fractures
are assumed to be subparallel
to the
borehole axis and invaded by a conductive fluid.
Taking into account the current distribution
for
each type of device, it will be observed that, in the
case of fractures
which are subparallel
to the
borehole axis :
- the induction is unaffected
by the fractures
which only constitute
a negligible
part of the
whole circuit since they are in series for the
Foucault currents;
the electrode tools will be strongly affected
because the fracture network presents paths of
lowered resistance which act as shunt resistances
to the current.
In the case of fractures which are subperpendicular to the borehole axis :
- the induction
will be strongly
influenced
because now the fractures are in parallel rather
than in series, and their conductivity
is very high
compared with that of the surrounding formations;
- for the other tools, these fractures continue to
offer paths of lowered resistance.
Thus, a comparison
of resistivity values from
induction and electrode tools in zones containing
subparallel open fractures will show substantially
lower resistivities
on the laterologs than on the
induction (Fig. 11-43). However, we must bear in
mind that the induction measurement
is not recommended
in resistive,
compact
formations
because of low signal level. The analysis will
therefore rely on the relative behaviour of the two
laterologs (deep and shallow) and of the microdevices.
When the fratures are subparallel to the borehole axis, the apparent drop in resistivity becomes
more pronounced with decreasing depth of investigation
although
it remains constant
within a

Fig. 11-43. Comparison

between the reswn~es
of the inducdon and laferolog in a fractured
zone (courtesy of Schlumber9-I.

b
Fig. 1144.
Current distribution
in the case of a fracture which
is subparallel
to the borehole
axis. a) : Claviers model; b) :
&aus
model (courtesy of Schlumberger).

261

In compact zones of low porosity which are not

fractured,
and therefore
with little invasion, the
two measurements
will read about the same
resistivity (Fig. 11.45, top interval).
Because they are pad-mounted,
the microdevices only respond to fractures in front of the pad.
But because the borehole wall tends to crumble
near the fractures, it becomes ovalised, and the
pad tends to ride the low side of the major axis.
Hence, the probability
of following
the fracture
network
is increased.
Clearly the presence of
fractures
will strongly
influence
these devices
because of their small volume of investigation.
Moreover, this part of the fracture system will be
invaded by mud or mud filtrate, and so the resistivities will be much lower (Fig. 11-45, bottom
interval). In addition, crumbling
of the borehole
wall will create zones of current leakage. All this
enhances the difference in the resistivity readings
of the micro- and macrodevices.
11.4.11. Dipmeter
Several
tool :

parameters

11.4.11.1. Resistivity

Fig. 114.

must be analysed

with this

curves

As with all the pad-mounted

microdevices,
only
the pads which are in front of the fractures will be
affected and show a drop in resistivity (Fig. 11.46).
If the hole is ovalised because of fractures, the
usual orientation of the tool will be with two of the
four arms across the major axis, the other two
being perpendicular.
Thus in compact, fractured
formations. the two opposite pads which see the
fractures will show a drop in resistivity, while the
other pair, which does not see them, show a high
resistivity value with little or no curve activity (Fig.
11.47). assuming that a low EMEX value has been
used.
Superimposing
the resistivity
curves of two
adjacent (i.e. 900 apart) pads will reveal fractured
zones whenever there is a separation between the
two curves. A visual representation
of the presence of fractures is obtained by shading between
the two pairs of adjacent curves (Fig. 11.48).
This technique is known as Fracture Identification Log (FIL), and this presentation
can be obtained at the wellsite using the CSU system.
Unfortunately,
the FIL is often confused
by
sedimentary
features such as laminations, flasers
or pebbles, and the majority of the shaded areas
correspond
to beds with an apparent dip rather
than to fractures.
This problem
has bean eliminated
with the
introduction
by Schlumberger
of a new program
known as DCA (Detection of Conductive Anomalies). Conductive events which cannot be correlated are searched for, and only these can be
interpreted
as possible fractures. The events are

Example showing the responses of the latemlogs

and the MSFL in a fractured
zone.

fracture. Consequently
the deeper-reading
device
is less affected by the fracture than the shallowreading device. A ratio of 1.5 to 2 is commonly
observed between RLLo and RLLS. Moreover, if the
drilling mud is more conductive than the original
formation fluid (gas, oil or fresh water), the resistivity of the LLS will be substantially
less than that
of the LLD (Fig. 1 l-44).
If the mud is less conductive than the original
fluids in the fractures, the separation of LLS and
LLD is much less and may even be inverted.

262

263

defined during GEODIP processing. The conductive anomaly is then reproduced only if the following conditions are satisfied :
the conductivity
exceeds a certain value;
- there is a sufficient
difference
between the
conductivity
values;
the anomaly is detected on a minimum number of successive intervals.
The three thresholds
can be set by the log
analyst and so adapted to local conditions.
The
results are presented in the form of a log. The
azimuths of pads 1 and 2 are displayed against
depth in the leftrhand track (Fig. 11-49 & 11-50).
The shaded areas indicate a difference
between
the nominal hole diameter and the readings of the
two calipers.
The azimuths of pads 1,2,3 and 4 are displayed
against depth in the right-hand track. The conduc-

264

j
I

55

- IIm

i
-c
I

F -

Fig. 11-X.
Further
(Schlumberger.
Well

DCA example
with the SHDT tool
Evaluation Conference,
Egypt, 1994).

tive anomalies are then indicated along the COTresponding

azimuth curve. The available fracture
indicators with this presentation
include :
the conductive
anomalies
revealed by the
DCA program;
borehole rugosity and the axis of ovalisation;
- changes in the speed of rotation of the tool.
A polar frequency plot of the conductive anomalies is also provided
(Fig. 11-51). It is used to
determine the direction of the fracture network or
networks. This direction is related to the axis of
maximum constraint and to the general orientation
of the faults in the region.
When the hole is not very ovalised, the tool will
rotate because of the torque in the logging cable.
The fractures are then seen successively
by the
different pads (Fig. 11-52).
The SHDT tool gives even better detection of
fractures by comparing the measurements
of two
buttons on the same pad (Fig. 11-53). In certain
favourable cases, the dip of the fracture can even
be determined
(Fig. 11-54).
11.4.11.2. Azimuth

Curve of Pad 1

As we have seen, the tool normally rotates as it

travels uphole. Any slowing, stopping or change of

Fig. 11-51. Example of a polar frequency

plot which provides
a means of orienting
the fracture
network
(courtesy
of
Schlumberger).

direction
in the rotation
usually indicates
the
presence of fractures.
This phenomenon
is the
result of the pad following a sort of subvertical or
oblique
pathway
created
by crumbling
of the
fractured zone for a certain distance (Fig. 11-55).
The tool then resumes its normal rotation, usually
after a brief period of more rapid rotation to
release the torsion which has built up in the cable.
11.4.11.3. Caliper
Since the dipmeter tool has two measurements
of diameter 900 apart, comparison
between them
will reveal any hole ovalisation, sudden variations
in diameter, or restrictions due to deposits of mud
cake or lost circulation
material in the fractured
zones (Fig. 11-29).

b
Fig. 11-W (a) : Examples of conductive anomalies which can
be detected by the SHDT fool. (b) : They can be correlated to
determine the dip and the azimuth of the fractures (courtesy
of Schlumberger).

266

11.4.11.4. Dips
In compact fractured formations,
the fractured
zones can be identified from the CLUSTER program for the HDT tool, or the MSD program for
the SHDT tool by examining the values of erratic
dips or dips of poor quality. Correlations which are
due to conductivity
peaks have no reason to
produce dips which are consistent
in either dip
angle or azimuth.
When the GEODIP program is used for the HDT
tool, or the LOCDIP program for the SHDT tool,
there is a noticeable
absence of four-pad dips.
There may, however, be some dips which are
erratic in dip angle and azimuth which are due to
three-pad correlations.
In certain favourable cases
(e. g. a single fracture), the conductive peaks can
be correlated to give the dip of the fracture (Fig.
11-54 & 11-56).
11.4.12. Formation

MicroScanner

Tool

When one of the 54 button electrodes (two pads

of 27 electrodes each) on these pads of this tool
passes an open fracture
in the formation,
the
current it emits will take the least resistive path.
This will be reflected
on the corresponding

267

conductivity
curve as a sharp increase, while the
images will represent fractures as one or several
dark irregular lines (Fig. 11-57).
One of the major advantages of this tool is the
continuous
lateral coverage
it provides
across
twice a 7 cm wide strip, due to the large number
of electrodes with overlap of each raw over the
surrounding
raws. As Figure 11-58 illustrates individual fractures
can be identified.
If borehole
coverage
is built up through
several passes.
between which the pad rotation has changed, their
direction and average dip can also be obtained
(Fig. 11.59).
Healed cemented fractures can also be detected, if the resistivity contrast with the surrounding
rock is sufficient. These appear as white irregular
lines on the images (Fig. 11-60).
In most cases the Formation MicroScanner
tool
enables distinction
between natural fractures and
those induced during the drilling of the well (Fig.
11.25).

11.4.13. Spontaneous

Potential

Negative anomalies
are sometimes observed
on the spontaneous
potential in fractured zones.
This is often explained by the development
of an
electrofiltration
potential
when they have been
drilled with a fresh mud (salinity of less than 5,000
wm).

11.4.14. Borehole

T&viewer

This tool (Zemanek et al., 1989) provides an

acoustic image of the borehole wall (Fig. 11-61). It
is obtained
by measuring
part of the acoustic
energy reflected from the borehole wall. The same
transducer acts as both transmitter
and receiver.
The formation is more reflective when the rock
is smooth and compact. When it is rugose, fractured or vuggy. the acoustic energy is more disper-

268

PAD AZIMUTH

0.2m

+-0.2m-+

DEPTH

CAUPERS

Pad
Direction
*
1
4-

Pad 3
Images

269

Pad 4

Images

Pad 4
TMCl?S

Fig. 11-62. Fractures can be detected by bofh tha amplitude

and the filtered transit time recorded by the borehole feleviewer (courtesy of Schlumberger).

11.5. DETECTION OF FRACTURES

FROM WELL LOGS
As we have just seen. only two logging tools are
capable of detecting fractures themselves, that is
breaks in rocks. These are the borehole televiewer
(BHTV) and the Formation
MicroScanner
(FMS)
tools.
In the BHTV tool two parameters can be used
for fracture detection, the amplitude of the received signal and its transit time. The amplitude of
the signal is reduced due to the dispersion
of
energy at the edges of the fracture, while the
transit time will be increased (Fig. 1 l-62).
When several passes are made in the same well
with a Formation MicroScanner
tool, taking care to
ensure that the tool has rotated (azimuth of pad 1
has changed), it is generally possible to detect
each fracture
(Fig. 11.58). Thus their number,
distribution,
form, orientation and average dip can
be determined.
It is also possible to verify if they
are ordered or consist of several networks.

sed and these irregularities

then appear as darkened areas on the film.
This tool provides, then, not only a detection of
all the open fractures, but also their orientation
and dip. The only requirement
is to minimize the
amount of material in suspension in the mud to
avoid having a speckled image due to dispersion
of the energy. Other adverse conditions
to be
avoided are excessive mud-cake, excessive hole
ovalisation or gas-cut mud.

270

Other logging tools are not capable of detecting

fractures themselves,
but by the effect that the
fractures
have on the log measurements.
They
rarely allow the detection of individual fractures,
only indicating the presence of fractured zones.
But the variations
in tool response caused by
fractures could also be caused by other phenomena. The following
procedure is recommended
to be sure of the origin of these variations :
it is necessary first of all to look for these
variations in intervals which are likely to be fractured. These may be zones in which there has been
a loss of circulation
or an inflow of fluids, or
consolidated
formations
such as chalks, iimestones or compact dolomites, quartzites, anhydrites,
or metamorphic
rocks. In general terms, it is zones
of high resistivity which are of interest, and not
porous, unconsolidated
sands or plastic clays. A
preliminary
pass with the LITHO and MECHPRO
programs. which have already been described, will
identify facies which are favourable to fracturing.
The next step is to note all possible occurrences by identifying
on each available log all the
phenomena which could be attributed to fractures.
The probability
of fractures
is in fact much
greater than the phenomena observed on the logs
may indicate. Thus, if several of the phenomena
already described are detected, it is reasonable to
conclude that fractures are present.
Schlumberger
have recently made a new program for the detection and evaluation of fractures
commercially
available under the name of DETFRA. This program (Boyeldieu
& Martin, 1964)
groups all the known fracture indicators into five
categories : electrical, acoustic, radioactive, electromagnetic
and multi-pad.
Each log is analysed, and a fracture probability
is estimated
using certain
criteria
(threshold,
median and maximum probability (Fig. 11-63). The
probabilities
are then combined
using bayesian
logic. Thus, two criteria with individual probabilities PI and P, will have a combined
probability
which is given by :
P = 1 - (1 - P,)(l - P,)
This rule is associative, and can be extended to
an unlimited number of probabilities.
The results
are presented in the form of a log (Fig. 11-64).
However, other techniques
are also available.

11.5.1. crossplots
Combinations
of various log measurements
in
the form of crossplots are also useful in detecting
fractures.
11.5.1.1. Formation

Factor

- PorosiQf

If the porosity is plotted on a logarithmic

scale
as a function
of formation
factor (FR = RJR,),
fractured zones will appear as zones having the
lowest values of Fn for a given value of porosity in
a low-porosity
zone (Fig. 11.65). This is due to the
drop in resistivity associated with fractures.
Similar plots can also be made by replacing Fn
by R, or RLLo (Fig. 11.66).
11.5.1.2. M - N Plot
This technique, introduced by Burke et al. (1969)
for the study of complex lithologies, combines the
responses of density, neutron and sonic tools. The
two computed parameters, M and N, are independent of porosity, at least if we can assume that all
three tools respond linearly to porosity (Fig. 11-67).
M = Ati - At x 0.1
Pb - Prnf
N _ (Iti), Pb -

IH
Prnf

In this case, each pure mineral is represented

by a single point, regardless of porosiVy, when M

271

._. . _ ..~-

L0G.F

../G_

%_ ._._....,_f..,I.tf....**..........~.*....,.~...~
_Li
i_:c

?_LC

l.1.J
...:,-,.l

P_Y%

.._. t....._.*.

1
Fig. 11-65.

/....

G.SO

i.0:

!.S,

CORIGANO)

-i

Example

of crossplots

of formation

factor

vs. porosih/ (sonic, or derived

SW et a,.. 1978).

272

from the neutron-density

combination)

(from

LITHO-POROSITY
(FRESH

I
3

.4

.5

Fig. 11-W.

PLOT

MUD)

6 .N.

.8

-9

J
1.0

M v* N crossplot and its interpretation

(from Burke et a!., 19W).

G*
uTHo40,0stn
,m~.........:.........:.......-.:.........:...

PLOT

EXAMPL
(1) :

SONIC-DENSITY
CROSS-PLOT

FOR MINERAL

A
*;.........)
;:i:,
:........-i:
W

!
;

in
ii:
,

.a
)i&fT~

a.::
z . .

:
.___._~____.._..:._.._.._.:
..-I

DENSITY pb gmlcc

CROSS-

NEUTRONDENSITY
PLOT FOR MINERAL

a:........I.........:.........i.........:.........i
.a 54 A4,II.-O an 90

Fig. 11.69. Example of a M vs N cro~plot showing the

exktence of secondary porosity which can panly be related to

is plotted against N (Fig. 11-66). When there is

some secondary
porosity (due to fractures,
for
example), the sonic measurement
is unaffected by
it. This is because the measurement
is based on
the travel time of the fastest compressional
wave,
which bypasses vugs and fractures, at least when
the fractures are subparallel to the borehole axis.
Consequently,
At is reduced and M is increased.
The representative
points are therefore displaced
towards the top of the diagram (Fig. 11-69).

Fig. 11-W. Determination of the M and N factors (from Burke

e* al, 1969).

273

11.5.1.3. MID Hot

This technique,
very similar to the preceding
one, was introduced
by Clavier et al. (1976). and
combines the measurements
of the same three
tools. An apparent matrix density (p,,), and an
apparent
matrix travel time (At&
are defined
from charts (Fig. 11-70). These two parameters are
then plotted against each other (Fig. 11-71). In this
case also, each pure mineral, or fixed mixture of
minerals, is represented
by a unique point regardless of porosity, so long as each tool responds in
the same way to the porosity.
Again, secondary porosity reduces At and so
(At,,,&. The points representing
fractured or vuggy
zones are then displaced towards the left-hand
side of the plot (Fig. 1 l-72).

Fig. 11-71. Example of a MID-plot and its interpretation far

the determination of mineralogy (from Clavier era!., 1976).

-.
..mj ~

. ..,. I .> . . .r ,
.f !? ?! :: _: (If

. ;;

.,,-,;.
:

..
f-

10

2.2

50

40

CNL NETRON WEX (AWare,,+ Limestone Porosity~

Fig. 11-70. Ghan for the determination of : (a) : p+,. and (b) :
At,,+. (from Clavier et a\.. 1976).

Fig. 11-72. Example of a MID-pEot indicating the presence of

secondary porosity which can pardy be related to fractures
(courtesy of Schlumberger).

274

11.5.2. Tortuos~Ey

Factor

This factor, also known as the cementation

factor, is defined by the following
equation :

Since the open fractures

are more or less
rectilinear planes, one would expect the tortuosity
factor to be close to 1, at least when the porosity
is due to the fractures, and the current lines are
parallel to the plane of the fractures. In fact, even
if the fractures have not been healed, there will be
crystals in the fractures
which are not evenly
distributed,
and these will increase the tortuosity.
In addition, the fractures are not always planar or
indeed open, and they are frequently at an angle to
the borehole axis. Finally, there are often several
crisscrossing
fracture systems. As a result, the
tortuosity factor, m, is always greater than 1, but
usually well below 2 or 2.3, the values observed in
compact formations,
and more usually around 1.4.
If the m factor is plotted
against depth, the
fractured
zones will show the lowest values,
usually between 1.3 and 1.6 (Figs. 11-73).

11.5.3. Calculation

of Secondary

types of fractures : open or cemented;

- orientation
(dip and azimuth) of fractures;
vertical and lateral extent of fractures;
- fracture
density:
number of fractures
and
total fracture length per unit volume;
fracture porosity.
Well logs do not provide all of this information,
only the following
being obtainable.

Porosity

Given that the sonic measurement

does not
see the porosity of fractures or vugs, a secondary porosity index can be defined by combining
the porosity from the sonic tool with that deduced
from the density-neutron
combination
:
SPI=&w-I&

11.6.1. Depths

11.62. Type of Fracture

The Formation MicroScanner
tool can usually
differentiate
between
open fractures,
fractures
induced by the drilling process. and healed cemented fractures. For the other tools, only open fractures will affect the log responses and be detected.
In any case, it is only open fractures which are of
interest
for production.
Hence every fracture
which is detected as a conductive
anomaly is by
definition
open. However, not every conductivity
oeak is a fracture.

RECAP
We can conclude
that fractured
zones are
present if examination
of the Formation MicroScanner and BHlV images indicate their presence.
In the absence of these measurements,
the existence of fractures can be concluded if several of
the following
phenomena
are observed simultaneously at about the same depth :
a change in temperature
gradient;
- a change in hole diameter;
a localised decrease in density, accompanied
by a variation in Ap while Pe, At and & remain
steady, but not if there is a cave, or the mud
contains bary-te;
a very slight increase in porosity;
secondan/ porosity;
a reduction in the value of the m factor;
a change in the ratio LLD/LLS;
sudden drops in resistivity on the microdevi-Se*;
- high Pe values when the mud contains baryte;
conductivity
peaks on the FIL;
- DCA showing conductive
anomalies;
a pause in tool rotation;
- strong attenuation
of acoustic waves;
a blurred zone on the VDL, or a lack of vertical
coherence on the wave train;
radioactivity
peaks or uranium peaks;
strong negative SP deflections.

116.3.

Orientation

of Fractures

There are two parameters to be determined :

dip and azimuth. The borehole televiewer and the
Formation MicroScanner
are the only tools which
allow us to determine both the orientation and the
dip of fractures
(Fig. 11-75 & 11.59). The dip
cannot be determined with any certainty from the
other logs, because even if a correlation
is made
between conductivity
peaks, there is no guarantee
that they all belong to the same fracture.
If we now consider the size of an event detected by a pad (Fig. ll-76), we can attempt to define
two possible dips and select the ones which show
the most constant values. These data must also be
plotted as a function of pad azimuth.
The azimuth can be determined
if fracturing
is
accompanied
by hole ovalisation, or from a polar
frequency plot of conductive
anomalies detected
by the DCA program.
Figure 11-32 shows the
consistency
of results, and their correlation
with
the predominant
fracture or fault directions.
The two buttons on each pad of the SHDT
provide a means of determining
the apparent dip
of the planes of the fractures picked up by each
pad. The dip and azimuth of the fractures can then
be defined if we assume that the two anomalies
correspond to the same fracture, or at least to the
same system of parallel fractures (Figs. 11-54 &
11.56).

OF FRACTURES

The evaluation of fractured zones requires

following information
:
- depths of the fractured zones;

Zones

This is the simplest information

to obtain from
the logs, especially
from the Formation
MicroScanner or the BHTV. So there is no need to
elaborate.

On a plot of this index against depth, the

fractured zones will show the highest values. The
example of Figure 11-74 shows a good correlation
between this index and a drop in temperature
in a
zone where density, sonic, gamma ray and caliper
are constant. These two phenomena can be taken
to indicate the presence of fractures.
This is only true of fractures which are subparallel to the borehole
axis. If the fractures
are
subperpendicular,
the sound wave must cross
them, and the sonic then sees the fractures.

11.6. EVALUATION

of Fractured

the

276

11.6.4. Fracture

11.6.5. Fracture

Density

Capture

As previously illustrated
(Fig. 11-58) individual
fractures
can be identified
with the Formation
MicroScanner
tool if a borehole coverage is built
up through several passes, between which the pad
orientation
has changed. This allows the determination of the number of fractures
in a given
window, and of the length between fractures.
With the other tools this can be evaluated from
the frequency
at which the fracture
indicators
occur, notably on the dipmeter and on the FIL (Fig.
11-46) and DCA (Fig. 11-49) presentations,
and
from the porosity of the fractures.
This can be
evaluated by various means.

Porosity from
Cross-Section

Photoelectric
(LDT tool)

We have already seen that the photoelectric

capture cross-section
is strongly
influenced
by
ban/te muds, and this feature can be used to
evaluate fracture porosity.
The following
equation introduces the electronic density :
Pe pe = B V, Pei p.,
Or, for the case of fractured
baryte muds :
Pe pe = &

277

(11-l)

rocks invaded

Pet (p.)t + A, Pee. (P&8

+ (1 - &. - 6,) Pe,. (p.),,

by

(11-2)

Note:
The last equation
only holds if the
borehole
wall is smooth, so that the pad fits
closely to the formation. Otherwise there may be
a cave doe to crumbling of the borehole wall filled
with baryte mud. It is necessary,
therefore
to
examine the caliper and the density correction
before applying this formula. We must also bear in
mind that, being a unidirectional
tool, it will only
analyse the part of the formation in front of the
pad, and so it will not necessarily
measure the
total fracture porosity. In any case, if the hole is
ovalised due to the presence of fractures, the pad
will usually ride the major axis of the hole, and so
face the fractures. The measurement
will thus be
representative
of the fracture porosity since it is
unlikely that there is another fracture network at
900 to the first when the hole is ovalised.

The first term is always very small and can be

ignored. The matrix porosity of compact fractured
rocks is also low (usually less than 10 96) while Pe
is also very small (0.358 for water, 0.48 for oil and
0.807 for salt water). We can therefore write as a
first approximation
:
Pe pS = & Peb (P&
+ (1 -

&P) Pe,, (p.),,

(-)

The porosity AP is derived from the densityneutron combination,

and includes both matrix
porosity and fracture porosity. This gives :
&I=

Pe pe -

(1 -

AP) Per, (P&n*

(11-4)

Peea (P&a

Now, we can show that :

Pee, (p.).. = 1070
and further, as a first approximation,
take :
P. = pb et (P.),, = (P,,),
which

(11-5)

11.6.6. Fracture

Pe Pb - (1 -

AP) Pern, (PC,),

1070

from

DLL

Boyeldieu
et a/. (1982) proposed the following
equation for fracture porosity after studying the
effects of fractures
on the deep and shallow
laterologs, and making certain assumptions
:

gives :
C#

Porosity

we can

(1 l-6)
(#A

278

= 7 Rrn~(C LLS-

Cm,) -c &

(11-7)

where I&, is the fracture porosity, I&.). is the

computed fracture porosity and CLLS and CLLDare
the conductivities
in mhos of the LLS and LLD; m
is between 1.3 and 1.5.
The assumptions
made by the authors are as
follows :
The fracture system is seen by both laterologs
as a system of resistivities
in parallel with the
compact,
non-fractured,
formation
(a perfectly
reasonable assumption).
There is no invasion of the non-fractured
part
of the formation (the blocks contained within the
fracture system), but only of the fracture system.
This assumption
is justified
by the very high
permeability of the fracture system compared with
that of the rock itself, so that the overpressure of
the mud column will act preferentially
on the
fracture network.
The invasion of the fracture system is not too
deep, but sufficient to ensure that the LLD reads
the virgin formation
while the LLS reads the
flushed zone. The validity of this assumption will
depend on the type of mud and on the degree of
opening of the fractures.
If the losses observed
during the drilling are low, it can be assumed that
the openings are small and that a mud-cake was
able to develop and limit the invasion. In this case
the assumption is valid. If the losses were considerable, the invasion will be deep, and we can no
longer assume that the LLD reads the virgin zone.
The water saturation of the uninvaded fracture system is almost zero. This is a reasonable
assumption
given the permeability
of the fractures.
The filtrate saturation of the invaded fracture
system is 100 %. Again, due to the high permeability of the fractures, we can assume that all the
hydrocarbons
have been Rushed.
The authors then derived the following inequalities :
(1 l-8)

and
1
< 4&p
RLLS
w

+ #y%

However, as the authors themselves

pointed
out, the best results are obtained when the mud
resistivity is about equal to that of the formation
water, and when the formation contains hydrocarbons.
In water-bearing
sequences. on the other hand,
the two salinities
(mud and formation
water)
should be very different. In this case the authors
proposed the following
equation :

(11-9)

where &, is the matrix porosity,

A. is the
fracture porosity, S,.
is the water saturation of
the non-fractured,
uncontaminated
formation.
Subtracting
equ. 11-9 from equ. 11-9 gives :

(Ad.= m cus- CUD

1J cm-cc,
The above hypotheses
assume that Sxm = 1
and S,. = 0. This then gives equ. 11-7 by substituting conductivities
for resistivities.

(11-11)

Figure 11-77 shows an example of results from

an interpretation
of very compact, fractured formations.

279

tool centred on fracture

1-1!-!*- I-..-_:_block reslstlvity = 10000 ohm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 ohm.m
1000

10

100

1000

INVASION RADIUS in inches

DISTANCE OF FRACTURE FROM AXIS in metros

5-j

Infinite invasion
block reslstlvlty = 10000 ohm.m
mud resistivity = 0.1 ohm.m
I

,/

0.005

I
10

I
I
100

FRACTURE APERTURE in microns

Fig. 1l-78.

1000

0.5

10

100

200

FRACTURE APERTURE in microns

Relationship between the fracture aperture E in pm for (a) : for vertical fractures and the conductivity:
fractures and the resistivity (from Sibbit & Fsivre, 1985).

(b) : for horizontal

._

-.

I_ ..^ .._.._

11.6.7. Liihology

11.6.9. Opening

Determination

non-fractured
formations,
the
In compact,
mineralogy
of the formation
is easily determined
from the various log measurements
using crossplots or if necessary the Schlumberger
LITHO or
GLOBAL programs described in Chapters 2 and 9.
In fractured zones, the readings of the density tool
are frequently
affected
by caves or borehole
rugosity and are often unusable. It is then necessary to use the neutron-sonic-gamma
ray combination, and sometimes Pe to obtain a satisfactory
lithology determination.
11.6.8. Determination

of Fracture

and Depth

of Fractures

Sibbit & Faivre (1985) related the opening (in

pm) of vertical and horizontal
fractures
to the
conductivity
measured by the Dual Laterolog (DLT)
tool and the difference
between the deep (LLD)
and shallow (LLS) resistivities. They also showed a
relation between their lateral extent (depth into
the formation)
and the same Dual Later&g
measurements.
In the case of vertical fractures
(parallel to the tool axis) the two measurement
curves separate (LLD > LLS) and their difference
is proportional
to the product
of the fracture
opening, E, and the conductivity
of the invading
fluid, C,. For horizontal fractures (perpendicular
to
the tool axis) the two curves show a resistivity
decrease over approximately
0.8 m (Fig. 11-78).
Again the separation is proportional to the product
of the fracture opening and the invading fluid
conductivity.
The Formation
MicroScanner
tool
enables to determine if the fractures are vertical or
horizontal.

Permeability

In a recent publication,
Mathieu et al. (1984)
have estimated that fracture permeability
can be
determined
from an analysis of Stoneley wave
detected by a tool which records the complete
acoustic wave train. The results they obtained in a
solid crystalline formation seem encouraging.

BOND, L.O., ALGER, R.P., & SCHMIDT,

A.W.
(1971).
Well log Applications
in Coal Mining
and Rock Mechanics.
Trans. SME, 250.
BOYELDIEU, C., & MARTIN, C. (1984).
Fracture
detection
and evaluation.
SAID-SPWL4,
9th
Europ. Intern. Form. Eval. Trans., Paris, paper 21.
BOYELDIEU. C., & WINCHESTER, A. (1982). -Use
of the Dual Laterolo gfor the Evaluation of the
Fracture Porosity in Hard Carbonate
Formations. Offshore South East Asia 1962 Conference, 9-12 Feb., Singapore.
BURKE, J.A., CAMPBELL, Jr. R.L., & SCHMIDT,
A.W. 119691.
The Litho-Porositv
Cross Plot.
SPWL,
l&h Ann. Log. Symp. Tr&.,
papery.
CHEUNG, Ph. (1984). Fracture detection using the
sonic tool .SAID-SPWLA,
9th Europ. Intern.
Form. Eval. Trans., Paris, paper 42.
CLAVIER, C.. & RUST, D.H. (1976). - MID-PLOT : a
new Lithology Technique.
The Log Analyst, 17,

11.7. REFERENCES
AGUILERA. R. (1980).
Naturally Fractured Reservoirs. Petroleum
Publishing
Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma.
ANDERSON,
T., & WALKER, T. (1972).
Log
derived rock properties for use in well stimulation design. SPE of AME, paper SPE 4095.
ATKINSON,
A. (1977). - Fracture pressure gradients from acoustic
and density
logs : an
updated
approach.
SPWLA,
16th Ann. Log.
Symp. Trans.
BABCOCK, E.A. (1978). Measurements
of subsurface fractures from dipmeter logs. Bull. Amer.
Assoc. Petroleum Geol.. 62, p. 1111-11.26.
BATES, R.L., &JACKSON,
J.A. (1980).
Glossan/
of Geology. 2nd ed. Amer. Geol. Inst. Falls
Church, Virginia.
BECK, J., SCHULTZ, A., & FITZGERALD, D. (1977).
- Reservoir evaluation of fractured cretaceous
carbonates in South Texas. SPWLA, 16th Ann.
Log. Symp. Trans.
BELL, J.S., & GOUGH, D.I. (1979).
Northeastsouthwest
compressive
stress in Alberta : evidence from oil wells. Earth Planet. Sci. Let., 45,
p. 475482.
BIGELOW, E.L. (1985).
Making more intelligent
use of log derived dip information.
5 Parts. The
Log Analyst, 26, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
BILLINGS, M.P. (1942).
Structural
Geology. 1st
ed. Prentice-Hall
Inc. Englewood
Cliffs, New
Jersey.
BILLINGS, M.P. (1972).
Structural
Geology. 3rd
ed. Prentice-Hall
Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, New

6.
COATES, G.R., & DENOO, S.A. (1980).
Log
Derived Mechanical Properties and Rock Stress.
SPWLA, 2lst Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
COATES, G.R., & DENOO, S.A. (1981).
Mechanical properties programs using borehole analysis
and Mohrs
circle. SPWLA, 22st Ann. Log.
Symp. Trans., paper DD.
COX. J.W. (1970).
The high resolution dipmeter
reveals dip-related
borehole
and formation
characteristics.
SPWLA, 11th Ann. Log. Symp.
Trans.
COX. J.W. (1983). Long axis orientation in elongated boreholes
and its correlation
with rock
stress data. SPWLA, 24th Ann. Log. Symp.
Trans., paper J.

281

HOBBS, B.E., MEANS, W.D.. 81 WILLIAMS, P.F.

(1976). An outline of Structural Geology. John

DEERE, D.U., & MILLER, R.P. (1969). - Engineering

Classification and Index Properties for Intact
Rock. U.S. Air Force Systems Command Air
Force Weapons Lab., Kirtland
New Mexico, Tech. Rep.

Wiley & Sons, New York.

INGRAM, D.S.. ANDERSON, R.A.. &ZANIER. A.M.

(1972). - Fracture pressure Gradient Determination from well Logs (paper SPE 4135).
KLEINBERG. R.L., CHOW, E.Y., PLONA, T.J., ORTON, M., & CANADY, W.J. (1982). - Sensitivity
and reliability of Fracture Detection Techniques
for Borehole Application. SPE of A/ME, 57th

Air Force Base,

DELFINER, P., PEYRET. 0.. & SERRA, 0. (1984).

-Automatic determination of Lithology from
Well Logs. 59th Ann. Tech. Conf. SPE of A/ME,
Houston,

Texas; paper no SPE 13296.

DICKEY, P.A. (1979). - Petroleum Development

Geology. Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa.
DONATH, F.A. (1970). - Some information squeezed out of rocks. Amer. Sci, 58, p. 54-72.
EDWARDS, D. (1985). - Mechanical Properties
Evaluation and its applications. Schlumberger
Technical

Services

Inc.. Europe

Ann. Fall Mtg., New Orleans, paper

AIME, paper SPE 6820.

LEET, L.Don, JUDSON, S., 81 KAUFFMAN, M.E.

(1978). Physical Geology. 5th ed. Prentice-Hal/

Unit.

EKSTROM, M.P.. CHEN, M.Y., ROSSI, D.J., LOCKE,

S., & ARON, J. (1988). -High Resolution Microelectrical Borehole Wall Imaging. SPWLA, 10th
Europ. Symp.

Inc., Englewood

Trans., Aberdeen.

Log. Symp.
Publications,

D. C.

SPWLA,

10th Europ. Symp.

Trans., Aberdeen.

MATHIEU. F., & TOKSOZ, M.N. (1984). - Determination of fracture permeability using acoustic
logs. SAID-SPWLA,
9th Ewop. Intern. Form.
Eval. Trans., Paris, paper 47.

MAXWELL-GARNEiT, J.C. (1904). Transactions

of the Royal Society, 283 , p. 385, London.
MAYER, C., & SIBBIT, A. (1980). - GLOBAL, a new
Approach to Computer-processed Log Interpretation. SPE of AIME, an. Fall Mtg., Dallas, SPE

son, Paris.

9341.

MINNE. J.C., & GARTNER, J. (1979). Fracture

Detection in the Middle East. Middle East Oil
Techn. Conf. of SPE, Bahrain, 25-29 Mar.
MORRIS, R.L.. GRINE, D.R., & ARKFELD, T.E.
(1963). The use of compressional end shear
acoustic amplitudes for the location of fractu-

GRIFFITH, A.A. (1920). The phenomena of rupture

and flow in solids. Phil. Trans. Roy. SIX. London,
ser. A 221, p. 163.197.
GRIFFITH, A.A. (1924). The theory of rupture.
Proc. (1st) Intern.

Congr. Appl. Mech., p. 55-63.

GRIGGS. D.T. (1936). - Deformation of rocks under

high confining pressure. J. G.-x/., 44, p. 547-577.
GRIGGS, D.T. (1939). Creep in rocks. .I. Geol., 47,

res. SPE of AIME, 38th an. fall Mtg.,

Orleans, Louisiana, paper SPE 723. Also
Petrol. Techn., June 1964.

p. 225-251.

Bull., 62, p. 1385 1406.

GRIGGS. D.T., & HANDIN, J. (eds) (1960). -Rock

deformation. Geol. Sot. Amer. Mem., 79,382~.
GRIGGS. D.T., TURNER, FJ., & HEARD, N.C.
(1980). Deformation of rocks at 5LKPto 8000.
Geol. Sot. Amer.

New
in J.

PICKEIT, G.R. (1963). Acoustic Character Logs

and their Applications in Formation Evaluation.
J. Pet. Technol.. 15, 6.
PIRSON, S.J. (1977). - Geologic Well Log Analysis.
2nd ed. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
PRESS, F., & SIEVER, R. (1982). - Earth. 3rd ed.

GRIGGS, D.T. et al. (1951). - Deformation of Yule

Marble : part IV, effects at 150 0C. Geol. Sot.

W.H. Freeman

& Co., San Francisco.

RAGAN, D.M. (1973). - Structural Geology. John

Mem., 79, p. 39-104.

Wiley & Sons, New York.

HEPP, V., & DUMESTRE, A.C. (1975). CLUSTER

-A method for selecting the most probable dip
results from dipmeter survey. SPE of AIME, 50th
Ann. Fall Mtg.,

Tulsa.

LLOYD, P.M. (1986). The Formation MicroScanner: A New Generation High Resolution Logging Technique.
LLOYD, P.M., DAHAN, CA., & HUTIN, R. (1986).
-Formation
Imaging from
Micro-Electrical
Scanning Arrays : A New Generation of Stratigraphic High Resolution Dipmeter Logging Tool.

Trans., Houston.

GAUER, P., RUHlAND, M., BEAUCOURT, F. de, &

JANOT. P. (1984). -0valisation des trous de
forage Bvalu6e b partir des pendagemkres
&patios; cara&res gCologiques de ces variations; leur utilisation pour la determination de
lorientation des contraintes horizontales actuel9th
les dans le Foss6 RhBnan. SAID-SPWLA,
Europ. Intern. Form. Eval. Trans., Paris, paper 31.
GOGUEL, J. (1952). Trait& de Tectonique. Mas-

Amer.

Trans., paper GG.

LINK. P.K. (1982). Basic Petroleum Geology. OGCI

FAIVRE, 0.. & SIBBIT, A. (1984). Dual Laterolog

Response in Fractures.
FONS, L. Sr. (1969). - Geological application of
well logs. SPWLA, 10th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
GARY, M., McAFEE, R.Jr., & WOLF, C.L. (1972).
-Glossary of Geology. Amer. Geol. Institute,
Washington,

Cliffs, New Jersey.

LESLIE, H.D., & MONS, F. (1982). - Sonic Waveform Analysis : Applications. SPWLA, 23d Ann.

EKSTROM, M.P., DAHAN, c.A., WHEN: M.Y.,

LLOYD, P.M., & ROSSI, D.J. (1988). - Formation
Imaging with Micro-Electrical Scanning Arrays.
SPWLA. 27th Ann. Log. Symp.

SPE 11036.

KOERPERICH, E.A. (1977). - Investigation of acoustic boundan/ waves and interference patterns as
techniques for detecting fractures. SPE of

RAMSAY, J.G. (1967). - Folding and Fracturing of

Rocks. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., New York.
RASMUS, J.C. (1982). - Determining the type of
fluid contained in the fractures of the Twin

Dallas, Paper SPE 5543

282

SMEKHOV, E.M. (1989).

Etude de la fracturation
des roches et des rCsewoirs fracturbs dhydrocarbures. Travaux du VNIGRI. Traduction
en
frayais
dELF R.E.
SUAU. J., BOYELDIEU,
C., ROCCABIANCA.
R.,
CIGNI, M., & SPILA, M. (1978). -Evaluation of
very low porosity Carbonates (Malossa, Italy).
SPWLA., 19th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.
SUAU, J., & GARTNER, J. (1979). - Fracture
detection from the logs. SPWLA, 6th European
Symp. Trans., paper L.
THEYS, P., LUTHI, S.. & SERRA, 0. (1983). Use of
dipmeter in Carbonates for detailed sedimentology and reservoir engineering
studies.
TIXIER, M.P., LOVELESS, G.W., & ANDERSON,
R.A. (1973). - Estimation of Formation Strength
from the Mechanical
Properties Log. 49th Ann.
Meeting of SPE of A/ME, aper SPE 4532.
VINCENT, P., GARTNER, J., & AnALI.
G. (1979).
-GEODIP - An approach to detailed dip determination using correlation
by pattern recognition. J. Petroleum TechnoL, Feb., p. 232.240.
WALDSCHMIDT,
W.A.,
FITZGERALD,
P.E., &
LUNSFORD, CL. (1956). -Classification
of porosity and fractures in reservoir rocks. Bull. Amer.
assoc. Petroleum GeoL, 40, 5.
ZEMANEK, J. et al. (1969). - The Borehole Televiewer : A New Logging Concept for Fracture
Location and other tYpes of Borehole Inspection. SPWLA, 9th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.

Creek Limestone by using the Dual Laterolog

tool. J. Petrol. Techn.. Nov.
RASMUS, J.C. (1983).
A variable cementation
exponent, m, for fractured carbonates. The Log
Analyst, 24, 6, p. 13-23.
RIDER. M.H. (1978).
Dipmeter Log Analysis -An
Assay. SPWLA, 19th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans.,
paper G.
RUSSELL, W.L. (1951).
Principles of Petroleum
Geology. McGraw-Hill
Book Co., New York.
Schlumherger
Ltd (1970).
Fundamentals
of Dipmeter Interpretation.
Schlumberger
(1979).
Well Evaluation
Conference. Algeria.
Schlumberger
Lfd (1981).
Dipmeter Interpretation. Volume 1 -Fundamentals.
Schlumberger
Middle
East S.A. (1981).
Well
Evaluation Conference.
United Arab Emirates/
Qatar.
Schlumberger
Middle
East S.A. (1984).
Well
Evaluation Conference. Egypt.
Services Techniques Schlumberger
(1970).
Well
Evaluation Conference.
Libya.
SHANKS, R.T., KWON, B.S., VRIES. M.R. de, &
WICHMAN.
P.A. (1978).
A review of fracture
detection with well logs. SPE of A/ME, paper
SPE 6159.
SIBBIT, A.M., & FAIVRE, 0. (1985).
The Dual
Later&g
Response
in Fractured
Rocks.
SPWLA, 26th Ann. Log. Symp. Trans., paper T.

283