JAGANNATH UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

ASSIGNMENT ON MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Submitted to:

Submitted by:
MD. MAMUN-AR-RASHID
ROLL: 483955
Session: 2003-2004

Date:
Introduction:
Maxwell's Equations succinctly contain the basis of our theoretical knowledge
of classical electrodynamics. These equations are the set of four equations by James
Maxwell that describe the behavior of both the electric and magnetic fields. Maxwell's
equations provided the basis for the unification of electric field and magnetic field,
the electromagnetic description of light, and ultimately, Albert Einstein's theory of
relativity.

Statement:
The statement of a coherent theory of electrodynamics as contained in the
Maxwell’s Equations is considered one of the greatest triumphs of physics.

The equations, in all their glory, are:

No. Differential form Integral form Comments

r r
1 i. ·D = ρ ii. ∫ .dS = q
D Gauss’s law for static electricity.

r r
2 i. ·B = 0 ii. ∫ .dS = 0
B Gauss’s law for static magnetism.

r
3 i. ×E = -∂B/∂t r r ∂B r Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
ii. ∫ E.dl = − ∫ .dS wave.
S ∂t

r
4 i. ×H = J + ∂D/∂t ii. H . dl = ⎛⎜ J + ∂D ⎞⎟.dS
r r r r Modified Ampere’s law.
∫ ∫S ⎜ ∂t ⎟
⎝ ⎠

History:
The elegant modern mathematical formulations of Maxwell's equations were
not developed by Maxwell. In 1884, Oliver Heaviside reformulated Maxwell's
equations using vector calculus. This change reinforced the perception of physical
symmetries between the various fields with a more symmetric mathematical
representation.
Derivation of Maxwell’s Equations:
1. Charge Density and the Electric Field

(i). Differential form-

We know if a charge q is enclosed by an arbitrary shaped closed

surface, the Gauss’s law states that-

r r
ε 0 ∫ E.ds = q

Now applying divergence theorem to the left hand side-

r r ⎡ ⎤
ε 0 ∫ ∇.EdV = ∫ ρdV ⎢Q q = ∫ ρdV ⎥
v v ⎣ v ⎦

[
r r
⇒ ∫ ε 0 ∇. E − ρ dV = 0 ]
v

r r
But D = ε 0 E is the electric displacement current.

Then-

[∫ ∇r . Dr − ρ ]dV = 0
v

r r
∴ ∇. D = ρ … … … (I)

(ii). Integral form-

Integrating equation (I) over a volume V-

r r
∫ . D dV = ∫ ρdV
V
∇
V

But from Gauss theorem-

r r
∫ .dS = ∫ ρdV = q
s
D
V

Where q is the net charge contained in volume V. S is the surface bounding

volume V.

The integral form only works if the integral is over a closed surface.
Shape and size do not matter. The integral form is also known as Gauss's
Law.

This equation corresponds to Coulomb's law.

2. The Structure of the Magnetic Field

(i). Differential form-

Since magnetic lines of force are either closed or go off to infinity, the
number of magnetic lines of force entering any arbitrary close surface is
r
exactly the same as leaving it. It means the flux of magnetic induction B
across any closed surface is always zero. That is-

r r
∫ . dS = 0
S
B

Applying divergence theorem to the left hand side-

r r
V
∫ ∇. B dV = 0
The integrand should be zero for the surface boundary as the volume is
arbitrary.

r r
i.e. ∇. B = 0 … … … (II)

(ii). Integral form-

Integrating equation (II) over a volume V-

r r
V
∫ ∇.BdV = 0
Transforming the volume integral into surface integral, by using divergence
theorem, we get-
r
∫ B.dS = 0
S

This equation is related to the magnetic field's structure because it

states that given any volume element, the net magnitude of the vector
components that point outward from the surface must be equal to the net
magnitude of the vector components that point inward.

Structurally, this means that the magnetic field lines must be closed
loops. Another way of putting it is that the field lines cannot originate from
somewhere; attempting to follow the lines backwards to their source or
forward to their terminus ultimately leads back to the starting position. This
implies that there are no magnetic monopoles.
3. A Changing Magnetic Field and the Electric Field

(i). Differential form-

From Faraday’s law of induction, the e. m. f. induction in a closed loop

is-
r
∂φ ∂B r
ε =− = −∫ .dS
∂t S
∂t
r r
Here, φ = ∫ B.dS ; where S is any surface having the loop as boundary.
S

e. m. f. ( ε ) can also found by calculating the work done in carrying a unit

charge completely around the loop. Thus-
r r
ε = ∫ E.dl
c

r
r r ∂B r
⇒ ∫ E.dl = − ∫ , dS
c S ∂t

Applying Stoke’s law to the left hand side-

r
r r r ∂B r
∫S ∇ × E . dS = − ∫S ∂t .dS
r
⎡ r r ∂B ⎤ r
⇒ ∫ ⎢∇ × E + ⎥dS = 0
S
⎣ ∂t ⎦

This integrand must be zero. Thus-

r
r r ∂B
∇× E + =0
∂t
r
r r ∂B
i.e. ∇× E = − … … … (III)
∂t

(ii). Integral form-

Integrating equation (III) over a surface S, bounded by a curve-

r
∫( )
r r r ∂B r
∇ × E .dS = − ∫ .dS
S S ∂t

Converting the surface integral of left hand side into line integral by Stoke’s
theorem, we get-
 r
r r ∂B r
∫ E.dl = − ∫S ∂t .dS
The negative sign; it is necessary to maintain conservation of energy.
It is so important that it even has its own name, Lenz's Law.

This equation relates the electric and magnetic fields, but it also has a lot of
practical applications, too. This equation describes how electric motors and
electric generators work.

This law corresponds to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

4. The Source of the Magnetic Field

(i). Differential form-

From Ampere’s law-

r r
∫ .dl = μ 0 I
B
r
B r
⇒∫ .dl = I
μ0
r r
∴ ∫ H .dl = I

r r ⎡ I ⎤
But, I = ∫ J .dS ⎢⎣Q J A and ∫ dS = A⎥⎦
Where, J is current density.
r r r r
∴ ∫ H .dl = ∫ J .dS

Applying Stoke’s theorem to the left hand side-

r r r r r
∫S
∇ × H .dS = ∫ .dS
J

[
r r r r
⇒ ∫ ∇ × H − J .dS = 0
S
]
r r r
⇒ ∇× H − J = 0
r r r
i.e. ∇ × H = J … … … (IV)

Taking divergence on the both sides of the above equation-

 r r r r r
∇.∇ × H = ∇.J … … … (V)
r r r
But, ∇.∇ × H = 0
r r
i.e. ∇.J = 0 … … … (VI)

But from equation of continuity-

r r ∂ρ
∇.J = − … … … (VII)
∂t

Here, equation (VI) and (VII) contradict. Therefore Maxwell realized that the
definition of total current density is incomplete and suggested to add
r
something to J . Now equation (IV) can be written as-

r r r r
∇× H = J + J′

Now, taking divergence to above equation-

r r r r r r r
∇.∇ × H = ∇.J + ∇.J ′
r r r r
⇒ 0 = ∇.J + ∇.J ′
r r r r ∂ρ
⇒ ∇.J ′ = −∇. J = +
∂t

We know-
r
r r ∂ r r r ∂D
∇. J ′ = ∇. D = ∇.
∂t ∂t

Hence we get-
r
r ∂D
J′ =
∂t

Therefore, the Maxwell’s another field equation is-

r
r r r ∂D
∇× H = J + … … … (VIII)
∂t

This is known as the Maxwell’s Modified Ampere’s law.

r
∂D
Here, is called the displacement current density.
∂t
 (ii). Integral form-

Integrating equation (VIII) over a surface S, bounded by a curve, we

get-
r
r r r ⎛ r ∂D ⎞ r
∫S (∇ × H ).dS = ∫S ⎜⎜⎝ J + ∂t ⎟⎟⎠.dS
Converting the surface integral of left hand side into line integral by Stoke’s
theorem, we get-

r
r r ⎛ r ∂D ⎞ r
∫ H . dl = ∫S ⎜⎜⎝ J + ∂t ⎟⎟⎠.dS
The magneto motive force around a closed path is equal to the conduction
current plus the time derivative of the electric displacement through any surface
bounded by the path.

Conclusion:
Maxwell's equations represent one of the most elegant and concise ways to
state the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism. From them one can develop
most of the working relationships in the field. Because of their concise statement,
they embody a high level of mathematical sophistication and are therefore not
generally introduced in an introductory treatment of the subject, except perhaps as
summary relationships.