MEC560 - Chapter 3 - Metal Forming and Shaping Processes

MEM560
Chapter 3: Metal Forming and

Shaping Processes
EMD5MPL
Introduction to Nature of
Plastics Deformation
The permanent change in shape of a metallic body as the
result of forces acting on its surface
The strength of metal depend on level/degree of plastic
deformation and grain sizes and distribution
The deformed metal had higher strength because the
entanglement of dislocation with grain boundaries and
each other
The higher the deformation, the higher the strength.
Metal with smaller grain size had higher strength.
Effect of plastic deformation
Grain be come deformed and elongated
Grain become intact but mass continuity is maintained.
Introduction to Nature of
Plastics Deformation
Hot and cold working process

Hot working
Plastic deformation that occurs above recrystallization
temperature
Process involved:Extrusion , welding, Forging, Drawing, and
Rotary piercing
Cold working
Plastic deformation that is carried out at room temperature
Process involved : Bending , rolling, extrusion, forging,
Shearing, Drawing, etc
Warm working
Plastic deformation that is carried out at intermediate
temperature, compromise of cold and hot working
Advantages of Hot working

process
Eliminate the effect of strain hardening - new grain of metal
grow from the just deformed grains
High strength material- small grain is obtained after hot
working which provide better strength
Reduced defect- Blow hole sand pores disappear by welding
action under high pressure and temperature or when they are
reduced in size.
There is increase in ductility- hence larger deformation can
be carried out at single stage
During hot working, metal strength is low, hence, less force is
adequate for causing deformation - Large component can be
deformed using machines for reasonable size.
Disadvantages of Hot working

Undesirable reactions between the metal and the
surrounding atmosphere - scaling or rapid oxidation
of the work piece
Less precise tolerances- due to thermal contraction
and warping from uneven cooling
Uneven grain structure- Grain structure may vary
throughout the metal for various reasons
Expensive process- Requires a heating unit of some
kind such as a gas or diesel furnace or an induction
heater
Advantages of cold working

More economical process- no additional
features (heater) required
Good surface finish and dimensional control
no oxidation or scaling occur
Reduces waste as compared to machiningeliminates with near net shape methods
Low production time- economical for large
production
Disadvantages of cold
working
Greater force is required metal is formed at room
temperature and solid state
Expensive tooling- Heavier and more powerful equipment
and stronger tooling are required
Complex process - Metal surfaces must be clean and scalefree
Only suitable for large volume productions- Due to the
large capital costs required to set up a cold working
process
Metal is less ductile - Intermediate anneals may be
required to compensate for loss of ductility that
accompanies strain hardening
Example of cold working
Products
What type of process???

Forging
Forging
Forging is a method of shaping metals and alloys into
parts of useful shape.
Using compressive force applied through various die
and tooling.
May be carried out at room temperature or elevated
temperature
Forged parts had good strength and toughness as the
metal flow in a die and materials grain structure can be
controlled.
Forged parts are suitable for highly stressed and
critical applications
May be carried out at room temperature, warm or
elevated temperature
Subjected to additional finishing operation such as
machining and heat treatment
Characteristics of forged
parts
Forged parts had good
strength and toughness
as the metal flow in a die and
materials grain structure can
be controlled.
Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain

flow. (a) Casting (b) Machining form a blank (c) Forging.
Each process has its own advantages and limitations regarding external and
internal characteristics, material properties, dimensional accuracy, surface
finish, and the economics of production.
Types of Forging
Open die forging

Close die forging
Precision forging
Upset die forging
Coining
Open die forging

Also called Upsetting or flat die forging
The simplest forging operation
Very versatile- from small to very large sizes parts (275
metric tons)
The process start by placing a solid work piece in
between two flat dies and reduced the height by
compressing it
Open die forging
(a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering
the part on an anvil.
(b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging

(c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
Closed-die forging
Also called as Impression-die and drop forging
The process start as a work piece is placed in between two
shaped dies.
The work piece will takes the shape of die cavity while
being forged between two separate dies.
Process usually done at elevated temperature to lower the
force and accomplish ductility
Flash
Standard terminology for various

features a forging die
Preforming operation in closed die

forging
Used to distribute the material properly into various region of blank
using simple shape dies with various contour
Fullering material is distribute away from an area
Edging- material is gathered into localized area
Blocking parts is formed into rough shape using blocker die
Finishing give the forged parts the final shape
Trimming removal of flash
Precision forging
Also known as flashless forging
Use to reduced the number of finishing process
required and to diminish flash occurrences
Typical products- gear, connecting rods, turbine
blades
This type of forging produce net shape product but
require high capacity equipment
Precision forging
Material is placed on top of lower punch and in
between two horizontal flat dies.
The upper die will compress the material to take the
required shapes and the dies will prevent any flash
from forming
Precision forging
Requirement of precision forging :
Special and complex die
Precise control of blank volume and shape
Accurate positioning of blank in die cavity
Reduce scrap
Versatile
Increase
productivity
Reduce process
Simple
process
Advantages
Save money
Stronger and
tougher
Near net
shape parts
Save material
Coining
Use to make coin, jewelry and medallion
The process starts as the blank or slug is coined
(compress in high pressure) in a completely close die
cavity.
The pressure required is 5-6 times the strength of
metal to produce fine details
Marking- engraving the coining parts with letter and
number
Sizing- impart the desired dimensional accuracy
with little or no change in part size
(a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. The earliest coins were made
by open-die forging and lacked precision and sharp details. (b) An example of a
modern coining operation, showing the workpiece and tooling. Note the detail
and superior finish that can be achieve in this process.
Upset forging
An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware

item The cycle consists of: (1) wire stock is fed to the stop, (2) gripping
dies close on the stock and the stop is retracted, (3) punch moves
forward, (4) bottoms to form the head.
Extrusion
A process of pushing a material through a die for the
purpose of reducing or changing its cross section area
type of extrude material- plastic, metal, alloy.
Typical product railing for sliding doors, window frames,
tubing with various cross section, aluminum ladder frame,
structural and architectural shape parts, gear, bracket, coat
hanger.
Advantages economical for large production, low tooling
cost, can be done both cold and hot extrusion
There are three type of extrusion (i) direct extrusion (ii)
indirect extrusion and (iii) hydrostatic extrusion
Direct extrusion
Also call forward extrusion
A billet is place in a chamber and force through a die opening
by hydraulically driven stem
The dummy block protect the tips of pressing stem.
This process usually done in hot working
Indirect extrusion
Also called reverse , inverted or backward extrusion
The dies move forward to unextruded billet
Had no billet-container friction, thus normally used for
high friction material (e.g : high strength steel)
Hydrostatic extrusion
The billet is smaller in diameter than the chamber filled with
fluid
The pressure is transmitted to the fluid by the ram
The fluid pressure help improved formability and thus
extruded the parts with less friction
Impact Extrusion
Impact extrusion process involve inserting a metal
blank inside a vertical/ horizontal dies and the
punch quickly impacted the metal blank .
The reasons are :
Impact extrusion is perform at higher speed and
shorter strokes compared to conventional extrusion
making it a much faster process
Very thin parts are possible to be produced on impact
extruded parts as the punches impart the work part
rather than simply applying pressure to it.
High speed characteristic of impacting, permit larger
reduction and high production rate, making it an
important commercial process.
Impact Extrusion
Drawing
A process of reducing the cross section of a
long rod or wire by pulling it through a die
(draw die)
Typical parts- wire, rod , shaft for power
transmission machine, blank for bolt and
rivet, electrical wiring cables,welding
electrodes
Tube drawing
Tube sinking- Process of reducing the diameter or
wall thickness of seamless tube or pipe after the
internal tube had been produced by some other
process such as extrusion. No mandrel is use in this
operation. The limitation is lack of control over inside
diameter and wall thickness of tube.
Using fixed mandrel Using a fixed long support bar
to establish inside diameter and wall thickness of
tube/pipe. The limitation of this process is it restrict
the length of tube that can be drawn
Using floating plug- using a removable plug in which
shape is design so that it finds a natural position in the
reduction zone of die.
Comparison of extrusion and

drawing
Extrusion
Drawing
Raw Material
Billet
Rod, wire or tube
Process
Product
The process can be

done both hot work
and cold work
There is a container
(chamber) to place the
raw material
Process of forcing billet
through a die
Drawing can only done cold

work.
The raw material passes
through the die only.
In drawing, rod, wire or tube is
pulled through the die or set of
dies in tandem
Solid and hollow products solid cross-sectional is produced in

can be produced
drawing
Section, channel, curtain If tube reduce diameter or
rail, architecture parts
thickness
using
internal
mandrels
Wire, tube
Rolling process
Process of reducing the thickness or changing
the cross section of long workpiece by
compressive force applied through a set of
rolls.
Suitable for almost 90% of metal in the form
of slab, billet and bloom.
Also suitable in rolling plastic, metal powder,
ceramic slurry and also hot glass.
Hot rolling and Cold rolling

Hot rolling
Carried out at elevated (high) temperature.
The coarse grain, brittle and porous structure of ingot is transform
into wrought structure having finer grain which resulted in higher
strength and toughness
Cold rolling
Carried out at room temperature
Compressed grain be come deformed and elongated, resulted in
higher strength and hardness
Better surface finish as no scaling and oxidation occur
General application of
rolling
Rolling plates
Thickness > 6mm, used for structural applications
such as structural support (300mm), boiler and
nuclear vessel (150mm), bridges and machinery
frames (100-125mm).
Rolling sheet
Thickness < 6mm, used for coil, automobile and
aircraft bodies, appliances, food and beverage
container.
Flat rolling
In flat rolling, a bulk material with thickness H1 is reduced
to a thinner thickness of Ho through the force of the rolls
mills.
Flat rolling
Shape rolling
To produce straight and
long structural shapes
(chanel, I beam, solid bar)
Formed at high
temperature
Stock of material is fed
into a specially designed
rolls.
Might undergo different
series of rolls to obtain
desired shapes.
Roll forging
Also known as cross rolling
To produce tapered shaft, table knife and hand tools.
The cross section of a round bar is shape by passing it
through a pair of rolls with profiles groove.
Skew rolling and Upset

forging
Use to produce steel ball and
ball bearing
Round wire of rod is fed into the
roll gap and roughly spherical
blank are formed continuously
by the action of rotating rolls.
A shear pieces from round bar

(blank) is upset in the headers
between 2 dies with hemisphere
cavities.
The balls is then ground and
polished in special machinery
Ring Rolling
Use to produce large rings for rocket turbine, jet engine cases, gear wheel
rims and flanges.
A thick ring is expanded into a large diameter thinner ring
The ring is place in between two rolls, one is idle (stationery) and one is
driven (moving).
The thickness is reduced by bringing the rolls closer together as they rotate.
Since the material volume is constant during the plastic deformation
process, the ring reduction resulted in increase in its diameter.
The advantages of ring rolling process- short production time, material
saving, close dimensional tolerance, enhance strength part
Thread rolling
Thread rolling is used to form external thread
on cylindrical parts.
The parts is rolled in between two dies which
is one fixed die and another one is moving die
until threading surface are formed all around
the rolled parts.
It is usually done in cold working condition
and the machine is equipped with special dies
that determine the size and form of the
thread.
Rolling force
Higher rolls force is undesirable as it can cause
deflection and flattening of the roll mill, thus
damaging it and effect rolling operation.
Roll force can be reduce by :
Reducing the friction on roll workpiece interface
Using smaller diameter roll to reduce contact area
Taking smaller diameter reduction per pass to reduce
contact area
Rolling at elevated temperature to lower the strength
of material
Part B: SheetMetalworking Processes
SHEET METALWORKING
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Cutting Operations
Bending Operations
Drawing
Other Sheet Metal Forming Operations
Dies and Presses for Sheet Metal Processes
Sheet Metal Operations Not Performed on Presses
Bending of Tube Stock
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
Sheet Metalworking Defined

Cutting and forming operations performed on
relatively thin sheets of metal
Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6
mm (1/4 in)
Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
Operations usually performed as cold working
Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and
industrial products such as
Automobiles and trucks
Airplanes
Railway cars and locomotives
Farm and construction equipment
Small and large appliances
Office furniture
Computers and office equipment
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
High strength
Good dimensional accuracy
Good surface finish
Relatively low cost
Economical mass production for large quantities
Sheet Metalworking Terminology
Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting,

bending, and drawing
Stamping press - machine tool that performs

most sheet metal operations
Stampings - sheet metal products
Basic Types of
Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
Shearing to separate large sheets
Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
Sheet Metal Cutting

(1) Just before punch contacts work; (2) punch pushes into
work, causing plastic deformation; (3) punch penetrates into
work causing a smooth cut surface; and (4) fracture is
initiated at opposing cutting edges to separate the sheet
Shearing, Blanking, and

Punching
Three principal operations in pressworking that cut
sheet metal:
Shearing
Blanking
Punching
Shearing Operation
(a) Side view of the operation; (b) front view of power
shears equipped with inclined upper cutting blade
Blanking and Punching

(a) Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece (called a
blank) from surrounding stock, (b) punching - similar to
blanking except cut piece is scrap, called a slug
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting
edge
Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock
thickness
If too small, fracture lines pass each other,
causing double burnishing and larger force
If too large, metal is pinched between cutting
edges and excessive burr results
Burr
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = at
where c = clearance (mm); a = allowance (no unit);
and t = stock thickness, (mm)
Allowance a is determined according to type of metal
Example: Given thickness of 5052S Alloy is = 10 mm calculate the
clearance?.
Solution:
c = at
c = (0.045) x (10)
c = 0.45 mm
WRONG!
Sheet Metal Groups Allowances

Metal group
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all

tempers
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; brass,
soft cold rolled steel, soft stainless steel
0.045
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel,

half hard and full hard
0.075
0.060
Punch and Die Sizes

For a round blank of diameter Db:
Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
For a round hole of diameter Dh:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
Punch and Die Sizes

Die size determines
blank size Db
Punch size
determines hole
size Dh
c = clearance
Angular Clearance
Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through die
Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side
Cutting Forces
Important for determining press size (tonnage)
F=StL
where S = shear strength of metal (Mpa); t = stock
thickness (mm), and L = length of cut edge (mm)
Example: Determine the tonnage requirement for the blanking operation given
thickness = 4mm, Diameter = 150mm and that the stainless steel has a yield
strength = 275 MPa, shear strength = 450 MPa, and tensile strength = 650 MPa.
Solution: F = StL
t = 4 mm
L = 150mm x = 471 mm
F = 450(4.0)(471) = 847,800 N 86 Tonnes
Sheet Metal Bending

(a) Straining of sheet metal around a straight axis to take a
permanent bend, (b) metal on inside of neutral plane is
compressed, metal on outside of neutral plane is stretched
Types of Sheet Metal Bending

V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die
Edge bending - performed with a wiping die
V-Bending
(1) Before bending,
(2) after bending
Application notes:
Low production
Performed on a
press brake
V-dies are
simple and
inexpensive
Edge Bending
(1) Before bending,
(2) After bending
Application notes:
High production
Pressure pad
required
Dies are more
complicated and
costly
Stretching during Bending

If bend radius is small relative to stock thickness,
metal tends to stretch during bending
Important to estimate amount of stretching, so final
part length = specified dimension
Problem: to determine the length of neutral axis of
the part before bending
Springback
Increase in included angle of bent part relative to
included angle of forming tool after tool is removed
Reason for springback:
When bending pressure is removed, elastic
energy remains in bent part, causing it to
recover partially toward its original shape
Springback
Springback results in a decrease in bend angle and an

increase in bend radius: (1) during bending, work is forced to
take radius Rt and angle b' of the bending tool, (2) after
punch is removed, work springs back to R and
Die Opening Dimension

Die opening dimension D for (a) V-die, (b) wiping die
Drawing
Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped, box-shaped,
or other complex-curved, hollow-shaped parts
Sheet metal blank is positioned over die cavity and
then punch pushes metal into opening
Products: beverage cans, ammunition shells,
automobile body panels
Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from
wire and bar drawing)
Deep Drawing of Cup

(a) Drawing of
cup-shaped part: (1)
before punch contacts
work, (2) near end of
stroke
(b) Starting blank and
drawn part
Clearance in Drawing
Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c
given by:
c = 1.1 t
where t = stock thickness
In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than
stock thickness
Shapes other than Cylindrical

Cups
Each of the following shapes presents its own unique
technical problems in drawing
Square or rectangular boxes (as in sinks)
Stepped cups
Cones
Cups with spherical rather than flat bases
Irregular curved forms (as in automobile body
panels)
Other Sheet Metal Forming on

Presses
Other sheet metal forming operations performed on
conventional presses can be classified as
Operations performed with metal tooling
Operations performed with flexible rubber tooling
Ironing
Achieves thinning and elongation of wall in a drawn cup:
(1) start of process; (2) during process
Embossing
Creates indentations in sheet, such as raised (or
indented) lettering or strengthening ribs: (a) Punch and
die configuration during pressing; (b) finished part with
embossed ribs
Guerin Process
(1) Before
and (2) after
Advantages of Guerin Process

Low tooling cost
Form block can be made of wood, plastic, or other
materials that are easy to shape
The same rubber pad can be used with different form
blocks
Process attractive in small quantity production
Dies for Sheet Metal Processes

Most pressworking operations are performed with
conventional punch-and-die tooling
Custom-designed for the particular part
The term stamping die is sometimes used for high
production dies
Punch and Die Components

Components of a punch and die for a blanking operation
Stamping Press
Components of a
typical mechanical
drive stamping
press
Types of Stamping Press Frame

Gap frame
Configuration of the letter C and often referred to
as a C-frame
Straight-sided frame
Box-like construction for higher tonnage
Gap Frame
Press
Gap frame press for
sheet metalworking
(photo courtesy of BCN
Technology Services)
Capacity = 1350 kN
(150 tons)
Press Brake
Press brake
(photo courtesy
of Strippit, Inc.)
CNC Turret Press

Computer
numerical
control turret
press (photo
courtesy of
Strippit, Inc.)
Straight-sided frame
press for sheet
metalworking (photo
courtesy of BCN
Technology Services)
CNC Turret Press Parts

Collection of
sheet metal
parts produced
on a turret press,
showing variety
of hole shapes
possible (photo
courtesy of
Strippit Inc.)
Power and Drive Systems

Hydraulic presses - use a large piston and cylinder to
drive the ram
Longer ram stroke than mechanical types
Suited to deep drawing
Slower than mechanical drives
Mechanical presses convert rotation of motor to
linear motion of ram
High forces at bottom of stroke
Suited to blanking and punching
Operations Not Performed on

Presses
Stretch forming
Roll bending and forming
Spinning
High-energy-rate forming processes
Stretch Forming
Sheet metal is stretched and simultaneously bent
to achieve shape change
Roll Bending
Large metal sheets
and plates are
formed into curved
sections using rolls
Roll Forming
Continuous bending process in which opposing rolls
produce long sections of formed shapes from coil or
strip stock
Spinning
Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric

part is gradually shaped over a rotating mandrel
using a rounded tool or roller
Three types:
1. Conventional spinning
2. Shear spinning
3. Tube spinning
Conventional Spinning
(1) Setup at start of process; (2) during spinning; and
(3) completion of process
High-Energy-Rate Forming
(HERF)
Processes to form metals using large amounts of
energy over a very short time
HERF processes include:
Explosive forming
Electrohydraulic forming
Electromagnetic forming
Explosive Forming
Use of explosive charge to form sheet (or plate)
metal into a die cavity
Explosive charge causes a shock wave whose
energy is transmitted to force part into cavity
Applications: large parts, typical of aerospace
industry
Explosive Forming
(1) Setup, (2) explosive is detonated, and (3) shock
wave forms part and plume escapes water surface
Electromagnetic Forming
Sheet metal is deformed by mechanical force of an
electromagnetic field induced in the workpart by an
energized coil
Presently the most widely used HERF process
Applications: tubular parts
Electromagnetic Forming
(1) Setup in which coil is inserted into tubular workpart
surrounded by die; (2) formed part

Dimensions and terms for a bent tube: D = outside
diameter, R = bend radius, t = wall thickness

Stretch bending of tube: (1) start of process and (2)
during bending

Draw bending of tube: (1) start of process and (2)
during bending
TEST Information
TEST 1
21/10/2015 (Exam Hall Level 8)
9.00 PM 10 PM
Chapter 1,2 and 3
TEST 2
02/12/2015 (Exam Hall Level 8)
9.00 PM 10 PM
Chapter 4,5 and 6

MEC560 - Chapter 3 - Metal Forming and Shaping Processes

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MEM560

Chapter 3: Metal Forming and

Hot and cold working process

Advantages of Hot working

Disadvantages of Hot working

Advantages of cold working

Example of cold working

What type of process???

Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes showing grain

Open die forging

Open die forging

Open die forging

(a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

(b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging

Standard terminology for various

Preforming operation in closed die

An upset forging operation to form a head on a bolt or similar hardware

Comparison of extrusion and

Rod, wire or tube

The process can be

Drawing can only done cold

Solid and hollow products solid cross-sectional is produced in

Hot rolling and Cold rolling

Skew rolling and Upset

A shear pieces from round bar

Part B: SheetMetalworking Processes

Sheet Metalworking Defined

Sheet and Plate Metal Products

Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts

Sheet Metalworking Terminology

Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting,

Stamping press - machine tool that performs

Stampings - sheet metal products

Sheet Metal Cutting

Shearing, Blanking, and

Blanking and Punching

Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting

Sheet Metal Groups Allowances

1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all

Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless steel,

Punch and Die Sizes

Punch and Die Sizes

Sheet Metal Bending

Types of Sheet Metal Bending

Stretching during Bending

Springback results in a decrease in bend angle and an

Die Opening Dimension

Deep Drawing of Cup

Shapes other than Cylindrical

Other Sheet Metal Forming on

Advantages of Guerin Process

Dies for Sheet Metal Processes

Punch and Die Components

Types of Stamping Press Frame

CNC Turret Press

CNC Turret Press Parts

Power and Drive Systems

Operations Not Performed on

Metal forming process in which an axially symmetric

Bending of Tube Stock

Bending of Tube Stock

Bending of Tube Stock