Agents controlling

metamorphism

Bahria University
Islamabad Campus)

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
02
1.1 metamorphic rocks
1.2metamorphism

2. AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM.
02-04
2.1 heat as a metamorphic agent
2.1.1changes caused by heat
2.1.2 Source of heat?

2.2 CONFINING PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL STRESS..

04-05

2.3 CHEMICALLY ACTIVE

FLUIDS............................................................................................
...06-07

2.3. Source of chemically active fl uids

2.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARENT ROCK..

.07-08
3 References
.
09

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Bahria University
Islamabad Campus)

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

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Bahria University
Islamabad Campus)

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

1.1METAMORPHIC ROCK
Rocks that have, in a solid state, undergone changes in minerology, texture, or
chemical composition as a result of heat or pressure.

TERMINOLOGY :
The original rock that altered to make a metamorphic rock is called the protolith.

1.2 METAMORPHISM
When rocks are subjected to deep burial, tectonic forces such as folding, and high pressures and
temperatures, the textures and mineral compositions begin to change. This process, called
metamorphism. Itis the solid-state transformation (no melting) of a rock mass into a rock of
generally the same chemistry but with different texture s and minerals. Usually the
metamorphic rock looks quite different from the original rock, called the parent rock or
protolith. Metamorphicrocks often show contorted patterns of folding that indicate they were
soft enough to bend (plastic deformation). Folding is achieved by the application of great
pressure over long periods. The intensity of the metamorphism increases with increasing
temperature and/o r pressure, and the highest "grade" of metamorphism approaches partial
melting of the rock, almost completing the rock cycle.

2 . AGENTS OF METAMORPHISM
The agents of metamorphism include heat, pressure (stress), and chemically active fluids. During
metamorphism, rocks are usually subjected to all three metamorphic agents simultaneously.
However, the degree of metamorphism and the contribution of each agent vary greatly from one
environment to another.

2.1 HEAT AS A METAMORPHIC AGENT

The most important factor driving metamorphism is heat because it provides the energy to drive
chemical reactions that result in the recrystallization of existing minerals and/or the formation of
new minerals. Recall from the discussion of igneous rocks that an increase in temperature causes
the ions within a mineral to vibrate more rapidly. Even in a crystalline solid, where ions
arestrongly bonded, this elevated level of activity allows individual atoms to migrate more freely
between sites in the crystalline structure.
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Bahria University
Islamabad Campus)

Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

2.1.1CHANGES CAUSED BY HEAT

Heat affects Earth materials, especially those that form in low-temperature environments, in two
ways. First, it promotes recrystallization of individual mineral grains. This is particularly true of
clays, fine grained sediments, and some chemical precipitates. Higher temperatures promote
recrystallization where fine particles tend to coalesce into larger grains of the same mineralogy.
Second, heat may raise the temperature of a rock to the point where one, or more, of the minerals
are no longer chemically stable. In such cases, the constituent ions tend to arrange themselves
into crystalline structures that are more stable in the new high-energy environment. Such
chemical reactions result in the creation of new minerals with stable configurations that have an
overall composition roughly equivalent to that of the original material. (In some environments
ions may migrate into or out of a rock unit, thereby changing its overall chemical composition.)
In summary, if we were to traverse a region of metamorphic rocks (now uplifted and exposed)
while traveling in the direction of increasing intensity of metamorphism, we would expect to
observe two changes largely attributable to increased temperature. The grain size of the rocks
would increase and the mineralogy would gradually change.
2.1.2WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF HEAT?
Earths internal heat comes mainly from energy that is continually being released by radioactive
decay and thermal energy generated during the formation of our planet. Recall that temperatures
increase with depth at arate known as the geothermal gradient.
In the upper crust, this increase in temperature averages between 20C and 30C per kilometer
(Figure 1.1). Thus, rocks that formed at Earths surface will experience a gradual increase in
temperature as they are taken to greater depths. When buried to a depth of about 8 kilometers (5
miles), where temperatures are about 200C, clay minerals tend to become unstable and begin to
recrystallize into new minerals, such as chlorite and muscovite that are stable in this
environment. (Chlorite is mica like mineral formed by the metamorphism of dark [mafic] silicate
minerals.) However, many silicate minerals, particularly those found in crystalline igneous rocks
quartz and feldspar for example remain stable at these temperatures. Thus, metamorphic changes
in these minerals generally occur at much greater depths. Environments where rocks may be
carried to great depths and heated include convergent plate boundaries where slabs of sedimentladen oceanic crust are being subducted. In addition, rocks may become deeply buried in large
basins where gradual subsidence results in very thick accumulations of sediment(Figure 2.1).
Such locations, exemplified by the Gulf of Mexico, are known to develop metamorphic
conditions near the base of the pile. Furthermore, continental collisions, which result in crustal
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Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

thickening by folding and faulting, cause rocks to become deeply buried where elevated
temperatures may trigger partial melting. Heat may also be transported from the mantle into even
the shallowest layers of the crust by igneous intrusions. Rising mantle plumes, upwelling at midocean ridges, and magma generated by partial melting of mantle rock at subductionzones are
three examples (Figure 2.1). Anytime magma forms and buoyantly rises toward the surface,
metamorphism occurs. When magma intrudes relatively cool rocks at shallow depths, the host
rock is baked.This process, called contact metamorphism.

FIGURE 2.1 Illustration of the geothermal gradient and its role in metamorphism. Notice how
the geothermal gradient is lowered by the subduction of comparatively cool oceanic lithosphere.
By contrast, thermal heating is evident where magma intrudes the upper crust.

2.2 CONFINING PRESSURE AND DIFFERENTIAL STRESS

Pressure, like temperature, also increases with depth as the thickness of the overlying rock
increases. Buried rocks are subjected to confining pressure, which is analogous to water pressure,
where the forces are applied equally in all directions. The deeper you go in the ocean, the greater
the confining pressure. The same is true for rock that is buried. Confining pressure causes the
spaces between mineral grains to close, producing a more compact rock having a greater density.
Further, at great depths, confining pressure may cause minerals to recrystallize into new minerals
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that display a more compact crystalline form. Confining pressure does not, however, fold and
deform rocks like those shown in. In addition to confining pressure, rocks may be subjected to
directed pressure. This occurs, for example, at convergent plate boundaries where slabs of
lithosphere collide. Here the forces that deform rock are unequal in different directions and are
referred to as differential stress. Unlike confining pressure, which squeezes rock equally in all
directions, differential stresses are greater in one direction than in others. As shown in Figure
2.2B, rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the direction of greatest stress and
elongated, or lengthened, in the direction perpendicular to that stress. As a result, the rocks
involved are often folded or flattened(similar to stepping on a rubber ball). Along convergent
plate boundaries the greatest differential stress is directed roughly horizontal in the direction of
plate motion, and the least pressure is in the vertical direction. Consequently, in these settings the
crust is greatly shortened (horizontally) and thickened (vertically). Although, differential stresses
are generally small when compared to confining pressure, they are important in creating the
various textures exhibited by metamorphic rocks. In surface environments where temperatures
are comparatively low, rocks are brittle and tend to fracture when subjected to differential stress.
Continued deformation grinds and pulverizes the mineral grains into small fragments. By
contrast, in high-temperature environments rocks areductile. When rocks exhibit ductile
behavior, their mineral grains tend to flatten and elongate when subjected to differential stress
(Figure 2.2). This accounts for their ability to deform by flowing (rather than fracturing) to
generate intricate folds.

FIG
URE 2.2 Confining pressure and differential stress as metamorphic agents. A. In a depositional
environment, as confining pressure increases, rocks deform by decreasing in volume. B. During

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mountain building, rocks subjected to differential stress are shortened in the direction that
pressure is applied, and lengthened in the direction perpendicular to that force.

2.3 CHEMICALLY ACTIVE FLUIDS

Fluids composed mainly of water and othervolatile components, including carbon
dioxide,are believed to play an important role in some types of metamorphism. Fluids
that surround mineral grains act as catalysts topromote recrystallization by enhancing
ion migration. In progressively hotter environments these ion-rich fluids become
correspondingly more reactive. When two mineral grains are squeezed together, the
parts of their crystalline structures that touch are the most highly stressed. Ions
located at these sites are readily dissolved by the hotfluids and migrate along the
surface of the grain to the pore spaces located between individual grains. Thus,
hydrothermal fluids aid in the recrystallization of mineral grains by dissolving
material from regions of highstress and then precipitating (depositing)this material in
areas of low stress. As a result,minerals tend to recrystallize and growlonger in a
direction perpendicular to compressional stresses.
Where hot fluids circulate freely throughrocks, ionic exchange may occur
betweentwo adjacent rock layers, or ions may migrate great distances before they are
finally deposited.The latter situation is particularlycommon when we consider hot
fluids that escape during the crystallization of an igneous pluton. If the rocks that
surround the pluton differ markedly in composition from that of the invading fluids,
there may be a substantial exchange of ions between the fluids and host rocks. When
this occurs, a change in the overall composition of the surrounding rock results. The
change in composition by interaction with fluids is called metasomatism.

2.3.1 WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF CHEMICALLY ACTIVE FLUIDS?

Water is plentiful in the pore spaces of most sedimentary rocks, aswell as in fractures
in igneous rocks. In addition, many minerals,such as clays, micas, and amphiboles,
are hydratedand thus contain water in their crystalline structures. Elevated
temperatures associated with low to moderate-grade metamorphism cause the
dehydration of these minerals. Once expelled, the water moves along the surfaces of
individual grains and is available to facilitate iontransport. However, in high-grade
metamorphic environments,where temperatures are extreme, these fluids may be
driven from the rocks. Recall that when oceanic crust is subducted to depths of about

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Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

100 kilometers, water expelledfrom these slabs migrates into the mantle wedge

above,where it triggers melting (Figure 2.3).

FIGURE 2.3

2.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARENT ROCK

Most metamorphic rocks have the same overall chemicalcomposition as the parent
rock from which they formed, exceptfor the possible loss or acquisition of volatiles
such aswater (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). For example, themetamorphism of
shale results in slate, where clay mineralsrecrystallize to form micas. (The minute
crystals of quartzand feldspar found in shale are not altered in the transformationof
shale to slate and thus remain intermixed with themicas.) Although the mineralogy
changes in the transformationof shale to slate, the overall chemical composition
ofslate is comparable to that of the rock from which it was derived.
Further, when the parent rock has a mafic composition,such as basalt, the
metamorphic product will be rich inminerals containing iron and magnesium unless,
of course,there has been a substantial loss of these atoms.

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Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

In addition, the mineral makeup of the parent rock determines,to a large extent, the
degree to which each metamorphicagent will cause change. For example, when
magmaforces its way into existing rock, high temperatures and associatedhot ion-rich
fluids tend to alter the host rock. Whenthe host rock is composed of minerals that are
comparativelyunreactive, such as the quartz grains found in cleanquartz sandstone,
very little alteration may take place.However, if the host rock is a dirty limestone
that containsabundant silica-rich clay, the calcite (CaCO3) in the limestonemay react
with silica (SiO2) in the clays to form wollastonite(CaSiO3) plus carbon dioxide
(CO2). In thissituation the zone of metamorphism may extend for severalkilometers
from the magma body.

FIGURE 2.4metamorphic rocks, originally from layers of sandstone, shale, and

assorted mineral layers typically present in ocean beds. Some rust, so means at least
one iron substance is present in it as well.

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Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences

3. REFERENCES
M. A. ETHERIDGE* & V. J. WALL, Department of Earth Sciences,
Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
R .H . V ERN 0 N, School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University,
North Ryde, N.S. W. 21 13, Australia
M. A. ETHERIDGE* & V. J. WALL, Department of Earth Sciences,
Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia
R .H . V ERN 0 N, School of Earth Sciences, Macquarie University,
North Ryde, N.S. W. 21 13, Australia
Introduction to Physical Geology - Thompson and Turk WW
Earth_An_Introduction_to_Physical_Geology
Engineering_Geology__Second_Edition
Introduction to Physical Geology - Thompson and Turk WW
Earth_An_Introduction_to_Physical_Geology
Engineering_Geology__Second_Edition
http://w3.salemstate.edu/~lhanson/gls100/Earth_F2010/9_Earth_Metamorphism.html
https://www.google.com/search?q=fluids+in+metamorphism&client
http://elements.geoscienceworld.org/content/6/3/153.short
http://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol100/lectures/16.html

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