HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

MINERALOGY
By
John Lagat

Presentation outline
zIntroduction
zWhat

is hydrothermal alteration mineralogy

zSampling methods
zAnalytical methods
zAlteration types
zFactors affecting hydrothermal alteration
zPrimary minerals and their alteration products
zApplication of alteration in geothermal systems
zApplication of hydrothermal alteration in ore
deposits
zProblems with hydrothermal alteration minerals
z Case study: Olkaria Domes field

Introduction-1 (Geology terminology)

Mineral
A mineral is defined as
an
element
or
chemical
compound
that
is
normally
crystalline and has
formed as a result of
geologic processes.

Introduction-2 (Geology terminology)

Main rock forming minerals
Although any of hundreds of different minerals can
group together to form a rock, only six are very
common. These common minerals are referred to
as the rock-forming minerals
minerals and include quartz,
feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes and
olivine.
Others
include:
Fe-Mg,
oxides,
carbonates and native elements.

sulphides,

Introduction-3 (Geology terminology)

Rock
By definition, a rock is
an aggregate of one or
more minerals, naturally
occurring
crystalline
substances with defined
properties.
Types of rocks
Igneous rocks
Sedimentary
Metamorphic rocks

Hydrothermal alteration 1
Rock alteration
Rock alteration simply
mineralogy of the rock.

means

changing

the

Hydrothermal alteration 2
Hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal alteration is a change in mineralogy
as a result of interaction of of the rock with hot
water fluids (hydrothermal fluids).

Hydrothermal alteration 3
Existence of a hydrothermal system

Heat source
Recharge fluids
Permeable rocks
Enough time for heat transfer
Return path to the surface

Sampling in the field

Samples for petrographic,
petrochemistry and dating
require fresh samples.
Altered samples are already
obliterated and the alteration
products are mainly clays,
zeolites.

Sampling at the rig

-Cuttings samples are taken after every 2 m
-Cores are cut mainly during exploration wells.

Analytical methods-1
1. Binocular microscope
Preliminary analysis is
done at the rig site by use
of a binocular microscope.
(pyrite, quartz, calcite,
epidote)
2. Petrographic microscope
Representative
samples
are
selected and thin
sections
prepared
for
petrographic
studies.

Analytical methods-2
3. X-Ray Diffractometer
The X-Ray Diffractometer is
used to identify individual
minerals especially clays
and zeolites.
d=15,473

Clays (OW-903, 1137-1135 masl)

1100

d=13,558

d=31,60

1000

900

800

600

d=29,095

d=8,951

300

d=7,131

400

d=7,713

500

d=10,052

Lin (Cps)

700

200

100

0
2.2

10

11

Diffractograms

12

13

Analytical methods-3
4. Fluid inclusion analysis
Fluid inclusions are small
portions of fluid, which
are trapped in a solid
crystal as it grew or
recrystallized.

Alteration types-1
(a) Direct deposition

Sulphur
Quartz vein
Precipitated from saturated solution and deposited in veins and vesicles

Alteration types-2
Replacement
Primary phases

Alteration products

Volcanic glass
Zeolites, clays, quartz, calcite
Olivine
Chlorite, actinolite, hematite, clays
Pyroxenes, amphiboles Chlorite, illite, quartz, pyrite,
calcite
Ca-plagioclase
Calcite, albite, adularia, quartz,
illite, epidote, sphene
Sanidine, orthoclase, Adularia
microcline
Magnetite
Pyrite, sphene, haematite

Alteration types-3

(c) Leaching
Process takes place
geothermal field

at

margins

of

Acidified steam condensate dissolve primary

minerals without replacing voids thus
formed.

Alteration types-4

(d) Ejecta
Bladed euhedral crystals of calcite form in the
turbulence of boiling

Factors affecting hydrothermal alteration-1

1. Temperature
Temperature is the most
significant
factor
in
hydrothermal
alteration
because
most
of
the
chemical reactions require
elevated temperatures and
also
minerals
are
thermodynamically stable
at high temperatures.

Factors affecting hydrothermal alteration-2

2. Permeability
Permeability of the rocks controls
the access of thermal fluids, which
cause hydrothermal alteration of
the rocks and precipitation of
secondary
minerals
in
open
spaces.
Rocks which have very restricted
permeability or are completely
impervious to fluid will be only
slightly altered.

Factors affecting hydr. alt-3

3. Pressure
Unlike metamorphic environm. Pressures seldom
exceed 200 bars.

Main effect of pressure is an indirect one in that it

controls depth at which boiling.

Factors affecting hydr alt-4

4. Initial rock composition
The chemical composition of the host rock
determines the availability of components to form
alteration minerals.

Glass easily susceptible than the crystalline rock

Reverse of the Bowen's reaction series

Factors affecting hydrothermal alteration-5

5. Fluid composition
The pH and the composition
of
the
fluid
greatly
determine rate and the
types
of
hydrothermal
minerals to be formed in a
geothermal system.

Application of alt. mins in geothermal systems-1

1. Geothermometers
Alteration mins e.g.
zeolites,
clays,
prehnite,
epidote
and many others
are
useful
as
geother-mometers

MINERA LS
C halcedony
Mordenite
C alcite
Pyrite
C hlorite
Illite
A lbite
A dularia
Q uartz
Sphene
Wairakite
Prehnite
Epidote
Biotite
A ctinolite
G arnet

TEMPERATU RE C
100

200

300

Application of alt. min in geothermal systems-2

2. Permeability indicators
Alteration minerals e.g. quartz,
anhydrite, wairakite abundant
calcite and pyrite are used as
indicators
of
high
permeability.

Application of alt. min in geothermal systems-3

3. Setting production casing depths
Temperature ranges of minerals especially
phylosilicates and calcsilicates assist in estimating
subsurface
temperatures
hence
setting
of
production casing depths.

Application of alt. min in geothermal systems-4

4. Understand the nature of the reservoir
9Determine the uplflow, outflow and marginal zones
9Determine structures that control the geothermal
fluids
9Predicting possible boiling and or high gas zones
during drilling-bladed calcite
9Identifying past fluctuations in the thermal system

Application of alt. min in geothermal systems-5

5. Predicting scaling and and corrosion tendencies
9Bladed calcite indicate boiling hence possibility
of calcite scaling and corrosion
9Formation of certain alteration minerals depend
on the pH of the hydrothermal fluids

Application of alt. min in ore deposits

Source of economic minerals
9Veins form where the fluids flow through larger,
open space fractures and precipitate mineralization
along the walls of the fracture, eventually filling it
completely

Problems with hydrothermal alteration minerals

Corrosion and
systems

scaling problems in geothermal

Hydrothermal min. zonations

2100

OW -903
OW -902

1900

OW -901

UNALTERED ZONE
1700

+
+

C
10 0
C
125
150C

1500

ZEOLITE-CHLORITE ZONE

17 5C
200 C

1300

225C
230C
2 40
C
24 5
C

ILLITE-CHLORITE ZONE

1100

2 48

900

Depth(masl)

27 5C

700

500

E
OT
P ID

300C

300
32 5C
340 C

100

-100

GARNET-BIOTITE-ACTINOLITE ZONE
-300

LIT
-I L

NE
ZO
E
IT
OR
HL
C
E-

Case example Domes OW-902

2100

OW -903
O W-902

1900

1700

OW-90 1

100C
C
125
150C

1500

175C
200C
Chl orite isograd

1300

225C
230C
240
C

ad
isogr
Illite

1100

ote
Epid

rad
isog

245C

24
8
C

900

Depth (m.a.s.l)

275C
700

500

Garnet isograd

300C
300

325 C
340C
100

-300

e
rad
og
e is
o lit
tin
Ac

-100

Case example Domes OW-901

2100

OW -903
O W-902

1900

1700

OW-90 1

100C
C
125
150C

1500

175C
200C
Chl orite isograd

1300

225C
230C
240
C

ad
isogr
Illite

1100

ote
Epid

rad
isog

245C

24
8
C

900

Depth (m.a.s.l)

275C
700

500

Garnet isograd

300C
300

325 C
340C
100

-300

e
rad
og
e is
o lit
tin
Ac

-100