LEPENSKI VIR: PROTONEOLITHIC AND EARLY NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS

Author(s): DRAGOSLAV SREJOVI

Source: Archaeology, Vol. 22, No. 1 (JANUARY 1969), pp. 26-35
Published by: Archaeological Institute of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41667932 .
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LEPENSKI

VIR

PROTONEOLITHIC
NEOLITHIC

AND

EARLY

SETTLEMENTS

By DRAGOSLAV

In the centralpart of the Iron Gate Gorge, at

Lepenski Vir ("The Whirlpool of Lepenci'), a
new prehistoricculturewas discoveredin 1967
which formsa link betweenthe classical Mesolithicand Early Neolithic culturalgroups of the
Danubian region and sheds new light on the
emergenceof Neolithic civilizationin the greater
partof Southeastand CentralEurope.
Lepenski Vir is situatedon the rightbank of
the Danube, fourteenand a half kilometersup
the river from Donji Milanovac, approximately
at the end of the so-called Upper Gorge of the
Iron Gate (as the gorge is called on the border
betweenRoumania and Jugoslavia). The site of
the prehistoricsettlementis clearlyindicated in
the surroundinglandscape: it is surroundedby
greatlimestonerockson the southnd north,and
bysteepcliffsof the Korso Hill on the west,while
on the east, on the left bank of the Danube, rises
the denuded peak Treskavac,which looks like a
giant markerfor the settlement.It was in this
picturesquelandscape that a concealed U-shaped
recess,lyingin the shadows of a primevalwood
was chosen as the site of the settlement.The recess is accessibleonly by a narrowpath fromthe
southside where,at a distanceof a kilometerand
a half, there is a canyonthat opens up a short
. Thus
passagewayto the mountainoushinterland
the site looks like an isolated oasis lost among
the rocks,woods and the river. The firstsettlers
could have gained easy access to it by wateronly.

SREJOVIC

At Lepenski Vir, theculturallayer,thethickness

of
whichvariesfrom3.5 to 2.15 meters,
is dividedinto
threedistinct
strata.The earliest(I) lies directly
on
thehardlimestone
bedrock,at a depthof 3.5 to 1.95
meters.
Withinit,it is possibleto distinguish
at least
fivebuildinghorizons(LepenskiVir I a to e). The
horizonof Stratum
I is coveredwithloessuppermost
like brownsand which formsthe second cultural
stratum(II) of varying
depth(0.30 to 0.60 meter)
withone habitation
horizon(LepenskiVir II). The
third,the latestculturalstratum,
lyingat a depthof
between1.45 and 0.30 meters,
consistsof two habitationhorizons(LepenskiVir III a and III b).
HorizonIII a, thedepthofwhichaveragesone meter,
is of blackishcolorand consistsof softearth,while
HorizonIII b, varyingin depthfrom0.50 to 0.30
of stonesand
meter,containsa considerable
quantity
is composedchieflyof hard clay-likeearth.Stratum
III is coveredwitha layerof humus(0.30 to 0.10
meter) cut at a numberof places by burialsfrom
laterprehistoric
andhistoric
epochs.
In colorand generalcomposition,
StrataI and II
clearlydifferfromStratumIII. This sharpbreakin
theLepenskiVir culturaldepositbecomesevenmore
distinctive
upon analysisof the findsfromthe various strata.
The firstinhabitants
of LepenskiVir settledonly
theU-shapedrecess,takingup an area aboutseventy
meterslong and aboutfortymeterswide. The concentrationof life in this relativelyrestricted
area
led to theemergence
of a settlement
which
eventually
as it conformed
to thenaturaloutlineof thesitetook
on theformof a gianthorseshoe,
or moreprecisely,
of a trapezoid
witha slightly
bentbase.

26

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Vir I a -e: thefivebuilding

Lepenski
horizonsthat appearare house 30
(I a), house30 a (I b), house 29
(I c), house22 (I d), house21 (I e).

Vir: viewfrom
Lepenski
thesouthof thenorthwesternpartof SettlementI, theearliestcultural stratum.
Of the
housesfound,
fifty-eight
all arein theformof a
in the center
trapezoid
ofwhich
is a hearth.
The
numbers
in the photographare the numbers
assignedby theexcavatorsto thehouses.

27

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LEPENSKI

Vir:viewfrom
thewestofthesoutheast
partof
Lepenski
housesnumber
Settlement
45,50,37,3 and1.
I, showing

VIR

continued

WithinStratum
I a totalof fifty-eight
houseshas
been discovered,underwhichtherewere tracesof
otherbuildings.These houses(104 in all),
forty-six
but
however,do notbelongto theearliestsettlement
can be assignedto fivesuccessivebuildingphases.
All of the buildingsdiscoveredin StratumI, rein size (theirfloorareasrange
gardlessof differences
fromfiveand a halfto thirty
squaremeters)havenot
but also the
only the same plans and proportions,
samearrangement
of buildingelements.
The materials
usedwerewood and grey,yellowand pale red stone
(limestone,sandstone,and porphyry)whichcolors
thesurrounding
of all of
landscape.The foundations
thehousesare in theformof a trapezoidthebase of
whichbends slightlyoutward.In the centerof the
houses,towardsthe longerside, are hearthsin the
formof sunkenrectangular
basinslined withlarge
limestoneblocksset on edge. The floorsare made
of a kind of hard lime plasterand regularly
have
a thinpolishedsurfacecoatingof pale red or white.
Stonesculpture
and sacrificial
vesselsare set intothe
floornearthehearths,
usuallyat theapex of a border
or friezemadeup of thinred slabs.The housesdid
not have verticalwalls. Instead,the superstructure
was in the formof a saddle-roof
withthe rooftree
theshorter
slantingfromthebasedowntowards
parallel side of the trapezoidalhouse foundations.
The
in the middleof the longer
entrancewas regularly
setat an angledirected
side,buttwostonethresholds
movement
towardthelateralpartsof the
exclusively
house.
The large sculpturedbouldersdiscoveredin the
withthe architecfloorsof the housesare,together
turalremains,the mostcharacteristic
featuresof the
culturerepresented
in Stratum
I. All of theseboulders
werefoundin situand generally
werefirmly
set into
the floornear the hearthsin such a way thattheir
finishedside facedthe entrance,
i.e. the east. Only
bouldersof hard, coarse-grained
yellowor greyish
sandstonewere selectedforsculpture.
Regardlessof
the motives,the modelingalways remainedclosed
withinthe framework
of thoselarge boulders;the
artistalteredthenaturalformonlyinsofaras it did
withits basic structure.
The modeling
not interfere
was done by pecking,presumably
by meansof flint
toolsanda mallet.
worksof
Stratum I yielded a totalof twenty-three
stonevesselswith
sculptureand eighteensacrificial
relief decoration.Accordingto their motives,the
sculpturecan be classifiedinto two groups:figures
modeledin a naturalistic
styleand workson which
only abstractarabesquesare represented.
apparently
Human and animalheads- the onlyfiguresused as

surhearth
24 withtherectangular
VirI : housenumber
Lepenski
in the
rounded
bya seriesof smallredstoneslabssetvertically
sides.
withprojecting
ofisosceles
in theform
triangles
earth,

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Vir: Settlement
I, viewof thecentral
Lepenski
house(number
boulders
54) withtwosculptured
andan ellipsoid
stonesacrificial
vesselin front
of
thehearth.

of housenumber
24 with
Close-upof thehearth
hearthsurrounded
therectangular
by theseries
ofslabsforming
triangles.

Vir I: in front
Lepenski
of the hearthof house
21 wasfoundthis
number
burialwiththe skeleton
A humanskull
extended.
was placed on the left
shoulder
and an ox head
on therightshoulder
of
thedeceased.

29

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VirI: stoneface(number
in situ
8) photographed
Lepenski
of housenumber
in front
of thehearth
31. It is of yellow
and22 cm.high.
sandstone

VirI; 28 x 16cm.
housenumber
Sandstone
altarfrom
45 at Lepenski

numStonefacewithrudimentary
body(sculpture
inhousenumber
28 at Lepenski
VirI.
ber9) found
It is ofyellowsandstone
and21 cm.high.

Vir I: sandstone
(number12)
sculpture
Lepenski
foundin housenumber
33. It appearsto represent
an animalhead,24 x 19cm.

30

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LEPENSKI

VIR

continued

- areusuallylife-sized
and alwayshaveclearly
subjects
There are no chronological
indicatedfacialfeatures.
differences
betweenthe figuresand the ornamental
and
husculpture; therearesevenworksrepresenting
man or animalfiguresand sixteenwith abstractdesigns.It seemsthatthegroupof ornamental
sculpture
also employsfigure-motives
whichare,however,intewhich the
gratedinto more complexcompositions
on
artist,becauseof the restrictions
imposed himby
thenaturalformof the boulder,schematized
to the
extreme
and dissolvedintoabstract
formsonlyin the
actualprocessof transposing
his vision into stone.
from
this
is
Sculpture
group mainlycoveredwith
curvilinear
motives:tendrils,circles,partsof spirals
sectionsof meandersin comand,onlyexceptionally,
whichhintatswastikas.
binations
An exceptional
placeamongtheworksof artof this
sandperiodbelongsto a fairlylarge fragmented
stoneslab (not illustrated
here) whichhas engraved
on it a huntingscene.Only the lower part of this
has beenpreserved
: in it thefigures
largecomposition
of two huntersthrowingspears at an animal are
clearlyvisibleamongenigmatic
signsin the formof
trapezoids.
vessels,only
Apartfromsculptureand sacrificial
have
tools,weaponsand bone and stoneornaments
been foundon the floorsof the houses.The most
numerous
areflinttoolswhichall belongto themicrolithicindustry(scrapers,notchedblades, triangular
and oval burins,blades and points). In contrast
to
flintimplements
(the size of whichvariesfrom0.70
to 2.5 centimeters),
stonetools are macrolithic.
On
thefloorsof almostall of the houses,massivesandstoneand schistclubs werefoundwith dimensions
rangingfrom 0.20 to .455 meter.The flat surfacesof theseheavyclubs are frequently
decorated
withengravedwavy,zigzag or angularlines,while
some of thesetools viewedas a whole, are in the
formof a snakeor fish.Otherfrequent
findsinclude
marbleornaments
and boulderswitha deep groove
alongthemiddle.
There are also tools made of antlerand tubular
bones.In additionto veryprimitivetools made of
cutat one end,thereare normally
splitboneroughly
finishedawls of varioussize and shape,as well as
needles
extremely
finelyworkedtools and decorative
withcarvedornaments.

number44
LepenskiVir II: sandstone
sculpture
characteristic
of
showingtheornamental
patterns
thesculpture
foundin Stratum
44 cm.
II; height,

The settlement of Stratum II does not exceed

theboundaries
of theearliersettlement,
butitsbuildare
less
numerous
and
morewidely
ings considerably
built in a
spaced. They are technically
simplified,
cruderwayand do nothavehardfloorsand carefully
builtinternalstructures.
Withinthishorizon,thirty-

VirI :
Lepenski
toolmadeofantler;
9.8 cm.
length,
31

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ofsandstone
from
boulder
thesecond
Sculptured
cultural
stratum
36 cm.
(II) atLepenski
Vir;height,

boulder(number
from
house
Sculptured
37) ofsandstone
44 ofLepenski
number
VirII; height,
51cm.

VirII: twosandstone
worksfound
inhousenumber
44.
Lepenski
41 (Left),41 cm.high;number
Number
38 (Right)40 high,x 35 widex 22 cm.

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LEPENSKI

VIR

continued

fivehousefoundations
havebeenclearlydistinguished,tionsin thisregion.In theirbuildingsand general
of StratumIII differsharply
buttheabundanceof stoneblocksand slabsfoundon layout,the settlements
thewholeexploredarea indicatesthatat leastthirty fromthosein StrataI and II. While theearliersetat thetimeof theformation
of tlements
houseswereinhabited
axisand always
expandedalongthewest-east
Stratum
II. The buildingsstill retainthe trapezoidal remainedwithintheU-shapedrecess,HorizonsIII a
formand are not infrequently
of impressive
dimen- and III b spreadnorthand southbeyondtheboundsions.Wood and stone are still the basic building aries of the U-shapedrecessand coveran area of
materials
5500 square meters.The houses as; large,heavystoneblocksare stillused; the approximately
with
these
form
of
the
hearths
remain
same.
sociated
horizons(III a and b), though
and
the
position
Yet one feelsthatin spiteof thepersevering
clearlyshow thatthe old artendency onlypartlypreserved,
towardsthe monumental,
the earlierfine sense of chitectural
patternhas been completelyabandoned
and the care in finishing
boththe whole and thatthesensefora plannedbuildingand comproportion
fortabledwellinghas been lost. The basic building
andthedetailshavebeenlost.
material
is no longerstone,but earth.Even wood is
in
this
the
Sandstone
too,
constitutes,
phase
sculpture
featureof the householdequip- notused to anysignificant
most characteristic
extent.The changesin the
thatveryradical
thatin thisperiod,the sculp- typeof buildingare so pronounced
ment.It is interesting
of thegeneralconditions
of life,and preturedworksare made exclusivelyof bouldersthe alterations
to sixtycenti- sumablyof the climateas well, mustbe assumed.
dimensions
of whichrangefromforty
meters.Althoughboth the positionand the basic HorizonIII a is characterized
by pitsof varioussize,
used as underground
subjectsof the sculpturecontinueto be the same, some of whichwere certainly
alterations
considerable
are visiblein stylistic
(Horizon III b)
concep- dwellings.In the latersettlement
tionand technique.
The surfacesof thesecondplane quadrangularmud huts were built above ground.
areconsiderably
takeson Inside themon the floorof stampedclay,thereis
deeper,so thatthesculpture
an ovenwitha U-shapedbaseofrubbleand
a more pronouncedplastic quality.The technique frequently
of firedearth.Stone sculpture,
buton theotherhand,the an upper structure
becomesconsiderably
freer,
microlithic
tools
and
the
natachieved
between
earlier,skillfully
heavy stone clubs disappear
harmony
showsa surprising
but thepottery
abunural outlineof the boulderand the plasticcontent completely,
of decoration.
danceof formsandtechniques
infusedintoithas beendisturbed.
The potteryformscharacteristic
of StratumIII
worksof sculpture
was discovA totalof fifteen
eredin StratumII. Sevenof thesehave figuresand includedeep hemispherical
bowls,sphericalvessels
the remaining
neck, shallow conical
eight are decoratedwith ornamental with a curvedor cylindrical
on
a
dishes
human
also
a
the
The
foot;
ring
only
againrepresent
unique ceramicform:
patterns. figures
fea- large vases with a wide quadrangularbowl on a
head, but now theyhave pronouncedfish-like
foot.The predominant
tures;in somecasestheyattainmonumental
quadrangular
propor- perforated
type
ware and potterywith roughened
tions.Two figuresfromthis phase combineorna- is monochrome
mentalmotiveswithhumanfeatures.More striking unevenexternalsurfacedecoratedwithincisionsand
in theworksmodeled impressionsof fingersor nails. Vases with white
arenoticeable
however,
changes,
in the ornamentalstyle.In this phase, curvilinear (Horizon III a) and later (Horizon III b), dark
on a redbackground
witha prev- paintedornaments
motivesyieldto rectilinear
ornaments,
only
represent
lines
alenceof chevrons,
or
Numerous
finds.
burnished
stoneaxes,bone
broken
angular
zigzags
sporadic
andplaits.While thetoolsand weaponsof stoneand toolsand pendantsof firedclayor of bone complete
bonearethesameas in thepreceding
veryrichequipmentfromtheselatest
phase,a certain the otherwise
declinein thenumberof stoneimplements
is notice- habitation
horizons.
able, althoughthisstratum
yieldedan exceptionally
The special significance of LepenskiVir lies in
in
stone
formof a fish.
club
the
finely
engraved
the factthatbelow the horizonswith the material
knownStracevo-Krs-Cris
The finds from the two latest habitation
hori- of thepreviously
Culture,
zons(a andb) whichformStratum
III andoverliethe stratahave been foundwithmonuments
of a prehisearliersettlements
are of particular
entirely,
impor- toricculturewhichhas beenup to now unknownin
tancefor the understanding
of the the Danubianregionand in the broaderEuro-Asian
and chronology
in StrataI and II. The settlementsterritory.
culturerepresented
The archaeological
materialfromHorizons
of Stratum
III are associatedwiththe full flowering III a and III b is definitely
associatedwiththefinds
of the EarlyNeolithicceramicculture,the Starevo- characteristic
of the earliestphase of the Starevo
Krs-CrisCulturealreadywell-known
fromexcava- Culture,whichcan be datedsafelyin the firsthalf
33

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thenorthwest
Vir: Settlement
toward
theDanube.
I, viewfrom
Lepenski
34

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LEPENSKI

VIR

continued

Tel Ramad,Kalat Jarmoand Tepes Sarab. In the

same periodthereappearsculptured
pebblesin the
Near East,e.g. in Eynan,Ain Shakri,Shar Hagolan
and Gesher.These analogiesare probablyof interest
merelyas cultural,not chronological,
parallels.They
cannotbe made use of in an attemptto explainthe
in StrataI and II at
originof theculturediscovered
LepenskiVir,or to establishits absolutechronology.
At thisstageit is possibleonlyto statethefollowing
:
thatthe culturediscoveredin StrataI and II originatedin thehillylandscapeof theIron Gate region;
thatitscenters
wereprobably
locatedin theproximity
of the greatDanubian whirlpoolswhich are espeforprimitive
ciallyconvenient
fishingand which,towith
the
wooded hinterlandaboundingin
gether
inexgameand wild fowl,providedtwo practically
haustiblesourcesof food,permitting
theearliestsettlersto live in one locationforlong periodsof time
in spiteof theirprimitive
VirI :
economy;thatit was preLepenski
toolmadeofbone;
cededbythegreatbutremotetradition
of theUpper
9 cm.
length,
PalaeolithicDanubianculturesand thatit developed
at thecriticalstagewhenhumancommunities
in this
partof Europewereabandoningthe economybased
on huntingand gathering
and beginningto produce
food firstthroughthe domestication
of animalsand
thenbythecultivation
of thesoil.The cultureand art
of StrataI and II were based on a hunting-fishing
of a kind
economyand developedin theatmosphere
of autocraticsocial order.The culturerepresented
in HorizonsIII a and III b, in contrast,
was evolved
and stock-breeders,
in a community
with
by farmers
a "democratic"organization.These momentous
and socialrelations
weresufficient
changesin economy
in themselves
to alterbasicallythe old culture,so
to presuppose
an influxof new
in thefloorofa hut thatit is notnecessary
Sacrificial
vesselofclayfound
settlersor the presenceof some directexternalinVir III b); height,
14
fromLayerIII b (Lepenski
cm.andwidth,
40 cm.
fluences.The progressmade in the economicand
social spheresresultedin perceptiblestagnationof
some formsof culture,
in the fieldof art
primarily
ofthefifth
millennium
b.c. Thismeansthattheculture and in religiousconcepts.
Becauseof all this,itwould
in StrataI and II precedestheformation seemthattheculturediscovered
represented
in StrataI and II at
of theStarevogroupand thatit mustbe definedin
Vir
the
hitherto
Lepenski
bridges
gap
existingbetermsof a Protoneolithic
culturewhosecommunitiestween the Mesolithicand
Neolithic
cultural
Early
did not yethave any knowledgeof agriculture
and groupsof theDanubianregion.
stock-breeding.
Bymeansof formalanalogies,too,the
findsfromStrataI and II can be associatedonlywith
in 1931.
the formsfoundin Protoneolithic
Jugoslavia
and the earliest The authorwas borninKragujevac,
was educatedat theUniversity
of Belgradewhere
Neolithiccultureof Asia Minor,or withsomeforms He
he received
his doctorate.
He is nowPresentDocentin
of Mesolithic
in Europe.The earliestStratum Prehistoric
cultures
Archaeology,
Philosophical
Facultyof the
I settlement,
with its planned house forms,stone University
of Belgrade.Since 1955,Dr. Srejovihas
at excavations
of a numand plasteredfloorsrecallsthe architecturebeentheprincipal
investigator
sculpture
berofprehistoric
and Classicalsites:Doclea,Municipof Protoneolithic
and earliestNeolithicsitesof Pales- ium
S (Komini), Domavia (Sase), Donja Brnjica,
tine,Syria,Anatolia,Iranand Iraq,suchas thesettle- Korbovo,Ljuljaci,amongothers.His most
recentwork
mentsin Wadi Felah,Jericho,
Vir.
Hailar,Ras Shamra, is at Lepenski
35

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