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Copy Editor:
Chapter 37 of the Third Edition of "Companion Guide to the ASME Boiler & Pressure
Vessel Code" has been renumbered as Chapter 3 for the current book "Continuing and
Changing Priorities of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Codes and Standards".
As such, please revise the numbering from "37" to "3" in:
(a) Title page Chapter number;
(b) All paragraphs, sub-paragraph and sub-sub-paragraph numbers;
(c) All Graphics including Table, graph and picture numbers; and
(d) Equation numbers, if any.
Please make sure this global change is made appropriately.
- KR Rao (8-8-13)
CHAPTER
37
PIPING VIBRATION
CHARACTERISTICS
37.1.1
Steady-State Vibration
37.1.2
Dynamic-Transient Vibration
causes are rapid pump starts and trips, and also the quick closing
or opening of valves such as turbine-stop valves and various types
of control valves. Dynamic transients also occur as a result of
rapid safety/relief valve (SRV) opening or as a result of unexpected
events, such as water accumulating at a low point in steam piping
during a plant outage. When the steam is returned to the line, a
slug of water will be pushed through the piping, resulting in large
axial loads at each elbow.
Effects of transient vibrations are usually obvious; large pipe
deflections usually occur that damage the support system and
insulation as well as cause possible yielding of the piping. Of
course, damage can also be sustained by the associated equipment, valve operators, drain lines, and so forth. An example
illustrating the striking nature of dynamic transients occurred in a
fossil fuel plant cold-reheat line. There, the low-point drains had
not been properly maintained, and water accumulated in the line
after a turbine trip. When the turbine-stop valves were opened, a
water slug was forced through the piping, resulting in a transient
so severe that the 80 ft., 18 in. diameter pipe riser was lifted over
112 ft. in the air. When the piping came down, most of the hangers
were broken, and the piping had large deformations.
37.2
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37.3
37.3.1
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37.3.2
37.3.3
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676 Chapter 37
37.4
37.4.1
Stress Allowables
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37.5
37.5.1
All piping with flow will vibrate to some degree. Pumpinduced pressure pulsations and flow turbulence are two potential
sources of piping steady-state vibration.
Pump-induced pressure pulsations occur at distinct frequencies,
which are multiples of the pump speed. Pulsations originate at the
pump and travel throughout the entire discharge piping. In some
instances, especially with reciprocating pumps, pulsations may
also be induced in suction piping.
The effects of pressure pulsations can be more severe when
they coincide with an acoustical and/or structural frequency of the
piping. Eliminating the pulsations may involve modifying the
pump or changing the piping acoustical frequency. For example,
piping acoustical properties can be changed through the addition
of a pulsation damper and suction stabilizer.
Pump-induced pressure pulsations affect piping by causing
unbalanced forces in pipe legs, as shown schematically in Fig. 37.1.
In the absence of pressure pulsations, the pressure acting on each
FIG. 37.2
elbow produces opposite and equal forces equal to the pressure (P)
times the piping cross-sectional area (A).
These pressure loadings cause longitudinal pressure (and hoop)
stress in the piping but do not result in unbalanced pressure loads.
When pressure pulsations travel through the piping at any instant
in time, the pressure on one elbow may not equal the pressure on
the other elbow of the piping leg, resulting in an unbalanced force
in the pipe leg. The pressure acts on the projected cross-sectional
area of the elbow, resulting in a loading on the elbow to the load
shown in Fig. 37.2.
These forces act at each elbow and the resultant loading on a
particular pipe segment or straight length of piping is equal to the
vector addition of these loadings. The resultant unbalanced loading on a straight leg of piping can be considered to act along the
axial direction of the piping.
Pumps may induce pressure pulsations over a wide range of
possible frequencies. Pump-induced pressure pulsations may be
produced at multiples of the pump-operating speed and multiples
of the number of pump plungers, blades, volutes, or diffuser
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678 Chapter 37
F =
nX
or
60
nXY
60
(37.1)
where
F frequency of pressure pulsation, cycles/sec. (Hz)
n 1, 2, 3, and so on
X pump rotating speed, rpm
Y dependent on pump type: number of pump plungers,
blades, volutes, or diffuser vanes
A field problem experienced at one plant helps to illustrate the
effects of pump-induced vibration and also demonstrates potential
fixes. The charging system in PWR plants often use reciprocating
pumps to meet the requirements of high head at low flows. In this
case, three reciprocating pumps were used for the charging system, and all of the discharge piping experienced excessive steadystate vibration that resulted in several support failures. Also experienced were vibration failures of attached instrumentation and
other small-branch piping, as well as excessive vibrations in the
suction piping. This particular plants three reciprocating pumps
in the system all experienced cavitation and loss of prime. There
were instances of pump case cracking, and pump maintenance
intervals were as short as 23 wk. The temporary resolution to
these problems was to operate the pumps at flow rates reduced by
25% from their normal operating conditions.
Problems are attributed to two characteristics of reciprocating
pumps [12]. At the beginning of each plunger-suction stroke, an
instantaneous demand for liquid is created by the plunger acceleration. This demand, or required acceleration head, will accelerate
the fluid and lower its pressure, possibly resulting in cavitation
and stripping of gases from the fluid. This problem is more prevalent in boron-charging systems because of the hydrogen-saturated
water used in these systems. The result can be the loss of pump
prime, cavitation, and larger pressure pulsations in both the suction and discharge piping. The solution is to provide, as close to
the pump inlet as possible, an ample supply of liquid, which is
meant to satisfy the need of the instantaneous acceleration head.
A suction stabilizer installed close to the inlet has, for an instant,
the same effect as a tank close to the pump.
Another source of problems with reciprocating pumps is the
pressure pulsation caused by the reciprocating pistons. These pulsations can be mitigated through the use of discharge dampeners.
The two basic types of discharge used are energy-absorbing dampeners, which use a gas envelope to cushion and reduce pressure
peaks, and reaction-type dampeners, which act on the principle of
a volumetric-resistance acoustic filter. Either type of device can be
used to dramatically reduce pressure fluctuations in the discharge
piping, thereby avoiding excessive piping vibration. Note that an
acoustic analysis of the system should be performed to properly
locate and size both the suction stabilizer and discharge dampener.
Acoustic analyses performed for various system operating conditions will help ensure smooth operation during all flow conditions.
37.5.2
Flow Turbulence
37.5.3
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FIG. 37.3
formed in the wake that interacts with the cylinder motion and is a
source of effects known as vortex-induced vibration.
Any structure with a sufficiently bluff trailing edge sheds vortices in a subsonic flow. The vortex streets tend to be very similar
regardless of the tripping structure. Periodic forces on the structure are generated as vortices that are alternatively shed from each
side of the structure. The oscillating pressure fields cause oscillating forces on the bluff or cylinder, which can cause elastically
mounted cylinders to vibrate. Large-amplitude vibrations can be
induced in elastic structures by vortex shedding; their destructive
effects are commonly experienced on bridges, antennas, cables,
and heat exchangers. Vortex shedding in piping systems is also an
important potential source of piping steady-state vibration.
The frequency of vortex shedding can be approximated by the
following formula:
F = S
V
D
(37.2)
where
37.5.4
Vortex Shedding
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FIG. 37.4
RELATIONSHIP FOR STROUHAL NUMBER VERSUS REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR CIRCULAR CYLINDERS [14]
P =
P
2d
(37.3)
FIG. 37.5
where
P the amplified pressure
p the exciting (e.g., vortex-shedding) pressure
d % of critical damping: by 100
Because fluid damping is typically low, large amplification can
be expected when an acoustical system is excited in resonance.
For example, 0.5% of critical damping would result in an
amplification of 100.
This type of resonance has been encountered frequently in
steam-relief and safety-relief valve installations, such as those
shown in Fig. 37.5. Vortex shedding in resonance with a quarterwave frequency of the relief valve branch stub have resulted in
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c
4L
(37.4)
where
F frequency (Hz)
c speed of sound in steam (acoustic velocity)
L branch stub length
A solution to the safety-relief valve problem is to separate the
vortex shedding and acoustic frequencies to avoid resonance. The
use of large-diameter branch openings reduces the vortex-shedding
frequencies and has proven successful in resolving these problems.
A reducer or conical nozzle is used to taper the branch stub back to
the size of the valve inlet connection. Conical nozzles also tend to
increase the acoustic frequency of the stub, thereby further separating the two frequencies [16][17]. In addition, rounding the inside
edges of the branch opening also reduces vortex shedding.
37.5.5
equal to one round trip of the pressure wave from valve to reservoir and back, (2L /c), where L equals the equivalent length of
pipe between valve and reservoir, and c is the acoustic velocity.
Examples of events causing fast valve closures are the following:
Flow reversal at check valves.
Main steam-stop valve closures.
Intermittent operation of feedwater control valves.
The magnitude of a pressure transient caused by a fast valve
closure can be conservatively approximated by the following
equation:
P cV
where
P the magnitude of the pressure transient
the fluid mass density
V the initial fluid velocity
(37.5)
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37.6
37.6.1
Single-Degree-of-Freedom Response
Review of the relationships derived for a single-degree-of-freedom (SDF) system is a helpful way of understanding complex
piping vibration. Single-degree-of-freedom relationships will be
briefly reviewed here because of their importance in the understanding of piping vibration. These relationships were mentioned
earlier in the discussions regarding how pressure pulsations are
amplified in resonance.
Figure 37.9 illustrates an SDF system with viscous damping
and a harmonic forcing function applied to it [15]. In this figure, k
represents the system stiffness, c is the viscous damping, m is the
system mass, x is the displacement of the mass, and F0 sin vt is
the applied forcing function.
The differential equation of motion for this system can be written as follows:
.
mx cx kx F0 sin t
(37.6a)
vn =
k
nautral frequency in radians/sec.
Am
(37.7)
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FIG. 37.8
fn =
vn
2p
(37.8)
These relationships shown in the preceding equations demonstrate the effect of stiffness and mass on piping vibration. For
example, a loosely supported piping system will have a low stiffness (k) and therefore will have a low fundamental vibration frequency. Loosely supported piping systems may vibrate at 1 or
2 Hz or below. Adding supports to a system will increase its stiffness and therefore its vibrational frequencies; it is also one way of
shifting the piping frequencies out of resonance and reducing
response. Also, the equations demonstrate how a large mass (m)
in a system will lower its natural frequency. (A large mass may be
a valve or it may be the effect that a long run of piping has on a
span perpendicular to it.) In other words, the long run of piping
will act as a lumped mass to the perpendicular pipe run. Increasing
or decreasing a systems mass also has been used to avoid resonances. The effect of exciting a system in resonance is demonstrated by the following equation:
1
= dynamic amplification
2z
(37.9)
in which z = C/Cc is the fraction of critical damping: C is system damping and Cc is critical damping.
This relationship demonstrates the large amplification that can
occur when a system is excited in resonance. For example, 2% of
critical damping is common for piping vibration; this would result
in an amplification of 25. If a piping system were excited in resonance by a 100 lb. load, the piping maximum response would be
as if a 2,500 lb. loading were applied to it statically.
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FIG. 37.9
SDF SYSTEM
(37.9)
(37.10)
These relationships are important in understanding the relationships between velocity, acceleration, and displacement. The preceding equations show that for a given displacement, velocity
increases as a direct function of the vibration frequency (v) and
acceleration increases as the square of the increase in vibration
frequency (v 2)demonstrating that at low frequencies the vibration velocity and acceleration can be expected to be very low,
whereas at high frequencies the velocity and especially the acceleration can be large and the vibration displacements likely to be small.
This is why displacement transducers, for example, are typically
used to measure vibration of low speedrotating equipment, velocity
transducers are used to measure intermediate speedrotating equipment, and accelerometers provide the best measurements for
highspeed equipment and gear boxes.
37.6.2
Low- and high-tuning and damping are effective means of minimizing vibration response. High-tuning involves designing a structure or system so that its fundamental frequency is higher than that
of the forcing function frequency. This design results in a rigid or
highly tuned structure. Conversely, low-tuning involves designing
the fundamental vibration frequency of the structure to be lower
than that of the forcing function. This design involves making a
flexible structure so that it is low-tuned to the forcing function.
The intent of these two methods is to avoid resonance where
the frequency of the excitation is at or near the natural frequency
of the structure. As was discussed previously, resonance results in
very large amplifications. Note that high- or low-tuning can also
be accomplished by shifting the frequency of the forcing function,
which is especially true with piping vibration in which a system
modification can be used to shift the forcing function frequency
or modify the acoustical frequency of the system.
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FIG. 37.10
37.6.3
Design Guidelines
37.6.3.1 Prevention and Control Prevention and control of piping vibrations is best accomplished in two stages. The first stage is
to consider potential vibration problems in the design stage of the
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FIG. 37.11
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FIG. 37.12
37.7
37.7.1
Vibration Measurements
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FIG. 37.13
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FIG. 37.14
AN LVDT INSTALLATION
FOR
MEASURING
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FIG. 37.15
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FIG. 37.16
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37.7.2
Walkdown procedures are effective methods of assessing piping vibration. Walkdowns can be used for both dynamic-transient
and steady-state piping vibration. Walkdowns allow for a quick,
efficient assessment of the vibration severity, so the effort expended
is proportional to the vibration severity. If observed vibrations are
small, then in accordance with the walkdown procedure little
effort is needed to qualify the piping. If vibrations are more
severe, however, additional attention is given to better quantify
the piping response and, if required, develop fixes.
Walkdown procedures rely heavily on the judgment and experience of the engineers who complete the walkdowns. Therefore, to
ensure that the walkdowns are effective, those completing them
should be experienced in a variety of areas related to piping vibration, including experience with the system and its operation, and
should be familiar with the potential causes and effects of vibration, the capabilities and limitations of the instrumentation used to
obtain vibration measurements, piping structural and stress analyses and Code requirements, and the bases and assumptions applicable to the acceptance criteria used to qualify piping vibration. In
fact, these requirements dictate a high level of experience for the
engineers completing this work. A team approach may be used
for completing the walkdowns, such as by using a test engineer
teamed with a piping engineer; the collective experience of the
team includes experience in all of the required areas.
37.7.2.1 Dynamic-Transient Vibration A visual walkdown
procedure can be an effective method of assessing dynamic transients
FIG. 37.17
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FIG. 37.18
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FIG. 37.19
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FIG. 37.20
computer analysis used is basically a more sophisticated simplebeam analogy. Again, the model is based on the actual vibrational
response of the piping.
If measured vibrations are still deemed excessive, the next step
involves determining the most economical and time-effective
method of resolving the problem. One choice is to complete a more
detailed analysis and/or testing. Detailed analysis involves obtaining a more accurate, less conservative analytical representation of
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FIG. 37.21
the piping response, whereas more detailed testing involves obtaining (such as through the use of strain gauges) sufficient measurements to allow pipe stresses to be accurately determined.
A second alternative is to modify the piping or the piping supports to mitigate the vibration response. It is frequently more costeffective to add an additional support or (possibly) to shim an
existing support than it is to expend additional money on further
assessment of the problem.
The ideal solution is to determine and eliminate the source of
vibration. For cases in which the entire piping system is experiencing excessive vibration, this solution may also be the most costeffective. Adding a flow orifice downstream of a cavitating valve
can eliminate the vibration source, and a change to an operating
procedure is sufficient in some instances to resolve a problem.
FIG. 37.22
37.7.3
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FIG. 37.23
the deflected shapes, the deflection limit calculated by these simple models will also be conservative. Figure 37.24 shows a fixed
guided-beam analogy used frequently to determine allowable
deflection limits. The figure shows a simplified equation that can
be used to calculate allowable deflection limits based on the
beam model. This equation is based on a deflection that causes a
stress equal to the endurance limit of carbon steel piping. The
factors C2 and K2 are from the ASME B&PV Code Section III
(NB); the product of these two factors is equal to the peak stress
index.
FIG. 37.24
SIMPLE-BEAM ANALOGIES
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0.024L2
D0aC2K 2
(37.11)
where
L pipe length, ft.
D0 pipe outside diameter, in.
1.3 stress reduction factor (from O&M Part 3) .
C2K2 the peak stress index (from ASME B&PV indices
discussed previously)
node point is assumed to be the fixed end, and the largest or worst
measured vibration deflection is assumed to be equal to the guided end. If a vibrational node point cannot be found, which is typically the case, then a conservative node point location must be
assumed. For example, node points may be assumed at rigid supports, anchors, or snubbers. The distance between the assumed
node point and the measurement location determines the span
length, L, that in turn determines the allowable deflection for that
location. The following is a sample application of this simplebeam analogy based on the example in Fig. 37.25.
FIG. 37.26
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37.7.4
FIG. 37.27
37.7.5
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FIG. 37.28
FIF. 37.29
BRANCH
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ACOUSTIC WAVE SPEED IN WATER AT 60F VS. WATER PRESSURE FOR VARIOUS %, BY VOLUME, CONCENTRATIONS OF
ENTRAINED AIR (WATER IN A 8.625 SCH. 40 STEEL PIPE)
FIG. 37.30
motion, opposes a change in volume velocity. Acoustic compliance (Ca)is represented by a volume that acts as a stiffness or
storage element and opposes a change in applied pressure. These
acoustic elements are directly analogous to the mechanical elements of resistance, mass, and compliance or stiffness of a
spring, as well as analogous to electrical elements of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance. These electrical analogies have
enabled the acoustic properties of piping systems to be modeled
on analog computers, although software is available that enables
a systems acoustic properties to be effectively analyzed on digital computers.
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37.7.6
The results of piping vibration testing and problem resolution completed at nuclear power plants illustrate the wide range of vibration
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37.8
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11. Wachel, J. L., and Bates, C. L., Techniques for Controlling Piping
Vibration and Failures, ASME Technical Paper 76-Pet-18, The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1976.
12. Miller, J., Designing Your Boron-Charging System, Power, July
1979, pp. 6567.
13. Ball, J. W., Tullis, J. P., and Stripling, T., Predicting Cavitation in
Sudden Enlargements, Journal of the Hydraulics Division,
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 101, No.
HY7, July 1975, pp. 857870.
14. Blevins, R. D., Vortex-Induced Vibration (Chapter 3), in FlowInduced Vibration, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1977.
15. Thomson, W. T., in Vibration Theory and Applications, Chapter 3,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1965.
37.9
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
37.10
REFERENCES
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32. Everest, A. F., The Master Handbook of Acoustics, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1994.
31. Wachel, J. C., Szenasi, F. R., et al., EDI Report 85-305, Vibrations of
Reciprocating Machinery and Piping Systems, Engineering Dynamics
Inc., San Antonio, TX, 1985.
33. Tullis, Paul A., Hydraulics of Pipelines, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1989, Chapter 8, page 201, 202.