Discuss the role of endogenous

pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers in

biological rhythms

A rhythm is something that is regularly repeated e.g. eating several

times a day. These rhythms are repeated over different intervals and they
are governed by both internal (endogenous) and external (exogenous)
factors. An endogenous pacemaker is something internal that sets the
rhythm, and an exogenous zeitgeber is something external that affects / sets
the rhythm e.g. light.
A biological rhythm that depends upon endogenous pacemakers is the
sleep/wake cycle circadian rhythm in humans. The Suprachiasmitic Nucleus
(SCN) is a small group of cells in the hypothalamus; it lies just above the optic
chasm so it can gain input directly from the eyes, and therefore the rhythm
can be reset by the amount of light entering the eye. The SCN generates its
own rhythms, probably as a result of protein synthesis (cells in the SCN
produce a protein for a period of hours until the level stops further
production, and then when the protein level drops below the threshold, the
SCN starts producing the protein again – Kalat 1998). This generates the
biological rhythm. This biological rhythm then effects the sleep-wake cycle
via the pineal gland. Electrical stimulation of the pineal gland produces the
hormone melatonin, which makes a person feel sleepy. In the absence of
light, or when light levels are low, more melatonin is released (hence, why we
sleep at night).
There are studies to support the functioning of the SCN in circadian
rhythms. Silver et al showed that transplanted SCNs can restore circadian
rhythm to an animal whose own SCN has been removed. Morgan also
removed the SCN from hamsters and found that their circadian rhythms
disappeared. He also transplanted the SCN cells from mutant hamsters
(those who had been bred to have shorter cycles than normal) to ‘normal’
hamsters. He found that the hamster receiving the transplant took on the
mutant circadian rhythms.
There is also evidence of a second biological clock, again in the SCN.
Wever believed that the sleep-waking cycles could be influenced by some
internal biological clock. He discussed studies on participants who spent
several weeks or months in a bunker of isolation suits. Most of them settled
down to a sleep-waking cycles of about 25 hours (though this is not a
universal finding). Nearly all participants in the long-term bunker studies
showed evidence of two different patterns: one for their sleep-waking cycle,
and one for their temperature cycle. Folkard’s study of Kate Aldcroft found
that she developed a 30-hour sleep-wake cycle but a 24-hour temperature
cycle. These findings indicate strongly that there are separate internal clocks
controlling their sleep-waking cycle and temperature.
Light is considered to be the dominant ‘zeitgeber’ (time giver). This
was demonstrated in a study by Miles et al. They documented the problems
of a young man who was blind from birth. He had a strong 24.9-hour
circadian rhythm despite the fact that he was exposed to a variety of

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zeitgebers such as clocks and radios. His problems in resetting his biological
clock were so great that he had to use stimulants and sedatives to co-
ordinate his sleep-wake cycle with the rest of the world.
The psychologist Campbell researched into endogenous pacemakers
and found that the retina is not the only place that is responsible for the
sleep/wake circadian cycle. He shone a light in the back of sleeping
participant’s knees and found that they woke up, because their levels of
melatonin decreased. Therefore, endogenous pacemakers are strong and can
help to maintain biological rhythms. However, Campbell’s research can be
criticised because the amount of participants use was not specified, and
neither was their age or gender, which can affect the reliability of the results.
The study was also artificial as it lacked mundane realism; people are not
usually woken up by having a light shone on the back of their knee.
Nevertheless, there is scope available for further research: shining light on
other body parts, for instance.
However, there is also evidence that shows that where appropriate,
light cues are disregarded. Luce and Segal pointed out that people who live
within the Arctic Circle still sleep for about 7 hours despite the fact that
during the summer months the sun never sets. In certain circumstances,
other external cues take over, such as social customs that dictate when it is
time to get up and go to bed.
Another example of endogenous pacemakers is the menstrual infradian
cycle. However, light is an exogenous zeitgeber that does have an influence
on it, according to the psychologist Reinberg. It has been found that women
who spent an average of three months inside a dark cave noticed that their
sleep/wake cycle lengthened and their menstrual cycle shortened. This is also
true with females who work with males, because the male pheromones
(biochemical substances that are released into the air, unlike hormones that
are released into the bloodstream) re-set the female’s biological clocks. It has
also been found that females who spend a lot of time together (e.g. living
together) share synchronised menstrual cycles, because the female
pheromones combine well together.
The sleep-wake cycle is more strongly controlled by endogenous
factors, but it is important that these cues can be overridden. For example, if
you were trapped in cave, you would need to stay awake in order to respond
to any rescuers, this means you must ignore the messages to the SCN that ‘it
is dark, time to sleep.