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where pm = mean pressure, psi

kg = air permeability at pm, psi
kL = absolute permeability (k), md
Equation 4-47 can be used to calculate the absolute permeability when
only one gas permeability measurement (kg) of a core sample is made at
pm. This nonlinear equation can be solved iteratively by using the Newton-Raphson iterative methods. The proposed solution method can be
conveniently written as
ki + 1 = ki -

f ( k i)
f ( k i)

where ki = initial guess of the absolute permeability, md

ki+1 = new permeability value to be used for the next iteration
i = iteration level
f(ki) = Equation 4-47 as evaluated by using the assumed value of ki.
f(ki) = first-derivative of Equation 4-47 as evaluated at ki
The first derivative of Equation 4-47 with respect to ki is:
f (ki) = 4.416 ki-0.36 + pm

(4-48)

The iterative procedure is repeated until convergence is achieved when

f(ki) approaches zero or when no changes in the calculated values of ki
are observed.

Example 4-10
The permeability of a core plug is measured by air. Only one measurement is made at a mean pressure of 2.152 psi. The air permeability is
46.6 md. Estimate the absolute permeability of the core sample. Compare
the result with the actual absolute permeability of 23.66 md.

Solution
Step 1. Substitute the given values of pm and kg into Equations 4-47 and
4-48, to give:
f (ki) = 6.9 ki0.64 + 2.152 ki - (2.152) (46.6) f (ki) = 4.416 ki-0.36
+ 2.152

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Step 2. Assume ki = 30 and apply the Newton-Raphson method to find

the required solution as shown below.
i

ki

f (ki)

f(ki)

ki + 1

1
2
3

30.000
22.719
22.861

25.12
-0.466
0.414

3.45
3.29
3.29

22.719
22.861
22.848

After three iterations, the Newton-Raphson method converges to an

absolute value for the permeability of 22.848 md.
Equation 4-39 can be expanded to describe flow in any porous medium where the geometry of the system is not too complex to integrate. For
example, the flow into a well bore is not linear, but is more often radial.
Figure 4-24 illustrates the type of flow that is typical of that occurring in
the vicinity of a producing well. For a radial flow, Darcys equation in a
differential form can be written as:

Figure 4-24. Radial flow model.

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Example 4-11
Given the following permeability data from a core analysis report, calculate the average permeability of the reservoir.
Depth, ft

Permeability, md

3998-02
4002-04
4004-06
4006-08
4008-10

200
130
170
180
140

Solution
hi, ft

ki

hiki

4
2
2
2
2

200
130
170
180
140

800
260
340
360
280

ht = 12

k avg =

hiki = 2040

2040
= 170 md
12

Harmonic-Average Permeability
Permeability variations can occur laterally in a reservoir as well as in
the vicinity of a well bore. Consider Figure 4-27 which shows an illustration of fluid flow through a series combination of beds with different permeabilities.
For a steady-state flow, the flow rate is constant and the total pressure
drop Dp is equal to the sum of the pressure drops across each bed, or
Dp = Dp1 + Dp2 + Dp3
Substituting for the pressure drop by applying Darcys equation, i.e.,
Equation 4-40, gives:

Fundamentals of Rock Properties

241

Figure 4-28. Flow through series beds.

k avg =

Ln ( r e / r w)
Ln ( r j / r j-1)

kj

j=1
n

(4 - 53)

The relationship in Equation 4-53 can be used as a basis for estimating

a number of useful quantities in production work. For example, the
effects of mud invasion, acidizing, or well shooting can be estimated
from it.

Example 4-12
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct formation
segments that are connected in series. Each segment has the same formation thickness. The length and permeability of each section of the fivebed reservoir are given below:

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Length, ft

Permeability, md

150
200
300
500
200

80
50
30
20
10

Calculate the average permeability of the reservoir by assuming:

a. Linear flow system
b. Radial flow system

Solution
For a linear system:
Li, ft

ki

Li/ki

150
200
300
500
200

80
50
30
20
10

1.8750
4.0000
10.000
25.000
20.000
S Li/ki = 60.875

1350

Using Equation 4-52 gives:

k avg =

1350
= 22.18 md
60.875

For a radial system:

The solution of the radial system can be conveniently expressed in the
following tabulated form. The solution is based on Equation 4-53 and
assuming a wellbore radius of 0.25 ft:
Segment

ri, ft

ln(ri/riB1)

ki

[ln(ri/riB1)]/ki

well bore
1
2
3
4
5

0.25
150
350
650
1150
1350

6.397
0.847
0.619
0.571
0.160

80
50
30
20
10

0.080
0.017
10.021
0.029
0.016
0.163

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Fundamentals of Rock Properties

From Equation 4-53,

k avg =

l n (1350 /0.25)
= 52.72 md
0.163

Geometric-Average Permeability
Warren and Price (1961) illustrated experimentally that the most probable behavior of a heterogeneous formation approaches that of a uniform
system having a permeability that is equal to the geometric average. The
geometric average is defined mathematically by the following relationship:

n
( h i ln ( k i ))

k avg = exp i=1 n

hi

i=1

(4 - 54)

where ki = permeability of core sample i

hi = thickness of core sample i
n = total number of samples
If the thicknesses (hi) of all core samples are the same, Equation 4-57
can be simplified as follows:
k avg = ( k1 k 2 k 3 K k n

1
)n

(4 - 55)

Example 4-13
Given the following core data, calculate the geometric average permeability:
Sample

hi, ft

ki, md

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

1.0
1.0
0.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
0.5

10
30
100
40
80
70
15
50
35
20

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Reservoir Engineering Handbook

Solution
Sample

hi, ft

ki, md

hi * Ln (ki)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11.5

1.0
1.0
0.5
1.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.5
0.5

10
30
100
40
80
70
15
50
35
20

2.303
3.401
2.303
5.533
8.764
6.373
2.708
3.912
5.333
1.498
42.128

42.128 = 39 md
k avg = exp
11.5
Absolute Permeability Correlations

The determination of connate water by capillary-pressure measurements has allowed the evaluation of connate-water values on samples of
varying permeability and within a given reservoir to a wider extent and
to a greater accuracy than was possible beforehand. These measurements
have accumulated to the point where it is possible to correlate connatewater content with the permeability of the sample in a given reservoir
and to a certain extent between reservoirs.
Calhoun (1976) suggested that in an ideal pore configuration of uniform structure, the irreducible connate water would be independent of
permeability, lower permeabilities being obtained merely by a scaled
reduction in particle size. In an actual porous system formed by deposition of graded particles or by some other natural means, the connate
water might be expected to increase as permeability decreases. This conclusion results from the thought that lower permeabilities result from
increasing non-uniformity of pore structure by a gradation of particles
rather than by a scaled reduction of particles. In this sense, connate-water
content is a function of permeability only insofar as permeability is
dependent upon the variation of pore structure. Thus, for unconsolidated
sands formed of uniform particles of one size, the connate-water content
would be independent of permeability.

Fundamentals of Rock Properties

245

Calhoun (1976) pointed out that any correlation found between various reservoir properties would be anticipated to apply only within the
rather narrow limits of a single reservoir or perhaps of a given formation.
Beyond these bounds, a general correspondence between permeability
and pore structure would not be known. It would be anticipated, however, that for formations of similar characteristics, a similar dependence of
permeability on pore structure and, consequently, similar correlation of
connate water and permeability would be found.
It has been generally considered for many years that connate water
reached higher values in lower permeabilities. This observation amounted
to nothing more than a trend. The data from capillary pressure measurements have indicated that the relationship is semi-logarithmic, although it is
not yet certain from published data that this is the exact relationship. No
generalizations are apparent from this amount of data, although it can now
be quite generally stated that within a given reservoir the connate water (if
an irreducible value) will increase proportionally to the decrease in the logarithm of the permeability. It is apparent, moreover, that one cannot state
the value of connate water expected in any new formation unless one
knows something of its pore makeup.
Experience indicates a general relationship between reservoir porosity
(f) and irreducible water saturation (Swc) provided the rock type and/or
the grain size does not vary over the zone of interest. This relationship is
defined by the equation
C = (Swi) (f)
where C is a constant for a particular rock type and/or grain size.
Several investigators suggest that the constant C that describes the
rock type can be correlated with the absolute permeability of the rock.
Two commonly used empirical methods are the Timur equation and the
Morris-Biggs equation.

The Timur Equation

Timur (1968) proposed the following expression for estimating the
permeability from connate water saturation and porosity:
k = 8.58102

f 4.4
S2wc

(4 - 56)

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The Morris-Biggs Equation

Morris and Biggs (1967) presented the following two expressions for
estimating the permeability if oil and gas reservoirs:
For an oil reservoir:
f3
k = 62.5

Swc

(4 - 57)

For a gas reservoir:

f3
k = 2.5

Swc

(4 - 58)

where k = absolute permeability, Darcy

f = porosity, fraction
Swc = connate-water saturation, fraction

Example 4-14
Estimate the absolute permeability of an oil zone with a connate-water
saturation and average porosity of 25% and 19%, respectively.

Solution
Applying the Timur equation:
k = 8.58102

(0.19) 4.4
= 0.0921 Darcy
(0.25)2

From the Morris and Biggs correlation:

2

(.29)3
k = 62.5
= 0.047 Darcy
0.25
In the previous discussion of Darcys Law and absolute permeability
measurements, it was assumed that the entire porous medium is fully saturated with a single phase, i.e., 100% saturation. In hydrocarbon reservoir, however, the rocks are usually saturated with two or more fluids.
Therefore, the concept of absolute permeability must be modified to
describe the fluid flowing behavior when more than one fluid is present