On some mathematical connections between the Cubic Equation and some sectors of

String Theory and Relativistic Quantum Gravity

Michele Nardelli1,2, Francesco Di Noto, Pierfrancesco Roggero

Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra

Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Largo S. Marcellino, 10
80138 Napoli, Italy
2

Dipartimento di Matematica ed Applicazioni R. Caccioppoli

Universit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II Polo delle Scienze e delle Tecnologie
Monte S. Angelo, Via Cintia (Fuorigrotta), 80126 Napoli, Italy

Abstract
In this paper we have described some interesting mathematical connections with various
expressions of some sectors of String Theory and Relativistic Quantum Gravity, principally with
the Palumbo-Nardelli model applied to the bosonic strings and the superstrings, and some parts of
the theory of the Cubic Equation. In Appendix A, we have described the mathematical connections
with some equations concerning the possible Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity. In conclusion
In Appendix B, we have described a proof of Fermat's Last Theorem for the cubic equation case n =
3

Cubic Equation

The most general cubic equation (equation of third degree):

x 3 + rx 2 + px + q = 0

(1)

can be reduced in the following form:

x 3 + px + q = 0
Indeed:

(2)

(x u )(x v )(x z ) = (x 2 vx ux + uv )(x z ) =

= [x 2 (u + v )x + uv ]( x z ) = x 3 (u + v )x 2 + uvx zx 2 + z (u + v )x zuv =
= x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x zuv . (2b)

Thence:
1

x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x zuv = 0

(3)

Putting:

u + v + z = r

z (u + v ) + uv = p
uvz = q

(4)

because the term r become null, is necessary and sufficient that z = (u + v ) . Thence:
x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x zuv = 0 ;
x 3 [u + v (u + v )]x 2 + [uv (u + v )(u + v )]x [ (u + v )uv ] = 0 ;

x 3 uv (u + v ) x [ (u + v )uv ] = 0 ;
3

[ (
)]
[uv u 2uv v ]x + u v + uv = 0 ;
( uv u v )x + uv(u + v ) = 0 ;

x uv u + 2uv + v 2 x + u 2v + uv 2 = 0 ;
x

x3

x 3 u 2 + uv + v 2 x + uv(u + v ) = 0

(5)

Putting:

u 2 + uv + v 2 = p

uv(u + v ) = q

(6)

the x 3 u 2 + uv + v 2 x + uv(u + v ) = 0 , become:

x 3 + px + q = 0

(7)

From the u 2 + uv + v 2 = 0 , we obtain two quadratic equations (of second degree):

1) u 2 + uv + v 2 = 0 ;
u=

1
1 i 3
v v 2 4v 2 v 3v 2
1
3i 2
3i 2
;
=
= vv
= v
= v

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

2) v 2 + uv + u 2 = 0 ;

v=

1
1 i 3
u u 2 4u 2 u 3u 2
1
3i 2
3i 2
.
=
= u u
= u
= u

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

Now, we take the eq. (6). We have that:


2
2
u + uv + v = p

1 i 3

u = v

2
2

v = u 1 i 3
2

1 i 3

uv = uv
2

2
2
1 i 3

u = u u = uv

2
2

2
1 i 3
2

v = v v = uv 2 2

(7a)

thence:
2
2
1 i 3 2
1 i 3
1 i 3
+ uv
+ uv
= (uv + uv + uv ) = p ;
uv
2

2

2
2
2
2

p
3uv = p ; uv =
(8)
3

Indeed, we have, for example:

2
2
1 i 3 2
1 i 3
1 i 3
= p
+ uv +
+ uv +
uv +
2
2
2
2
2
2

2
2
1 i 3 2 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3

+ uv +

+ uv +

=
uv +
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2

1 i 3 3 1 i 3

+ uv 1 + i 3 3 1 i 3 + uv 1 + i 3 3 1 i 3 =
= uv +

4
4
2
4 2
2
2
4 2
2
2
4 2
2
4

1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3

+ uv +

+ uv +

=
= uv +
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2

1 3
1 3
1 3
= uv + + uv + + uv + =
4 4
4 4
4 4
p
= (uv + uv + uv ) = p ; 3uv = p ; uv = .
3
Now:

2
2
u v + uv = q

1 i 3

u = v

2
2

v = u 1 i 3
2

(8b)

1 i 3 2
1 i 3
+ v ( v )
= q;
u 2 ( u )

2
2
2
2

that for the (8b) and for sign + , for example, become:
2

1 i 3 1 i 3 2 1 i 3 1 i 3
v +
+u +
u +
=q
v +
2

2
2

2
2
2
2
2

1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3

( v ) + u 2 +

( u ) = q
v 2 +

2
2

2
2
2
2
2
2

1 3
1 3
v3 + u 3 + = q ; v3 u 3 = q ;
4 4
4 4
2

u 3 + v3 = q

(9)

Finally, we have:

u 3 + v 3 = q

p
uv =
3

u 3 + v 3 = q

3 3
p3
u
v
=

27

thence:

(10)

We obtain the same result putting in the (2) x = u + v . Indeed, we have:

x 3 + px + q = 0 ;

x=u+v

(u + v )3 + p(u + v ) + q = 0 ; u 3 + 3u 2v + 3uv 2 + v3 + p(u + v ) + q = 0 ;

u 3 + v 3 + 3uv(u + v ) + p (u + v ) + q = 0 ;
from this equation, we obtain:
u 3 + v3 = q ;

u + v = q

3uv = p
3

3uv(u + v ) = p(u + v ) ;
u 3 + v 3 = q

p
uv =
3

thence, in conclusion:

u 3 + v 3 = q

3 3
p3
u v =
27

(11)

From the relations (10) and (11), we obtain the sum and the product of u 3 and v3 . We have that u 3
and v3 must be roots of the following quadratic equation:
t 2 + qt

p3
;
27

(12)

This equation is defined the resolving of the cubic equation (2). Thence, we have:

t 2 + qt

p3
27

3
p3
q q 4(1) q q 2 + 4 p
3
27
27 = q 1 q 2 + 1 4 p =
=
2
2
2
4
4 27
2

q
q 2 p3

+
.
2
4 27

Thence, we have that:

t1 = u 3 =

q
q 2 p3
+
+
2
4 27

(13)

q
q 2 p3
t2 = v 3 =
+
2
4 27
from this, we obtain:

u=3

if

uv =

p
;
3

v=

q
q 2 p3
+
+
;
2
4 27

p
, we obtain:
3u
p

v=

.
2

33

q
q
p
+
+
2
4 27

From the x = u + v , we obtain:

x=3

q
q 2 p3
+
+

2
4 27

(14)

q
q 2 p3
33 +
+
2
4 27

The expression (14) is the resolving formula of the cubic equation (2), from this we have the three
roots in correspondence of the three values of the cubic radical. If p = 0 the eq. (2) become the
binomial equation x 3 + q = 0 , solved from the formula x = 3 q .
The expression (14) is written generally in the Cardano or Tartaglia form:

x=3

q
q 2 p3 3 q
q 2 p3
+
+
+
+
.
2
4 27
2
4 27

(15)

The solution that Cardano gives of the cubic equation of type x 3 + px = q , leads to the following
formula:
5

q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2

x=3

q
p q
+ ;
2
3 2

(15b)

while for the cubic equation of type x 3 + px 2 = q , we have the following formula:
2

x=

q
q p
+ 3
2
2 3

q p q
. (15c)
2
2 3

Mathematical connections with some sectors of string theory

Now we show two examples of solutions of cubic equations and the possible mathematical
connections with the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings by
the Ramanujan function.
1) Let
x3 8 x = 3

(16)

Putting
3

q = u v = 3;

x=

=3

512 9 3 3
+ +
27 4 2

=3

512
p
8
; we apply the formula:
= uv = =
27
3
3
2

q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2

1805 3 3

+
108 2

512 9 3 3
+ =
27 4 2

q
p q
+ =
2
3 2
2048 + 243 3 3
+
108
2
3

1805 3 3

=
108 2

1805 2 3 3
i +

108
2

2048 + 243 3
=
108
2
3

1805 2 3
i
=
108
2

1805 2 3
1805 2 3 3 3 6
i +
i + = + = = 3.
108
2
108
2 2 2 2

Indeed, for x = 3 , the eq. (16) become:

x3 8 x = 3 ;

33 8 3 = 3 ;

8 x = x3 3 ;

24 = x 3 3 ;

27 24 = 3 ;

3=3

But, we have also that:

24 = 27 3 ;

24 = 24

We know that the number 24 is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of
the bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan function:

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e

itw
'
w
'

24 =
,
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(a)

Thence, we have the following mathematical connection:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)

'
e
itw
w'

= x3 3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(17)

for x = 3

A mathematical connection that link the cubic equation x 3 8 x = 3 with the number 24, i.e. with
the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings.
We note also that 3 and 8, i.e. p and q are also Fibonaccis numbers.
2) Let
x 3 + 8 x = 24 .

(18)

Putting
3

q = u v = 24 ;

x=

q
p q
+ + 3
2
3 2
2

=3

512 24
24 3
+ +

27 2
2

512
+ 144 + 12 3
27

p
8 512
; for the formula:
= uv = =
27
3
3
3

q
p q
+ ;
2
3 2

we obtain:

512 24
24
+
=
27 2
2

512
+ 144 12 = 3 162,962 + 12 3 162,962 + 12 =
27

= 3 12,765657 + 12 3 12,765657 12 = 3 24,765657 3 0,765657 2,914852 0,914852 = 2 .

Thence, we have:
x 3 + 8 x = 24 ;

23 + 8 2 = 24 ;
24 = x 3 + 8 x ;

8 + 16 = 24 ;

24 = 24 ;

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
'
e

itw
w
'

= x3 + 8 x ;
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(19)

for x = 2

The further connection that link this cubic equation with the modes that correspond to the
physical vibrations of the bosonic strings.

Creation and solution of cubic equation incomplete, without the first degree, defined Premonica.

Let u, v and z three roots of a same equation. Obviously the equation is cubic and the factorization
of it is:
x 3 + px 2 + rx + q = 0 (20)

(x u )(x v ) = x 2 ux vx + uv = x 2 (u + v )x + uv ;

[x

(u + v )x + uv ( x z ) = x 3 (u + v )x 2 + uvx zx 2 + z (u + v )x zuv =

= x (u + v + z )x + [uv + z (u + v )]x uvz ;

3

thence:

x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x uvz = 0 ;

(21)

from this, putting

u + v + z = p

z (u + v ) + uv = r
uvz = q

we obtain the eq. (20).

to cancel the term r , necessary and sufficient condition is that:

z (u + v ) = uv whence

z (u + v ) + uv = 0 ;
z=

uv
.
u+v

(22)

The (22) is defined the fundamental relation . Substituting in the eq. (21) the value found of z ,
we obtain:
x 3 (u + v + z )x 2 + [uv + z (u + v )]x uvz = 0
uv 2
uv

(u + v ) x uv uv = 0 ;
x3 u + v
x + uv
u+v
u+v

u+v
x3

(u + v )2 uv x 2 + u 2v 2
u+v

u+v

=0;

that we can rewrite also as follows:

(u + v )x3 [(u + v )2 uv]x 2 + u 2v 2 = 0 .

(23)

With this relation we can solve a cubic equation in Premonica form, i.e. without the first degree.
x 3 + px 2 + q = 0 . For example, 3 x 3 7 x 2 + 4 = 0 , we will use the following system:

u + v = 3

2
(u + v ) uv = 7
2 2
u v = 4

9 uv = 7
2 2
u v = 4

(23b)

uv = 2
2 2
u v = 4

uv = 2

uv = 2

The uv will be equal only if uv = 2 , thence

u + v = 3

uv = 2

whence

t 2 3t + 2 = 0 ;

t=

3 9 8 3 1 t1 = 2 = u = x1
=
=
2
2
t 2 = 1 = v = x2

Because the equation not admit the term of first degree, the third root must be necessarily
z=

uv
1 2
2
=
= = x3
u+v
2 +1
3

Now, we have the following cubic equation:

x3 2 x + 1 = 0 ;

(24)

We want solve this equation by a system of relations between roots and coefficients. This procedure
will be valid for each equation in form Monica form, i.e. without the second degree, whatever the
coefficients.
Let u and v two of the roots of the equation, the third root will be necessarily u + v and thence we
have
x1 = (u + v ) + u = v
x1 = u ;
x2 = v ;
x3 = u + v ; (25)
(25b)

x2 = (u + v ) + v = u
Now:

(x u )(x v ) = x 2 (u + v )x + uv ;
[x2 (u + v )x + uv][x + (u + v )] = x3 (u + v )x 2 + uvx + (u + v)x2 (u + v)2 x + uv(u + v ) =
2
= x 3 [(u + v ) uv ]x + uv(u + v ) ;
from this, we have:

x 3 (u + v ) uv x + uv(u + v ) = 0 .
2

(26)

This equation is a cubic equation in the form Monica, i.e. of type x 3 + px + q = 0 , where we put:

(u + v )2 uv = p

uv(u + v ) = q
Now, we put

u + v = t and uv = z , we have:
9

t 2 z = p

tz = q

t = z p

tz = q

t 2 = z p

tz = q

tz = q ;

z p = q;

we raise all to the square: z 2 ( z p ) = q 2 ; from which developing:

z 3 pz 2 = q 2 ;

z 3 pz 2 q 2 = 0 .

(27)

This last equation is a Premonica and we can find u and v applying the Caccioppoli-Grablovitz
method (comparison system between roots and coefficients). We resume the eq. (24)
x3 2 x + 1 = 0
Decompose the equation. We have that:

(x

+ x 1 ( x 1) = x 3 x 2 + x 2 x x + 1 = x 3 2 x + 1 ;

(x
x2 + x 1 = 0 ;

+ x 1 ( x 1) = 0 ;

x 1 = 0 ;

thence:

x =1

1+ 5
x =
1 1 4(1)( 1) 1 1 + 4 1 5 1
2
=
=

2
2
2
x = 1 5
2
2

1+ 5 1 5
;
.
2
2
Now, x 3 2 x + 1 = 0 applying the relation (27), we have:

The three roots are: 1;

z 3 pz 2 q 2 = 0 ;
u + v = 1

2
(u + v ) uv = 2
2 2
u v = 1

z3 2z 2 1 = 0

u + v = 1

1 uv = 2
uv = 1

whence, from (23b)

u + v = 1

uv = 1
uv = 1

u + v = 1

uv = 1

Thence:
t2 t 1 = 0 ;

1+ 5
u=

1 1+ 4
2
=
2
v = 1 5

For the relations (25b), the third root will be x3 = u + v =

1
5 1
5
+
+
= 1 . The other two roots,
2 2 2 2

1 5
1+ 5
; and x2 = v =
.
2
2
5 1
We note that the x2 =
= 0,61803398... is equal to the aurea section.
2

will be: x1 = u =

10

Mathematical connection with some parts of relativistic quantum gravity.

Now we want to analyze some mathematical connection with some parts of relativistic quantum
gravity.
Starting from the Schrodinger equation we may obtain the expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of edge length L . The result is:
En =

n 2h2
,
8mg L2

n = 1,2,3,...

(28)

We note that the term h 2 / 8mg L2 (energy) will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax is the
maximum edge length of a cubical box whose maximum diameter d max = Lmax 3 is equal to the
L
maximum length scale of the Universe. Now, we have that L = nLmin or L = max . Multiplying
n
d
these expressions by 3 and reminding that d = L 3 , we obtain d = nd min or d = max . These
n
equations show that the length (and therefore the space) is quantized.
The minimum energy of a particle is obviously its inertial energy at rest mg c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we
can write
n2h2
= mg c 2 . (29)
2
8mg L max
Then, from the equation above it follows that

mg =

nh
cLmax 8

(30)

Now, if we take the eq. (29), after some steps, we obtain that:
8=

n2h 2 1

.
c 2 L2max mg2

(30b)

This formula contain the number 8 that is a Fibonaccis number and is connected with the modes
that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
. (b)
8=
3
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

11

Thence, we can rewrite the eq.(30b) also as follows:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
n2h 2 1
= 2 2 2.
3
c Lmax mg
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(30c)

This is a new possible relationship of a relativistic theory of quantum gravity. (See also Appendix
A)
Now, we take the d max = Lmax 3 . For the (7a) or (8b):
1 i 3
;
u = v

2
2

u=

v i 3v
+
;
2
2

2u + v = iv 3 ,

2u = v + i 3v ;

(31)

we have that:

d max = Lmax 3

d max = (2u + v )

Lmax = iv

Now, we have the following equation:

1 5
.
8 = (2u + v )

(32)

1 5
is equal to the aurea section changed of sign, i.e. 0,61803398... or
We note that

2
0,61803398... i 2 , where i is the imaginary unit. Furthermore, from the eq. (24), where
x2 = v =

1+ 5
, we note that
2

1 5
2

2 is equal to i ( v )

We can rewrite the above equation also as follows:

1 5
1 5
1 5
= 8 ; whence d max = 8 +
or also Lmax 3 = 8 +

d max

2 .
2
2

In conclusion, we have the following three expressions:

12

Lmax

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

4
e
w' (itw')
1 5
1
;
3=
+

3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
2
+

log

4
4

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'

e 4 w ' (itw')
1 5
1
;
= Lmax 3

3
2
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2

log

4
4

d max

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1 5
1
;
=
+

3
10 + 11 2

2
10 + 7 2

log
+

4
4

(33)

(33b)

(34)

1 i 3 1 i 3
u
. Thence, we have also the following
d max = 2v
2 2
2
2
interesting relationship:
But

d max = 2u + v ;

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

4
w' (itw')
e
1 i 3 1 i 3 1
1 5
u +
=
.
2v +
+

10 + 11 2
2 2
2 3
10 + 7 2
2
2
+

log

4
4

(35)

This last relationship, link the maximum length scale of the Universe, the roots of a cubic equation,
the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring and the aurea section
changed of sign, i.e. 0,61803398... or 0,61803398... i 2 , where i is the imaginary unit.
From (35), we have also that:

13

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

4
e
w' (itw')
1 i 3 1 i 3 1 5
1
u +

.
= 2v +
3
2 2
2 2
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
2
+

log

4
4

1 i 3
, and since
Multiplying the expression (35) for
2
2
1 i 3 1 i 3 1 3
+

= + =1;
2
2 2
2 4 4

(i

(35b)

=1

we obtain the equivalent relationship:

1 i 3
{
2v u =

2
2

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
w'

t w'
4
(
)

e
itw
'
1 5
w'
1

}.
+

3
10 + 11 2

2
10 + 7 2

log

4
4

(36)

We note that, with regard the roots of the cubic equation:

2

1 i 3 1 i 3
1 i 3 1 i 3
2
+
+
= +

= = 1 = i 2 .
2

2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2

(a)

Thence:
2

1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i2 = i = 1
2

2 2
2

(b)

On some equation concerning the thermodynamics of black holes in anti-de sitter space
The metric of the covering space of anti-de Sitter space can be written in the static form

14

ds 2 = Vdt 2 + V 1dr 2 + r 2 d 2 + sin 2 d 2

V =1+

r2
b2

(37)

3
b

The substitution = it , where i = 1 is the imaginary unit, makes the metric ds 2 in (37)
Euclidean, i.e. positive definite.
The path integral over the matter fields and metric fluctuations on the anti-de Sitter background can
be regarded as giving the contribution of thermal radiation in anti-de Sitter space to the partition
function Z . For a conformally invariant field this will be:
3

b
4 b
log Z = 3 b T f (T )dT =
g + O . (38)
90

0
T

2 3

The energy of the thermal radiation will be:

E =

4 4 3
log Z = 3 2b3 f (T )
gT b . (39)

30

The partition function Z ( ) is the Laplace transform of the density of states N (E ) ,

Z ( ) = N (E )e E dE . (40)
0

Thus N (E ) is the inverse Laplace transform

N (E ) =

+ i

1
Z ( )e E d . (41)

2i i

The second derivative of the logarithm of the integrand in (41) is:

2 4 3 5
gb .
15

(42)

Thus the path of steepest descent is parallel to the imaginary axis. This means that N (E ) is real and
is given approximately by:

4
N (E ) exp
3

gb3 4 3
4
E . (43)
30

( )

This equation will hold for E < E2 m 2pb .

The Euclidean action of a black hole of period is:
15

I =

)(

2 2 2 2 2
0
0
0
m 2pb 2 1
2
9
0

) .

(44)

The one-loop term about the black hole metrics will contribute a factor of order one or
4 3 3
i exp gb respectively. The factor of i arises in the lower mass case from the negative
90

nonconformal mode.
4 3 3
For (b), concerning the roots of a cubic equation, we have that the expression i exp gb can
90

be rewritten also as follows

2

1 i 3 1 i 3
4

+
+
exp gb 3 3 .
2
2 2
2
90

(44b)

In the higher mass case, if E > M 0 , the stationary phase point in eq. (41) will be at
4b 2 r+
2
,
b + 3r+2

(45)

where r+ is the solution of

1 2 r+2
E = m p r+ 1 + 2 . (46)
2
b
The second derivative of the logarithm of the integrand is T 2M / T > 0 . Thus the path of steepest
descent will be parallel to the imaginary axis and N (E ) will be real and given by
N (E ) exp(m 2p r+2 ) exp

( 2m b E ) ,
3

for E >> M 0 =

1
3

2m 2pb .

(47)

If E0 < E << M 0 , the stationary phase point will be at the larger root of
E = M + Erad

m 2p
8

4
30

gb3 4 ,

(48)

where a black hole of energy M is in equilibrium with thermal radiation of energy Erad .
Furthermore, we note that we can rewrite the eq. (48) also as follows:

8 gb3 4 (M + Erad ) = m 2p , and remembering the expression (b)

30

16

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

4
e
w' (itw')
1
8=
, we have that:
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx

142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2

log
+

4
4

5 3 4

gb (M + Erad ) = m 2p . (49)
30

This expression, for (35b), can be rewritten also as follows:

1 i 3 1 i 3 1 5 5 3 4

u +

gb (M + Erad ) = i 2 m 2p .
2v +

2 2
2 2 30

(49b)

where a black hole of energy M is in equilibrium with thermal radiation of energy Erad and is
connected with the modes corresponding to the physical vibrations of the superstring for the eq.
(49) and with the roots of the cubic equation, thence with the imaginary unit for the eq. (49b). In
both the expressions is present , the transcendental number always present in the string theory.
The second derivative of the logarithm of the integrand of (41) will be negative at each of these
saddle points. Thus the path of steepest descent will be parallel to the real axis. This will introduce a
factor i which will cancel the factor of i arising from the negative nonconformal mode. Thus
N (E ) will be real and will be given by:

4
N (E ) exp 4m p 2 M 2 +
3

gb 3 4 3
Erad ,
30

(50)

where M and Erad are the two terms of (48) that add up to E . If E < E0 , eq. (48) has no solution
for a black hole in equilibrium with radiation, so one obtains only the contribution (43) of pure
thermal radiation.
For eq. (48), can be rewritten the eq. (50) also as follows:
2

2 4 gb3 4 3
2 mp
4
+
N (E ) exp 4m p
Erad =

8
3
30

2 2
3
m
4 4 gb 4 3
N (E ) exp p +
Erad , (51)
3 30

16

17

that for (35b), we can rewrite also as follows:

m 2p 2

4
N (E ) exp
+
2 2v 1 + 1 3 u 1 + i 3 1 5 3

2

2 2
2 2

gb3 4
30

3
Erad .

(52)

We have thence, the following two expression:

+ i

2
1
E
2 mp
N (E ) =
Z ( )e d exp 4m p
2i i

4
+

gb3 4 3
Erad ;
30

(52a)

+ i
m 2p 2
1

4
E
(
)
N (E ) =
Z

e
d

exp
+

2i i
2 2v 1 + 1 3 u 1 + i 3 1 5 3

2

2 2
2 2

gb 3 4
30

3
Erad .

(52b)
In the first expression is present 8, i.e. the number of the modes corresponding to the physical
vibrations of the superstrings, while in the second expression with the roots of the cubic equation,
thence with the imaginary unit. In both the expressions is present , the transcendental number
always present in the string theory.
We note that there are in the equations of this section, some mathematical connections with some
5 +1
frequencies connected to the aurea ratio i.e.
= 1,61803398...
2
We have that:

4
30

= 3,2469... 3,2461 ;

4
= 4,18879 4,18885 ;
3

2 4
4
= 12,9878 =
4;
15
30

4
90

= 1,0823 1,0820 ;

= 0,349065 0,349072 ,

where 3,2461

12,9878 1,0820 4,18885 and 0,349072 are all frequencies connected with the
5 +1
aurea ratio, i.e. with
= 1,61803398...
2

On some equations concerning the Stephen Hawkings theory of imaginary time and the HartleHawking wave-function
We start from the Pythagoras's Theorem, c2 = a2 + b2 c = a 2 + b 2 . Well, it turns out that's is
just a specific application of the distance formula in 3D space. Generally, if a point has coordinates
(X, Y, Z), then its distance from the origin, the point (0, 0, 0), is D2 = X2 + Y2 + Z2.

18

Now let's go to relativity. Instead of points in space, we have events in spacetime. If an event has
coordinates (T, X, Y, Z), then its spacetime interval distance is S2 = -T2 + X2 + Y2 +Z2. Notice the
negative sign for the time component. The sign difference between space and time is crucial for all
the weird things that happen in relativity.
But suppose we invent a new variable t that is related to the old T by T = it, where i is the imaginary
unit ( i = 1 ). Then T2 = (i)2 t2 = -t2. So the spacetime interval becomes S2 = t2 + X2 + Y2 + Z2. All
the signs are the same.
By using imaginary time, we convert the time dimension into a space dimension indistinguishable
from the other spatial dimensions. So spacetime becomes a 4D space. This allow us to study
spacetime as a pure geometric object.
Why is this useful? It eliminates the question of "what happened before the Big Bang?" Let's
suppose that after transforming spacetime into a geometric spatial object, we get a sphere. So the
time dimension becomes just a space dimension on the sphere, say, the direction of north-south.
Asking what happened before the beginning of time is thus like asking what's north of the north
pole: simply it does not make sense. So, we tend to say that the universe simply "is", i.e. exists.
The universe is assumed to have the geometry
ds 2 = N (t ) dt 2 a (t ) (dr 2 + sin 2 (r )(d 2 + sin 2 ( )d 2 )) ,
2

(53)

with a homogeneous scalar field (t ) .

The action will be assumed to be the standard Einstein Hamiltonian action,

S = ij&ij + & NH 0 N i H i d 3 xdt ,

(54)

where

1 ij kl
1
1

H0 =
ik jl ij kl R + 2 +
i j ij + V ( ) ,
2

H i = ijj + ijk jk + j ij .
We note that, if we put = 3 , in the eq. concerning H 0 , we have:

1
= 0,57735 ;
3

1
2 3

3
= 0,28867 ;
6

3
= 0,86602 ;
2

3 1
= .
2 3 2

But we have also that: 0,57735 + 0,28867 = 0,86602 and that:

1
1
2 +1
3
3 3
3 3
3
+
=
=
=
=
=
= 0,86602 .
6
2
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3

(55)

We have, thence, the value corresponding to the fix number of a regular hexagon that is just
0,86602. Furthermore, we note that:

19

1
(0,866 6 ) = 2,598 that is the constant of the regular hexagon and is very near to the number
2
2

5 + 1
= 2 = 2,61803398... (see eqs. (A52-55) Appendix A)
2,618 that is

2
Because of the symmetry we have assumed for our fields, H i is automatically equal to zero, and we
can write the action in terms of a , and their conjugate momenta a and so that
S = a a& + & NHdt ,
H =

(56)

1 2
1

a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) .
24a
2a

(57)

Thence, we can rewrite eq. (56) also as follows:

1 2
1

S = a a& + & N
a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( )dt .

2a
24a

(57b)

We consider important to highlight that the Hartle-Hawking procedure is often characterized as

allowing time to become imaginary.
We note that N occurs in these equations only in the combination Ndt . We can thus define a new
variable by
= N (t )dt (58)
where we will take the zero of to occur at the time when a is zero. Since we are allowing N to
be complex, will also be a complex function of t .
We remember that the complex numbers allow for solutions to certain equations that have no
solutions in real numbers. For example, the equation

(x + 1)2 = 9
has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. Complex numbers
provide a solution to this problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with the imaginary unit i
where i = 1; i2 = 1, so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this
case the solutions are 1 + 3i and 1 3i, as can be verified using the fact that i2 = 1:

(x + 1)2 = 9 ;

x2 + 2x + 1 + 9 = 0 ;

x 2 + 2 x + 10 = 0 ;

2 4 40 2 36 2 36i 2 2 6i 1 + 3i
=
=
=
=
2
2
2
2
1 3i
and

(( 1 + 3i ) + 1)2 = (3i )2 = (3)2 (i )2 = 9( 1) = 9 ,

(( 1 3i ) + 1)2 = ( 3i )2 = ( 3)2 (i )2 = 9( 1) = 9 .
According to the fundamental theorem of algebra, all polynomial equations with real or complex
coefficients in a single variable have a solution in complex numbers.

20

A complex function is one in which the independent variable and the dependent variable are both
complex numbers. More precisely, a complex function is a function whose domain and range are
subsets of the complex plane.
For any complex function, both the independent variable and the dependent variable may be
separated into real and imaginary parts:
z = x + iy and
w = f (z) = u (x, y) + iv (x, y)
where x, y and u (x, y), v (x, y) are real-valued functions.
In other words, the components of the function f (z),
u = u (x, y) and
v = v (x, y)
can be interpreted as real-valued functions of the two real variables, x and y.
The zeroth order action is just:
0

( )

S (a f , f ) = a(0 )a (0 )'d = 12a (0 ) a (0 )' d

2

(59)

24 V0 a f
24
=
1 i
, (60)

V0
6
V0

Thence:
3

( )

S (a f , f ) = a(0 )a (0 )'d = 12a (0 ) a

That for (b),

(0 )' 2

24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
, (60b)

V0
6
V0

1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i 2 = i = 1 , we can rewrite also as follows:
2

2 2
2

( )

S (a f , f ) = a(0 )a (0 )'d = 12a (0 ) a

(0 )' 2

24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
=

V0
6
V0

2
2
2

24 V0 a f
1
i
3
1
i
3
24
+

1 +
=

V0
6
2
2 2
2 V0

3
2
2

V
a

1
i
3
1
i
3
1
0
f

.
= 24
1 +
+

V0
6
2
2 2
2 V0

But, we know that 24 is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the
bosonic strings by the following Ramanujan function:

21

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e

itw
'
w
'

24 =
.
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

Thence, in conclusion, we obtain:

3

S (a f , f ) = a a d = 12a
(0 ) (0 )'

(0 )

(a )
(0 )'

24 V0 a f
24
d =
1 i
=

V0
6
V0

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4anti log
2
t 2
3

w'

t w'

4
2

(
)
'
e
itw

V
a
w
'

=
0 f 1

V0
6
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2

log
+

4
4

2
2

1 i 3 1 i 3 1
+
+

2
2
V .
2
2

(60c)
This expression link complex path to zeroth order, physical vibrations of the bosonic strings and the
roots of the cubic equation, thence with the imaginary unit.
The function, S0 (a f , f ) is a Hamilton-Jacobi function for the = 0 system, in that it obeys the
equation
2

1 S
1 S 0
3

6a + 2 0 + a V0 = 0
24a a
2a

(61)

(see eq.(57)) which is the Hamilton-Jacobi form of the constant equation for = 0 .
Now, the first order equations for a and are required to find the second order action. The
equations are:
12a (0 )'a'+2V0 a (0 )a + a (0 )2 f = 0 (62)

(a( ) ')' = a ( ) .
03

03

(63)

The solution for a is

a =

i cos(i ) sin (i )

2V0

(64)

while for we get first that

i 1
2
3
cos (i ) cos(i ) +
1
3
3
.
' = (0 )3 a (0 )3d =
3
0
a
sin (i )

22

(65)

Because ( 0 ) = 0 , we have
0

( ) = ' d~

' =

(0 )3

a (0 )3d~ .

(66)
(67)

Because of the 1 / a 3 term in the integrand for , its value will depend, among other things, on the
way in which the path in space wraps around the poles where a = 0 . We get
2
V0

( ) =

1 + cos(i )
1
1

+ ln

.
1 + cos(i 0 ) 1 + cos(i 0 )
1 + cos(i )

(68)

Thence, we have, in conclusion:

0

( ) = ' d~ =

1 + cos(i )
2
1
1

+ ln

.
V0 1 + cos(i )
1 + cos(i 0 ) 1 + cos(i 0 )

(68b)

Given the first order solutions, we can calculate the action to second order in .

2 S = 2f

0
d2
2
S (a f , f ,V0 ) a (0 )3 ( ') d .
2 0
0
dV0

(69)

We have
0

a (0 )3 ( ') d =
2

i
= 6
9

1
2
1
3
cos (i ) cos(i ) + d =
5
3
sin (i ) 3
3

cos (i 0 )

(1 z )( z + 2 )

dz
1+ z

(70)

with z = cos(i ) which has poles of order 2 in the integrand at z = 1 or = i (2m + 1) / . Each
time the integrand circles one of these poles, we accumulate a residue, and it is clear that the residue
is the same at each of the poles in space, since it is the same pole z = 1 in z space. Thus, we
have
0

a
0

( ') d = i6 (1 z )(z + 2) dz + 2k 963

9 0
1+ z
V0

(0 )3

(71)

where 0 is some fiducial path from the point = 0 to = 0 , and k is the total net number of times
that the actual path wraps around the various pole.
Assuming that a f > 1 , we can take the fiducial path as a straight line connecting = 0 to = f .
We finally get
2 2 S 0 (a f , f ,V0 )

192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f

k
12
ln
17
12
Z
Z

+
+

,
V03 V03 Z + 1
V02
2

23

(72)

where Z = cos(i 0 ) = i

V0 a 2f
6

1 .

We have the equation (72):

2 2 S 0 (a f , f ,V0 )

192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f

k
+

+
12
ln
+
17

12
Z
+
Z

.
V02
V03 V03 Z + 1
2

1 i 3 1 i 3
+
+
= i2 = i = 1 ;
For
and the modes that correspond to the
2

2 2
2

physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx

142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
8=
,
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

We have that
2 2 S 0 (a f , f ,V0 )

192 8i 12
Z +1
3
S = f

k
12
ln
17
12
Z
Z

+
+

V02
V03 V03 Z + 1
2

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx

142
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2
t 2
w'

t w'
4
2
(
)

e
itw
'

(
)

S
a
,
,
V

w
'
1
192
0
f
f
0

2 S = f2
k 3 +
2
3
V0
V0
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2 3
+
V0
log

4
4

1 i 3 1 i 3
+

+
2

2
2
2

12
Z +1
3
+ 12 ln

+ 17 12Z + Z . (73)
2
Z +1

This expression link complex path to second order action, the modes corresponding to the
physical vibrations of the superstrings and the roots of the cubic equation, thence with the
imaginary unit.
Further, we note that
192 12 = 2304 ;

2304 (963 2) = 2304 1926 = 378 = 369 + 9 .

And that:
963 + 852 + 471 = 2286 = 2304 18;

936 + 825 + 714 147 = 2328 = 2304 + 24,

24

where 24, is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic strings
by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e

itw
'
w
'

24 =
.
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

From (57)
H =

1 2
1

a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) ,
24a
2a

we have that:
H mod =

1 2
2
1

a 6a + 3 2 + a 3V ( ) 288 4 3 .
24a
V0 a
2a

(74)

Let us examine the classical solutions obtained by using S R as Hamilton Jacobi function for the
solution. We are interested in the motion for a f > 1 . Furthermore, we expect V0 to enter into the
complete action only in the combination V = V ( f ) = V0 + f . Thus, we define

y=

Va 2f
6

(75)

and have
S R

y
24 3
4
1 + iy
y + 2 3 12
+ 6i ln
+ 12y + y 3 24k .
2
1+ y
1 iy
V
V

(76)

We note that
288 = 285 + 3; 288 + 288 9 = 576 9 = 567;
24 12 = 288 = 285 + 3 ; 24 24 = 576 = 582 6 .
The equations relating the derivatives with respect to time of the dynamic variables and the
Hamilton Jacobi function are
S
S
a = 12aa& = R ; = a 3& = R . (77)
a

For large a , we have

3

S R a 4

V ( )
1 2
1+
.

6 6V 2

We can rewrite the expression for S R as:

25

(78)

24
17
4
S R
1 + 2 2 y 2 2 2

V
6V
3V

+ 2O y 5 + O 3 .

( ) ( )

(79)

Since
y2 2

4
V
1
2
0 (a aT )(2aT ) + aT2 + O (a aT ) ,
2
3V
6
6

(80)

where

aT =

6
2
1 + 2 2 , (81)
V0
3V0

we can write the action as

3

aT2
24
17 2 V0 aT
(
)
+

+
S R
1

a
a

T
V 6V 2
3
6

(82)

We note, with regard the eq. (81), that:

2
24
8
2
=
=
=2
= 1,6329... that is a value very near to the aurea ratio, i.e.
3
9
3
3
5 +1

2 = 1,61803398 .

Defining = a aT , we have
6

a = 12aa& 12aT &

24
17 3 V a
1 + 2 2 0 T
V0
6V0 2 3

aT2
2 17 V0 aT

12aT 1 +
+ .
6V02 3
6

= aT3&

V0 aT
a2
+ T
3
6
(83)

24 3 aT2 V0 aT
a2
6a 2 V0 aT
a2
+ T T
+ T , (84)
V0 2 6
3
6
V0
3
6

where we have only kept terms to lowest order in and . Solving these equations we find that
V0 aT
a2
Va
+ T = 0 T
3
6
6

35
1 + 2
t .
6V02

(85)

Now, from (82), we have that:

24 17 = 408 ; 408 = 396 + 12 = 417 9 .
From (79), we have that:
26

24 17 4 = 1632 ; 1632 936 = 696 = 693 + 3 ;

1632 (243 6) = 1632 1458 = 174 ; 693 54 = 639 ; 408 + 174 = 582 ; 582 54 = 528 .
Thence, in conclusion:

(24 17 4) (243 6) + (24 17 ) 54 = 528 .

But 528 = 24 22 , thence:

(24 17 4) (243 6) + (24 17 ) 54 = 24 22 ;

We know that 24 is related to the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations of the bosonic
strings by the following Ramanujan function:
cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
'
e

itw
w
'

24 =
.
10 + 11 2

10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

In conclusion, we have:
cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2 22
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e

itw
'
w
'

= (24 17 4) (243 6) + (24 17 ) 54 .

10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

Now, we have the following two series:

a) 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 17, 24, 35, 96, 192, 288

b) 3, 15, 30, 90

For the first series, we note a certain proximity with the Fibonacci's numbers, that we have
compared in Table 1

27

(86)

TABLE 1 :

Numbers first
series S

Fibonacci's
numbers

Differences
S-F

near to F

Some numbers S are

the double or about
of S or multiples of
precedent

near or equal to
the numbers F
2

-1

4=2*2

6=2*3

8=2*4

9=2*4+1

12

13

-1

12=2*6

17

17 mean

17=2*8+1

of 13 and 21
24

21

24=2*12

35

34

35=2*17+1

96

89

78

96 = 4*24

192

188,5

3,5 3

192=2*96

mean

192=8*24

144 and 233

288

288

337

233

89

288=2*144

Fibonacci's
number

288=12*24

55
Fibonacci's
number
28

Besides the obvious coincidence (for 2,3 and 8) or proximity (for 4, 6, 9,12, 24, 35 and 96) with the
Fibonacci's numbers or their means (17, 192), which is also repeated for the differences S - F, we
also note that in the fourth column, as multiples of S, we notice often 8 and 24, already, in itself,
same numbers of the S series, andimportant in the modes of vibrations of the strings, as we
already know. Hence two important connections of these numbers both with the Fibonacci numbers,
and with the modes of vibration of the strings.
Now we see some possible connections with partitions numbers

1,1,2,3,5,7,11,15,22,30,42,56,77,101,135,176,231,
297,385,490,627,792,1002,1255,1575,1958,2436,3010,
3718,4565,5604,....
TABLE 2

Numbers first
series S

Numbers of
Partitions P near
to S

Differences

S-P
2

-1

-1

12

11

17

15

24

22

35

30

96

101

-5

192

176

16 15

288

297

-97,
-9 11
29

Also in this comparison, up to 96 the differences S P are very small, and also all of these equal or
very near to other partition numbers smaller. Therefore also this comparison shows a connection
with the partition numbers, although weaker than that with the Fibonacci's numbers. Finally, we try
also with the numbers Lie, of form n2 + n + 1, halfway between Fibonacci's numbers and partition
numbers (and important in the Standard Model because at the basis of the five sporadic groups of
symmetry)
Numbers L = 1, 3, 7, 13, 21, 31, 43, 57, 73, 91, 121
... 183 ... 273
TABLE 3

Numbers first
series S

Numbers of

Differences

Lie L equal or
near to S

S-L

-1

13

-1

24

21

35

31

4 3

96

91

57

192

183

97

288

273

15 13

9
12
17

Also here, the numbers S are very near to the Lie's numbers, and also the their differences S L.
We can therefore say that the numbers S are connected especially with the Fibonacci's numbers and
30

with the modes of vibration of the strings, and in a somewhat weaker also with the partition of
numbers and the numbers of Lie, all numbers related to many natural phenomena, starting with by
strings.
Second series 3, 15, 30, 90
First, we note that 15= 3*5 , 30=15*2 e 90= 30*3, and that the factors are respectively 2, 3 and 5,
i.e. only the first three prime numbers, which are also Fibonacci's numbers:
3=3
15=3*5,
30=2*3*5,
90 =2*3*3*5
Further, also these few numbers of this series are connected to Fibonacci, to partitions and to the
Lie's numbers

TABLE 4

Numbers S

Fibonacci

Partitions

Lie

15

13

15

13

diff. 2
30

34

diff. 2
30

diff. - 4
90

31
diff. -1

89

101

91

diff. 1

diff.-11

Diff -1

Also here small differences, and for the partitions also three perfect coincidences: 3, 15 and 30.
Obviously, between the Fibonacci numbers missing 5 and 8 between 3 and 15, the 21 between 13
and 34, the 55 between 34 and 89.
Thence, also the Table 4 we could give some numerical information and therefore also useful
mathematics on the second series.
31

Now, we analyze further two series.

Numbers of the first series:

741, 417, 528, 852, 396, 639, 243, 324, 111, 1269
Some numbers are permutations of other, for example, 741 and 417, 528 and 852, 396 and 639, 243
and 324 (see the next numerical series)

TABLE 1
Subsequent ratios in the order indicated

Numbers

Subsequent
ratios

Connection with Factors

Fibonacci
(in green the
values
more
near)

Prime numbers
>3 of form 6k-1
(-)
Form 6k+1 (+)

741

741/417=1,77

>1,618

3, 13, 19

++

417

0,78

> 0,618

3, 139

528

0,619

0,618

2^4, 3, 11

852

2,15

2,61 =1,618^2

2^2, 3, 71

396

0,619

0,618

2^2,3^2, 11

639

2,62

2,61 =1,618^2

3^2, 71

243

0,75

> 0,618

3^5

324

2,91

2,61 =1,618^2

2^2, 3^4

111

0,08

1,618

3, 37

3^3, 47

=1,06 - 1
1269

TABLE 2
Subsequent ratios in the natural order of the numbers involved
32

Numbers

Subsequent
ratios

Connection with Factors

Fibonacci
or
pigreco

Prime numbers
>3 of form 6k-1
-)
form 6k+1 (+)

111

3, 37

243

243/111= 2,18

2,61 =1,618^2

3^5

324

1,33

1,27=1,618

2^2, 3^4

1,33=3,14
396

1,053

1,618

2^2, 3^2,11

=1,06
417

1,26

1,27=1,618

3, 139

528

1,21

1,19 mean

2^4, 3, 11

3^2, 71

3, 13, 19

2^2, 3, 71

3^3, 47

1,618
1,618
639

1,15

1,19 mean
1,618
1,618

741

1,14

1,48

and

1,19 mean
1,618
1,618

852

and

and

1,33=3,14

1269

The connections with Fibonacci seem obvious, some connections there are also with pigreco
About the factors> 3 and their numerical form 6k-1 and 6k + 1 does not appear to be any particular
connections, only a slight alternation in TABLE 2

33

Second series (permutations of 147, 258 and 396, with difference 3 between their consecutive
digits with difference 3 or 6, instead, for their permutations)

396, 417, 528, 639, 741, 852

963, 174, 285, 396, 417, 528,
639, 741, 852, 963, 174, 285,
693, 714, 825, 936, 147, 258,
369, 471, 582, 693, 714, 825,
936, 147, 258, 369, 471, 582

The numbers in red are the permutations of the base number 369
The numbers in blue are the permutations of the base number 147
The numbers in black are the permutations of the base number 258
In these numbers of the second series is missing the base number 234 present only in the first series
with his permutation 324

Interpretation through the permutations

The six permutations of 147 are:

147
174
417 present also in the first series
471
714
741 present also in the first series
here in 3rd and 6th position

34

The six permutations of 234 are:

234
243 present also in the first series
324 present also in the first series
342
423
432
here in 2nd and 3rd position

The six permutations of 258 are:

258
285
528 present also in the first series
582
825
852 present also in the first series
here in 3rd and 6th position

The six permutations of 369 are:

369
396 present also in the first series
639 present also in the first series
693
936
963
here in 2nd and 3rd position
35

So we see this regularly: two numbers in 3rd and 6th position and in 2nd and 3rd position a way
alternated from the base number smaller to the base number largest. We also note that the base
numbers, and obviously also their permutations, are all divisible by 3, have sum of the digit that is
divisible by 3, always increasing, though not in the same order:
147 and its permutations: digit sum 1+4+7 = 12
234 and its permutations : digit sum 2+3+4 = 9
258 and its permutations : digit sum 2+5+8 = 15
369 and its permutations : digit sum 3+6+9 = 18
This is also a small regularity that might be useful in some way in this work on gravity and quantum
physics

Interpretation by the Fibonaccis numbers

Now, we see only the four base numbers, the their connections with Fibonacci, the factors and the
subsequent ratios:
TABLE 3
Base numbers

Fibonaccis
near

numbers

And small differences

= Fibonaccis number
smaller
147

234

258

369

Factors
and Subsequent
ratios
connections
with between the base
Fibonacci (in green)
number
and
the
precedent

144

3, 7^2

Diff .3

7 8

233

2, 3^2, 13

1,5918

Diff. 1

3^2 =9 8

1,618

233

2, 3, 43

1,1025

Diff. 2523 +2

43 2*21

1,12 =1,618

377

3^2, 41

1,4302

Diff. - 8

41 2*21

1.4440=
(1,618 +1,618)/2

4144,5 =(34+55)/2

36

Also here we note the mathematical connections with Fibonacci, specially in the first and in the
fourth column.
We note also that:
852 / 528 = 1,613636;
5 +1
= 1,61803398...
2
We have also that:

639 / 396 = 1,613636 value very near to the aurea ratio that is

852 29,18
528 22,97 ; 29,18 + 22,97 = 52,15;
639 25,27
396 19,89 ; 25,27 + 19,89 = 45,16;

52,15 45,16 = 6,99;

6,99 1,6259...

852 9,480

528 8,082 ; 9,480 + 8,082 = 17,562;

639 8,613

396 7,343 ; 8,613 + 7,343 = 15,956; 17,562 15,956 = 1,606

The mean between 1,6259 and 1,606 is 1,61595 value that is very near to the value of the aurea
5 +1
= 1,61803398...
ratio
2
With regard the approximation to , we note that:
9,480 / 3 = 3,16;

29,18 / 9 = 3,24;

29,18 22,97 = 6,21; 6,21 / 2 = 3,105.

The mean between 3,16 and 3,105 is 3,1325 value very near to .

Appendix A

On some equations concerning the possible Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity

In the thesis1, the generalized expression for the action of a free-particle will have the following
form:
b

S = m g c ds
a

(A1)

or

Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum Gravity Fran De Aquino

arXiv:physics/0212033

37

t2

S = mg c 2 1
t1

V2
dt ,
c2

(A2)

where the Lagranges function is

L = mg c 2 1

V2
.
c2

(A3)

V2
dt , preceded by the plus sign, cannot have a minimum. Thus, the
t1
c2
integrand of eq. (A2) must be always positive.
r
r
The momentum is the vector p = L / V . Thus, from eq. (A3) we obtain
t2

The integral S = mg c 2 1

r
p=

r
mgV
1

V2
c2

r
= M gV .

The (+) sign in the equation above will be used when mg > 0 and the (-) sign if mg < 0 .
r
Consequently, we will express the momentum p in the following form
r
mgV

r
p=

V2
1 2
c

r
= M gV .

(A4)

r r
We know that p V L denotes the energy of the particle. Thus, we can write

mg c 2
r r
Eg = p V L =
= M gc2 .
2
V
1 2
c

(A5)

Equation (A5) can be rewritten also in the following form:

Eg =

where
and

mg 2
m
m
mi c 2
mi c 2 = g (Ei 0 + EKi ) = g Ei ,
mi c +
2
2
mi
mi
1V / c
mi

(A6)

Ei 0 = mi c 2

EKi =

mi c 2
2

V
c2

mi c 2 .

We have that Ei = Ei 0 + EKi is the total inertial energy, where EKi is the kinetic initial energy.
From eqs. (A5) and (A6) we thus obtain
38

mi 0c 2

Ei =

V
c2

= M i c 2 . (A7)

r
The gravity, g , in a gravitational field produced by a particle of gravitational mass M g , depends on

the particles gravitational energy, Eg (given by eq. (A5)), because we can write
g = G

Eg
r 2c 2

= G

M gc2

r 2c 2

(A8)

Due to g = / r , the expression of the relativistic gravitational potential, , is given by

=

GM g

Gmg

V2
r 1 2
c

(A9)

Then, we get

=
r

Gmg
r

V2
1 2
c

(A10)

The gravitational potential energy per unit of gravitational mass of a particle inside a gravitational
field is equal to the gravitational potential of the field. Thus, we can write that

U (r )
. (A11)
m' g

The, it follows that

Fg =

U (r )

= m' g
= G
r
r

mg m' g
r

V2
1 2
c

(A12)

Comparison between (A5) and (A7) shows that Eg 0 = Ei 0 i.e., mg 0 = mi 0 . Consequently, we have
Eg + Ei = Eg 0 + Ei 0 = 2 Ei 0 .

(A13)

However Ei = Ei 0 + EKi . Thus, (A13) becomes

Eg = Ei 0 EKi .

(A14)

Note the symmetry in the equations of Ei and Eg . Substitution of Ei 0 = Ei EKi into (A14) yields

39

Ei Eg = 2 EKi .

(A15)

Squaring the eqs. (A4) and (A5) and comparing the result, we find the following correlation
between gravitational energy and momentum:
Eg2
c

= p 2 + mg2 c 2 .

(A15b)

The energy expressed as a function of the momentum is called Hamiltons function:

H g = c p 2 + mg2 c 2 .

(A16)

Starting from the Schrodinger equation we may obtain the expression for the energy of a particle in
periodic motion inside a cubical box of edge length L . The result now is:
n 2h2
En =
8mg L2

n = 1,2,3,...

(A17)

We note that the term h 2 / 8mg L2 (energy) will be minimum for L = Lmax where Lmax is the
maximum edge length of a cubical box whose maximum diameter

d max = Lmax 3

(A17b)

is equal to the maximum length scale of the Universe.

The minimum energy of a particle is obviously its inertial energy at rest mg c 2 = mi c 2 . Therefore we
can write
n2h2
= mg c 2 . (A18)
8mg L2 max
Then, from the equation above it follows that

mg =

nh
cLmax 8

(A19)

whence we see that there is a minimum value for mg given by

mg (min ) =

h
cLmax 8

(A20)

Now, if we take the eq. (A19), after some steps, we obtain that:
8=

n2h 2 1

.
c 2 L2max mg2

(A20b)

40

This formula contain the number 8 that is a Fibonaccis number and is connected with the modes
that correspond to the physical vibrations of a superstring by the following Ramanujan function:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
8=
. (a)
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

Thence, we can rewrite the eq.(A20b) also as follows:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'
w'

e 4 w' (itw')
1
n2h 2 1
= 2 2 2.
c Lmax mg
3
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(A20c)

This is a new possible relationship of a relativistic theory of quantum gravity.

The relativistic gravitational mass M g =

mg
V2
1 2
c

M g (min ) = mg (min ) .

, defined in eq. (A4), shows that

(A21)

r
The propagation number k = k = 2 / is restricted to the values k = 2n / L . This is deducted

assuming an arbitrarily large but finite cubical box of volume L3 . Thus, we have
L = n .

(A22)

From this equation, we conclude that

nmax =

Lmax

min

(A23)

and

Lmin = nmin min = min , (A24)

since nmin = 1 .
Therefore, we can write that
41

Lmax = nmax Lmin .

(A25)

From this equation, we thus conclude that

L = nLmin

(A26)

Lmax
.
n

(A27)

or
L=
Multiplying (A26) and (A27) by

3 and reminding that d = L 3 , (see eq. A17b) we obtain

d = nd min

d max
n

or

d=

or

L 3=

(A28)

that we can rewrite also as follows:

L 3 = nLmin 3

Lmax 3
n

(A28b)

Equation above show that the length (and therefore the space) is quantized. By analogy to (A19)
we can also conclude that
M g (max ) =

nmax h
,
cLmin 8

(A29)

and as for the (A20c), after some calculation, we obtain:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx
0 cosh x

142
4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

2
e 4 w' (itw')
1
n h2
1
= max
2
.
2 2
c
L
M
3
10 + 11 2

min
g
(
max
)
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(A29b)

Equation (A25) tells us that Lmin = Lmax / nmax . Thus eq. (A29) can be rewritten as follows:
M g (max ) =

n 2 max h
,
cLmax 8

and thence, for the (A29b):

42

(A30)

 cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142

4 anti log
2
t 2
t w'

w'

4
4
e
w' (itw')
1
1
nmax h 2
= 2 2 2
.
3
c Lmax M g (max )
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(A30b)

Comparison of (A30) with (A20) shows that

2
M g (max ) = nmax
mg (min )

(A31)

which leads to following conclusion that

M g = n 2 mg (min ) . (A32)
This equation shows that the gravitational mass is quantized. The substitution of eq. (A32) into eq.
(A8) leads to the quantization of gravity, i.e.,

g=

GM g
r

Gmg (min )
= n 4 g min . (A33)
= n 2
2
(rmax / n )

But for the eq. (A31b), we note that:

cos txw'

x 2 w '
0 cosh x e dx 142 2 2 2

4 anti log
2 c L Mg
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e
itw
'

w'
1
1

n4 =
2,
3
h
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
+

log

4
4

(A33b)

thence:
cos txw'

x 2 w '
e
dx

142 2 2 2
0 cosh x
4 anti log
2 c L Mg
t 2

w'

t w'
4
(
)
e

itw
'

GM g
Gm
w
'
1
1
g ( min )

=
2 g min (A33c)
g = 2 = n 2
2
h
r
10 + 11 2
10 + 7 2
(rmax / n ) 3

log
+

4
4

A Master Equation of a possible relativistic theory of quantum gravity, that show the quantization
of a gravitational mass and that include also the modes that correspond to the physical vibrations
of a superstring.

43

The redshift z is often described as a redshift velocity, which is the recessional velocity that would
produce the same redshift if it were caused by a linear Doppler effect. To determine the redshift
velocity vrs the relation:
vrs cz ,

(A34)

is used.
The redshift velocity agrees with the velocity from a low-velocity simplification of the so-called
Fizeau-Doppler formula
v

c 1 v .
z = o 1 =
v
e
c
1
c
1+

(A35)

Here o , e are the observed and emitted wavelengths respectively.

Suppose R(t ) is called the scale factor of the Universe, and increases as the Universe expands in a
manner that depends upon the cosmological model selected. Its meaning is that all measured proper
distances D(t ) between co-moving points increase proportionally to R . In other words:
D(t ) R(t )
=
,
D(t0 ) R(t0 )

(A36)

where t0 is some reference time. If light is emitted from a galaxy at time te and received by us at t0 ,
it is red shifted due to the expansion of space, and this redshift z is simply:
z=

R(t0 )
1.
R(te )

(A37)

Suppose a galaxy is at distance D , and this distance changes with time at a rate dtD . We call this
rate of recession the recession velocity vr :
vr = d t D =

dt R
D.
R

(A38)

We now define the Hubble constant as

H

dt R
,
R

that insert in eq. (A38) leads to the Hubble law:

vr = HD . (A39)
From the Hubbles law, it follows that

44

~
~ d
Vmax = Hlmax = H max
2
~
~ d
Vmin = Hlmin = H min
2

(A40)

whence
Vmax d max
=
.
Vmin d min

(A41)

Equations (A28) tell us that d max / d min = nmax . Thus the equation above gives
Vmin =

Vmax
nmax

(A42)

which leads to the following conclusion

V=

Vmax
n

(A43)

this equation shows that velocity is also quantized.

Furthermore, for the eqs. (A40), we note that
~
~ d
Vmax = Hlmax = H max ,
2
and that d = l 3 (see. Eqs. (A27), (A28) and (A17b)) i.e. d max = lmax 3 .
Thence, we can rewrite the eq. (A43) also as follows:
~
Vmax ~ lmax 3 1 Hlmax 3

V=
= H
n = n 2 .
n
2

(A44)

The temporal coordinate x 0 of space-time is now ( x 0 = ct is obtained when Vmax c )

x 0 = Vmax t .

(A45)

Substitution, from (A43) and (A40), of

( )

~
Vmax = nV = n Hl

(A46)

into eq. (A45) yields

t=

0
x0
1 x
= ~ . (A47)
Vmax nH l

45

~
Since V = Hl

and V = Vmax / n

V
~
we can write that l = Vmax H 1 / n = max
~ . Thus, we have that
nH

(remember that nt = t max )

x0 ~
~
= H (nt ) = Htmax . (A48)
l
Therefore, we can finally write
0
1 ~
1 x
t = ~ = ~ Htmax = tmax / n . (A49)
nH l nH

Note that the eq. (A49), remember that d = l 3 , can be also write as follows:
0
x0
1
3
1 x
t = ~ = ~ x 0
= 3 ~ . (A49b)
d
nH l nH
nHd

x0
From this equation we can to observe that tmax = 3 ~ .
Hd
From eqs. (A26) and (A49) we can easily conclude that the spacetime is not continuous it is
quantized:
d
d
L = nLmin
= n min ,
3
3
0
x0
1 ~
1
3
1 x
t = ~ = ~ Htmax = tmax / n ~ x 0
= 3 ~ . (A50)
d
nH
nH l nH
nHd
Now we take the eq. (A44):
V=

For

~
Vmax ~ lmax 3 1 Hlmax 3
=
.
= H

n
n
2
n
2

~
Hlmax
= i , i.e. the imaginary unit i = 1 , we have that
n
V=

Vmax i 3
=
.
n
2

(A51)

This expression show that the quantized velocity is related to the imaginary unit multiplied the
irrational number 0,866025.
We remember that the equilateral triangle ABC is divided into two congruent rectangular triangles
whose catheti are the height and half of the side of the equilateral triangle and the hypotenuse is the
a
side of the triangle ABC. Indicating with ( h, , a ) respectively, the measures of catheti and of the
2
hypotenuse of the rectangular triangle HBC, and applying the theorem of Pythagoras, we have: the
46

measure of the height of an equilateral triangle is obtained by multiplying the half of his side for the
square root of 3.

Indeed, we have the following expression:

2

a2
3a 2 a
3
a
2
h = a = a
=
=
3=a
= a 0,866
4
4
2
2
2
2

In this picture, we note that the hexagon inscribed in the circle is formed from the six equilateral
triangles and the side a , in this case, is equal to the radius of the circle inscribed. Thence, also here
come out the number 0,866

3
is the fix number of the regular hexagon. The regular hexagon
2
can be divided also in 6 equal isosceles triangles whose height is equal to the apothem of the
hexagon, namely, to the radius of the circle inscribed. In each hexagon there is always the same
ratio between apothem and side, i.e.

We note that the number 0,866

a : l = 0,866 , for which

a = l 0,866

Now, we take an hexagon with side l = 4 . We have that:

47

and

l=

a
.
0,866

(A52)

a = l 0,866 = 4 0,866 = 3,464 ;

p = l 6 = 4 6 = 24 ;
p a 24 3,464
A=
=
= 41,568
2
2
A 41,568
= 2=
= 2,598...
l
16
For each regular hexagon, the ratio between the area and the side, is always equal to the 2,598.
Thence, the number 2,598 is the constant or fix number for the calculus of the area of a regular
hexagon.
pa
A
Now, from the formulae A =
, = 2 , we have:
2
l

p
A=

l 3
2 ;
2

(A53)

4 3
l 3
24
2 =
2 = 24 4 0,866 = 83,136 = 2,598 . (A54)
2
2l
2 16
32
32

5 + 1
. Indeed, the value of A = l 2 = 16 2,598 = 41,568
But, we note that 2,598 2,618 =

2
2

5 +1
= 16 2,618 = 41,888 = 41,8 41,56
is very near to A = l

2
From (54), we have also that:
3 2l
=
, (A55)
2
p
2

Thence:
3 2( ) l

,
2
p
2

(A56)

5 +1
= 1,61803398 is the aurea ratio.
2
V
i 3
In conclusion, the eq. (A51) V = max =
, can be rewritten also as follows:
n
2
where =

Vmax i 3 i 2( ) l
=

.
n
2
p
2

V=

(A57)

This expression show that the quantized velocity is related to the imaginary unit and to the
aurea ratio.

48

Appendix B
PROOF OF FERMAT'S LAST THEOREM FOR THE CUBIC EQUATION CASE N = 3
The equation
x3 + y3 = z3

(B1)

dont admits positive integer solutions when xyz 0.

Proof.
Suppose x; y; z are relatively prime, in fact, if they were not, any factor divides two of these, for the
equation (1), it should also divide the third. Consequently, one and only one between x; y; z can be
even, so we can distinguish the two cases:
(1) z is even and x; y are odd
Since x and y are odd, x - y and x + y are even, we put
x + y = 2p
x - y = 2q
from these we can obtain x and y as a function of p and q
x=p+q
y=pq
where p and q are co-prime, in fact, if they had one factor in common, this should also divides x and
y, which is impossible as we said that they are relatively prime; They have opposite parity as x and
y are odd, so p and/or q are one even and one odd.
Finally we can assume p and q positive, as we could possibly exchange the role between x and y.
Besides if x = y then z3 = 2x3 and being x and 2 prime among them, the only way for it to be a cube
is that even 2 is a cube, but this is impossible.
We rewrite the (B1) in terms of p and q in the following way
z3 = x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 xy + y2) = 2p (p2 + 3q2)

(B2)

where the product 2p (p2 + 3q2) is a cube.

So we were able to transform a sum of cubes in a product of cubes which is much more simple to
manage.
In fact we have, for example that 23 * 33 = 63

(2) x is even and z and y are odd (the case in which y is even is obtained by swapping the role
between x and y)
For the same reasons as the previous case, we put
49

z - y = 2p
z + y = 2q
thus obtaining
y=qp
z=p+q
where p and q are positive, in fact, q > 0 (since q = (z + y)/2 and p = (z-y)/2) and so q > p (because
z > y).
Besides for the same reasons as the previous case, they are prime between them and in opposite
parity so p and/or q are one even and one odd.
Substituting into (B1) with an immediate calculation
x3 = z3 y3 = (z - y) (y2 + zy + z2) = 2p (p2 + 3q2)

(B3)

where the product 2p (p2 + 3q2) is a cube.

So we were able to transform a difference of cubes in a product of cubes which is much more
simple to manage.
At this point we just have to prove that 2p and (p2 + 3q2) are coprime, and that the only way for
their product is a cube is that they are themselves cubes.
2p must be a cube
p2 + 3q2 must be a cube
we know that if p2 + 3q2 is a cube only when we have
p = a3 - 9ab2 = a (a2 9b2) = a (a - 3b) (a + 3b)
q = 3a2b - 3b3 = 3b (a2 b2) = 3b (a - b) (a + b)
with a and b (not necessarily positive) co-prime and of opposite parity.
so that p2 + 3q2 = (a2 + 3b2)3.
We have so that
2p = 2a(a 3b)(a + 3b)
But this is impossible to be a cube because for the same reason we must have that:
2a must be a cube
a 3b must be a cube
a + 3b must be a cube
if we put

50

a 3b = c3
a + 3b = h3
2a = w3
So
c3 + h3 = w3 (B4)
This seems to be a solution of (B1) with integers smaller than the solution original. Indeed
c3 h3 w3 = 2a(a + 3b)(a 3b) = 2p
by equations (B2) and (B3) we get that
z3 = 2p (p2 + 3q2);

z3 = c3 h3 w3 (p2 + 3q2)

x3 = 2p (p2 + 3q2);

x3 = c3 h3 w3 (p2 + 3q2)

z>x
and then we have that
chw < z
and then we have
c<z
h<z
w<z
since c < z, h < z and w < z, the equation (B4) is satisfied and is in contrast with Lemma Infinite
Descent because we obtain an infinite descent of positive integers
This theorem proofs a property that, if satisfied by a positive integer, it can be satisfied by a positive
integer smaller. The method of infinite descent shows that some properties or relations are
impossible, if applied to positive integers, in fact, if we try these apply to any number, they must
also apply when considering numbers smaller; but the latter, in turn, for the same reasons earlier,
hold for some numbers even smaller, so to infinity. This process is impossible, as a sequence of
integers cannot decrease indefinitely.
Then x*3 + y*3 = z3 has no positive x, y and z integer solutions.

51

Observations
The golden section is found in quantum physics (electron orbitals, masses of quarks, strings),
chemistry (atomic numbers of the elements most stable), visible macrocosm (flowers, pine cones,
etc.), astronomy (Bode's law on the orbits of the planets, etc.).
It could be defined, together , a kind of glue between the two worlds (relativistic and quantum),
then an indication of the truth of a possible future TOE.
We note that the golden ratio, as well as in this paper, is present in all four fundamental forces of
nature, and this could be one of the possible unifying factors for future Theory of Everything that
unifies, in fact, all four the forces referred to above, possibly thanks to string theory and its
connections with some sectors of the Theory of Numbers, Fibonacci in particular.
In previous work we have discovered the presence of the golden section in
- Strong force, by the masses of the quarks,
- Gravity, in the orbits of the planets and in the rings of Saturn
- Electromagnetism;
- Weak force

References

1) Fran De Aquino Mathematical Foundations of the Relativistic Theory of Quantum

Gravity arXiv:physics/0212033
2) S. W. Hawking and Don N. Page Thermodynamics of Black Holes in Anti-de Sitter
Space Commun. Math. Phys. 87, 577-588 (1983)
3) W. G. Unruh, Moninder Jheeta Complex Paths and the Hartle Hawking Wave-function
for Slow Roll Cosmologies arXiv:gr-qc/9812017v1 4 Dec 1998
4) La serie di Fibonacci nel microcosmo (effetto Hall quantistico, cariche frazionarie ,masse dei
quark, numeri quantici, stabilit nucleare) Gruppo B. Riemann*
5) TUTTE LE PARTICELLE ELEMENTARI HANNO MASSA - Ing. Pier Franz Roggero,
Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
6) La legge astronomica di Bode e i numeri di Fibonacci Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli,
Pierfrancesco Roggero

52

7) SFERE DI HILL
Ing. Pier Franz Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
8) ALLINEAMENTO DEI PIANETI
Ing. Pier Franz Roggero, Dott. Michele Nardelli, P.A. Francesco Di Noto
9) UNA NUOVA CONNESSIONE FIBONACCI ORBITALI ELETTRONICI - Gruppo
B.Riemann - Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli
10) La particella (fermione) di Majorana e la superconduttivit (brevi considerazioni teoriche e
sperimentali) - Francesco Di Noto, Michele Nardelli, Pierfrancesco Roggero
11) Stefania de Luca http://nautil.us/issue/29/scaling/will-quantum-mechanics-swallow-relativity

The references 4-10 are all on the sites

http://nardelli.xoom.it/virgiliowizard/teoria-delle-stringhe-e-teoria-deinumeri?SESS04c60ae582dfe763ad4ca5b793ce5948=7a2ba3d6aa54d4acc8b5238a826bb4d3

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my beloved Master Prof. Antonio Grablovitz, whose culture
mathematics he was able to transmit me with great mastery, and has made possible the
publication of this my research and all those who until now have published. Ive dedicate this
paper to his beloved sons.

53