THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

CONS IDE RED

ANATOMICAL.LY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY.

BY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG,
LATI:: )fEMBJ;R 01" Till>: KOVSl!; 010" NODl.ES IN TRB ROYAL »tF.r 01" aWEDEN,

ASSEaaOR 01" THI' ROYAL METALLlC COLl.EGlt 01" RWEJ)BS,

FRLLOW OF TlfE ROYAL ACADE:KY OP acn:SCE5 or f)FSALA, AND QI" THB ROTAL .t.CA...DE3ofY 01" SCIEl't'C.'

OF STOCKHOLM,

CORaUPO:fDING :MP.)fD'RR OP TR8 l:lIlIrBIl.U,. ACADB)I'! OF ICIBNeRS or ST. PETERSBUI\G.

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN

BY

JAMES JOHN GARTH WILKINSON,

:'oU::'lIBER OP THE ROYAl. COLLEGE OF Sf)RGF,ON8 Of' l.aNnOl'<.

VOLUME 1.

LONDON:
W. NEWBERY, 6, KING STREET, HüLBüRN;

H. BAILLIÈRE, 219, REGENT STREET.

OTIS CLAPP, SCHOOL STREET, BOSTON, UNITED STATES.

1843.

Reproduced by Photo Otfset

SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION

J960

 U KO PROVECTI SUMUS, UT RODIE AURIS ET OCULI SENSATIONEM VALDE

SUPRA SEIPSAM, AUT SUPRA NATURAJ.. E SUUM ACUMEN, PER ARTIFICIALIA
ORGANA EXALTARE SCIAMUS: JAM SUPEREST, UT ETIAM MENTEM, SEU AUDI­
TUM ET VISUM RATIONALEM."-SWEDENBORG, ŒCONOMIA REGNI ANtMALIS,
TR. II., N.207.
"COGITATIO EX OCULO OCCLUDIT tNTELLECTUM, AT COGITATIO EX INTEL­
LECTU :\PERIT OCULUM." - SWEDENBORG, SAPIENTIA ANGELleA DE DIVINO
AMORE, N.46.

LONDON:
PR1NTED BY \VALTON AKD MITCHELL,
\Vardour·stl'cet, Oxforcl·:-,trect.
 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
l'AGE

Preface to 1960 Photo Offset Edition v

Translator's Preface to Part 1. vii

Prologue

Chap. T. The Tongue 17

II. The Lips, the Mouth, the Palate, and the Salivary Glands 59

Ill. The Phaqnx, the Œsophagus, and their Glands 86

IV. The Stomach and its Orifices 109

V. The Intestines 140

VI. The Mesentery and the Lacteals 186

VII. The Thoracic Duct and the Lymphatics 210

VIII. The Glands generally 224

IX. The Liver and the Gall-hladder 253

X. The Pancreas 306

XI. The Spleen . 328

XII. The Omentum 363

XIII. The Succenturiate Kidneys 392

XIV. The Kidneys and the Ureters 415

XV. The Urinary Bladder 457

XVI. The Peritonœum 481

Epilogue 510

 PREFACE 1'0 1960 PHOTO OFFSET EDITION

The Animal Kingdom has been out of print in the English

language for more than a century. The publication of a new
edition has long been contemplated by the Swedenborg Seien­
tific Association, whose journal, The New Philosophy, reports
work during the early 1900's of a committee to revise Wilkin­
son's translation published in 1843-4. Unfortunately, this re­
vision was not completed. Nothing more has been done in the
intervening half-century, and there seems little prospect at
present for a new revision. Meanwhile, copies of the old edition
have become progressively more scarce and fragile. In order
.,to insure that a rising generation of scholars shal1 not be pre­
vented by scarelty of books from studying this important work,
the Swedenborg Scientific Association herewith reproduces
the Wilkinson translation by photo offset printing, omitting only
lengthy and rather dated "Introductory Remarks by the Trans­
lator" (to the whole work) ; but retaining Wikinson's prefaces
to Parts l, II and III, which contain bibliographie material.
The reprinting of a translation now over one hundred years old
is in itself a recognition of the ageless grace of Wilkinson's
language and the veracity of his interpretation.
The consistent purpose in Swedenborg's physiological
works was to demonstrate the existence of the soul in the body
and the intercourse between them. In pursuing this objective, he
developed a number of different plans for arranging his various
published and projeeted treatises into a comprehensive overal1
scheme. These plans have been described in detail by Alfred
Acton in prefaces to his translations of several of Swedenborg's
physiological works, especial1y in the Psychological Trans­
actions (1920, 1955), pages xxviii to xxxi; in Generation (Parts
4 and 5 of the Animal Kingdom series, 1912, 1928), pages 5 to
15; in A Philosopher's Note Book (1931); in The Cerebrum
(1938) ; and in the "third transaction" of the Economy of the
Animal Kingdom, which was posthumously published (1918)
and is general1y known under the title, The Fibre. Besides, Dr.
Acton's typed "Notes on the Life and Work of Emanuel
Swedenborg" (covering the period up to the year 1744) con­
tain many reÏerences to Swedenborg's plans for future
publications.
One of the last of such plans Swedenborg prefixed to the
Prologue to this first volume of the Animal Kingdom nnder the
tit1e, "Index of Contents of the Whole 'Work," "whole work"
referring to a comprehensive series of treatises of which the
published volumes of the Animal Kingdom were to form the
first two of seventeen "Parts." In the preface to his translation
of Psychological Transactions, Dr. Acton pointed out that on
VI PREFACE TO 1960 PHOTO OFFSET EDrTlON

gathering together the whole of Swedenborg's physiological

writings, published and unpublished, almost each of the "Parts"
in this plan were found to be covered by some one or more of
his works. These relationships were shown in tabular form, a
modification of which, be1ow, lists the seventeen "Parts," fol­
lowed by parentheses enclosing the names of corresponding
written works.
Inde;r of Contents of the Whole Work

Parts 1-2 The Viscera of the Body. (A. K' 1 and Il).

Part 3 The Heart, etc. (E. A. K., 1; The Red Blood.)

Parts 4-5 Generation. (Generation; Origin and Propagation

of the S onl.)
Part 6 The Senses. (A. K' III; The Soul; The Senses.)
J

Parts 7-8 The Brains. (E. A. K., Il; The Brain.)

Part 9 The Fibre. (The Fibre.)
The Motor Fibre (Action.)

The Animal Spirit. (The Animal Spirit; chapter in

codex 65 on Brain.)

Part 10 The Organism of Animal Motion. (Action.)

Part Il Diseases of the Head. (Diseases of the Fibre;

Tm-nsaction III in codex 65 on Brain.)

Part 12 The Doctrine of Forms. (Chapter in The Fibre.)

Order, Degrees, etc. (E. A. K., 1 fin.)

Correspondence and Representation. (Hieroglyphic
Key; Correspondences and Representations.)
Modification. (Sensation; The Soul.)
Part 13 Action. (Action.)
External and Internai Sense. (The S oui; Sensation.)
Imagination, Memory. (The Soul; Diseases of the
Fibre. )
Part 14 Affections and Disorders of the Animus. (The S ouI;
Diseases of the Fibre.)
Part 15 The Intellect and Rational Mind. (The S oui.)
Part 16 The Sou\. (The Soul; Way to a Knowledge of the
Soul; Origin and Propagat-ion of the Soul.)
Part 17 Concordance of systems respecting the Soul and
body. (Harmony of Sonl and Body; The SOttl.)
This photo offset edition of the Animal Kingdo11t is pre­
sented withol1t further editorial comment in the hope that the
ready availability of the work may stimuJate more widespread
stl1dy and appreciation of the significance to modern thought
of Swedenborg's remarkable philosophical system.
Swedenborg ScientificAssociation
Bryn Athyn, Pa. October, 1960
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART 1.

'l'HE Regnnm Animale of Swedenborg, of the first Part of

which, this volu~e is a translation, was published by the author
in 1744 and 1745, and constituted the last of a series of works
on thc natural sciences, which Swedenborg wrote previously to
commencing his labors as a theologian. These works are related
to each other in a certain order, as containing a successive
evolution of principles j and the first part of the series is in
some measure pl'Csupposed in the subsequent parts. Thus a full
comprehension of the doctrines of the « Animal Kingdom" can
scarcely be attained 'without an acquaintance with its precursors,
-the Princïpia Rerum Naturalium, published in 1734, and the
Œconomia Regni Animalis, published in 1740 and 1741.* It
might, then, have been desirable to publish the translations of
these works in the order in which Swedenborg published the
originals j but as this would have involved considerable delay,
it was considered expedient to issue immediately that work
which happened to be ready for the press, and to trust to the
reader's candor, to make some reservation in Swedenborg's
favor, until the whole of the materials on which to found a
judgment on bis daims are beforc the public. In no long
period, this will be the case, inasmuch as the translations of

* The translataI' refel's the reader ta his article,

.. Swedenborg," in the PENNY
CYCLOP..EDIA, fol' a short account of the life and writings of Swedenborg, and for
references ta the best works on those subjects.
vm TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART 1.

the Principia and Œconomia* are virtually completed, and their

publication will not be delayed beyond the time necessary to
accomplish the operations of the engraver.
It is not intended to enter at present upon the merits and
demerits of Swedenborg's system. A critical Preface will come
most appropriately with Parts II. and III., when the translation
of the Work is completed; at which time it is also the transla­
tor's wish, to give a copious index, and a short biographical
and bibliographical notice of the numerous writers referred to
in the Worle.
It may, notwithstanding, be useful to suggest, that the
merits of the W ork lie in its principles and doctrines, and
only secondarily in its details. The facts made use of by
Swedenborg were, of course, the facts of his own day-the
faets of perhaps the most illustrious anatomists who evel' lived
-but still imperfect, as the facts of our day will be imper­
fect in the year 1943. Principles, however, are immortal;
and the roll of centuries, (supposing always that mankind is
advancing steadily the meanwhile to higher enlightenment,)
serves only to continu and establish them. They have, more­
over, a power of. eliminating and throwing off spurious facts,
when such facts have served a provisional end, and more real
data are prepared to take their places. The principles of Swe­
denborg, the translator believes, have this increasing root in the
world, and this power: he believes that they are more tme now
to the rational enquirer, than they could possibly be to the men
of Swedenborg's own day:-that wherever he adopted false

* The W orks stand thus in order and titles :

Principia Rerum Naturalium, sive novorum Tentaminum Phœnomena Mundi
Elementaris Philosophice explicandi. Cum figuris llmeis. Folio. Dresdœ et Lipsiœ,
1734.
Œconomia Regni Animalis in Transactiones Divisa: Anatomice, Physice et Phi.
losophice perlustrata. (Trans. I. II.) 4to. Londini et Amstelodami, 1740, 1741.
Regnnm Animale, Anatomice, Physice et Philosophice perlustratum. (Partes I.
II. III.) 4to. Hagœ Comitum et I.ondini. 1744, 1745.
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART I. IX

facts, they furni.shed a worse basis for his system than the more
solid materials of modern discovery. An example of this occurs
in the Chapter on the Kidneys, where the principle stated to
govern the urinary series is confirmed by the recent observations
of Mr. Bowman better than by the hypothetical structure
assigned to the parts previously, in the absence of experimental
evidence. It would be easy to multiply instances of the same
kind, but the intention is, not to write a commentary, but
rather to warn the reader against confouncling principles with
supposititious facts, and throwing away the former, when there
is only ground for rejecting the latter.
It is not enough, then, in perusing Swedenborg's Work,
that the reader should question the details borrowed from the
older anatomists and physiologists: another dutY still devolves
upon hi.m, supposing these details are proved in sorne important
instances to be erroneous; the duty, namely, of enquiring how
far Swedenborg's principles do or do not square with the better
details of the present day.
The translator directs attention to the doctrines mentioned
in the Prologue (n. 14), and illustrated throughout the Work;
particularly to the DOCTRINE OF SERIES AND DEGREES, which,
according to Swedenborg, "when taken in conjunction with
experience, is the path to an intimate knowledge of nature"
(Œcon. Regn. An., Tr. l, n. 628). The application of this doctrine
to the living body is perhaps the most important object of study
presented in the following Treatise.
There is besides a variety of particular subjects on which the
" Animal Kingdom" is of considerable import to the physiologist.
It may be sufficient to indicate, that it contains new views upon
the philosophy of forros and forces; and especially, upon the
universality of the spiral form in the organic creation; and the
grounds and reasons of that universality: also, upon the effect
of the respiratory movements in the body generally; and upon
the motions of the viscera and organs. Its doctrines respecting
x TRANSLATOIt'S PREI'ACE 'ra PART 1.

the permeaùility of tissues, the circulation of serum in the

seraus membranes, and the functions of those membranes, and
respecting the nature and office of the cellular tissue, and of
the lymphatic system, are well worthy thc attention of aIl those
who are engaged in studying the living body.
The impediments, however, to a right understanding of
Swedenborg's views, can scarcely be overrated. Those views
differ as much from the current views, as rational astronomy,
which regards the sun as the centre of its system, differs from
sensual astronomy, which upon the clear evidence of vision,
recognized the earth as the centre. The sphere of the senses
and the sphere of reason, are not merely distinct, but anta­
gonist: and it is on1y by an inversion of phenomena that wc
pass into the region of causes. The naked eye cannat see truth,
nor can the eye assisted ùy the microscope: but the rational
mind is its proper organ, accommodated to the rays of its super­
sensual light. The doctrines of truth may indeed correct the
appearanccs of the senses, and be found in agreement with,
and be confirmed by, those appearanees, when so correeted:
but they cannot agrec with, or be confirmed by, a chaos of
faets. But at the present clay, there is a morbid dread of doc­
trines and princip1es: and as a nceessary consequence, it is
taken for granted, that the scnses themse1ves are the organs of
truth, and that any imperfection of insight will one day be
rcctificd by sorne kecner eye, or better microscope. This state
of mind is, indeec1, diamctrically opposite to the spirit of Swe­
denborg's writings; and it may prove extremely clifficult for
those who arc under its influence, to accord any measure of
appreciation ta, or derive any advantage from, the present
Work.
l\1oreover, it is easy ta forescc that Swedenborg's style will
prove an obstacle to many. N everthcless, the translataI' has
anxiously songht to prcscf\'C it in the English version. Thc
reason is, that thc mode of spcaking by figures, is not an ex­
 TRANSLATOlt'S PREJ'ACE TO PART 1. Xl

crescencc, lying mcrely in language, but is the indication of a

great principle :-the principle, that there cxist a universal
Analogy and Correspondency throughout nature and human
society in aIl thcir spheres j and that thus one thing not only
rnay be used, but in certain cases even ou.ght to be used as the
tcrm and exponcnt of anothcr.
The popular prejudice against Swedenborg's theological
works may also cause a reaction against his scientific works.
This is a subject upon which the translator cannot dwell.
Therc is only one way to discuss prejudices and to substitute in
their place acts of judgment j namely, by each individual care­
fully examining evidence for himself.
But the "Animal Kingdom," has 11 distinguishing feature
which, it is hoped, will conciliate ail parties, and commend the
W ork, pro tanto, to aIl: l mean the citations from the old
anatomists j-fl'om those who were the original geniuses in this
field of observation. These citations must give the Work sorne
value to even the lover of mere facts, particularly since it ,vauld
appear, that medical learning is undergoing' a reyival in this
country j and that the works of the old worthies-the Patristic
lore of medicine-will now for the first time be populaJ'ized
to the profession in English translations. l allude to the pro­
jected labors of the SYDENHAM SOCIETY j which, although re­
trospective, seem, to me, at least, to be of the utmost import­
ance for the advancement of anatomical and mcdical science.
With respect to the citations above alluded to, the tran:,lator
has to make the following acknowledgment of obligations. In
the passages from Winslow's Exposition Anatomique, he has com­
pared Swedenborg's Latin translation* with Douglas's Euglish

* It appears that Swedenborg himself translated the passages cited from \Vinslow,
from French into Latin. The only Latin translation of Winslow's E:c.uosition
Anatomique with which 1 am acquainted, (Expositio Anatortlica Structur'œ UorporiR
HUrtiani, Jac. Benigni fVinstow,-e Gallico Latine vérsa, P"ancq(urti et llipsiœ,)
was not published till 1753; and moreover, it is very differellt from Swedellborg's
translation.
 Xll TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART I.

one,* and availed himself, wherever it was practicable, of the

assistance, and for the rnost part, of the phraseology, of the
latter: when any discrepancy occurred between the Latin and
English versions, he has alwayï', had recourse ta the French
ori~~nal. In rendering the passages from Heister, he has de­
rived considerable aid from the English translation of the Com­
pendium Anatomicum, published at London in 1752.t In the
citations from Boerhaave, sorne hints have been adopted from
an ~English paraphrase of1 the Institutiones Medieœ, published at
London in 1724.+ In the passages from Swammerdam's Biblia
Naturœ, the translation by Sir John Hill, and others, has been
as far as possible followed.§ These are ail the instances, so far
as present recoilection serves, in which the translator is directly
indebted to the labors of others.
With the exception of the passages from Winslow, the whole
of the quotations have been compared verbatim with the corre­
sponding -passages in the works of the authors; and references
hav,e been appended throughout, to enable the reader to refer
immediately to the originals. The numerous references made
by :Swedenborg himself have been strictly verified, excepting in
three or four instances, where it was found impossible to procure
the works cited, or eIse, to find the passages: to the unverified
references the mark :E is adjoined.
It is to be observed, that the numbering of the paragraphs

* "An Anatomical Exposition of the Structure of the Human Body. By

Jaml:s Benignus Winslow. Translate<! from the French original, by G. Douglas,
M.D. 4to. London, 1733."
t "A Compendium of Anatomy. By Laurence Heister, M.D. Translated
from the last edition of the original Latin. 8vo. London, 1752."
: "Cursus Medicinœ; or a complete Theory of Physic. Done principally from
the admirable Institutions of the leamed H. Boerhaave. By John Crawford, M.D.
8vo. London, 1724." 1 am aware that there is a better English version of Boer.
haave than Crawford's, but 1 had not easy access to it.
§ "The Book of Nà'ture; or the History of Insects. By John Swammerdam,
M.D.. Translated from the Dutch and Latin original edition, by Thomas Flloyd,
revis' ld and improved by Notes from Reaumur and others. By John Hill, M.D.
Fo\i'J, London, 1758."
 'rUANSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART r. Xlll

does not correspond in the latter part of the Volume, with the
numbering of the original. In the original, both the thirteenth
and fourteenth Chapters commence with n. 266, apparently
because our author had at one time intended Chap. XIV. to
stand first, and had afterwards altered his intention, without
having changed the numbering. Another error is also super­
added, and next to n. 266, in Chap. XIV., we find 217, 218,
219, &c.,-proceeding through the Work. Thus a series of sixtY
numbers is repeated twice. Reference from the latter parts of
the Work to the former becomes, on this account, extremely
difficult and uncertain, and the translator has therefore ventured
to correct the numbering throughout. It may also be men­
tioned, that the typographical errors in the original are exceed­
ingly numerous, and so important, that the certainty of the
translation may sometimes have been endangered by them.* In
the present Volume the translator is indebted to his printers
for he believes a very opposite condition with respect to cor­
rectness.
The reader will find frequent re(erence made to Parts of the
"Animal Kingdom" which were never published by Swedenborg.t
The present Work was indeed the mere beginning of the course
which he had prescribed for himself. There is reason to suppose
that these Parts were not written; but among the author's
MSS., preserved in the Library of the Royal Academy of Sci­
ences of Stockholm, there are' several physiological Treatises,t

* And accordingly, our author appended an Advertisement (Monilum) to Part

IL, stating that there were many typographical errors in the Work, and requesting
"the benevolent reader to correct them for himself." He pleaded in excuse, that
they were owing to his having been "more intent upon things than words."­
"Plures [errores), dum Rebus non Verbis intentus fui, visum et calamum meum
prœterlapsi sunt."
t See "The Author's Index of Contents of the whole Work."

~ These Treatises are as follow :

1. Fragmenta de Œconomiâ Regni Animalis et de ipso Regno Animali, inter

quœ reperitur Tractatus de Partibus Generationis utriusque Sexus, et de Processu
Generationis.
XlV 'l'IUNSLATOR'S PREFACE TO PART 1.

the contents of which will doubtless serve to tin up some por­

tions of his design.
A ward respecting the principles which have guided the
translataI' in the execution of this first part of his undertaking.
He has strivell ta the best of his ability ta givc a faithful trans­
lation, and, as one means ta this end, ta divest the ,Vork of Latin
idioms as far as possible. But in cases where he was either cer­
tain that particular phrases, although stiff and peculiar, were
not indebted for their peclùiarity ta the genius of the Latin
language, or where he strongly suspected this ta be the fact,­
in snch cases, he has felt it safe ta adhere ta the original, and
ta put precedent, custom and style, out of sight.
And furthermore, as the technical language of that clay was
generaUy the result of certain theories respecting the uses of the
things named, he has seldom felt himself caUed upon ta alter
the scientific terms of the Work into those now in use. It may,
however, perhaps be advantageous ta give a glossary of those
terms with Parts II. and III.

13, Store Street, Bedford Square, London,

June 29, 1843.

2. Œconomia Animalis, seu Transactiones de utràque parte homini>, de Cerebro,

Medullâ Oblongatà et Spinali, de Nervis, analytice, physice, philos0l'hice demon­
strata; &c., p. 760.
3. De Mechanismo Animœ et CorporÎs.
4. De Spiritu Animali, p. 24.
5. De Sensatione, seu de Corl'oris Passione, cap. XIII.
6. De Actione, cap. XXXV.
7. De Sensu Communi, ejusque influxu in animam.
8. De Musculis Faciei.
9. De Aure Humanâ.
 THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

CONSIDERED

ANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY.

PART 1.

THE VISCERA OF THE AllDOMEN, OR THE ORGANS OF THE

INFERIOR REGION.

 THE ANIMAL KIN GDOM.

PART r.

PROLOGUE.

1. NOTHING whatever is more to be desired, or more

delightful than the light of truth; for it is the source of wisdom.
When the mind is harassed with obscurity, distracted by doubts,
rendered torpid or saddened by ignorance or falsities, and truth
emerges as from a dark abyss, it shines forth instantaneously,
like the sun dispersing mists and vapors, or like the dawn re­
pelling the shades of darkness. For truths in the intellect or
rational mind are analogous to lights and rays in ocular vision;
falsities that have the appearance of truth are analogous to un­
real or phosphoric lights; doubts, to clouds and shadows; and
ignorance itself is thick darkness and the image of night: thus
one thing is represented in another.
2. The faculty of apprehending the goodness of aU forms,
consequently also the secret delights of truth, is inherent and as
it were connate in our senses, both external and internaI. The
ear, although untutored, apprehends, and in some degree feels,
the measures, the harmony, and the melody of tunes; for the
mind is straightway affected in a corresponding manner: the
eye spontaneously apprehends the beauties of nature, and the
graceful and harmonic connexions between different objects : the
tangue apprehends the agreeable qualities of viands and wines ;
and the nostrils, the fragrancies of various odors. So the ra­
tional mind, that is, the intellect, unhesitatingly distinguishes
the truths of things, and the forms consonant ta the order of
nature,-at once to the nature of the universe, and to that of
the intellect itself; for they sweetly sooth and please, and caU
forth deeply-hidden affections; wherefore, whenever a truth
VOL. I. B
2 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

shines forth, the mind exults and rejoices :-a proof that a cer­
tain superior mind or soul, (which imparts to its mind, that is,
to our rational faculty, a faculty inferior and subject to it, the
power of perceiving, thinking, judging, and deeiding,) at sueh .
times becomes kindlier, more free, as if liberated from chains,
more active, more present in its influence, and closer in its cor­
respondence. For the soul, which flows with its light inta the
sphere of the inteliectual mind, has order and truth in it, and
thus, by virtue of its vcry nature, it feels, approves, and indi­
cates, in a certain nniversal manner, the presence of whatever
is congruous or harmonie. What appears thus connate, is,
however, an affection only, not a particular idea; since aIl par­
ticular ideas are learnt and formed by way of the senses and
their organs.
3. To rightly-constituted minds, truths are not only pleasing,
but also ineffably delightful, containing in them, as it were, the
charms of aIl the loves and graces. This they dcrive from their
very fOl'm, that is, from the detcrmination and consent of par­
ticnlar things or corresponding ideas; for a truth is never abso­
lutely single or simple, although after its fonnation, and the
coalescencc of its parts, it may appear to be so: on the contrary,
a truth is a fitting combination of an infinity of other truths,
that is, of an infinity of distinct idcas and notions. A truth is
a conclusion and a judgment resulting from the orderly disposi­
tion of many things. :Purthermore, aIl harmony is of such a
nature, that when particulars or ratios are properly placed ac­
cordillg to it, they become united, and fûrm a unity ; as in the
case of symbolic or algebraic equations, whcre many terms or
numbers are connected together by signs, but which, although
divisible into many when regarded in their own series, or com·
bination of series, are nevertheless represented as single and
simple. This is equally the case with the forms of aIl things in
the universe; which, bceause they are compounds resulting from
an infinity of other things, properly subordinated and co-ordi­
natcd, are therefore real beings, of which attributes, qualities,
modes and mutations may be predicated, Such are truths: thc
morc Humcrous the truths that form the one truth, and the
more constant and ccrtain, the greatcr is the briIliance, the
beanty, and the loveliness of the light of that ü'uth which they
forro.
 PROLOGUE. 3

4. Hence it is evi<1ent, that one truth is never opene<1 with-

out an infinity of other truths being also opencd ; inasmuch as
the one is the conclusion of aU the others; and fmther, that
the conclusion-thus derived from the others-is not a truth
except relatively to those numberless truths which constitute,
that is, form and determine it. Thus a truth, to be such, must
not be truc in itself simply, or in the conclusion alone, but in
those things and their connexion from which the conclusion is
derived: whence every circumstance and eyery different modifi-
cation varies the thing itself. Rowbeit, l admit the existence
of absolutely constant and immutable truths, both natmal and
moral, and pre-eminently, of spiritual truths; indeed, of aU
those that arc in harmony with the perfect order of the universe.
But in the animal kingdom-in man considered as a microcosm
-there are as many different kinds of order, and as many
different states, as there are subjects and human minds variously
approximating to, or receding from, the order of the universe ;
for human minds are the objects into which order and truth
fiow, and the suhjects by which the infilLX is received. Rence
the multitude of dubions, uncertain, and shifting opinions on
every subject: whereby knowledge is confuscd, the will per-
plexed, and om minds are brought into suspense respecting the
plainest truths, and induced to contend wi.th each other respect-
ing them: thus truth is endangered; for it is placed in jeopardy
whenever it is made a subject of contention. The consequence
is, that the truths in the rational mind do not deserve to be
called truths, but prineiples only, as} in<1eed, it is usual to
call them.
5. l have set out, indeed, by speaking respecting truths,
but this is a subject sufficient to fill a volume; nor does it
belong to this place to consider what truth is, but rather, how
Wc should investigate it. 'l'his must be om present bnsiness and
labor.
6. There are two usually-received ways or methods for dis-
covering truths j the synthetic and the analytic.The synthctic
commences from principles and causes, and passes therefrom to
phenomena and eff'ects j thus proeeeding from the prior to the
posterior} from simple to compounds, from superior to inferior,
from interior to exterior j or, "hat amounts to the same thing,
from a universal to singulars, consequently ta experience, to
TI 2
4 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

confirm prior things. The analytic method, on the other hand,

rises from phenomena and efi'ects to causes, and evolves from
them principles; ,consequently evolves universals from the expe­
rience of singulars, interior things from the exterior, simples
from compounds, in a word, the prior from the posterior. Thus
analysis as a method of proceeding is the inverse of synthesis.
7. Synthesis, which begins its thread of reasons from causes
and principles, and évolves and unwinds it until it reaches the
efi'ects of the causes, and the phenomena resulting from the
principles, assumes some particular principle familiar and favor­
able to the intellect as formed by previous ideas; and however
susceptible this principle may be of doubt or controversy, syn­
thesis seizes it as a truth, and lays it down; and thus presumed,
defines and disengages it, and confirms it, first rationally, next
empirically. Should any thing adverse appear, synthesis polishes
away, represses and removes it, until at length the truth can
come upon the stage, naked at first, but afterwards bedecked and
ornamented; exactly in imitation of the inverse method of
analysis,which is called also the regula falsi, or rule of false
position. And synthesis, in reality, is nothing but a pOOl',
precocious, and vague analysis; it gives out nothing more than
what has crept into the intellect, and among the intellectual
ideas, by way of the senses, from a few phenomena of experi­
ence, without any general bond to connect them; and for the
most part in the first impetuosity of the judgment. The hasty
conceptions thus formed at the mind's first glance, are termed
opinions, conjectures, hypotheses; whence come systems.
8. This has been the received and established method for
ages past, from the very infancy of philosophy, through its later
and maturer development; and now also it endures and flou­
rishes by the favor of our contemporaries, being adopted exclu­
sively even at the present day in reasonings on the causes of
things, which are naturally abstruse and profound. Tt is also
pleasing, and wonderfully accommodated and in a manner akin
to human minds; it enables each mind to indulge its own tastes,
to favor its own state, and to assent to an order, whose laws are
proclaimed as truths, n. 4. And we are very easily impelled
and carried away into ideal games of this kind, inasmuch as
they are races of our thoughts frOID assumed starting-places to
the very goals we desire to reach. This also pimps to self-love
 PROLOGUE. 5

and self-glory, for as. nothing properly belongs to us but the

produce of our own minds, when these have conceived any
thing, and supported it by plausibilities, we suppose we have
divined the pure reality, opened the true Delphos or heaven
itself, unlocked oracles which the gemus of our predecessors
never penetrated, and, in a word, earned an indisputable palm
of victory. But those who commence with this species of scho­
lastic exercitation, that is, who set out relying on mere reason­
ing, not fortified by the sure patronage of experience, will never,
as 1 think, attain the goal; for they begin from the goal, and.
hurry to the starting-place; thus they bend their course out­
wards instead of inwards, contrary to the order which the
nature of the human mind prescribes for the discovery of the
occult and unknown.
9. But granting, for argument's sake, that any of the chiefs
or nùers of the learned world, commencing from synthesis, may
have perhaps taken the false for the true, but with the intention
of afterwards eliciting from it purer truths, by means of analysis,
or the rtÙe of false position, and of correcting, perfecting, and
polishing it, like the sculptor working the rude marble :-Teil me
then, 1 pray, which of them has thus followed the rules of
analysis? vVhich of them afterwards has wrought and corrected
the visions. and appearances he imbibed and predetermîned,
perhaps in the very dawn of thought, and which were adverse
to the truth? Instead of this, have not they aU, as experience
shews, sought the confirmation of the false, and not of the
true? For while the will is directed to the false, it is constantly
detained in those things also that confirm it, or are conformable
to it. Rence the presumption becomes more and more con­
firmed by plausible arguments, until at last it has the same
power of persuasion as the truth itself. For whenever affirmative
reasoning is applied to a preconception, an infinity of particulars,
ail voting the same way, fly to its assistance,-both the decrees
of ratiocinative philosophy, and the phenomena of the world,
laid hold of in the fallacious light of the senses. Indeed, there
is nothing but may form a constituent part in different series of
reasonings, if not directly, at least obliquely; as a single par­
tic1e of salt may form an ingredient in an infinity of savors, and
a single color in an infinity of pictures: and one thing may be
engrafted on another, as brauch upon branch; thus the legiti­
6 THE ANIMAL KINGDOJ\L

mate upon the spurious: so that falsehood assumes the form of

truth, and the measure of the fiction increases by meditation.
At length, when the phantom is led forth upon the theatre of
what is cailed the learned world, multitudes run to it, passion­
ately admire it, favoT and applaud it; nay, 'numerous con­
noisseurs embeUish it with paint and new decorations, so that
it looks like a phantom no longer, but like a beautiful Venus,
or a Delphian virgin. 'Vhatever is now poured from its mouth,
you are to regard as the voice of destiny, or the response
of an oracle. But ail things have their àay ; ·among the rcst,
the produce of the human faculties,-particularly those mis­
shapell offspring, the monsters of hypothesis. They are con­
ceived, they are born, they grow to maturity, they grow old,
at last they die. But from the ashes of each new oncs rise ;
and every hydra-head that is lopped off by the youthful
Hercules, produces hundreds of others: whence spectres of
similar brood prevail for ages, and, like enchantresses, distract
the human mind perenniaUy. Hence errors, mental obscurity,
faUacics, and stI'Ïfe; civil wars between the soul and the body;
scholastic contentions about straws and trifies; the fiight and
exile of truths; and stupor and thick darkness in those very
things where the light is most briUiant: and this to such an
extent, that the very altars and their sacred fire are contami­
nated; which is the reason why the philosophy of the human
mind is salemnly proscl'Ïbed in the divine records. Ali these
things fiow from that single source,-we mean, from the habit
and the propensity of reasoning syntheticaily.
10. The power of divining true principles by the mind alone,
and of descending therefrom, in the path of certainty, through
their consequences, to posterior things, belongs exclusively to
higher beings and powers; to spirits, angels, and the Omni­
scient Himself, who indeed inhabit the brightest light, and
dweU in essential truth and wisdom. They see aU things, in
one complex, as at once beneath them and within them: they
view the last things from the first, the lowest from the highest,
the outermost from the innermost; in a word, ail the circum­
ferences from the centre; eonsequently, the very effeets of the
world, from their causes. Not so human minds, which derive
from the senses, or absorb thraugh the senses, aU the mate­
rials which they have ta reason upon.For we arc barn in dense
 PROLOGUE. 7

ignorance; lU process of time organs arc opencd for us, and

,vays prepared, and images themselves are sublimated, until they
become ideas, and at length reasons; which when connected
inta series, are bl'ought under the inspection of the reasoning
power. Thus by slow degrees only, judgment is developcd and
reason displayed. This then is man's only way of attaining
truths, sa long as his soul lives in the body. Can you tell me
by synthesis or a priori, before seeing the viscera or examining
the interior parts, what is contained within the animal body?
Can you predict that it contains the liver, the mescntery, the
kidneys, the heart, the arteries, and an infinity of other things;
still less that they are connected together in one way, and in no
other? Must you not rather, likc a blind man, affiictcd with
cataract and suffusion, present ta yourself Indicrous imagina­
tions, and c1rcam dreams, at which you yourself, when you
shaH have looked into them, must ultimately either blush or
laugh? Dut aIas! wc are sa puffed up with self-conceit, that
wc seem to ourselves ta be not in the outmost, but in the in­
most; to he standing, not on the earth, but in the sky; and in
no faint or uneertain light, but in the brightest radiance; nay,
in heaven itself, whence we descend before we ascend, and where
we even build our airy palaces; not knowing, that our very
height must aggravate the peril of our fall. This, as we before
said, is the cause and the source of the insanities of the human
mind. Sa mach for synthesis, now for analysis.
Il. Analysis commences its web of ratiocination from the
facts, effcets, and phenomena which have entered through the
bodily senses, and mounts ta causes, and causes of causes; thêLt
is, ta the simple prineiples of the mind; and thus unwinds the
thread of the web. In the first place it searches for certain and
evident materials, and collecting thcm from aIl quarters, heaps
them together, and again selecting them from the heap, rcduces
them skilfully into order. Furthermore, it imbibes all the
sciences wherewith nature has assisted the human mind, and
not in memory ouly, but in heart, and learns them for the sake
of their application. Enriched with as it were these treasures,
and aided thereby, the mind girds hersclf ta her task, and begins
to work and ta huild. If the monnment she is essaying ta con­
struct may be compal'ed with a palace, a mansion, or a pyramid,
she may be said now to lay the foundation first, then to l'aise the
8 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

waUs, and surrounding the edifice with ladders and scaffolds,

graduaily to carry it to the roof or summit. Whatever is now
wanting to complete the fitness and coherence of the whole,
-as posts, rails, gates, tiles, and the like, is superadded after­
wards. Thus the mind, keeping along the path of analysis,
founds and rears her palace, not in the air, or in an atmosphere
too high for her, which is not her element, and where there is
no support, still less foundation; but on the solid ground.
12. This is the only way to principles and truths-to high
and almost to heavenly things-and no other appears to be open
to us earthborn men; yet truly it is a most toilsome and exten­
sive one, if we enter it with the intention of searching out the
truth by aU the truths which enter into it, that is, of exploring
aU the truths which form the one truth, and of connecting them
together, or concatenating them, in one general bond. In this
case evidently we must lay the broadest foundation-we must
compare aU things together carefuliy, and embrace them in one
design. We must also make ourselves thoroughly masters of aU
the sciences, doctrines, and arts, which the work will require
for its completion: nay, from those already known, we must
generate and discover others: for by these means the work is
constructed, and the mind led directly to the summit. In a
word, we must cultivate acquaintance with aU the muses. To
these requisites we must add an innate love of truth, an eager
desire of exploring it, a delight in finding it, and a natural gift
and faculty of meditating thoughtfuUy and distinctly, and of
connecting reasons together acutely: also of recalling the mind
from the senses, from the lusts of the body, the enticements of
the world, and its cares,-ail which things are distracting forces,
-and of keeping it in its own higher sphere, until it has summed
up its reasons, and carried its thoughts to their conclusion. In
proportion as by these means we ascend to truths, in the same
proportion truths descend to us. Above ail things it behoves the
mind to be pure, and to respect universal ends, as the happiness
of the human race, and thereby the glory of God: truth is then
infused into our minds from its heaven; whence as from its pro­
per fountain it ail emanates. " Plato used frequently to say"­
so the philosopher relates-" that when his soul was engaged in
contemplation, he seemed to enjoy the supreme good, and in­
credible delight: that he was in a manner fixed in astonishment,
 PROLOGUE. 9

acknowledging himself as a part of a higher world, and as

feeling his own immortality with the greatest assurance and
light: at length, that his understanding, wearied with this con­
templation, relapsed into fantaiiY, and that he became sorrowful
as the light decreased. That again leaving the body, and return­
ing to the former state, he found the soul abounding with light,
and this light now Rowing into the body." And again, "The
soul, freed as it were from the body, ascends and is enlightened;
descending again, it is obscured, but it is afterwards purified
and reascends." But this may perhaps appear like a mere fable,
to those who have not experienced it.
)3. When at length, under the conduet of such an analysis,
we have been carried up to the principles of things, we may
then properly for the first time commence, or rather return,
from principles, and put them forth, as of sufficient authority,
by a clear and intelligible definition: for the mind now looks
round the whole world as from a mirror, and contemplates aIl
things in a universal manner. Ladders are constructed, and
steps interposed, whereby we may equally descend and ascend.
These ladders are so many concatenated series of truths, by
which we are enabled to steer our course, or to go and return,
whithersoever it pleases us. But these very truths, explored by
this means, if we must confess it, nevertheless remain still
intermixed and entangled ,vith ignorance and twilight shades,
being, therefore, after aIl, only appearances of truths; for the
mind is never absolutely purified from the fallacies of the senses,
it is never removed from them or placed beyond them, during its
conjunetion with the body.
14. l have now, therefore, ventured to attempt this method
of discovering truths, at present deeply hidden under a veil of
hypotheses. And the proper time has arrived; for a rich store
of experience is at hand; an accumulated heap sufficient to
enable us to build a palace; a luxuriant field where our sickles
may reap an abuudant harvest; a table where we may enjoy the
most sumptuous banquets. N or do l think we ought to wait
any longer, lest haply experimental knowledge should be over­
taken by age, night, and obliviou; and the arts and sciences be
carried to the tomb; for unless l mistake the sigus of the times,
the world's destinies are tending thithcrwards. Thc following
then is a summary of my intended work.
10 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

l intend to examine, physically and l)hilosophically, the whole

Anatomy of the Body; of all its Viscera, Abdominal and Tho­
racic; of the Genital Members of both sexes: and of the Organs
of the five Senses. Likewise,
The Anatomy of all parts of the Cerebrum, Cerebellum,
Medulla Oblongata, and Medulla Spinalis.
Aftewards, the cortical substance of the two brains; and
their medullary fibre; also the nervous fibre of the body; and
the muscular fibre; and the causes of the forces and motion of
the whole organism: Diseases, moreover; those of thc head
particularly, or which proceed by defluxion from the Cerebrum.
l purpose afterwards to give an introduction to Rational
Psychology, consisting of certain new doctrines, through the
assistance of which we may be conducted, from the material
organism of the Body, ta a knowledge of thc Soul, which is
immaterial: these are, the Doctrine of Forms: the Doctrine of
Order and Degrees: also, the Doctrine of Scries and Society:
the Doctrine of Influx: the Doctrine of Correspondence and
Representation: lastly, the Doctrine of Modification.
From these doctrines l come ta the Rational Psychology
itself; which will comprise the subjects of action; of external
and internal sense; of imagination and memory; also, of the
affections of the animus. Of the intellect, that is, of thought
and of the will; and of the affections of the rational mind:
also, of instinct.
Lastly, of the Soul; and of its state in the Body, its inter­
course, affection, and immOltality; and of its state whcn thc
body dics. The worle to concJude with a Concordance of
Systems.
15. From this summary or plan, thc reader may see, that
the end l propose to myself in the work, is a knowledge of the
soul; since this lenowledge will constitute the crown of my stu­
dies. This then my labors intend, and thither they aim. For
the soul resides and acts in the principles, not of the body only,
but also of the universal world; inasmuch as it is the supreme
essence, form, substance, and force of the microcosm; and ap­
points, establishes, and governs the arder thereof, of itself and by
its own nature; consequently, it i8 in the spherc of truths. For
these reasons, the soul has engaged the l)rofound atteution of
nearly all hurnan minds, ever since the infancy of philosophy;
 PROLOGUE. 11

and still holds them in suspense, division, and perplexity. But

as yet, her mode of being and her nature are almost absolutely
unknown j and such is the general state of doubt and hesitation,
as to preclude aIl distinct thinking. This has given rise to so
many obscure guesses on the subject,.-it has caused so many
clouds to coUect round it, that all hope of discovery is nearly at
an end. In order, therefore, to follow up the investigatioll) and
to solve the difficulty, l have chosen to approach by the analytie
way j and l think l am the first who has taken this course
professedly.
16. To accomplish this grand end l enter the circus, design­
ing to consider and examinc thoroughly thc wholc wodd or
microcosm which the SOlÙ inhabits j for l tlrink it is in vain to
seek her anywhere but in her own kingdom. Tcll me, where
else can she be found, than in that system to which she is ad­
joined and injoined, and where she is represcnted, and momen­
tarily exhibits heI'self to contemplatioll? The body is her image,
resemblance, and type j she is the model, the idea, the head,
that is, the soul of the body. Thus she is rcpresented in the
body, as in a mirror, l am, therefore, resolved to examine
carefully the whole anatomy of her body, from the hecl to the
head, and from part to part j and for the sake of a closer ap­
proach, to examine her very brain, whcre she has disposed her
first organs j lastly, the fibres also, and the other purer organic
forms, and the forces and modes thencc resulting.
17. But since it is impossible to climb or leap from the or­
ganic, physical, and material world-I mean, the body-imme­
diately to the soul, of which neither matter, nor any of the
adjuncts of matter are predicable, (for spirit is above the com­
prehensible modes of nature, and in that rcgion where thc
significations of physical things perish) j hence it was necessary
to lay down new ways by which l might be led to her, and thus
gain access to her palace,-in other words, to discover, dis­
cngage, and bring forth, by the most intense application and
study, certain new doctrines for my guidance, which are (as my
plan shews) the doctrines of forms, of order and degrees, of
series and society, of communication and influx) of eorrespond­
ence and represcntation, and of modification j thesc it is my
intention to present in a single volume, under the title of An
Introduction to Rational PsycltolofJY'
12 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

18. When this task is accomplished, l am then admitted as

it were by common consent to the soul, who sitting like a queen
in her throne of state-the body-dispenses laws, and governs
aH things by her good pleasure, but yet by order and by truth.
This will be the crown of my toils, when l shall have com­
pleted my course in_ this most spacious arena. But in olden
time, before any racer c01ùd merit the crown, he was com­
manded to run seven times round the goal, which also l have
determined here to do.
19. Not very long sinee, l published the Economy of the
Animal Kingdom, a work divided into distinct treatises, but
treating only of the blood, the arteries, and the heart, and of
the motion of the brain, and the cortical substance thereof j and
before traversing the whole field in detail, l made a rapid pas­
sage to the soul, and put forth a prodromus respecting it. But
on considering the matter more deeply, l found that l had di­
reeted my course thither both too hastily and too fast,-after
having explored the blood only and its peculiar organs: l took
the step, impeHed by an ardent desire for knowledge. But as
the soul aets in the supreme and innermost things, and does not
come forth until aH her swathings have been successively un­
folded, l am, therefore, determined to allow myself no respite,
until l have run through the whole field to the very goal-until
l have traversed the universal animal kingdom, to the sou!.
Thus l hope, that by bending my course inwards continually, l
shaH open aH the doors that lead to her, and at length contem­
plate the soul herself: by the divine permission.
20. But l know it will be whispered in my ear by many of
the most accomplished philosophers of the day, that it is vain
and useless to enter the recesses and interiors or"the human
body, with a view to arriving at the soul, inasmuch as the very
things which are far below her, and objects of ocular vision, as
the organic parts of the body, their modes, sensations, and ac­
tions, are not only obscure to our sight, but are even fallacious
unller close scrutiny and investigation. Moreover, the human
intellect cannot penetrate or know itself even j how then should
it penetrate the SOlÙ, which inhabits a still higher or superior
region? for those things that are superior, inhabit a light inac­
cessible to the inferior j and if we rasMy approach it too nearly,
designing to enter it, wc shall either cover ourselycs with shade,
 PROLOGUE. 13

as when the eye gazes on the sun, or perish outright, like a

garment thrown into the flames of an altar. Add to this, that
the idea that might apprehend the soul, and the speech that
might express her, are both wanting; for nothing that is ade­
quate to body and matter, is adequate to the sonI; she is neither
corporeal nor material; consequently, she is entirely abova that
species of intelligence which receives its notions by means of the
forms, predicates, and adjuncts of matter-as is the case with
the human intellect; and expresses them by the same means-as
is the case with human speech. Whenèe possibly it may be
inferred, that it is unprofitable, and absolutely foolish, for any
one to attempt ascending thither. But these arguments may
properly be met by a few opposite ones. Inasmuch as the sonI
is the model, the idea, the first form, the substance, the force,
and the principle of her organic body, and of ail its forces and
powers; or, what amounts to the same thing, as the- organic
body is the image and type of its sonI, formed and principled to
the whole nature of the soul's efficiency, it follows, that the one
is represented in the other, if not exactly, yet quite sufficiently
to the life; and that an idea of the sonI is suggested to the
mind by elevating the forms of singulars, and extracting from
them a higher meaning, and by analogies and eminences, as will
be seen in our doctrines of forms, of order and degrees, of cor­
respondences and representations, &c. Thus, by the body, we
are instructed respecting the sonI; by the sonI, respecting the
body; and by both, respecting the truth of the whole: and in
this way we are led to an ample knowledge of the animal
kingdom.
21. l shall agai~ suppose an objection made, to the effect,
that the huroan mind appears to be interdicted from prying into
those things which transcend or exceed the present state; conse­
quently, into the soul, which guards the threshold of a sacred
temple with three recesses; for the way to celestial, spiritual,
and divine things, leads to the sonI, through the sonI, and from
the sonI. The reason of the interdiction is, that ail those things
which transcend our present state, are matters for faith and not
for intellect: as for instance, that the sonI exists, that it is a
spiritual essence, that it is intimately united to the body; that
it is affected by the rational mind according to the state and
influ.--;;: of the active principles thereof; that when freed from its
14- THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

chains, it will posscss immortal life, and either be happy in the

assembly and kingdom of the blessed, or unhappy and accursed
in a hellish and demoniac region; not to mention other things
of similar import. The province of reason or intellect consists
exclusively in considering and inquil'ing what is reasonable,
profitable, and bccoming in society, or in the civil and moral
world; and what lS proper to be done in the kingdoms below it,
the animal, the vegetable, and the mineraI. Let the intellect
be contented with this its lot, and not aspire to higher things,
which, inasmuch as they are sanctuaries and matters of revela­
tion, exist to faith only. FUl'thermorc, faith is banished as soon
as ever the intellectual power endeavors to open the doors to its
mysteries; for the intellect most commonly abolishes aIl faith in
divine things; and what is received by the intellect, i8 not
received by faith, that is to say, not by such a faith as elevates
us above oursclves. And those who are inspired by a divine
faith, completely despisc the assistance of confirmatory argu­
ments; perhaps they will laugh at this very book of mine,­
for where there is faith, what need is there of demonstration;
as where there is sight, what need is there to talk of light.
Thus faith is above aIl demonstration, because it is above aU the
philosophy of the human mind.
22. l grant this: nor would l persuade any one who com­
prehends these lùgh truths by faith, to attempt to comprehend
them by his intellect: let him abstain from my books. Whoso
believes reyelation implicitly, without consulting the intellect,
is the happiest of mortals, the nearest to heaven, and at once
a native of both worlds. But these pages of mine are written
with a view to those only, who never belicvc any thing but what
they can receivc with the intellect; conseqnently, who boldly
invalidatc, and are fain to deny the existence of aH superemi­
ncnt things, sublimer than thcmselves, as the soul itself, and
what foHows thcrcfrom-its life, immortality, heaven, &c., &c.
These things, perhaps, since such persons do not pcrceive them,
they reject, classing thcm among cmpty phrases, entia rati­
anis, phantasms, trifies, fables, conceits, and self-delusions; and
consequently they honor and worship nature, the world and
themselves j in other respects, they compare thcmselves to
brutes, and think that thcy shaH die in the same manner as
brutes, and their sonls exhale and cvaporate; thus thcy rush
 PROLOGUE. 15

feaTlessly into wickedncss. For these persons 0111y 1 am

anxious; and as l said before, for them l indite, and to them
l dedicate my work. For when l shaIl have demonstrated
truths themsclves by the analytic method!, l hope that those
debasing shadows, or material clouds, which darken the sacred
temple of the mind, will be dispersed: and thus at last, under
the favor of God, who is the sun of wisdom, that an access will
be opened, and a way laid down, to faith. My ardent desire
and zeal for thi.s end, is what UTges and animates me.
23. Let us then gird up OUT loins for the work. Experience
is at OUT side with a full horn of plenty. The nine virgins are
present also, adorned with the riches of nearly two thousand
years: l mean, aIl the sciences, by whose abundance, powers,
and patronage, the work is constructed. The sciences are inùe-
terminatc and of no profit or advantage, unless they be applied
and mwc subservient to uses. 'Vhat is a knowledge of num-
bers, ratios, figures, and forms, in arithmetic and gcomctry,
apart from its benefits in civillife ? What are the philosophi.cai
sciences, with their preùicates, qualities, modes, and accidents,
without they have refercnce to reality? AlI things, at the
present day, stand provided and prcpared, and await the light.
The ship is in the harbor; the saiis are swelling; the east wind
biows j let us weigh anchor, and put forth to sea.
 CHAPTER XVI.

THE PERITON.iEUM.

308. HEISTER." The peritonœum is immediately subjacent and

adherent to the transverse muscles of the abdomen. It is a thin,
smooth, and lubricous membrane, investing the whole internaI surface
of the abdomen, and most of the abdominal viscera, and eontaining
the latter as it wcre in a bag. It is also connected with the diaphragm,
and with all the viseera of this region. It entirely encloses the stomach,
intestines, mescntery, omentum, liver, spleen, and pancreas, which are,
therefore, said to be lodged in a duplicature of thc peritonœum. The
kidneys, ureters, reccptaculum ehyli, and great vcssels of the abdomen,
&c., are covered only on thcir Bl1terior part; and the bladder only on
the superior part; differently from what is thc case in brutes. The
peritonœum consists of two laminœ; the umbilical vesscls lie bctween
them, and in many places they are eovcred \Vith a cellular substance.
It forms the ligaments of the liver, and of the umbilieal vein and
arteries, the various ligaments of t.he intestines, the broad ligaments of
the uterus, &e. It scnds two processes out of the abdomen, whieh
enease the spermatie vesscls and the testiclcs. In regard to these we
are tu observe, 1. Thcir sillgular passage between the muscles of the
abdomen. 2. The hiatus visible in the abdomen of the dog, but want­
ing in the human subjeet. 3. The septum separating the testicles on
the upper part. Also the involucra of the round ligaments in females ;
and their divel'tieula. Nuek has delineated these in his Adeno,!}raphia;
fig. 39, 40. The arteries and vcins of the pcritollœum eome from the
epigastrie, mammary, lumbar and phrenic vessels; ta these some add
Iymphatics. The nerves come from the phrellie, dorsal, lumbar and
sacral nerves. Some writers have alsa mentioned glands in the perito­
nreum, but they are not observable in the natural state of the mem-
VOL. 1. CHAY. XVI. 1 1
482 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

brane. Uses,-l. '1'0 enclose the contents of the abdomen; for when
the peritonœum is dilatcd unduly, wounded, or ruptured, they fall ont
of thcir proper places, or hemia arises. 2. '1'0 give an external coat to
almost all the parts contained in the abdomen; whieh are therefore
generally said to have their external membrane from the peritonreum.
3. '1'0 form the processes of the peritonreum, and the tuniea vaginalis
of the testes." (Comp. Anat., n. 206.)
309. WINSLOW." The xiphoid cartilage of the sternum, the car·
tilaginous portions of the last pair of true ribs, those of the first four
pairs of false ribs, all the fifth pair, the five lumbar vertebrœ, the ossa
innominata and the sacrum, form the bony sides of the cavity of the
abdomen. The ùiaphragm, the muscles of the abdomen in particular,
the quadrati lumborum, psoas, iliaci, the muscles of the coccyx and
rectum, form thc chief part of the circumference of this cavity, and
its internaI surface is lineù by a membrane termeù the peritonœum.
As aùùitional or accessory to these we may Iikewise add sorne portions
of the sacro-Iumbales, longissimi dorsi, vertebrales, glutœi, &e. The
cavity of the abdomen is of an irregularly oval shape, but still syrnme­
trieal. (Exp. Anat., Tr. du Bas· Vent., n. 19,20, 21.)
310. "Having carefully removed the muscles of the abdomen, the
first thillg we discover is a very considerable membranous covering,
which adheres immediately to thc internaI surface of the transverse
muscles, and of all the rcst of this cavity; and involves and invcsts
its \·iscera as in a kind of bag. This membrane is termed peritonœum.
It is of a pl'etty close texture, and yet flexible, and capable of very
great extension, after whieh it easily regains its ordinary size; as we
sec in pregnancy, dropsies, corpuleney and repletion. It seems to be
made up of two portions, one internaI, the other external, whieh have
been looked upon by many anatomists as a duplicature of two distinct
membranous laminœ. But properly speaking thc internaI portion alone
deserves the name of a membranous lamina, as being the main body of
the peritonœum. The external portion is no more than a kind of
fibrous or follieular apophysis of the internaI; and may properly cnough
be termed the cellular substance of the peritonœum. The true mem­
branous lamina, commonly ealleel the internaI lamina, is very smooth,
and polished on that side whieh is turned to the eavity and viscera of
the abùomen; and continually moistcned by a serous fluid dischargcd
through almost impcrceptible porcs. These porcs may bc seen by
sprcading a portion of the peritonœum on the end of the finger, and
then pulling it tight on all sides; for then the pores arc dilated, and
small drops may be obscrved to mn from them, even without the mi­
croscope. The sources of this fluid are not as yet well understood ;
 THE PERITONJEUM. 483

perhaps it cornes out by a kind of transudation or transpiration, like

that which wc observe in animaIs .ncwly killed. The whitish corpus-
cules found in diseased subjects are no proof of the glands which sorne
anatomists place there in the natural state. The cellular substance or
external portion çf the peritomeum adheres very closely to the parts
which form the inside of the abdominal cavity; and is not everywhere
of equal thickness: in sorne places it is in very smaH quantity;· and
scarcely any appears at the tendinous or aponeurotic portions of the
transverse muscles, and on the lower surface of the diaphragm. In aH
other places it is thieker, and forms eells expandecl into fine laminœ or
leaves, which in sorne cliseased subjects become so large and thick as to
resemblc so many distinct membranes. In sorne places this substance is
cxactly like membrana adiposa, being filled with fat; as round the kid-
neys, and along the fleshy portions of the transverse muscles, to
which it adheres. It entirely surrounds sorne parts, as the bladder,
ureters, kiclneys, spermatie yessels, &e.; in these places it is eom-
monly but improperly termed, the duplicature of the peritonœum.
Besides these differenccs in thickness, the cellular substance has several
elongations, whieh have been called, productions of the peritonœum.
l'wo of these accompany and invest the spermatie cords in males, and
the vaseular cords, commol1ly called the round ligaments, in females.
Therc are other two which pass under the ligaments of Fallopius, that
is, the tendil10us ligaments of the abdominal muscles, \Vith the crural
vessels, which they cover, aud they are gradually lost in their course
downwards. To these four elongations of the cellular substance of the
peritonœum, we may add a fifth, which is spread on the neck of the
bladder; and perhaps a sixth, which accompanies the rectum. All
these prolongations pass out of the abdominal cavity, and may be
termed extcrnal, to distin~uish them from others that remain in the
abdomen, and are called interna!. The great blood-vessels, that is,
the !torta and vena cava, arc likewise enclosed in this cellular substance
of the peritonœum. lu a word, it involves, immediately and sepa-
rately, aU the parts and organs which are commonly said to lie in the
duplicature of the peritonœum. The true lamina or membranous por-
tion of the peritonœum, is connected by the cellular substance to the
internaI surface of the abdominal cavity; but in the human subject, it
cloes not naturally accompany the cxternal elongations of that substance;
it ouly covers the origin or basis of these elongations, without any inter-
ruption or alteratioll of its own surface or level at these places. It has
l1evertheless elongations of its own, but they are very different from
those of the cellular substance; fol' they run from without inwards ;
that is, they aclvance from the convex side of the great bag of the peri-
TI2
M~4 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

tonœum, into the eavity of that bag; sorne more, sorne less, and also
in different manners; as if the sides" of a large bladder \Vere pushed in­
wards in various places into its cavity. Of these internaI elongations
some are simply folded, like a duplicature; others are expanded like
inverted bags or sacculi, to eontain sorne viseus; sorne begin by a sim­
ple duplicature, and end in a divarication or cavity, which likcwise
contains some organ: sorne are alternately extended in the form of
simple duplicatures and of eavities; and lastly, sorne form only a
slight eminence on the inner surface of the great cavity of the perito­
nœum. To the first species- of these elongations, we may l'l'fer the
membranous ligaments, such as those of the liver, colon, &c. W"e
sel' the second species in the external membrane of the liver; the third,
in the mesentery; the fourth, in the mesocolon; and the fifth, over the
kidneys and nreters. Besides the extemal elongations of the cellular
substance of the peritonœum, it has the same number of internaI elon­
gations as the true membranous lamina, whieh lie between aH the
duplieatures, and line the insides of ail the cavities, or the sides next
the viscera. (Ibid., n. 22-38.) l must here observe that three of the
umbilical ligaments are iuvested by a falciform membranous production
or duplieaturc, whieh thc peritonœum sends into the cavity of the ab­
domen." (Ibid., n. 42.)
311. VERHEYEN." The peritonreum is a thin, soft, and dilat­
able membrane. As cxtended naturally, its figure is oval, correspond­
ing in length and breadth to the abdomen. It is double throughout,
and manifestly so from the umbilicus to the os pubis, in females par­
ticnlarly, iu whom it is also thickcr than in males. Its external smface
is somcwhat rough and fibrous, on account of its connexion with the
mnscles. The internai surface is smooth, and covered with an unctuous
humor. Anteriorly, it is connected to the muscles of the abdomen;
superiorly, to the diaphragm; inferiorly, ta the os pubis and ischium ;
laterally, to the os ileum; posteriorly, to the sacrum, and the lumbar
vertcbrœ, particularly the first and third. Superiorly, where it is con­
neeted to the diaphragm, it is perforated by the gnllet, the vena cava,
and the nerves of the par vagum. Inferiorly, by the rectum and the
vagina; and at any rate one lamina of it by the urethra: anteriorly, in
the fœtus, by the umbilieal vessels; but as thcse yessds shrivel after
birth, and beeome very mneh attenuated, and moreover as the perito­
nœum is closely eonnected to them, therefore this perforation i5 not
Ilotieeable in adults. But that the peritomenl11 is not so strong there
as in other parts, is l'vident from the facility with which it is there
relax cd and perforated by the action of prete1'l1atural forces, as by the
air in tympanitis, by the serous f1uid. in ascites, &e. TIll' extcrior
 THE PERITONiEUM. 485
lamina, at its under part, sends down two proeesses in the male to the
scrotum; thcsc contain the spermatic vessels; in the female they en-
close the round ligaments of the uterus. . In the scrotum they dilate,
and constitute the tunica vaginalis testis. These proeesses arise at the
sides, and slant dowIlwards to the front.... In dogs they form simple
membranous tubes, opening each by a large aperture into the cavity of
the abdomen. In the human subjeet we find no openings of' the kind ;
because the spermatie veins and arteries, from their origin, lie in a
duplicatw'e of the peritonreum, and the processes are made up of the
external lamina only, the internaI lamina bcing placed ovcr their ori-
fices, and being very thick and firm in this situation. J\iIoreover, in
dogs, these proeesses are altogether free inside, so that when air is
blown into them, it immediately passcs throllgh them. In the humall
subject they eontain a nllmbcr of membranous partitions, which conneet
the spermatie vessels to each other, alld to the sides of the proeesses ;
so that searcely any eavity can be seen, sllfIicient to hold the air, unless
one be formed by the dilatation of the membranes, or .their preter-
natural separation. In the vicinity of this part, dangcrous and often
fatal herniœ occur; we mean at the place where the iliac veins and
arteries pass to the thighs; for if the peritonreum be dilated, or what
is a very uncommon occurrence, ruptllred, a small portion of the ileum
descends, and becomes adherent to the neighboring parts; and by sueh
adhesion 1 have secn a small portion of the ileum entirely closed up, and
the patient miserably dying, having for many days previously had no
alvine exeretions, but at last vomiting feculent matter from the mouth.
1 find a case of this kind also recorded by Nuck. The peritonœum
receivcs arteries and veins superiorly from the marnmary and phrellie
vessels; inferiorly, from the epigastric and sacral vesscls; also, a few
little branchcs from the spermatie vessels; laterally, from the inter-
costal and the lumbar vessels. Its llerves come from the lumbar and
sacral portions of the spinal cord, and from thc intercostal and phrenie
nerves." (COl'p. JIum. Anal., tract. ii., cap. vii.)
 ANALYSIS.

312. THE animal body,which, according to a common mode

of speaking, is also a kind of whole, a nniverse, microcosm or
kingdorn, is most distinctly divided into integral parts, mem­
bers, viscera or organs; these again into lesser organic parts;
and these ultimately into least parts, simple parts, and unities (a).
'fhis whole with its members and parts, is divided as it were
into regions, hollow chambers, and cavities. The cerebrum in­
habits the highest chamber; the heart and Inngs inhabit the
rniddle chamber; the stomach, intestines, liver, &c., the lower,
and the genital organs, the lowest charnber. Each charnber is
surrounded by a common membrane; the highcst or cerebral
charnber, by two membranes or meninges; the middle or tho­
racic chamber, by the pleura; the lower or abdominal, by the
peritomeum; the lowest or scrotal chamber, by its own peculiar
sheath or ~apsule: all together are surrounded by one most
general membrane; that is, by the skin. These common mem­
branes or coverings are distinctly separated from each other,
and (listinctly connected with each other, and communicate, in
the exact proportion in which the organs they enclose are digni­
fied in office and act in sqciety. Each of these four coverings
also makes common, special, and particular cause, with the
viscera and members which it folds in its ernbrace. But in order
to understand the manner whereby the Common or General acts

(a) The lesser organic parts are the miliary glands, or least glan­
dular acini, in which the viscera of the chest and abdomen for the wost
part terroinate internally. But the simple parts are the vascular and
other similar threads of whiéh these glandular termini themselves are
constructed.
 THE PERITONAlUM. 487
upon the parts of the whoIe, it is neeessary ta understand aiso
the arder by whieh the Universal flows into them. }<'irst of ail,
however, the terms, urUversai and generaI, must be dcfined; for
an obscure notion of the meaning of the term gcneral, and an
indistinct notion of the meaning of the term universal, cntan-
gles, involves and confuses the oue with the other; although
the human rational mind,-mistress of philosophy,-is perfeetly
acquainted with bath then: essences, and when left ta herself
and to her own powers, we being uneonseious the while, in
ordinary speech and expression, she very rarely substitutes thc
one for the other (b).
313. A UNIYERSAL is that whieh cxiste and aets univcrsaUy
in the whoIc, and in aU parts of the wItole. Or to makc this
more apprchensibIe, instcad of the whole, let us assume some
limitcd universe or kingdom, or sorne partieular body (c), as for

(0) That the human rational mind is in its own nature when en-
gaged in ratiocination or philosophy, is very evident from the circum-
stance, that an philosophical science is derivcd fl'om it, as from its
pl'oper fountain: fol' to construet a philosophy is nothing mOl'e than to
give the best attention to the operations of one's own mind, and from
its modi ope7'andi to draw forth that which wc are to bring into our
code, in the form of precepts, laws, and axioms: thus wc learn this
high science from our very selves. This affords a plain proof that
something fiows in from above into the thoughts of the rational mind,
and gives it the faculty of distributing thc objects of the memory into
true analytic orders, and of digesting the things belolV it into rational
quantities. A proof also that there is something below the rational
mind, which Hows in with objects, as instruments and materials for
constructing similar analytic edifices: which facnlty thus cndeavors to
be instructed by its superior faculty, by means of a kind of store drawn
forth by it, and disposed into the form of science. But on these sub-
jects we must refer the reader to our Psyehology.
(c) This rule has a most extensive range of applications: it applies
not only to the whole circumambient \VorId, whieh wc tenu propcrly
the universe, and to our organic animal body, which may also be tcrmed
a universe, world, or microcosm, or even a kingdoll1; but also to an em-
pires and forms of government; to paltieular societies; to cvcry imli-
vidual man; to ail his actions, sensations, laws, sciences, arts, and cren
speeches and conversations: in a worù, to cverything which is a subjcet
488 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

instance, the human animal body. Here, thè Universal Essence

is that which is universally present, potent, active, conscious
and provident, in the whole body, and in ail its members, vis­
cera, or organs (d), and in their lesser organic parts, and lastly,
in the least or simplest particles of these parts. Thus a uni­
versaI is recognized by its presence, potency, activity, conscious­
ness, and providence (e). In the hmnan microcosm, the sou! is
such a universal; the simplest fibre being the universal radius of
its determinations (f).
314. Every whole, whether it be a universe, a microcosm,
a kingdom, or a body, &c., has its proper superior universal,
inferior universal, and ultimate or lowest universal (g). That
which is superior, is also prior, interior, simpler, and more

at aIl, or has in it a form that derives its essence, nature, and qnality
from the order according to which nniversals flow in, and from the man­
ner according to which the general circnmscribes the series. For the
present we had better confine ourselves to the subject before us, to wit,
the human organic body; we thereforc use terms adapted thereto; but
which must be immediately transmuted into other tcrms when these
universal rulcs are applied to other subjects.
(d) Mcmbers, viscera, and organs are here !l.ssumcd as synonyms;
although, properly speaking, they mean distinct things.
(e) By providence we here mean that circumspection and prudence
whereby we contrive and provide for ourselves in the present and for
the future. In the very operation of the rational mind we have suffi­
cientl)' plain proofs of this kind of providence.
(f) On these subjects we refer the reader ta the Part on the Cor­
tical Substance and Medullary Fibre of the Cerebrum; and to the Part
on the Soul.
(g) Where the degrees of universality are still more numerous, they
may perhaps be subdivided differently; namely, into a supreme, a supe­
rior, an inferior, a sub-inferior, and an ultimate universal. In the
human animal body thcre is a universal to which we ought to assign a
still lower placc than the third; we mean the motive muscular fibre,
which is constructed by the blood-vessels; but at present we are Ull­
willing to e~.tend our exposition of universals ta this point; for the first
rudiments of the doctrine are aIl that can properly be given here, where
our purpose is limited to explailling clearly what is meant by the term
general, as preparatory to shewing what uses the peritonreum affords as
a general membrane.
 THE PERITONiEUi\I. 489
perfect j in other words, more present, more potent, more active,
more intelligent, and more provident. The inferior universal
derives its essence and its possibilities from the superior j conse­
quently depends upon it, in the same way as an agent depends
upon its power, or a cause, upon its principle. If the superior
universal in the human body, is the simplest fibrc, which is
acted upon by the soul immcdiately Ch), then the proximately
inferior umversal is the fibre immediately derived from this,­
the nervous fibre of the body,-which is acted upon by the
animal spirit (i), and the remotely inferior universal, or the
lowest of the three, is the artery and vein, which are acted upon
by the blood. In the human body, these are the three um­
versaIs, which derive, produce, form and generate ail things.
315. In the living body, the derivation, production and
generation of the inferior and ultimate univcrsal cssenccs from
the supcrior or supremc, are as follows :-fl'om the supreme uni­
versaI is derived a proximately inferior univer:sal (k) j by this

(h) This will be shewn in the Part on the Fibre and on the Sou!.
(l) In the same Part we shall have to explain what the nervous
fibre is in its primary fonn, that is, in its principlcs; taking for our
guides microscopic obscrvations, and the cxpericnce of cffccts anù phe­
nomena.
(k) To wit, the nervous fibre in its simple form, which resembles
the purest vcssel, and conveys what are t€rmed the animal spirits.
This fibre mIes univcrsally in the body, and indeed, more universally
than the blood-vessel; for the nen'ous fibre absolutely enters, fonns,
constitutes, and aetuates the blood-vessel; as may be seen from the
numberless nervous fibrcs which accompany the vcssels, particularly
the artcries, constantly ùip into their membranes, and cven construct
their very canals. Yct still the nervous fibre rules less universally than
the simplest or first fibre of all, which latter produces the nervous fibre
as the executrix of its commanùs: for whatever the nervous fibre, re­
garded in its primary form, posscsses, it derives from a prior fibre,­
the first of the body,-which we have termed above, the universal
radius of the soul's dcterminations. The nervous fibre cannot be from
itself, nor j'et exist immecliately in a pervious state: the little mem­
brane with which it is surroundcd must inevitably be derived from a
fibre prim to itsclf. Wc are obliged to use the tcrm del'ived, because
no other expresses our meaning, or squares in all respects with the
490 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

means, a kind of new principle is formed, which may be termed

the corporeal and material principle (l), from which a still infe­
rior or ultimate universal is produced (m) : by this means again
the whole body, with its members, and their parts, is formed (n).
mode of formation of this fibre, which mode is a sort of modification
of the primitive force.
(l) Respecting this new principle, or respecting the origin of the
new fibre whieh must be termed the corporeal fibre, wc sha11 speak in
the Part on the Organs of the Senses, (when we come to treat of the
skin, or of the sensorium of touch,) and also in the Part on the Fibres.
The corporeal fibres are what grow or proceed from the most minute
glandular forms almost resembling in appearance the cortical glands of
the cerebrum, in the extremes of the body particularly; that is, in the
skin, and in othcr parts also; and which are so very numerous ancl
sma11, that they resemble true nervous fibres or capillary vessc]s. These
rnost subtly organic forms, constructed by the nervous fibri11œ in the
cxtreme goals of the kingdom of the body, are as it were rea11y new
prineiples formed in the body, and produce little emissary ducts as
fibres, which latter therefore ought to be termed corporeal and material
fibres. These glands in the ultimates of the kingdom correspond to
the cortical glands of the cerebrum and cerebeHurn. But we shaH treat
of them more at length in the Part before mentioned.
(m) To wit, the blood-vessel. It will be proved in the sequel, that
the first or innermost membrane of the arterics is composed entirely of
these corporeal fibres; for the innermost coat of the artery is what is
termed the nervous coat, next to which is the muscular coat. But that
whieh is the innermost is also the first, and always derives its origin
from the fibres formed by the before-mentioncd purest glandular forms
of the body. This will be proved both from the experience of micro­
seopists, and by phenomena and effects when unfolded to their first
causes; also by comparative, and finaHy by rational, anatomy.
(n) That the organic body, with aH its members and parts, is woven
and constructcd by the blood-vessels and their rarnifications,-this is a
point established beyond a11 question; inasmuch as myriads of vessels
are seen under the microscope in spaces only a few Enes in iliameter,
and may be even injected, particularly by the Ruysehian mcthod. The
proximate formation of the body, then, must be ascribed to thc blood­
vessels. But the blood-vessel itself dcrives this power and dctcrmina­
tion from the nervous fibre, which enters into the composition of the
blood-vesscl; and this fibre obtains its power and deterrnination from
thc simplest fibre, from which a1so it isdcl'ivcd. Or if we substitute
 THE PERITON iEUi\I. 491
When this gyre and course of formation are accomplishcd, then
the ultimate universal passes to the supreme univrrsal, and enters
into absolute and intimate union with it (0); anù thus the infe­
rior universal proceeds from both Cp).
316. A GENERAL is the summary and complex of parts and
singulars; as a number is the complex of several unities, and
an equation, of several analytic ratios. N ow in order that sin­
gulars may be kept in mutuai association in their complex, it is
necessary that they have a common bond or tie; and in the
living body, the coats, membranes and coverings constitute such
bonds. Inasmuch as this bond represents a common or general
cause, we, therefore, in the present case, term it a general, anù
contrast it with a universal; in which sense, a general is what

the blood, the animal spirit, and the soul, in the place of the fibres, it
will amount to the same thing; for the fibre is the instrumental acting
cause, and the blood, &c., the principal acting cause, and each two
respectively, in the most harmonious manner, make one unanimous
cause. This formation respects not only the organic form of the body,
but also whatever gives it the power of acting according to this its
form.
(0) In the Part on the Cerebrum and the Cortical Substance, it will
be demonstrated in the plainest manner, that the innermost membrane
of the artery, (whieh,as we said abovc, is generated by the corporeal
fibres,) in the cerebrum, unites with, and absolutdy insinuatcs itself
and plunges into, the cortical glands, which arc the principles or begin­
nings of the simplest or superior universai fibres, and the parts from
which the proximate or nervous, that is, the inferior universal fibrcs,
are put forth: so that this uitimate or lowest universal fibre-the arte­
rial vessel-passes at last to the first of all the fibres, and enters into
the closest union with it. Hence there is a perpetuaI cirde from the
Iast things to the first, and from the first to the last, and everything
throughout is held in perpetuaI connexion,-so long as it is not detached
or separated, but forms a part within this gyre.
(P) For if the last fibre-the fibre of the third arder-unites with
the first, and this, in the very beginnings or prineiples of the fibres,
that is to say, in the cortical glands, from which the nervous fibre-the
inferior universal fibre-or the animal spirit, is produceù, then the con­
sequence is, that this nervous fibre proceeds from both. That such is
really the case, will be proved to even sensible ùemonstration in the
whole progress of our analyses.
492 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

contains and distinguishes a universe, its integers, and sin­

gulars (q): or speaking more definitel)', and substituting the
body and its members for a universe, integers, and singulars,­
a general is that which embraces, demarcates, limits aud con­
nects (r) the body, any region thereof, any members of this
region, or any parts of these members. A general, therefore,
is recognized from its being the complex, limit and nexus of
those things which are associated.
317. The Universal gives the essence, and determines it; the
Common Bond defines and bonnds it. Thus from both togethcr
exists the finite and limited entity termed a substance, which
subsists by itself distinct from other things, and is the suhjcct of
accidents; quality being predieated of its form, and nature, of
its power and activity.
318. There are, then, as many general limitations and
boundings, as there are essential parts, or determinations of
essentials (s). The most general is that which involves and COID­

(q) These are mere indeterminates-general, universal, integers,

singulars; but this definition, educed, according to the analytic method,
from determinate and finite things, is here prefixed solely for the sake
of order and inteUigibility. .
(1') That which circumscribes the aggregates of things, not only
contains and embraces them, but also divides, demarcates, and distin­
guishes them from contiguous things, as weU as limits them with
respect to shape, and connects them. For if every quantity he similarly
circumscribed and distinguished, that is to say, the lesser quantities
which constitute the larger, they must of course be connected with the
larger, and this cannot be accomplished excepting by prolongations
from the most general covering. This is the case not only with the
viscera of the body, but also with the muscles, with aU the motive
fibres, and even with the nervous fibres, the common fasciculus whereof
is covered with a membrane which in like manner detaches or gives off
filaments and little membranes, that connect the lesser fascieuli, and
even the very fibres, with the entire nerve. It may therefore be re­
garded as a law, and it is particularly manifest in the brail1.
(s) The fibres are determinant of the above-mcntioned triple order.
For the soul, the animal spirit, and the blood, are the veriest essences
of the body, and by means of the fibres and vessels de termine aU
thiugs. The coats of the latter are thc instrumental causes, which
 THE PERITONJEUM. 493

prehends thc \l'holc j thc Jcss gcneraJ is thnt which comprchends

a part thercof j and so on. If we appJy thcsc limitations and
boundings to the coverings of the body, then the skin, which
surrounds and encloses the whole body, is the most gencral: the
mcninges of the brain, the pleura of the chest, the peritonreum
of the abdomcn, and the skin and dartos of the scrotum, are
the less gcneral: the stillless gcneral are the integuments of the
respective viscera, Ol'gans or membel's: the still Jess general are
the tunics of theil' organic parts: and the least general are the
little membranes of the singuJal's of the parts. Rencc it ap­
pears, that in this sensc a gencral is morc univcrsal in propor­
tion as it is less gcncral, bccausc in this proportion it is more
simpIc, more internaI, and nearcr to aU the esscntials of its
body (t).
319. The gencral coverings, which are many in the body
whieh is one, communicate with cach other exactly in propor­
tion as the visccra or organs cnclosed by thcm aet in society: or
inversc1y, the mcmhers of one rcgion communicate with the
members of anothcr hy means of thcil' coverings, cxactly in pro­
portion to the gcncral or universal charactcr of theil' object.
'l'hus thc cercbrum, by its fibrcs and by its vessels, by mcans of

united with the principal causes make one cause. The viseera, organs,
members, glands, and muscles, from their greatest mass to their least
parts, are the dctcrminations of thcse essentials. The detennination
itsclf proeeeds from the nature of the soul,-the ens unùJel'sale of the
body. But what the determinations arc, it is the province of anatomy
and physiology to teach us.
(t) Universality may be predicated of ail things which increase and
dccrcase in order, and by degrecs; consequently of the membranes or
coverings. Ail the membranes, whether they contain fluid or continu­
ous matters, are instrumcntal causes, and make one cause with their
principals. Thc coats of the vesscls, as we bcfore indicated, are the
instrumcntal causes of the fluids permeating them and acting as prin­
cipal causcs. So also the coats of the viseera and organs are instru­
mcntal muscs, respcctively to the agents which they surround and
cnclosc, whcthcr thcsc agents be fibres or vessels, or eongcrics of sueh ;
consequently the coats come undcr the notion of univcrsality, in a
similar manner.
494 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

the meninges (u), communicates with an the members, both

thoraeic, abdominal, and genital. The heart, by its blood, by
means of the arterial vessels; and the lungs, by their motion,
by means of the vertebrre, the ribs, the muscles, the œsophagus,
the diaphragm, and the pleura, communicate with both the
cranial, the abdominal, and the genital members. The stomach,
the intestines, the liver, and the other viscera under the septum,
by their chyle, and their blood that is to be, by means of the
venous vessels, the thoracic duct, the diaphragm, and the perito­
nreum, communicate with the members above and below them.
320. The common covering produces itself in order, into
ail its viscera, and from the viscera into all their parts, and
parts of parts, ail the way to the very innermost; with a view
to keeping them an in connexion; to giving all things distinct
limits; to properly distributing among all, the powers and ac­
tions of their supcriors, according to the nature of their func­
tions; and to reducing the forces and motions of an to one
constant standard; and thus repressing impetuosity, quelling
disturbances, and like a balance, equalizing· the vibrations of
the scales. Therefore the peritonreum produces itself, or puts
forth from itself frrena and ligaments, whereby it binds down,
coerces and suspenùs the viscera of this region: from these it
proceeds further, and by capsules, penetrates to the i11ner­
most and deepest things (x), and by similar chains and bits,

(u) The prineiples or beginnings of the nerves,-the primitive fas­

eieuli of the fibres of the eerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and
meduIla spinalis,-are eovered by the pia mater, at the first threshold
of their departure from their natal soil. These fascieuli, again united
or eompacted into a nerve, arc eovered by the dura mater on the second
threshold, that is, when they reaeh the cranium or the vertebrœ; and
thus they proceed into the kingdom of the body. (See Baglivi, Speci­
men quatuor Librorum de Pibra Motrice.) But they unfold and evo!v'e
these eoats, in an order eorresponding to the explication and evolution
of the fibres. The venous ehannels also-the jugulaI' veins of the eere­
brum and eerebellum-likewise borraw and bring with them their coats
from the dura and pia mater. The respective parts which the fibres and
blood-vessels of the two brains play in the body, will be shewn in the
]lrOper places.
(x) That the peritonœum passes aIl the W'lY to the minutest glands
 THE PEJUTONiRUM. 4·95
curbs the very parts or unities of the viseera,-for examp1e,
of the liver and spleen,-and subjeets and devotes them to its
own general goverument, and to the government of the whole.
321. 'l'he members of the abdomen are kept bound and
gUal'ded by the general bond of the peritomcum, and by the still
more general bond of the diaphragm, closely and thoroughly,
in proportion to theu' priority of place, as determined by their
dignity of office, and to theu' uscfulncss in the kingdom; and
this, according to the cause Wh1Ch thcy, undertake in the
unanimous society. On this aecount, the stomaeh (y), the

or glandular vesicles of the liver, by means of the capsule whieh proeeeds

from tbe very ligaments put forth by the peritonreum and the diaph­
ragm, sec the Chapter on the Liver, n. 207 (0), anù n. 209. That it
passes likewise to the glandular vesieles of the spleen, sec n. 212; and to
those of the suprarenal glands, sec n. 275 (8) and (u). That the peri­
tonœum passes in a diffcrcnt way into every different member enclosed
in the eavity of the abdomen, and wherefore, will be shewn prcsently.
(y) Among thc visccra of the abdomcn, the STOMACH plays the
principal part, and indeed is the principal; for it is a kind of wheel or
axis to the whole machine, and al! the othcr viseera, (whieh are either
eontinuous with it, as the intestines, mescntery and omentum, or whieh
stand around it,) arc its 1055er wheels and pulleys. The offices of ail
the memhers of this regioll commence from, anù rcvolve round, this
whecl or axis: whieh is the reason that the stomaeh is more immedi­
ately exeited and disposed by, and dependent upon, not only the 1'eri­
tonreum, but also the sllpcrior chamber eontaining the lungs, and the
supreme ehamber containing the brain: primàrily, by the immediate
immersion of the œsophagus in thc universal gorge and eavity of the
stomaeh; for whatevcr the œsophagus, in its passage through the
thorax, ùcrivcs from the pleura, from the mcdiastinum, and, in fine,
from the diaphm.gm, it eommunieates unreservedly to the entire sto­
mach. Aeeording to n. 82 (in the Chapter on the Œso1'hagus), that
tube "hrings togcther and unites the lowest things and the highest; it
conneets ail things bclonging to the tOllgue and the palate, to the
mOllth and the lips; eonsequently to the temples, the eheeks and the
fOl'ehead; also to the nares and the emnium, and thercby to the eere­
brum; in a word, to the head ; as wel! as ail things helonging to the
ehest-in short, aU things abol'e the dia1'hragm-with ail things be­
longing to thc abdomen, or with ail beneath the diaphragm; in l'arti­
culaI', with the stomach, by means of its coats, extcrnal and internaI;
496 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

liver (z), and the renal capsules (a), are eonneeted to both bonds
in the closest manner j but the pancreas, the spleen and the

and by means of its passage down the mediastinum and through the
diaphragm.... And as it connects the substances of parts, so it
connects their particular and general forces." And according ta n. 83,
"Thc œsophagus also puts forth certain motions, which pass uninter­
ruptedly through the stomach, and ultimately through aIl the viscera
subjacent and appended to it; in a word, it constantly impresses, not
the cardiac, but the altemate respiratory motions of the lungs," &c.
The stomach derives its most external coat from the peritonœum, as a
result of its connexion with the diaphragm; respecting which, Winslow
says, "The first or external coat [of the stomachJ is simply membra­
nous, being one of the internaI prolongations or continuations of thc
peritonœum. This appears evidently at the coimexion of the superior
orifice with the diaphragm, where the external coat of the stomach is
really continuous with the membrane that lines the inferior surface ·of
the diaphragm" (n. 88). In order that there may be no interruption
of continuity between the superior chamber, the peritonœum, and the
stomach, there also mns forward a ligament close undcr this very mem­
brane, along both the small and great cnrvatures, which ligament
communicates, repeatedly and throughout, with aIl the muscular fibres,
and thus with the interior coats. Respecting this ligament, and its
connexion with the common coat, see Winslow above, n. 88. Along
tlûs same ligament, from the insertion of the œsophagus on the further
side of the diaphragm, pour in and extend the grand nerves of the cere­
bcllum-the sympathctic nerves-that is to say, thc par vagum, with
the fibres of the intercostal nerve; by which means, the stomach is
made to act completely under the command and at the beck of the
lungs, the head, and the cercbellum: besides which, the general mo­
tion of the lungs, (by means of the diaphragm,) during every act of the
respiration, communicates itself to, and associates itself with, the simi­
lar general motion of the stomach. The stomach, as we before re­
marked, like a great wheel sets in motion the lesscr wheels of the
abdomen, and performs almost the same office internally, in the middle
of the abdominal cavity, as the peritonœum performs externally, or at
the sides thereof: and by the meeting of the two, the othcr viscera, as
intermediates, are kept steadily i.:J. their statcd motions and forces. In
order to strengthen this association, the stomach has the omentum
bound down and connccted to it, and closely inserted along its great
curvature; and by this means it has aIl the abdominal viscera that
assist it in its functions, attached ta it, and tied up with if For one
 '.rnE PEIUTON1IW,1. 497

omentum, not 80 closely (b): most closely also, the receptuculum

chyli, the ihoraclc duet, the aorta and the vena cava, the emul-

border of the omentum is connected to the great curvature of the sto-

mach; the other, to the great curvature and convexity of thc colon;
and the commissure of the two is fixed on the right side to the common
ligamcnt of the duodenum and colon, and to the neighboring parts of
these intestines; on the left side, to the longitudinal fissure of the
spleen, to the extremity of the pancreas, and to the convexity of the
great curvature of the stomach. The omentum is connected also to the
memLranous ligament wh1ch supports the ductus cholidochus, and by
the loblllus Spigc1ii it is continued to the trunk of thc vena portœ. See
\Vil1s10w abovc, on the omentum, n. 252. To say nothing of the in-
testines, (which are continuons with the stomach,) in that they arc con-
ncctcd in all110st theirwholc cxtcnt to thc peritonœul1l, and cxternally
to the stomach aIso, by the omentum, as we said above.
(z) The liver cornes next to the stomach, in the dignity, neeessity,
and useflllncss of its office; for the liver 1S the end and complemcnt of
t.he works of all the abdominal viscera, as the stomach is the beginning.
All the chyle that is forwarded by the stomach and intestines into the
inferior eava, as well as all the venous blood which irrigates this region,
is collccted in the channels and streams that discharge themselvcs into
the vena portœ. Thus the liver together with the mesentery, has
equally as extensive and important dutics as the stomach together with
the intestines. The liver conveys its chyle into the iuferior vena cava;
the mesentery conveys its chyle into the superior vena cava. Thus the
liver and the mesentery have this province divided between them: for
which reason not only the live 1', but also the mesentery and the recep-
taculum chyli, are so closely connccted, both to the peritonœum, and,
by meaus of thc diaphragm, to the superior ehamber: thus the liver is
aLsolutely subject. to the motions of both, or, if you will allow the me-
taphor, it lies bound, like a janitor at agate, with the bits and chains
of both the thora.x and abdomen. "The convexity of the liver," says
Winslow, "is connected to the diaphragm by tnree ligamcnts, which
are only continuations of the membranous lamina of the peritonœum.
. . . The right ligament sometimes connects the great lobe to the carti-
lages of the false ribs; and the left ligament, or that of the small lobe,
is often double, and advances towards the middle liga,ment. The middle
ligament begins bclow, in the great fissure of the liver, near the emi-
nenees called portœ.... It is fixed all along the upper and inner part
of the sheath of the right rectus abdominis muscle, in an oblique
VOL. I. CRAP. XVI. K K
498 TUE ANIMAL KING DOM.

gent and spcrmatic vesscls (c). From this common obligation 01'
IJoad} that is to say, From thc ligamcnts put Forth by thc peri­

manner. The liver is likewise connccted to the <liaphragm, not by

ligament, but by a broad and immediate adhesion, without the interven­
tion of the peritonreum, which is only folded round this adhesion, to
form the external membrane of the body of the liver" (n. 194). Henec
it appears, that the liver is so tied up to, and suspended by, the peri­
tonreum and the diaphragm, that it can scarcely open 01' raise itsclf at
all, exeept aeeording to the breath and respiration of both thesc parts;
and thus, should it happen to he earried away by any irregular motion,­
shonld any rush of hostile blood take place iuto its chambers, then, by
means of these bonds, the attack would be cheeked at the first onset,
and l'edueed to the natural staudard of the pulmonic motion; under the
auspices of whieh all things proceed aeeording to the tenor of nature.
Moreoyer, the common or extemal membrane of the liver, which is a
continuation or appendage of the peritonreum, is propagated iu the
farm of capsules, and penetrates to the minutest vesicles 01' glands, and
covers and completes these likewise, as wc shewed in the Chapter on
the Liver.
(a)' The renal capsule8, like the li\'er, were among the few members
that had a kind of command and leadership, and administered a part
of the government of the kingdom, in the primeval, natural, or uterine
state; eonsequently they must be numbered with those organs, whieh
if they do not now excel in dignity of office, yet once did excel : and
this is the reaSOIl why they likewise are bound with both bonds,-\vith
a common bond derived from the peritonreum, and with a still more
common bond derived from the diaphragm. They are in faet so elosely
conneeted to the peritonreum that lines the inferior iurface of the dia­
phragm, that they may easily be overlooked by enquirers, accordillg to
the aecount of Eustachius. See above, n. 270.
(h) The case is otherwise with the 8pleen, pancrea8 and O1nentU11l,
not one of which, so far as l am aware, is immediately eonnected to
the peritonreum, still less subneeted to the diaphragm; but only mecli­
o.tely, by ligaments, to the intestines, and by the omentum; wherefore
these must be counted as members of inferior rank and clignity, and
whieh merely assist and subserve the stomaeh, intestines, and liver.
'l'hat this is their character, is suffieiently evident from the faet that
they may be exeised, and the proeesses of chylification and sanguifiea­
tion go on in their own way notwithstancling. 'With respect to the
spleen, it has been extirpated in lIumberless cases. 'Vith respect to
 THE PERI'l'ONJ]WM. 'l·!)U

towcum and the diaphragm, we lllay inf(;l' and nnderstalld, what

authority e~èCh organ possesses as a mernber in the empire;
and from the influx of blood thl'ough the vesse}s, wc may infer
what the same organ administers, and what dignity and purple
it wears. The organic parts likewise, as the glands" and otller
similar minute structures in the remote recesses of the several
viscera, communicate by capsules, vessels, and nerves, with the
common integument, and thcreby with the peritomeum and the
diaphragm,-cach according to the dignity of its cause and
office.
322. In proportion as any of the members of the abdomen
are 1008e in their attachments, or more slightly hcld, confined
and bridled by the genel'al bond of the peritonœum, in the
same proportion they are more apt and frequent to rush into
preternatural modes and motions, and they are more difficult to

the pancreas, sce Mangetus, Theatr. Anat:, cap. De Pancl'eate. With

respect to the omentum, and the result which followed when Galen re­
moved it from a gladiator, see n. 255.
(c) Respecting the use and neccssity, and consequent dignity of
office, of the l'eceptaculum chyli and thoracic duct, see Chapters VI.
and VII. The receptaculum, therefore, is almost doubly connected to
the'peritonœum, and planted close to the extremity of the diaphragm.
The thoracic duct, as it rises along the vertebral column toward the
subclavian vein, is covered by the pleura: so that both thcse parts are
absolutely in the common bond. The same may be said of the yreat
a/·tery, and vena cava; the inferior prolongations of which-the iliae or
crural vessels-are likewise covered by the peritonœllm. Sec 'Winslow,
n. 310; and Verheyen, n. 311. The s]Je'l'1natic l)essels, (whieh supply
the testicles, the ovaries, and the members allotted to generation, and
which have one entire province of offices,) in their deseent, are enlirely
covercd and defended by a duplicature proeeeding from the peritomcum.
"The cellular substance," says Winslow, "has seYC'l'al clongations,
which have been called, productions of the peritonœum. Two of these
accompany and invest the spermatie cords in males .... There are
other two which pass .... with the crural vessels, which they cover"
(n.31O). "The exterior lamina," says Verheyen, "at its under part,
sends down two processes in the male to the scrotum; these contain
the spermatie vessels; in the female they enclose the round ligaments
of the uterus. In the scrotum they dilate, and constitutc the tuniea
vaginalis testis" (n.311).
KK2
500 THE ANIMAL KINGDO~['

recal ta the standard Of nature (d). We see this plainly from

the case of all those members and organs, the ligaments of

(d) This is a second and subordinate reason why sorne of the abdo­
minal viscera are guarded and covered more carefully than, and in a
ùiffcreqt manner to, others, by a continuous production of the perito­
nœum. For the viscera of the boùy, without exception, besides having
natural vicissitudes of motion, that is, general alternations of constric­
-tion and expansion, are also subjeet to extraordinary motions. This is
the case with the œsophagus, every time it performs deglutition: with
the lungs, in coughing, expectoration, sneezing, yawning, and similar
actions: with the stomach anù intestines frequently, not only when
they and their folds roll back and return the ingesta, but also when
they are irritatcd by meùicaments, anù food containing sharp particles.
The liver also, as it woulù seem, rises very easily into preternatural
motions, and loses its normal shape; that is to say, whenever serous,
coagulatcd, and grumous blooù, or not sufficiently digcsteù chyle, is
carried into it, perhaps from inactivity of the spleen. So likcwise the
other viscera. So also the muscles, nearly ail the voluntary motions of
which are beside or beyond the orùer of nature, whose motions are
most constant, and conspire to the conservation of the state of ail
things. In orùer, then, that thcsc preternatural or cxtraorùinary mo­
tions may not pcrvert the states of the viscera, it is the business and
office of the peritonœum, as a common bond, to reducc them perpe­
tually to the constant natural motions, that is, to those single gcneral
motions, under the auspices of which ail things are performed properly.
In furtheranee of this secondary end, the viscera which are subjeet or
obnoxious to many irregularities of motion,-for instance, the stomach
and intestines,-are bound together more tightly by the common bond
of the pel'itonœum: the duodenum also, and the colon, are conneeted
to it, and also to the other members, in very many places and very
closely; in order that if they are carried away by any violence, they
may bc whirled back instantaneously, by a number of powers and
forces, to the constancy of nature. For the same end also, the mesen­
tery is wlJOlly surrounded and covered by an expansion of the perito­
nœum; and this, because it is attached to ail the intestines,-parts
casilY excited to unruly motions, (particularly the ileum, which being
under very little restraint, is apt to change its stated motion, and to
vary its serpentine inflexions, obediently to every animus and motion of
the cerebrum): wherefore the entire mcsentery lies in the embrace of the
peritonœum, that being thus tendered perfectly safe from aB attacks, it
may f10w back, by an inevitable determination, into the common stream
 THE PERITON.iEUlII. 501

which, either by nature, age, disease, or accident, have become

over extended, flaccid, passive, or atonie j or over expanded,
inflamed, indurated, inflexible, unyielding, or indolent j or ob­
structed by callous, tendinous, or cartilaginous matter j or lastly,
wasted, or ruptured. Equally so if any of these changes befal
the little members or parts of any of the viseera. In proportion
then as any part is loose from, and! unconfined by, its general­
in proportion as its natural tendency ta action is impeded; or as
it is too little or too much attached to the covering of its parti­
clùar viscus, and this covering to the peritonœum, and this again
to the viscera of the pleura or of the thorax, and these to their
cerebra,-in the same proportion its importance is diminished in
its society, republic, or kingdom, that is to say, in the unani­
mous living body. But those parts that are more or less
detached-to prevent them from weakening the adjoining parts
-are recalled to the general, by the three universal essences
whieh hold the rod of empire, by all sorts of difI'el'ent me­
thods and devices,-sometimes by the imposition of bonds,
nooses and fetters (e). But if the attempt to effect this prove

of nature. For the same reason, again, the kidneys, the ureters, and
the bladder are more or less covered by the pcritonœulll; \landy, that
whenever they are forced into u\lnatural states, they may instantly, as
by the pressure of a spring, be restored and glide baek ta the natural
state. Hence, lastly, the spleen is restrained with ùiffieulty, because
it is not devoted to the pcritonreum immediately, or by any proper
ligament.
(e) It is perpetually observable in the animal kingdom, that nature
has infinite ways of repairing disasters, and for t~is pm'pose is always
takiug the field with new and most ingenious methods and eontrivanccs.
Sometimcs shc inscrts glandulal' eongerics in the injured part, and
plants in it corpuscules and tubereles of the same nature as itselt:
either hard or soft,-raising them from a plane surface. Sometimcs she
inseminates muscular fibres, and czrries them round by varions paths,
and compensates the defect in some measure liy means of number.
Sometimes she expands the minute lateral ducts of the blood-vesscls
into considerable vessels, and carries streams of blood thl'ough thcm,
and from these vessels again educes other lateral dncts in immense
abundance, wherewith she builds membranes, amI lays up her ncw
organ within them; this being the origin of steotomata, supernu­
502 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

abortive, it is thcn aU over with such parts, and they are cut off
from communion with the l'est, and thrown out of the system.
Hencc it may bc seen, that there is the same state, arder and
form of govemment in the body, as in a kingdom.
323. AU these considerations shew, that the pcritonreum is
the instrument of union of the members of its society, or the
common external bond of the "iscera of the abdomen; and
the stomach, the similar, but common internaI bond of the same
visccra; and that these two respect each other mutuaUy, like the
circumference and axis of a whccl (1). They further shew, that
the peritonreum is also the common but internaI bond of the
muscles, cartilages, and bones of this region. And in arder to
constitute it such a bond, it requires to be bound down and con­
nectcd ta cach member, muscle and part, with express reference
to its situation, forces and motion.
324. But as the peritonœum is the [immediateJ bond of (he
members of this region, and the proximate and proper general
centre of motion of its little wheels and levers, so it 1S the proxi­
matcly rcmote or mcdiate gencral bond between its mcmbers
and the members of the superior or thoracic rcgion; and the

merary spleens, pancreases, renal capsules, &c., strumous corpuscules,

&c. nut who can enumerate the methods which thc ltni"crsal essence
of the body, that is to say, which the soul brings forth,.-not from any
faculty either produced or instructed by way of thc scnses, but from
nature, the mistress of ail arts and sciences, and the )Irinciple of ail
minds and faculties; and determines without in any way cOllsulting
memory, and instantly commits ta use; and thus either mends the
injul"ed part, or sa hides it, and separates it from its fellows in office,
that it has no intercourse with them, and no power of infeeting the
adjoining parts. These statements are sllpported by au infinity of ex­
pericnce in medico-anatomical records.
(l) That thc stomach is in a mannel" the axis of a wheel, see just
above, note (y). The stomach and intestines extend from the dia­
phragm. that is, from the superior or cardiae orifice, ail the way to the
rectum and anns. The other viseera revolve round this axis, as littlc
wheels r,ound the axes of machines. The whole alirnent.aJ'Y tuhe, eom­
mellcing from the mouth, or aperture of the lips, and cxtelllling through
the fauees, pharynx, œsopha!-Çus, stomach, antl intestincs, represents a
kin(] nf continuons and gclltTal axis of the body.
 THE PERITONlEUM. 503

still mol'C rcmotc or ultimatc gcneral bond betwcen its mcmbel's

and the organs of thc suprcme rcgion of thc hcad and ccrebl'um.
And as the pcritonœum establishes their connexions as a bond,
so it sustains thcir motions as a centrc 01 motion. It takes up
or reccives in a general manncr, as a uniting medium, thc pul­
monary and cardiac motions; and as a uniting ultimum, the
superior and suprcmc motions of the hcad and the ccrclDrnm; it
initiates thcm, distributes tllem among thc visccra of its cavity,
collects them again theretrom, absorbs and bounds them. 1'his
membrane is, therefore, expansile, contractile, e1astic (0); va­
riously cellular, constricted and thickened Ch); tied up and.

Cg) In order that the peritonreum may serve as a bond of the kind
described, it must of course be furnishcd with po""crs of binding the
bodies containeù inside its cavity, as weil as those cxtcndcd round il.
Elasticity, or cxtensility and eontraetility, arc of the tirst importance
in the organic body: by means of thcse properties the peritonreum is
rendered accommodable to ail the destincd uses. In proportion as any
membrane ceases to purtake of the properties of inclastic or heavy
bodies, in thc same proportion it is better suitcd and applicable ta aIl
things, even ta boùies possessing grayity; inasmuch as it pours forth
and communicates fully anù entire!y an the forces and shocks wbch it
reeeives. 'That the peritonœllm was cxceedingly yielding in its eadiest
infancy, and from aIl its indiviùua conspircd most distinctly ta the ge­
neral action of the whole, both of the body and of itsclf,-this is very
conspicuous from its state during that time. And that it still continues
. to have this property, even after uùult age, may be scen by examining
it anatomically. "It [the perit.onœum]," says \Vinslow, "is flexible,
and capable of very great extension, after which it easily regains its
ordinary sizc; as wc see in pregnancy, dropsies, corpulency, and reple­
tion" (n. 310).
(h) The cellular tissue wherehy the peritollœum is applied to the
muscles, the yertebrœ, and the other external levers, greatly augments
anù strengthens its power of serving as a eommon bond; for by this
means aIl assailant external motions are intereepted, stayed, and extin­
guished in their first effort and ouset, and prc\'entcd from penctrat.ing
far into the internaI membrane, and ùisturbing the motions of thé
internaI viscera. AlI the extel'l1al muscles, and the ribs and vertebn)~
to which they arc attached, arc sllbject during the day-lime 1.0 the do­
minion of the will; but the motions or the 111 [('rnal or alJùorniull! vis­
eera arc exempt therefro!l1, Hml <lc', otcd ln li attHï , alollC', IIcne,·, tn
50!· THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

cannectcd ta the last ribs, the vertebrre, the muscles, and the
diaphragm (i) j continued ta the œsaphagus; praduced inta

prevent the voluntary impulses from infringing and destroying the order
of the natural motions, - albeit in the most general and external
manner,-the interior membrane is divided by numberless sections into
fine membranous films, which forro a cellular down or tissue, and are
applied to either the muscles or thc bones,-all so many levers which
are being momently drawn in new and different directions; by which
means, the total action does not communicate, excepting feehly and
very generally, with the interior membrane which puts forth ligaments
to the viscera of the abdomen. But to go iuto ùctails,~to ùescribe,
for instance, how the peritonreum is inserted illto one muscle, anù how
into another, and why it is adapteù to each in the manner it is,-this
would be to enter the field of specialities and particulars, whither were
we to expatiate while we are dwelling on generals and univcrsals, as in
the present Chapter, we should have to write a complete treatise' on
the subject. " Properly speaking," says 'Winslow, "the internaI por­
tion alone deserves the name of a membranous lamina, as being the
main body of the peritonreum. The extcrnal portion is no more than
a kind of fibrous or follicular apophysis of the internaI. ... [HJ is not
everywhere of equal thickness," &c., &c. (n. 310). In a word, in
cvcry possible situation it is suitcd to its use,-being constricted, at­
tenuated, thickened, or dilated, accordingly; so that from its mere
attenuation, condensation, and attachments, we are empowcreù to COIl'­
cludc respecting the nature of its function, collection of forces, and
accommodation to assailant motions; for Ilot the minutest titread in any
cell, still less the cntire fabric of a cell, is connected ta any fibre, ex­
ternal or internaI, without a necessity dcrived from use. Hence, in
the female sex the peritonreum is generally thicker, to meet the case of
pregnancy, and of the expansion of the uterinc mass. The membrane
of the peritonreum, according to Verheyen, "is double throughout,
and manifestly so from the umbilicus to the os pubis, in fcmales parti.
cularly, in whorn it is also thicker than in males" (n.311).
(i) In order that the peritonreum may serve as a common bond, it
requires to be most closely connected to the ribs, vertebrre and muscles,
in this situation; for in proportion as its connexion to these parts is
close, and suitable to their mode of operation, in the same proportion
the membrane makes a better general instrument. Thus the more
closely the dura mater ccrebri is conneeted to the cranium, the better
it acts as an internaI periostcum, being proportionably more bound to
its office; as during infancy. Throughout old age, howevcr, these
 THE l'ERlTONJEUM. 505

internaI, and elongated into external processes; saluted by

numberless vessels from the thorax (k), and by numberless fibres
from the brains and spinal cord (1:)'; and thus invited and com­
pclled to aU manner of obedience. Such are the general state­
ments and results derived from expericnce in aIl its spheres,
anatomical, physical, and philosophical;-from the threefold
experience of art or science, of nature, and of the human
milld.

* * * * * *
325. l had intendcd to trent of the circulation of the humor
and serosity through the cellular tissue of the pcritomeuffi, and
of its sources <tud places of discharge; but inasmuch as the
foregoing experience has hitherto aft'orded me no clear and dis­
tinct ideas upon the subject, thcrefore l clare 'not venture to
determine anythiug with certai~ty. However, l see plainly
enough, that the ffuid which irrigates and sometimes inundates
the cellular tissue of the peritomeum, cornes originally fi'om no
other source than the viscera enclosed in the cavity of the ab­
domen; and that the stream is constantly circulating through
the whole of the cellular tissue; and never escapes from its

bonds are usually relaxed by degrees; first those which are relatil'ely
simple; afterwards, as life advances, thosc which arc more gencral, and
which gradually aùapt themselves to theii' singulars. lIenee wllen the
peritonœum bcgills to be slackencd or rcmiss, all thc operations of the
viseera are ncglcctcd proportiouably. Respecting the moùc of connexion
of the peritonœum to the muscles, ribs, and vertebr:'C, sec Winslow, 11.
309 j-its connexion, wc mean, to thc muscles of the abdomen, the
quadratus lumborum, thc psoas, iliacus, the muscles of the coccyx and
rectum, the longissimi ùorsi, sacro-Iumbales, and vertebral muscles; also
to the cartilaginous portions of the last pair of true ribs, thosc of the
first four pairs of falsc l'ibs, the ossa innominata, and the sacrum. Sec
also Verheyen, n. 31 1.
(k) The vessels and nervcs afford the best indications of the cause
which evcry member makcs in the society, that is to say, in the boùy.
For the vessels and nerves are the essential ùeterminations or emissarics
of the universals-the enlia universulia. \Vhat wc are to concluùe
therefl'om, will be shewn in the Part on the Organislll of Animal
506 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

cells or follides into the cavity itself, unless they arc ruptured
by over distcntion, or by the wearing out of their membranous
partitions; but rather that the peritonœum absorbs the fatty
cfHuvial vapor with which the cavity of the abdomen abounds,
and carries it in a determinate channel, with the rest of its
serosity, to sorne place of discharge, which place l have (in
Chap. XIV.) maintained to be situateù at the kidneys. FmSTLY;
That the fluid which irrigates and sometirnes inundates the cellulm'
tissue of the peritonœum, cornes originally frorn the abdominal
viscera tltemselves: that is to say, from the stomach, intestines,
liver, and other viscera, accorùing to the nature of their commu­
nication and operation. This is proved by the cellular tissue of
these viscera-by their somctimes having two cellular tissues,
one aboye and one below their muscular membranes; and by
their continuity-the continuity of the extel'llal cellular tissue
particularly,-by means of foramina, with the innermost m:cm­
brane of the viscus; and by its immediate communication with
the cellular tissue of the peritonœum: which latter circumstance
is proved by the abundance of serous liquid which cornes to the
surface [of the viscus], where aIl but the purer portion, (which
is absorbed by the numerous lymphatics,) is committcd into
circulation throngh the peritonœum. The free continuation of
this cellular tissue from the livei' and intestines to the perito­
uœum, is l)rctty evident, not only from ordinary anatomy, but
also from artifi.cial anatomy, as pursued by injections; fol' when
the cellular tissue of the one is distended by inflation, the ad­
joining part of the tissue of the other swells. This is likewise
abnndantly shewn in tympanitis, ascites, dropsy, and other

Motion. The cause which the peritonœum makes is clearly shewn by

the vessels and nerves. On account of this cause, the peritonœum is
supplied not only by vessels of its own region, but also by great num­
bers from the superior or thoracic region. According to Heister, "The
arteries and veins of the peritonœum come from the epigastric, mam­
mary, lumbar and phrenic vessels" (n. 308): and according to Ver­
heyen, "The peritonœum receives .... a few litHe branches from the
spermatie vessels, [and) laterally, from the intereostals" (n. 311).
(l) Its nerves come from almost the same quarters as its blood·
vcssels; that is to say, fl'om the· phrenic, dorsal, lumbar, and sacral
nervcs. Sec Heistcl' n. 30R, :111(1 Verhcyen, :H 1.
 THE PERITONJEUM. 507

inundations: and wc also sec clearly, that the quantity of wind

and water in these diseascs cannot have any other source than
the viscera themselves, where the air is disengaged in great
Cluantitics in consequence of the disruption of the solid parts; and
the viscera-as the stomach, the small and large intestines, and
thc liver-are inundated with a constant torrent of water. SE­
CONDLY; That tlti,s stream circulates through the whole of the
cellular tusue. rfhis proposition, being a consequence [of the
preceding proposition], admits of no doubt whatever. For
granting the continuation of the cellular tissue through the
peritonreum, and granting the constant agitation of it by the
muscles, consequently the expansion and constriction, the in­
evitable result must be, that the tiuid circulates w!lither the
tissue is permeable, and is determined to ccrtain places of dis­
charge; it cannot stagnate, without produclng the destruction
of the whole. THlRDLY; That 1,[ never escapes frorn tlte ceUs or
folli,cles into the cavity of the abdomen, un/ess the rnembranous
partitions are ruptured by over distension. This is fully proved
by the above-mentioned 'morbid sweJlings of the peritonreuID, as
tympanitis, in which the abdomcn is turgid with air; ascites,
when the cells are distended with water tin thcy rescmble hyda­
tids; and partictÙarly dropsy of the peritomcum. For if the
internaI coat of the peritonœum were pervious into its general
cavity, or perforated by little foramina leading thither, then no
dropsical stoppage of the kind could thus augment the perito­
mcum with respect to mass and thickness, but the wind or water
would escape immediately through thc porous pelliclc, and fill
the cavity. 'l'he same thing may be shewn artificially by the
injection of aiJ.. or water, which distends the cellular tissue, but
is not found to escape elsewhere: exactly as in the corresponding
coat of the omentum, which like the peritonœum has number­
less porcs, (so sorne anatomists have observed,) and yet no
evaporation takes place from its little cellular eavities. " vVhen
we handlc thcse membranes [of the omentumJ," says Winslow,
"with dry fingers, the membranes stick to them so closely as
hardly to be separated without being torn; as we see by the
rcticular holes that appcar in those portions of the membranes
that have bccn thus halldlcd. In that case it is to no pUI'pose
to blow through the orifice all'cflrly mentioned [the fomIDen of
508 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

Winslow J ; and it is owing to these small accidentaI holes that

the membranes of the omentnm have been supposed to be
llaturally retie\ùar" (n. 252). FOURTHLY j That the peritonœum
mt/ter absorbs the fatty ejfluvial vapo'l" with which the cavity of
the abdomen abounds. For wherever any vapor or humor is
present, and indeed supplied in a continuaI stream, there must
necessarily be places of discharge provided j consequently from
the cavity of the abdomen, as from aIl the other eavities. Whe­
ther the discharge takcs place from this eavity by any external
prolongations, as for instance, towards the scrotum, or along
the ischiadic vesscls) or eIscwhere, is a subject for enquiry j aIso,
whither the humors go next after leaving those places. Experi­
ence c1early shews, that the peritonœum throughout is full of
perforations) and that the foramina afford no passage either for
air or liquid into the cavity from the eells outwards. Granting)
then, the existence of little foramina, (like those of the omen­
tum, according to the observation just quoted,) 'and the pos­
sibility of their being bibulous and attracti1c, and the converse fol­
lows as a matter of eourse,-namc1y, that this membrane is per­
meable from the cavity into the cells of the cellular tissue. The
surface of the internaI membrane of the peritonœum, according
to Wïnslow, "is continually moistened by a serous fluid dis­
eharged through almost imperceptible pores. These pores may
be scen hy sprcading a portion of the peritonœum on the end of
the finger, and then pulling it tight on aIl sides j for then the
pores are ililated, and small drops ma)' be observed to l'un from
them, even without the microscope. The sources of this fluid
are not as yet weIl tmderstood" (n. 310). FIFTHLY j That the
peritonœwn conveys this se?'osity in a detenninate channel, to some
place of discha'l"ge; which place l have maintained to be situated
in the kidnc)'s j and dttring the uterine state, in the renal cap­
sules. See the Chaptcrs on the Kidneys and Sueeenturiate
Kidneys. The greatest eare seems to he takell) to prevent the
intestines from communieating \Vith the urinary hladder) through
the cellular tissue of the peritonœum, and the more pure and
chylifcrous portion of the serum from thus entirely eseaping by
a short eut once allowed to be opened, ~long with the worthless
and aqucolls portion. Helice the passage intervening between
them, as for instance, about the concentration of the abdominal
 THE PERITONAWM. 509

muscles, is comparatively narrow and constricted. But if we

attentively consider the structure of the bladder, it will appear
very probable, that the bladder itself does imbibe sorne part of
the thin vapor, although relatively to the whole, a very small
part, and like the l'est of the viscera, throws it out into its
cellular tissue, as into the surrounding peritonreum, and perhaps
around the ureters.
 EPILOGUE.
326. AT the end of each Part of my Analyses, J intend to
subjoin an Epilogue, for the purpose of eollecting the several
uses of the viseera treated of~ and the several amounts of their
offices, into one sum, and clrawing a line underneath it j that is
to say, of reclucing and eonnecting the seattered ideas of par­
tieulars, and the vague and faint notions, into a single and
general idea, just in thc same manner as the peritonreum reduces
and eounects the functions of the viscera of the abdomen (a).
The whole of the viscera which inhabit or eonstitute this earth,
or subthoracic region of the body, are altogether devoted to pl'e­
paring and refining the chyle and the blood. CHYLIFICA'fION,
SANGUUICATlON, and PURIFICATION are the SUffi of their offices.
These offices form a circ1e and everlasting chain j that is to say,
chylffication must take place; wltat is cltylified, must undergo san­
gu~fication; what is sanguified, must undergo lntrification; and
what is purified, must undergo chylification; and so on perpetually.
But let us examine the links of this chain, one by one.
327. Firstly, chylifieation must take place; in othcr words,
food must be taken; when taken, comminuted; and whcn com­
minuted, digested into chyle (b). Secondly, what is chylifiec1,
must undergo sanguification; that is to say, the chyle must he
introc1uced iuto the veins, inaugurated into the blood, copulated
with it, and thus itself reùueed into hlood (c). Tlzil'dly, what is

(a) Respecting the office of the Peritonœum, see the whole of the
preceding Chapter.
(b) See the Chapters on the Tonguc, the Pharynx and Œsophagus,
and particularly those on the Stomach and Intestines.
(c) See the Chapters on the Liver and Thol":lcic Duct.
 EPILOGUE. 511

snnguified must Hllde/'go pUl'ificatioll; t1lat is to say, the puœl'

portion of both the blood and' the serum, must be separated
from the less pure portion, or that of a middle quality, and from
the stalc portiOll, or that of the lowcst quality (d). FoU?'thly,
what is purified, must undergo ehylifieation; the purest blood
and its corl'esponding serum must be remitted into circulation;
and the vilcst blooù and its corresponding serum must be ex­
ereted and eliminated; but the blood of a middle quality must be
correetcd, reduced into salivary juices, and restoreù to the ehy10­
poietic organs, to serve as a menstruum both for preparing the
new chyle, and for introducing it into the blood (e). Thus thi8
last link is succeeded by the first of the chain.
328. The first departrnent of aU, or that of Chylijication, is

(d) The blood, and particularly the serum thereof, as we observed

in our Analyses, may be divided into thrce killds or classes: to thc first
class bclongs the pure, virgin, newly-conccived or regenerated blood,
perfectly accommodated to every use, and perfcctly obedient to the
cerebrum, the sensoria, and the muscles,-the true universal essence of
the third order (n. 314) ; thus the vicegerent of the soul in the ultimates
of the kingdom, that is to say, in the body. '1'0 this class also belongs
a corresponding serum-a serum kinrlred and pl'oximate to such blood.
To the second class belong the blood and serum of a middle quality,­
the blood ",hich is comparatively old, has circulated many times, is less
obedient, more obdurate, and aets rather from gravity than elastic force,
and being numbered among antiquated things, requires, therefore, to
be recruited and regenerated: likcwise the corresponding serum, whieh
has in it many elements of the genuine blood, but ",hich are connected
and fettered one with another; and which serum, therefore, requires
to be corrected and rectified, that is, remitted into the intestines. '1'0
the third class belongs the absolutely outworn, lifeless, worthless, rigid,
concreted, and inert blood; and the corresponding serum. Rcspeeting
the blood and serum of the second order, see Chapters 1. and II.,
where they treat of the Salivary Glands; also the Chapters on the
Pancreas, the Spleen, and the Livcr; which organs reduee and break
up this middle blood, and send it away into the salivary juiccs,-into
the succus panereaticus, or the hepatic bile. Respecting the blood of
the last kind or sort, sec the Chapter on thc Liver and Gall-bladdcr ;
aud respectini!; the serum of the same kind, sec the Chapters on the
Kidneys and the Urin:ny Bladder,
(t') That onl)' the !J!ood and serum of a middle quality is expended
512 '1'HE ANOrAL KINGDOM.

assigned to the stomach, and to the small and hu'ge intestines;

and that of lustrating and refining thc chyle, to the liver. The
,yecond, or that of Sanguification, is assigned to the mesentel'Y,
the thoracic dud, and again to thc liver. These members in­
troduce the chyle as a bride into the bed of her husband, that
is, into the veins, and to the blood j in order that it may be in­
augurated, copulated, and itself made into blood. The third
department, or that of Purification, is committed to the pan­
creas, the spleen, and here again, to the liver, which correct
the blood of a middle quality, reduce it into salivary juices, and
restorc it to the chylopoietic organs, that is, to the intestines.
But the worthless serum is committed to the kidneys and minary
bladder j and the corresponcling blood, to the gall-bladder, and
to the intestines j and they excrete and e1iminate it. Thus each
member of the abdomen contributes in sorne respect to the
generation and regenel'ation of the blood, and each in its place,
and by its office, takes part in the everlasting eircle. Henee aIl
their rcgards are directed to the blood, which is the common ob­
ject of the abdominal viscera.
329. The case is différent in EMllRYOS, which pass an inno­
cent, golden, and searcely personal life, in thc womb, and
neither generate nor produce blood from new chyle, but elect
and suck it,-ready filtered and lustratecl in the placcnta, the
umbilical veins, and the liver,-immediately from the maternaI
store (f) j and simply transfer it into the nascent viscera j whose
incernicula or strainers sift the blood from the serum, and sepa­
rate both into their eomponent parts j which, aguin reuniting,
they remit, through a short passage, into a simple gyre. This
office is enjoinecl upon the liver and the l'enal capsules. But in
case anything spurious, or of no use to the genuille blood, should
be intermingled in the eurrent, with the serum, and not be
intercepted in the strainers or pipes by the veins, nor transude
or be driven through the parietal fOl'amina j and should it con­
sequently not be raised and sublimated through the lanuginous
or downy tissue, to thc surface of the viscus,-whether the

in preparing the chyle, see the Chapters on the Liver, the Pancreas,
and the Spleen.
(f) These sllbjeets will be explained more fully in Part V.
 EPlI,OGUE. 513

stomach, the liver, the gall-bladder, the pancreas, the spleen,

or the kidneys,-and so not reach the cells of the perito­
nreum (g),-in this case it descends to the excretory outlets:

(g) Throughout our expositions hitherto it has been stated, and,

as 1 believe, proved from experience, that the innermost membranes of
an the abdominal viscera, are not only covered with an infinity of little
venous orifices, but are also perforated with immense numbers of other
foramina, (this is conspicuously the case in the stomach and intestines) j
and that these little foramina communicate with the outermost coat,
where the)' meet a cellular tissue which is continuous with the cellular
tissue of the peritonreum. The consequence of this structure is,
firstly, that the most refined humors are part1y absorbcd by the little
lips of the vcins, and partly expressed through the littlc foramina into
this cellular tissue, whence they arc sent forth to describe a certain
field and circle throngh the peritonreum. And secondly, that all the
humors secreted from the blood, and passed throngh the little tubes,
are likewise either reabsQrbed by the veins in these exceedingly narrow
passages, or transuded and expressed in the form of vapor through the
cribrous membranes of the parietes: the minute tubes having thus the
same nature irnprinted upon them as the large cavities. This is very
conspicuous in the liver and spleen, and particularly in the kidneys.
Surrounding these tubes there is an nninterrupted cellular down, which
is continued from the minutest interstices all the way to the surface j
so that wherever the humor escapes or is expressed from the tubulj, it
rises as on wings towards the surface of the viscus, where it is partly
taken up by the lymphatics, and partly effnsed into the continuous cel­
lular passages of the peritonreum. From these facts, founded upon
observations, it necessarily follows, that in the primeval or embryonic
state, whatever, either in the great cavities or canals, or in the small
cavities and tubuli, is not intercepted by the little veins, and sent
through the parietal fOl'amina, pursues its way naturally along the
course of the cavity, canal, or tubulus,-as for instance, from the sto­
mach tawards the intestines; likewise, from the liver, the gall-bladder,
and the pancreas, through their ducts, and again through the ductus
cholidochus into the duodenum, and thence into the ileum, the cœcum,
and the colon; that is, to the places of excretion: likewise, from the
kidp.eys, through the ureters, inta the urinary bladder; and so in all
other parts. Such is the origin of the glutinous humor, the meco­
nium, and the urinous fluid in the fœtus. In order therefore that such
meconium ancl urine may not so increase in quantity as actually to open
VOL. 1. L L
514 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

hence the glutillous humor in the fœtal stomacb, the meconium

in the intestines, in the large intestines particularly, and in the
vermiform appendix; the scanty portion of urinous fluid in the
bladder, &c.
330. The case is different again in different living creatures,
-both in tbose which walk, or creep, and in those which fly,
or swim. In each, the nature of the soul determines the nature
of the blood, which acts as the soul's vicegerent in the ultimates
of the kingdom, that is to say, in the body: and the nature of
the blood that is about to be formed, determines a strong desire
for food of a cOrTesponding nature: and the nature of the blood
and the food together, produces a corresponding structure in
the viscera which prepare the chyle from the food, and the
blood from the chyle. In minute reptile and winged creatures,
this structure is most simple, merely a web woven in the loom
of interior nature, so naked as to be perfectly tra~sparent,
and with no swathings or coverings,-no manifold composition
of fibres,--to entangle or intercept the sight. Let us then
compare these small things with large, for the sake both of con­
firmation, and of informing ourselves respecting the variety of
nature's ways.
331. The PEDICULUS or louse, as appears from its anatomy,
lives for scarcely any other object than the indulgence of the
gullet and the stomach; for the latter, together with the intes­
tines, fills and distends the gTeater part of its molecular frame (h).
From these creatures it is perfectly manifest, that a vermiculaI'

or burst the locks'at the ends of the canals, none but select and well­
filtered blood is allowed to be emulged by the embryo from the womb,
nor is the blood thus purified suffered to be infested and defiled during
uterine life by any emotions of the body, the senses, the animus, or the
mind.
(h) See Swammerdam's Biblia Naturœ, p. 74-80, and tab. ii.,
fig. 3, 6; also our Chapter on the Stomach, n. 91. To understand
the remarks which follow, the reader ought to have our author's Biblia
Naturœ at hand; otherwise the meaning will be obscure. In the work
alluded to, Swammerdam shews that this ignoble animalcule leads a
most low and earthy life,-that it lives for the body and the belly only;
as indeed is- the case with aIl the worm tribe, before they assume the
form of nymphs or crysallises, and before they are fumished with
 EPILOGUE. 513

and peristaltic motion passes continuonsly from the gullet ta

the stomach, and from the stomach to the smaU and large
intestines, but interrupted according to the articulations and
intervening spaces of the canal (i) : and that this their motion
coincides exactly with the respiratory motion of the lungs; and
both, \Vith the animatory motion of the brain, anù with the
systaltic motion of the spinal marrow; for a complete system of
pulmonary pipes permeate's and almost constitutes the tunics of
these canals, and even performs the motive offices of a muscle;
the gullet also lies close to the brain, and the stomach, to
the spine (k). Further, that aU these guts or swallows are

wings: when this happens, they rise from the earth, and are carried
inta the atmosphere as their celestial aura.
(i) For the louse has a gullet, a stomach, a smaU intestine, a colon,
and a rectum; also a pylorus, and articulations similar to those of more
perfect creatures. "The œsophagl.ls," says Swammerdam, "is a very
small canal, which terminates in the stomach. * * * At the lower region
of the stomach is seen the pylorus, and immediately after this the small
intestine; which is dilated here and there, and formed like the sto­
mach: after this appears the colon, and at the end of the colon there is
a manifest dilatation, which is the cloaca: below the cloaca is the
rectum." (Bib. Nat., p. 75. n.) The motion also of these parts was
perfectly apparent, for as our esteemed al.lthor says, "The motion of
the stomach is truly wonderful; insomuch that, by reason of its strong
agitations, contractions, dilatations, corrugations, and expansions, (which
are plainly seen through the hody, and strike one with amazement,) one
might suppo~e it an animal within an animal. It is sometimes observed,
that the remainder of the old aliment is mixed with the new food, and
shaken and agitated up and down, and on every side, in the stomach."
(Ibid., p. n.) That the same is the case in the stomachs of larger
animaIs, and in the human stomach, may be seen in our Chapter on
the Stomach. But in the instance before us, these actions take place
still more readily, both because the fahric is simpler, and because the
stomach sends two processes into the chest, (see ibid., tab. ii., fig.
3, k, le,) by means of which it ohtains a power of expansion, and of
adaptation to every space; for these processes are in a manner general
respondents, which swell up as the stomach contracts, and vice versa.
(k) That the pulmonary pipes, that is, the ramifications of the tra­
chea, so completely pervade the coats of the stomach and intestines, as
apparently to constitllte the very texture of the external coat, is thus
LL 2
Gl(; THE ANI~AL KINGDOM.

pliable, contractile and expansile, iuto every possible form of

motion, and can make use of any form, with strength, ease
and freedom (l). Also, that the stomach is fnrnished with a
salivar}' spring of its own, placed in its own cavity, and which
irrigates and washes the materials of the food, suitably to ail

stated by onr author. "The external cgat of the stomach," says he,
" is furnished with so great a number of pulmonary pipes, as can hardly
be expressed in words .... The small intestine is also provided with a
great many pulmonary pipes." (Ibid., p. 76, 77.) Ifthen this coat be
endowed with these pulmonary ramifications and tracheal pipes, and al­
most entirely cOl11posed of them; and if they are constantly being filled
with the air of the lungs, it follows as a matter of course that the
stomach and lungs cannot possibly be carried away by contrary torrents
of motion. See our deelaration respecting the similar coincidence between
the motions of the stomach and lungs in more perfect animais, in the
Chapters on the Stomach and Intestines. In fact, if we consider duly
the nl,lmberless ramifications of the pulmonary pipes in insects, it would
appear that they perform the office of musclliar fibres; for they expand
theil' little tubes in the same manner as muscle expands dming the action
of its motive fibres; thus they sil11ilarly extrude and draw back the coat
lying under them, or constructed of thel11, precisely as the veriest
butterflies' willgS: respecting which subject we shall speak in our next
Part. For in those insects in which, according to our authOl', "the blood
is like cow's milk, and consists of pellucid globules" (Rib. Nat., p. 69),
and consequently is not of such a nature that it can flow in and out of
the fibres with a l'apidity proportioned to the rapid momenta of the
nervous fibre,-in those insects, the motive fibres appear to be sup­
planted by pulmonary pipes; particularly since, according to Swam­
merdam, no muscular coat of the stomach has been discovered in them :
but of these snbjects we shaH speak at greater length elsewhere. That
this motion coincides also with the animatory motion of the brain, may
in sorne measure be inferred from the contiguity of the gullet and the
brain, and from the coutiguity of the stomach and the spinal mar­
row. But solitary proofs are never sufficient,-numbers and combination
are always reqnisite. Respecting the contiguity of the guHet to the
brain, our author says, "The gullet is a very small canal, situated
a little behind the eyes, where it seems to be carried up above the
brain." (Ibid., p. 75.)
Cl) See note Ci), just above, and the delineations by our author of
the forms of the stomach when in motion, Bib. Nat., tab. ii., fig. 6.
 EPILOGUE. 517

the digestive motions (In). That prenxed to the large intestille~,

just at their place of articulation with the small intestines, a
number of cœcal or vermiform appendages are inserted-the
vasa varicosa-which sprinkle in a liquid menstrunm, for mace­

(m) There is a little glandular body concealed in the stomach,

which our author regards as supplying the place of the pancreas, but
Hooke considers that it performs the office of the liver. That in its
way it resembles both, appears from a comparison of the organs of
chylification, sanguification, and purification, in simple animaIs, \Vith
the organs of the same functions in more perfcct animaIs. For the
liver, besides purifying the blood, and bestowing the purified portion
upon the chyle, in order that it may be agllin inaugurated into the
blood, also pours the part that is still susceptible of correction, into its
salivary juicc, that is, into the hcpatic bile, in order that it may scrve
as a salivary menstruum for the intestines. The same is the case with
the pancreas: it remits the thiekened blood and serum, similarly eor­
rected, into the pancreatic juice, and sends it forth into the duodenum
by a duct similar to that by which the liver sends forth the hcpatic bile.
Inasmuch, then, as both the hepatic bile and the pancreatic juice are
salivary menstrua, therefore this single organ herc cnclosed in thc sto­
mach, may scrve for both liver and pancreas; particularly since the
blood of this animalcule does not require to be claboratcd by any very
operose process, or in any great quantity. Thus both these YÏscera­
the liver and the pancreas-seem to be here combincd in onc; that is
to say, in the before-mentiolled glandular organ, which pcrhaps also
supplies the place of the sali\'ary glands of both the ulOuth and œso­
phagus. Hence this organ has its pInce iu thc stomach itself, in which
ail the salivary streams arc also eonccutratecl in more perfeet animaIs;
and consequently it supplies the place at once of the liver and paucrcas,
in order that a similar sali"ary juiee Illay f10w down into the small in­
testine, which is perfectly continuous \Vith the stomach; first, howcvcr,
heing a11 poured out ovcr thc alimentary mass. "Nearly in the middle
of the stomach of the lause," says Swammcrclam, "there is a certain
corpuscule, whicb Hooke apprehends may be the liver; but l should
rathel' take it to bc t.lle pancreas. Its color is somewhat inclinillg to
citrine )'ellow. It is strongly connected to t.he stomach. If it be
placed under the microscop(', it lIlay easily bc divided into many little
grains, like glands, but tbcsc arc not very trallsparent. Pulmonary
pipes al80 appear in it," &c. (Ibid., p. ïG, and tab. ii., fig. :l, ln; also the
Chapter on the Lil'er in this Work, n. 1!J~.) Thus this eonglomerate
518 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

rating the exhausted food in the colon (n). Lastly, that the
chylified essences do not pass through any elaborate filters or lus­
tratory Ql'gans, but immediately through glands planted in the
coat of the stomach, and thus through a brief venous course,
into the comparatively ignoble blood (0). Thus what is made
into chyle, is instantly made into hlood, and what is made inta
blood, is purified by the glandular corpuscule placed inside the
stomach itself,-and which may be considered as either the liver
or the pancreas (p),-and is thus a second time made inta chyle.
Such appears to be the gyre of the generation and regeneration
of the blood, in the pediculus.
332. But in no species of living creatures have we a clearer
or more distinct manifestation, or better means of judging, of
the general use of the viscera, than in the testacea, where the

gland is excited ta motion by the stomach, in the saUle manner as the

parotid and other glands are excited ta motion by the tangue and
palate, according ta our explanation in Chapters 1. and II.
(n) Respecting these vessels, of which insects gencrally have four,
sec Swammerdam, Bib. Nat., tab. ii., fig. 3, ppp p. "At the end
of this small gut," says he, c~ are discovered four little vcssels, called
by Malpighi, in the silk-worm, vasa varicosa. They are of considerable
length, and of the same structure as the intestines. These are the
four intestina cœen, which are found in 0.11 insects. They open into the
intestine from ,~hencc they arise: after these cornes the colon." (Ibid.,
p. 77.) They are very similar ta the vermiform proeess, which is dou­
ble in fowls, and multiple in sorne fishes. That thcy supply a liquid
for m1aeerating the refuse of the food, see Chapter V., on the Intestines,
n. 138.
(0) Re.specting these glands, our author says, cc The coats eonsist
of a vast quantity of globular granules, which are, however, irregular
in form; the greatest part of thcm, when onen touched, cornes off
from the stomach." (Bib. Nat., p. i6.) That thesc glandular con­
geries adhere very slightly to the coats, and nevertheless are allUndantly
furnished with fibres and absorhents, see Lecnwenhoek above, n. 120:
particularly in worms, in which similar glandular and villous coats are
generally cleared away about the time the worms change into nyrnphs
and butterflies; and this, in arder to prepare the IVay for a new regene­
ration of the blood, and a ne'" kind of corporeal life.
(p) See note (m), above.
 EPILOGUE. 519

external covering or shell is twisted and drawll out into spires

corresponding to the very gyres of the governing nature,-as in
verticilli or turbines, pinnre, nautili, cornua ammonis, penicilli,
conchre, and the various species of volutre and snails. For the
common covering, formed to the meaSUl'e and rule of nature,
whether such covering be a skin or a shell, gives to the parts or
members which it circumscribes, a more suitable and regular
situation, connexion, mutual relation, field of action, and con­
sequently motion; which considered together, calI forth and
represent the idea of use in a comparatively simple and perfect
manner. But it will be sufficient to examine the interiors of
one species only. In the COVERED SNAIL-that species which
lives in vineyards (q)-the intestines are observed to be circum­
voluted iuto a perfectly spiral gyre, for they follow the helix or
spiral of the shell (r). The mesentery is identical with the liver,
and even with the pancreas, and placed in the very top or centre
of the whole, that is to say, in the apex of the cone (8). Both

(q) Respecting the covered snail, see Swammerdam, Bib. Nat., p.

123-125; and tab. v., fig. 6, 7, 8: &So, our Chapter on the Stomach,
n. 91, and on the Liver, n. 198.
(r) That in man, animaIs, and birds, the intestines are eonvoluted
into a perpetual-circular or spiral gyre, and that the principles of the
causes of digestion, and the proportions and rationale of the digestive
motions, must be referred to the properties of this form, see our
Chapter on the Intestines. We have a particular confirmation of the
correctness of these views, in the gyration of the intestines in snails,
where the spire is penectly regular, and follows the spiral revolutions
of the shell. "The liver of the covered snail," says Swammerdam,
"with the intestines, completes the spiral of the body, * * * making
convolutions corresponding to two or three of its turnings." (Bib.
Nat., p. 123, 124.)
(s) This organic and glandular body which we name the liver, is
surrounded and intercepted by the intestines, and enelosed in the same
manner as the mesentery in more perfect animaIs. "The liver of the
covered snail," says Swammerdam, "with the intestines, completes the
spiral of the body. It is divided into diyers lobes, according to the
different course of the intestines, which make as many deprcsslons on
it as they have turnings and windings." (Ibid., p. 123; and n. 198
above.) That the mesentery, and particularly the cisterna mesenterii
520 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

the stomach, the intestines, the liver, and aH the other organs,
here act, constrict, expand and digest, manifestly under the
auspices of the pulmonic or respiratory motion, and by virtue
of the assistance derived therefrom, express the contents of the
beHy, as in large animaIs they express the fœces: for the air is
taken in undel' the shell, round the whole circumference of the
body, near the orifice for the discharge of the fœces (t). A
gland, made up of two parts, and divided into lobules and
fringes, supplies both the gullet and stomach with an abundance

or receptaculum chyli, resides in the centre of the whole body, (like the
corpuscule here spoken of,) see above, n. 148 and 154. And inasmuch
as the mesentery and the liver perform paraUel and social offices; that
is to say, inasmuch as they both transport the chyle of the stomàch
and intestines into the veins, the former, by way of the lymphatics,
into the vena cava superior, the latter, by \Vay of the veins, into the
vena cava inferior, therefore in this comparatively simple reptile, a sin­
gle organ discharges the offices of both; just as in birds, in which aU
the chyle passes by way of the blood, and afterwards by way of the
liver, into the "eins. This organ also assumes the office of the pan­
creas,-it eructates a salivary juice through a number of ducts into the
intestines.
(t) This is better seen in the snail than in any other animal: for in
this creature, the air is introduced by an orifice not far from the orifice
by which the alvine fœces are discharged; and thus introduced, is con­
veyed aU over the circumference of the body, even towards the inte­
riors; so that the animal, by making m:e of the enclosed air, is enabled
to extrude itsclf entirely from the she11. "The verge or Ep," says
Swammerdam, "which surrounds the whole body of the snail, is con­
nected very closel)' to the extremit.y of the sheU, both externa11y and
internaUy. Underneath the right side of the beUy it has a remarkable
aperture, which serves to take in air; besides whicb, it has another, to
discharge the fœces. As the snail ro11s its body out of the sheU, so in
proportion it drives the air into the cavity of the verge." (Bib. Nat., p.
111, 112.) Thus it is manifcst, that the air in the lungs makes common
cause in constricting and dilating both the stomach and iutestines, and
the other viscera, abdominal and thoracic; and that it concurs to a11
the general actions of t.he body, (exactly according to our declaration in
t.he Analyses of the viscera,) particulnrly ta the discharge of the freces
and urine. Sec our Chapter on the Urinary Bladder.
 EPILOGUE. 521

of saliva (u). The liver itself supplies the intestines through a

sort of ductus cholidochi (x). Further, a glutinous humor is
deposited in a certain bladder, termed the saccus calcarius, and
with this humor the last fmces are moistened: perhaps aIso the
slime on the depressed and hollow surface of the suail is derived
from this source (y). From these particularswe may readiIy

(u) Our author thus describes this gland. "Two beautiful vessels,"
says he, "mn along the stomaeh and the gullet, and discharge them­
selves iuto the upper part ot' the palate. On the inside they are hollow,
and contain a clear liquor, which they diseharge by two small apertures
into the mouth; they are, therefore, salivary ducts. They arise from
two small, clear and snowy parts, joined together in the middle, and
di\;ded into various lobuli or fringes. These little parts are laterally
counected with the stomaeh by several vessels, which look like so many
delicate filaments. Thcy are not fatty, for thcy are not inflammable,
or melted by hcat." (Bib. Nat., p. 124, 12.5.)
(x) "The livcr," says our author, "is very full of vessels; and it
has itsparticnlar ductus cholidochi, whieh diseharge themselves into
the intestincs without any intcrmecliate gall-bladder; in the same man­
ner as in horses, pigeons, &c. The bile of the snail is not remarkably
bitter." (Ibid., p. 123.)
(y) The most likely conclnsion from comparative anatomy respect­
ing this saeculus, appears to be, that it is at once thc renal gland and
the bladder, and secretes the urinous and glutinous serum, and dis­
charges it by way of the rectum along with the freces. For aeeording
to our anthor, this animal is polyphagous, and a quantity of undigested
chyle entcrs its blood, not passing through pulmonary vesicles, but
only through a littIe heart of very simple construction; whenee the
blood in its tardigrade, eold, and slimy body, is to the highest degree
phlegmatic, and a part of it requircs to be excreted t.o make the l'est
suitable and servieeable to the sensory and motory organs. " The
blood of the snail," says our author, "is whitish, somewhat inelining
ta bIue." (Ibid., p. 119, 120.) But as there is a perpetuai chain of uses
in the animal kingdom, sa even the exerementitious part of this serum
appears to he expended on the ultimate use of moistening the freees,
and perhaps of yiclding the slimy matter whieh eonstantly covers the
concave portion of the animal, and by t.he assistance of whieh it adheres
ta the various hranehes and stalks in its way: although its very skin is
full of glanrls from which a similar viscid slime eXildes. Respceting
t.his little vesicle or bladder, our aut.hor says, "The saccus calcarius
522 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

understand the circ1e, order, and mode, wherein chylification,

sanguification, and purification are perfor.med in the simple
fabric of this little creature :-we may understand that the
chyle, prepared in the stomach and intestines, with the assist­
ance of the saliva, by gentle motion and friction (z), is sub­
mitted to a general organ, which may be considered as the liver ;
and through this gate, as in more perfect animaIs, passes into
the blood, and from it, as a common centre, migrates and ra­
mifies over the whole circumference; also, that the antiquated
and mediastinal or worthless blood is recalled to the liver and
the salivary gland (a), in order to be purified, and in order,­
after it has served as a menstrullm and hymeneal medium to the
chyle,-to be regenerated.
333. In the cossus or VERlUS SCARABAu-the worm of the
rhinoceros beetle (b)-which lives upon hard wood and sumach,

discharges itself into a pretty large duct, which runs near the rectum,
and, in my opinion, opens into it: and accordingly we flnd a calcareous
matter sometimes mixed with the cxcrements. It exhibits a glandular
structure, and as it abounds with grey calcareous humor, hence it al­
ways renders water turbid." (Ibid., p. 122.) Similar bladders are also
found in sorne insects, and the fluid which thcy contain serves to agglu­
tinate the insects themselves, or their eggs, to walls. But this bladder,
inasmuch as it is of a glandular structure, seems to resemble both
bladder andkidney. These points, however, had better be committed
to the exploration of a future age.
(z) Inasmuch as the structure of the intestines has a perfectly spiral
circumvolution, and the intestines themselves are excited so immedi­
ately by the air of the lungs ; also, il1asmllch as the stomach is provided
besides with muscular fibres.
(a) That a great part of the blood flows to this common organ, as
ta the liver and pancreas in more pcrfect animaIs, is evident from our
author's description. "The liver, " says he, "is very full of vessels.
It seems to consist of small equidistant granules. It is of a dark brown
color, a little approaching to green." (Ibid., p. 123.) Respeeting the
glands which are the common sources of the saliva, our author says,
"A beautiful Ettle vesse! l'uns over their whole surfaee, and gives a
great many branches to each of them." (Ibid., p. 12-1.)
(b) Respectil1g this \yorm, see Swal1lmerdam, ibid., p. .313, 314,
.115, tab. xxvii., fig. l l, 12; ann our Chaptrr on the Stomach, n. 9 J.
 EPILOGUE. 523
we find a more remarkable structure in the organs that reduce
the aliment into chyle, the chyle into blood, and the blood again
into chyle. The ventricular cavities are both larger and more
numerous, united together by short and narrow tubuli, and
crowned and beset with ducts opening inwards in various direc­
tions and eruetating a salivary humor (c): besides which, at
the lower part of the stomach, near the pyloms, there are cer­
tain little crecal intestines, or fistulœ varicosœ (d). AlI these
chylopoietic organs are so eonstructed, plaeed in sueh successive
order, and irrigated by sneh numerous salivary streams and

But the strllctnre of this stolllach cali scarcely be comprehendcd from

any mere description: it ought to be seen in the figure.
(c) On these subjects, our author says, cc 'l'he stomach [of the
cossus] is \'ery narrow where it fOl·ms the gullet; a little after it ex­
pands, until it makes its upper orifice, answering to the œsophagus.
In that part, the stomach is armeù \Vith about seventy little tooth-like
processes. These are divided into six rows; of which the two upper
ones point inwards, but thc other four point partly forwards, partly
backwards. Ali these tooth·like tubuli open into the stomach, in the
same manner as the appendages, or the pancreas in fishes, opens into
the intestines: each opens separately into an ecphysis, as in the salmon.
A little lower down, the stomach is rendered conspicuous by twenty-two
whitish, glandular tubes, with their ends directed backwards. Finally,
about the lower part of the stomach, a little abo\'e the beginning of the
pylorus, we again observe thirty such tubes, which open into the
stomach in this situation, with their ends pointing forwards," &c.
(Bib. Nat., p. 313, 314.) But a still better idea may be obtained from
Swammerdam's Figures and his descriptions thereof; where we shall find
that the gullet is small at first, and afterwards dilates like a bell: that
it is succeeded by the narrow superior orifice: and this immediately, by
the upper part of the stomach, of an interrupted cylindrical form; this
again, by a narrow orifice: that after this, the stomach is of considera­
bIc length ; being followed by the small intestine, which ends in another
of large size, that may be termed the colon: this ends in the rectum,
which is incurvated and reflected towards the stomach.
(d) Respecting these little cώal intestines, which are four in
number, see our author, ibid., p. 319. And that in the cœca of the
worm of the bec, he found coagulated excrements, ibid., p. 415. Hence
it follows, that these cœca, like the liver and gall-bladder, are designed
for excreting the sCOl·ire of the blood.
52'.{. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

rivers, in order tu enable them to scrape down, shave, levigate,

corrode, reduce and dissolve, the barrell, juiceless, and crude
aliment upon which the creature lives (e); and this, by continuaI
agitation, elixation, and maceration; that is to say, by repeated
aets of kneading, stirring and cleansing, and by repeated changes
of place, and supplies of morc active menstrua. Chylification
is performed in this manner. But what is chylified, seems to
he immecliately absorbed by the venous orifices, and by the
glands; and this constitutes Sanguification. 'l'he sanguified
product again, is refullded into the numberless glalldular ducts,
and this constitutes Puri;fication, 01' new Chylification. The in­
ference deducible from these anatomical phenomena, is, that the
numerous tubular appcndages and intestinula cœca, sustain the
office of both livcr and pancreas, and also of salivary glands.
Circumstances, however, are altercd when the worm rises out
of this obscurc and simply vegetative and corporeal life, and
is intoduced into the freer and less limited life which it leads as
a scarabœus (f).
334. But it is useless to prosecute the subject into further
details; for the variety is infinite; there is no conceivable differ­
ence in any particular whatever, nor any intermediate distinction
between di.fferences, which does not actually exist. The nature
of the principle, capable of assuming ail possible varieties or
changes of state, represcnts this immense diversity of images in
ultimates, and thcreby bcwilders humall minds,-which scarcely
know anything beyolld what thc eye can see, or transcend the
common boundaries of vision,-and astounds them with appa­
rent prodigies (g). N evertheless, in ail thcse infillite varieties,

(e) Namely, the wood and sumach. "The stomach," says Swam­
merdam, "is found distendcd and filled with chewed wood and sumach."
(Ibid., p. 313.)
(f) l'hat this worm leads only a ventricular and nutritive life, is
evident from our author's description. "The cossus," says he, "is
almost filled by the stomach." (Ibid., p. 313.) Respecting the sto­
mach and intestines of the scarabœus or beetle iuto which the cossus
changes, sec ibid., p. 319, tab. xxviii., fig. :J.
Cr;) In mi.nute reptiles, for instance, in littlc ""0 rms, whose whole
bodies searcely occupy a single ray of our vision, we meet with more
varicties than in ail the genera and species of larger animaIs: for these
 EPILOGUE. 525

there is one thing intended, or one universal end; which end is,
that a certain deputy and vicegerent something may exist and
act in the body, and be the immediate agent of the soul's

little creatures are the play of nature in her simpler sphere, and in that
midway where she acts with perfect freedom: where no impediment
arises from gravity, (which increases gradually in proportion to the
descent to ultimates and composites;) for a force the most active-the
principle of gravity-here rules in ail the parts and connexions of parts,
as in its own peculiar sphere: where also no obstacle is prescnted, of
forms made up of gross muscular fibres, filaments, cartilages, bones,
and the like, put together in ail sorts of ways, and which naturally in­
volve rest, torpor, or vis inertiœ: where consequently there is no hin­
drance from bulk or mass,-nor from the general product of ail these
circumstances,-the forcible separation of the last things from the first.
Now inasmuch as in these most simple animalcules, nature takes her
own course with absolute freedom, there~ore of consequence infinite
variety is possible in them; and that such variety actually exists, is
evident from their anatomy, as pursued by men of the greatest experi­
mental genius. Not to repeat what we have brought forward already,
there are sorne creatures whose stomachs are provided with little teeth
and saws, with which they comminute and grind their hard food-even
mud, gravel, and the like-as in a miU; abrading its angles by friction
and delay, and reducing ail irregular pieces and refuse globules with
the most suitable menstruum, which their organs prepare in the most
skilful manner. There are other creatures again, as the working bees,
and other nimble honey-suckers, which in their stomachs not only refine
the chyle, and convert it instantaneously into blood; but also prepare
a store of future chyle or pabulum. There are others which consume
and ruminate the rudc and primitive chyle, and mingle it occasionally
with new chyle: others, which frequently recal the food itself, and
transmit it from one stomach to another, according to every state of
requirernent and digestion. In a word, there are infinite varieties, aU
arising, as we before pointed out, from the state of the essences of
prior nature. By an infinity of phenornena we are presented with the
following Truth,-That to the highest and simplest Nature, as she
descends by means provided, through many degrees of composition,
into the u1tirnate world, ail things accommodate themselves, so that
nothing can prevent her from producing a plenary image of herself in
ultimates. Thus it is an everlasting truth, that the Spiritual World
holds the physical and material world at its beck and nod, subject and
perfectly ready to yield it aU manner of obedience.
526 THE ANIMAL KINGOOi\l.

behests therein, instead of the soul itself, and yet act under the
auspices of the soul: this something is the blood. But the uni­
versaI medium for the creation of the blood, is the food and
aliment, from which, as a beginning, an entire series of means
is described, which series ellds in the blood, and commences
from the blood. 'l'he instrumental causes, which in the living
body are termed organs, are in a similar series j and they are
the viscera, those of the abdomen particularly, by whose mi­
nistrations, this illustrious offspring, th~ blood, with respect to
its corporeal part, is gellerated, formed, and l:>orn. These viscera
constitute the lowest region of their body or world, as it were,
an earth or ground, which, to pursue the. analogy, produces
from the food certain noble progellY, as it were, trees and
shrubs. On the other hand, the viscera of the thorax, which
constitute the middle region,-as the lungs, with their air and
respiration,-press and actuate the illferior viscera, as the atmo­
spheres press and actuate the earth. But we have sufficiently
cultivated the present ground: we shall now therefore pass on
to the higher or thoracic sphere.

END OF PART I.
 SCIENTIFIC WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

Parts Il. and III. of the ANIMAL KINGDOM are already translated, and will be
put to press as soon as the requisite number of Subscribers is procured.
CONTENTS:

Part II.-Chapler 1. The Dose and the uvula. 2. The larynx and the epiglottis. J. The tracbea.
4. The lungs. 5. The pleura, mediastinum, and pericardium. 6. The thymus gland. 7. Tbe ditl­
phragm.-EpiJogue.
Part Ill.-Prologue.-Cbapter 1. The skin and the sense of toneh. Organic forms generally.
The ,ense and seD90rium of louch in particular. The use of tOl\ch. 2. The sense of taste.

IN THE PRESS,

(Trantllatedfrom the Latin by the Rev. Augustus Clissold, A.M.,)

THE PRINCIPIA.
CONTENTS:
Part I.-Chapter 1. The means of attaining to a true philosophy, and the character of the true
philosopher. 2. The firat Dlltural pOlot, and iu existence (rom the Infinite. 3. The first. or simple
Onile. 4. The second finite j abo generically on the active of the first finite. ~. Specifically on
tbè active of the first Onite. 6. The fint element of the mundaoe system. 1. The actives of tbe
second and third finitc. 8. The third fioite, or substantial. 9. The second, or magnetic elemem
of tbe mundane system. 10. The existence of the sun, and the formation of a solar vortex:.
Part II.-Chapter 1. The causes and meebanism of the magnetle forces. 2. The attractive
forces of magnets. 3. The same wb en the pol es art;} alternated. 4. The attractâve forces at the
magnetâc eqnators. 5. The repulsive forces of magnets. 6 The forces of attraction betweeo the
magoet and irone 1. The influence of the magnet upon ignited irone S. The penetration ofeffluvia
through metals. 9. Chemical experiments upon the magnet. 10. The friction of iron opoo the
magoet. Il. The conjuoctâve force between the magnet and pieces of iron. 12. The motion of
the magnetic needle. 13. The modes of rendering iron magnetic. 14. The dedinationa of the
magoet reduced to clllcnlatioD UpOD the foregolng principles. 1~. The causes of the declination of
the magnet. 16. CaicullltioDS of the declination of the magoet.
Part lll.-Chapter 1. Comparison of the sidereal heavens with the magnetie sphel·e. 2. The
div~r:sities of wOl'lds. 3. Resumptioo of the argument on the fourth flnite. 4. The solar aod pla·
netary chao.. 5. Elber. 6. The firth finite. T. Air. 8. Fire. 9. Waler. 10. Aqueous vapo.".
Il. The progression of the earth from the fOnn to its 6nal orbite 12. Paradi~e and the fint created
homan being.

PREPARING FOR IMMEDIATE PUBLICATION,

(Translatedfrom the Latin oy the Rev. Augustus Clissold, A.M.,)

THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
CONTENTS:

Treatise I.-Chapter 1. The composition and genuiue essence of the blood. 2. The arteries,
veins, tbeil' coats, antl the circulation of tbe blood. 3. The formation of the chick in ovo, and the
rudiments of the arteries, vetos, and beart. 4. Tbe circulation of the blood. in the fœtus: the fora~
men ovale, and the ductus arteriosus of the embryonic and infantile heart. 5. The heart of the
marine tortoi~e. 6. The atrteries, veios, aod coronary vessels of the heart. 1. The motion of the
heart of the adulte 8. Introduction to a ratiocinative psychology.
Treatise JI.-Chapter 1. The motion of the brain,-shewing that it possesses an animlltory
wotion whkh coincides with the respiratory motion of the.lungs. 2.. The specific nature of the
cortical substance of the brain. 3. The human soule

These Works will be printed uniform wlth Part 1. of the ANIMAL KINGDOM.
a:
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 THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

CONSIDERED

ANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY.

BY

EMANUEL SWEDENBORG,
LATt Ml':MDEIl. OF TRI< QOt/U: 0" f'WIILI:.!1 IN TUB ROYAL DIl':1' 01' SWEDE'S,

ASSESSOII 01' TtfY. ROYAL lIJ;TAJ,J.1C COI.LItGlt OF l'IWKDE:ol,

FELLQW OF TUR R01:AL ACADKMt 01' SCIE.NCIU 01" UI'8"'1...., A~D or TUE ROYAL ACADEXY OP SCIE1\CES

01' 8TOCKBOLM.
CO&R'ESI'ONDli'I':G MF:M8EIl. 01' TUF, nrrRlllAL ACADEMT 01' lICtY.NC1UI OP St. l'EtlHUDURG.

TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN

BY

JA~'1ES JOHN GARTH WILKINSON,

M.EllBKI\ OP TOE ROYAl. COr.I,RGE OP l'IURGltONS 01' LONDON.

VOLUME II.

LONDON:
W. NEWBERY, 6, KING STREET, HüLBüRN;

H. BAILLIÈRE, 219, REGENT STREET.

OTIS CLAPP, SCHOOL STREET, BOSTON, UNITED STATES.

18'.\4.
 "EO PROVECTI SUMUS UT HODIE AURIS :ET OCULI SENSATIONEM VALVE
SUPRA SEIPSAM, AUT SUPRA NATURALE SUUM ACUMEN, l'ER ARTU'ICIALIA
ORGANA EXALTARE SCIAMUS: JAM SUPERBST, UT ETIAM MENTEM, SEU AUDI ..
TUM ET VISU1\( RATJONALEM."-S'VEDENDORG, ŒCONOMIA REG:Sl .\NIMALlS,
TR. II., N. 207.
"COGITATIO EX oeULO OCCLUDIT INTELLECTUM, AT COGITATIO EX INTEL·
LECTU APERIT OCULUM."-SWEDENDORG, SAPIEN1'IA ANGELICA DE DIVINO
AMORE, N. 46.

I.ONLJO;o.; :

PHI~1'En DY ,VALTON AND Ml'rCIIELI.,

Wanlour·sln~d, Oxfurd·:-.trccl.

 CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

Translator' s Preface ta Parts II. and II 1. vii

PART II.

Chal" 1. The Nase and the Uvula 1

II. The Larynx and the Epiglottis 39

1II. The Trachea 87

IV. The,Lungs 121

V. The Pleura, the MediastinuID, and the Pericardium 214

VI. The Thymus Gland 266

VII. The Diaphragm 294

Epilogue 331

PART III.

Prologue 369

Chal" 1. The Skin and the Sense of Touch 372

Organic Forms generally 463

The Sense and Sensorium of Touch specifically 524

The Use of Touch 555

II. The Sense of Taste 562

Index of Authors 595

Bibliographica1 Notices of Authors 599

Index of Subjects 609

Appendix 653

 TRANSLArrOR'S PREFACE TO PARTS II. AND III.

lN presenting to the public the concluding volume of the

"Animal Kingdom," the translator uas but little to add to
what was specified in the Preface to Part 1. The same princi-
pIes have now guided him throughout in the translation of the
whole work; the same care has been used in verifying the
citations from the old anatomists, and in correcting the refer-
ences with which the work abounds. In Parts II. and III. the
\Vhole of the citations, not excepting those from Winslow, are
in fact translated from the original sources.
In making a quotation, Swedenborg sometimes only gives
an abstract of the passage he professes to eite; sometimes he
gives in his own words the sense of the author; and this, not
seldom very imperfeetly. In aIl such cases one rule has been
obeyed; viz., to follow the original works vel'batim, and if an
additionallength of quotation is necessary to the sense, to makc
it without reserve. In no instance, nowever, has a passage
been shortened, or anything omitted of which Swedenborg has
given an indication.
An Index of Authors is appended; also a short series of
Bibliographical Notices of those authors who espeeially furnish
the anatomical basis of the work. In preparing the Index of
Subjects, the model furnished by Swedenborg himsclf in his ad-
VIII TRANSLATOR'S l'RE FACE TO l'ARTS II. AND Ill.

mirablü index to the" Areana Cœlestia," has been imitatcd as

far as possible. This Index of Subjeets, it is hoped, will be
found not unreadable in a eonneeted form; in whieh case the
perusal of it will furnish a good introduction to the study of the
work itself. Lastly, the translator has had great pleasnre in
inserting the learned Memoir on Swedenborg's Physiological
lVlanuscripts, which was kindly sent to him, in Latin, through
the celeurated Baron Berzelius, by Dr. J. E. Svedbom, Librarian
to the Royal Academy of Sciences of Stockholm. He trusts that
this M:emoir will ineitc the admirers of Swedenborg's worles to
secure the publication of his MSS., and fil'st, perhaps, of that
on the" Cereurum," whieh would have eonstituted Part IV. of
the "Animal Kingdom," had Swedenborg continued his lauors
in the field of scicnce.
The Introductory Remarles, which are intended for insertion
in Volume 1., will, the translator hopes, be of some assistance to
those who havc the best title to expect it, and at the same time
to any scientific reader who is desirous of perusing a slight out­
Ene of Swedenborg's physiological doctrines.
The idea of giving a glossary of obsolete terms has ueen
abandoncd. Any old medical dictionary will supply al! that
could be desircd in this respect. It will be for thc readcrs of
Swedenborg to consider, whether his physiological worles shal!
not be illustrated with an Atlas of Plates from the old anato­
mists: but this can better be settled when the whole of those
works arc in print.
It remains for the translator to make his profound acknow­
ledgments to those numerous fl'iends who have supported him
in the publication of the "Animal Kingdom," and through
whose generous patronage the first volume is now out of print.

13, Store Streel, Ber!lord Square, 1.'lIIdoll.

Sept. 16, 1~lJ.
 THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

CONSII)ERED

ANATOnilCALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY.

PART II.

THE v/seRRA OF THE THORAX, OR THE ORGANS OF THE

SUPERIOR REGION.

 THE ANIMAL KINGDüM.

PART II.

CHAPTER 1.

THE NOSE AND THE UVULA.

335. HEISTER. "The nose is the organ of smell. This part

varies greatly in size and figure in different subjects; it may be either
middling, very large or very small; either handsome or the reverse, or
aquiline, fiat, or depressed. Anatomists divide its parts into external
and internai: to the former class belong the dorsum, the root, t.he
bridge, the point, and the aire or pinnre; the septum dividing the
nose into two cavities, termed nares or nostrils; the hairs, called by
sorne vibrissre, which prevent the involuntary discharge of mucus, and
the entrance of insects into the fauces; the cornmon teguments, epi­
dermis, skin, and fat. The upper part of the nose is rigid, and com­
posed of bones; the lower part is flexible, and made up of a number
of cartilages, muscles, and membranes. The internai parts are the
bones, several of which concur to produce the structure of the nose ; as
the nasal, maxillary, ethmoid or cribriform, spongy, frontal, lacrymal
and palatine bones, the vomer, and the sphenoid bone. The cartilages,
which form the lower part of the nose, are connected by membranes,
in order that the nose may be fiexible in that part. The first of these
cartilages constitlltes the anterior part of the septum narium; there are
also two very considerable cartilages in each of the aire, and between
these there are placed sometimes two, sometimes three, and sometimes
more, of smaller size. The septum narium is cartilaginous in its ante­
rior and lower part, but osseous in its posterior and upper part; and
these parts are connected by strong membranes. There are two pas­
sages from the nostrils into the mouth, designed for the passage of air
VOL. II. PART II. CHAI' I. fi
2 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

and mucus. 'l'hcre arc also sinuses in the maxillary, frontal, and
sphenoid bones, and eells in the ethmoid bone; all of whieh inercasc
the nasal eavity, and tllUS allow of an aclditional expansion of the
pituitary membrane, and augment the sense of smell. There are be­
sides certain incqualities and prominences of the turbinated or spongy
bancs in the eavity of the nares; serving partly for the same purposes,
and partly for prevcnting the passage of inseets ancl eold air into the
fauees.
336. "The nostrils and al! the sinuses and inequalities arc invested
by a soft, red, ancl vaseular membrane, termed the mueous, pituitary, or
Schneiderian membrane, which is the organ of smelling and the place
of secretion of the mueus of the nostrils. The oscula or orifices of the
exeretory duets are very eonspieuous on this membrane, espeeially in
the head of the ox. Under the membrane we observe a nnmber of
little glands, partieularly about the middle septum; these also are de­
signecl for the secretion of mucus. The arteries whieh arc distributed
in prodigious numbers through this membrane, arise from the earotids,
and these too serve for the same secretion. The veins are from the
jugulars, and are intended to retum the superabundanL blood of the
part. The nerves distributed through the pituitary membrane, are,
1. The olfaetory nel'Yes, whieh are of considerable size, yet not so large
as in the lower animaIs; these are supposed to eonstitute the organ of
smcll. 2. Sorne branches of the fifth pair, whieh terminate in the
ltairs or "illi, and are thought br others to perform the sensorial office.
Under the pitllitary lies a thin membrane, whieh lines the bones and
cartilages, and whieh, where it invests the latter, is termed periehon­
drium; where the former, periosteum. The foramina in the nostrils
are, 1. Tl105e .of the frontal, maxillary, and sphenoidal sinuses, and
of the eells of the ethmoid bone, serving for the communication of
these sinuses and eells with the nostrils. 2. The orifices of the lacry­
mal duets, opening iuto the nostrils on both sicles; these arc exeellently
figured by Morgagni. 3. The duets from the two nostrils to the mouth
[palate]; these arc open in the skeleton, and may be seen just behind
the ineisor tceth of the upper jaw; but they ùo not open thither in
either the living or cleacl subjeet, but are aecurately closecl by the mem­
brane of the palate; wherefore the common opinion, that they transmit
mucus from the nostrils into the mou th, appears to be erroneous.
(Camp. Anat., Il. 286.) In my Inst dissecLions l have taken consider­
able pains to scareh for what are termed the duets of Steno, l'Ullning
from the nostrils to the palate, bchincl the incisaI' teeth; but in propor­
tion as the)' are manifest in the skeleton, in the same proportion they
see\ll tu be obscure in the fresh subjeet. l have always indeed found a
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 3

number of rugre and dcpressions behind the incisor teeth; but 1 could
never, either hy me:lllS of a bristlc or of thc finest stylc, such as casily
enters the puncta lacrymalia, makc out any duct or canal running
thence to the nose. After rcmoving the corrugateù membrane of the
palate in this place, the style entered for a short way into an OBseous
canal, along the membrane which l'uns through this canal, but it diù
not penetrate into the nose. And on the other hand, the attempt to
find a passage from the nose into the mouth was eql111lly fruitless; not
even the finest style or bristle could make its way. On these accounts,
1 suspect that this latter membrane, which is vcry strong, is in realit.y
a ligament, serYing to strengthen thc memhrane of thc palate, and con­
ncct it to the bone, and thus to prevent it from being separated therc­
from by hard and rough food, and other sources of injury; which, if
this were not the case, might givc rise to very scrious conscquences.
(Ibid., not. 59.)
33ï. "The ethmoid, or cribriform bone, is the cighth bone of the
eranium. The points whieh it presents for notice, are, its situation;
its extension through the nostrils and orbits; its figure, its connexion,
and its state in infants; its four apophyses,-the crista galli, the upper
part of the septum narium, and the two superior spongy, or, as thcy
are also called, turbinated bones, to which Morgagni has added two
othcr smaller spongy bones; the eribriform, the cavernous, papyraccous
or plane part; and under this, the various littlc sinllscs, diifcring in
figure, size and numher in diiferent subjeets. (Ibid., n. ï2.)
338. "The muscles of the nosc are three pair: two pair of dilators,
and one pair of constrictors. The dilators, which serve also to e1evate
the nose, vary greatly in diiferent subjects; gencrally however there
are two on eaeh side·, although they arc oftcn extremely small: these
are termed the pyramidalis and myrtiformis. The pyramidalis arises
from the root of the nose, and is usually continuous with the frontalis ;
it descends for a short distance at the side of the nosc, and gradually
expanding into a thin membrane, is inserted into the alœ nasi: it often
sends down fibres as far as the upper lip. Thc myrtiformis, or dilator,
strictly so called, arises near thc incisorius of the upper lip, of which
it frequently is but a portion, and is inserted pm'tly into the alœ nasi,
and partly into the upper lip. Thc constrictor, which is not orbicular
in the human suhjcct as it is in various animaIs, is only a small
muscle: it was first described by Cowper, although figured by Eusta­
chius : it arises abovc the incisor teeth of the upper jaw, anù terminates
in the alœ uasi. Santorinus endeavors to shew that it is double, which
1 have also observcd occasionally myself; the orbiclùar muscle of thc
lips greatly assists its action. (Ibid., n. 320.)
112
\' THE ANIMAL KINGDüM.

339. "The U\'ula, cnllcd hy Celsus, uva, by others columella, is a

body of a cylindrical, or ruther of an inverted conical figure, situated
in the back part of the palatc, above the root of the tongue, between
the two arches of the palate and the two tonsils, and hanging from the
velum or claustrum palati. In figure it bears a considerable resem­
blance to the last joint of an il1fant's finger. Its substance is muscular,
surrounded by the glandular membrane of the mouth. It has two
membranous ligaments, by which it is connected to the bones of the
palate. It does not cxist in the 10'1'1'1' animaIs. (Ibid., n. 283.) The
muscles of the uvula are six pairs, and one single mnscle. 1. The
glosso-staphilinus, or glosso-palatinus, arises on each side from the root
of the tongue, ascends towards the palate, and terminates in the velum.
2. The pharyngo-staphilinus arises on each side from the lateral por­
tions of the pharynx, and terminates also in the velum. 3. The thyro­
staphilinus arises from the lateral part of the thyroid cartilage, becomes
broadcr as it ascends towards the uvula, and is inserted in the manner
of an arch into the side of the velum. 4. The spheno-staphilinus of
Cowper, Cant, and others, may be more correctly termed the salpingo­
staphilinus; for in my last investigations, l have found that it arises in
no degree, or at any rate to a very small extent, from the sphenoid
bone, but rather from the posterior part of the tube, and, in fact,
partly from its membranous, partly from its osseous portion; thence it
descends obliquely to the uvula, and is inserted into its posterior part:
hence, if both these muscles act together, they rctract the uvula. 5.
The pterygo-staphilinus arises from the upper part of the pterygoid
process, and from the antcrior part of the tube which is near it;
descends between the two lamelhe of the former, and reflects its tendon
over the thin apàphysis of the interior lamella, as over a kind of pulley,
to the lJ.nterior part of the palatine membrane, into which it is inserted ;
the uvula is, therefore, moved downwards and forwards by this pair.
Valsaiva calls this the new muscle of the tube, although its existence
has long been known: he supposes that its office is to dilate the tube.
6. The palato-staphilinus arises on each side, at the junction of the
bones of the palate; it is broad at its beginning, but after joining its
fcllow muscle it becomes gradually narrower, so as to l'l'semble a tri·
angle, and descends to be insertcd into the upper part of the uvula:
its ection seems to be to draw the uvula upwards and fonvards. 7.
The azygos of Morgagni, placed at the back of the last pair, seems to
arise tendinous from the junction of the bones of the palate, and is ex­
tendcd f1eshy, but thin and round, through the middle of the uvula;
for with the glands and membrane of the mouth, it constitutes the body
of the part." (Ibid., n. 32G.)
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. G

340. WINSLOW." The septum of the nose is formeù by the ùe-

seending lamina of the ethmoiù bone, anù by the vomer, and it is
placed in the groove or channel formed by the cristoo of the maxillary
bones and edges of the palate bones. The dorsum of the osscous part
of the nose is formed by the truc nasal bones; and the sides, by the
superior or nasal apophyses of the maxillary !Jones. The internai
nares, or the two cavities of the nose, comprise the whole of the space
between the external and posterior nares, immediately above the arch
of the palate; from whence these cavities reach upwards as far as the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, where they communicate in
front with the frontal sinuses, and behind with the sphenoidal sinuses.
Laterally, these. cavities are bounded on the inside by the septum na-
rium, and on the outside, or that next the cheeks, by the conchœ,
betwcen which they communicate with the maxillary sinuses. The
particular situation of these cavities deserves our attention: the bottom
of them l'uns directly from before backward, so that a straight anù
pretty large stilet may very easily be passed direct from the tip of the
nose, as far as under the great apophysis of the occipital bone....
The inferior portion of the external nosc is composed of several carti-
lages, which are commonly five in number, and of a pretty regular
figure; the l'est are only accessories, smaller, more irregular, and the
number of them more uncertain. Of the five ordinary cartilages one
is situated in the middle, the other four laterally. The middle carti-
lage is the principal, and supports the l'est. It is connected imme-
diately to the bony parts; the other four are connecteù to the middle
cartilage and to each other by means of ligaments. The principal or
great cartilage of the nose is divided into three parts, one middle and
two lateral. The middle is a large cartilaginous lamina, joined by a
kind of symphysis to the anterior edge of the middle lamina bf thc
ethmoid bone, to the anterior edge of the vomer, and to the anterior
part of the groove formed by the maxillary bones, as far as the nasal
spine of these boncs, and the extremity of thc sub-septum. This la-
mina completes the septum, and indeeù forms the principal part
thereof.... Ali this apparatus of the external nose is covered by the
common integuments, the skin, epidermis, and fat. That which eovers
the tip of the nose and aire narillm, encloses a quantity of glandular
granules, the sebaceous glands of Morgagni, the mattcr of which may
be easily squeezed out by pressure with the nails. Ali the bony and
cartilaginous parts have likewise their periosteum and perichondrium .
. . . The pituitary membrane is that which lines the intcmal nares, the
cellular convolutions, the conchœ, the \Valls of the septum, and by an
uninterrupted continuation, thc inncr surfaec of the frontal and illllXil-
6 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

lary sinuses, and of the ductus lacrymales, palatini and sphenoidales :

it is likewise eontinued fmthcr, from the posterior nares to the pha­
rynx, septum palati, &c. It is termed pituitary, beeause in the greater
part of its extent it serves to separate from the arterial blood a mucila·
ginous lymph, called pituita by thc aneients; and which in the natural
state is pretty liquid, but otherwisc is glutinous and viscid, or some­
times limpid and without consistence, or exhibits other changes; it is
not supplied in equal quantities by the wholc membrane. When wc
carefully examine this mcmbrane, it appears to be of a different struc­
ture in different parts. N car the eùge of thc external nares it is yery
thin, like skin and epidcrmis in a degcncrated state : through the l'est of
its extent it is in general spongy, and more or less thiek. The thickcst
parts are on the pm'ietes of thc septum narium, on the wholc lowcr
portion of the internai nares, and on the eonehre. If we make a small
opening in it with the point of a scalpel in any of these places, and
use the blow-pipe, wc diseover a very extensiye cellular substance. It
appears to be of a more slender texture in the sinuses. On the side
next the periosteum or perichondrium, which it accompanies, it is
covered with glandular granules, the exeretory ducts of which arc very
long near the septum narium, and their orifices very visible; and by
applying a blow-pipe to any of these orifices, the ducts may be inflated
through nearly their whole extent: but in order to this, the parts mnst
first be well cleaned and washed in warm water. In these places espe­
eially, we likewise discover a fine villous substance; but it is not scen
unless the parts be examined in clear water, in the manner whieh l haYe
used in my public courses for abovc twenty years past. The frontal, sphe­
noidal, and maxillary sinuses aIl open into the internai nares, but in dif­
ferent ways. The frontal sinuses open from aboye downwards, answering
to the infundibula of the ethmoid bone. The sphenoidal sinuses open
forwards, opposite to the posterior nares. The maxillary sinuses open
a little higher, between the two conehœ.... The opcming of the max­
ilbry sinuses, which in sorne subjects is single, in otlIers double, lies
exaetly between the two conchre, about the mitldle of the depth of thc
maxillary cavities.... It is proper here to obsen'e exactly the cxtent
uf the maxillary sinus: below, there is a very thin partition betwccn it
and the last four mola!' teeth, thc l'oots of whieh in some subjccts pe­
nctrate thc sinus in this situation. Above, there is only a vcry thin
transparent lamina between the orbit and the sinus. Dehind, above
the tuberosity of the maxillary bone, the side of the sinus is also very
thin, particularly in front of the root of the pterygoid proeess, through
which the inferior maxillary nerve sends clown a braneh, that descends
towards the posterior palatine, or gustatory foramen. The lacrymal sac
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 7

is a small oblong mcmbranous bag, which l'ceeives the serosity of the

eye thxough the puncta lacrymalia, and discharges itself below into the
internai nares. It is situated in part in an osseons canal formed by the
nasal apophysis of the maxillary bone and os unguis; in part also in an
osseous canal formed in the same maxillary bone, &c.... This sac is
somewlhat spongy or cellular, and moderately thick. lt is strongly
united by its convex side to the pcriosteum of the bony canal. ... It
appears to be composed of two laminre joined together by a spongy
substance: the internaI lamina seems to be glanclular. The ductus
incisorii, or naso-palatine ducts of Steno, are two canals which extend
from the bottom of the internai nares across the arch of the palate,
and open behind the first or largest incisor teeth. Theil' orifices may
be seen distinctIy in the skeleton: and we may likewise observe their
oblique passage through the maxillary bones, and lastly their inferior
orifices., situated in a small cavity or fossula, termed the anterior pala­
tine foramen, &c.... The arteries of ail these parts come from the
external carotid. Those of the external parts of the nose are chicfly
branches and ramifications of the cxternal maxillary or angnlar, and of
the temporal arteries; and the arteries of the internai parts are chiefly
branches and ramifications of the internai maxillary artery. The vcins,
in almast the same manner, are the corrcsponding branches and rnmifi­
cations of the extcrnal jugular vein. They communicate with the or­
bital sinuses, and by that means with the sinnses ·of the ùura mater,
and ultimately with the internai jugular veins. The principal nen-es
belonging to the nose are filaments of the olfactories, which pass
through the foramina in the transverse plate of the ethmoid bone, and
are distributed to the common membrane of the internaI narcs, espc­
cially ta the villons portions thereof. The internaI branch of the or­
bital or ophthalmic nen-e sends a filamcnt through the small intcrnal
anterior orbital foramen into the cmnium, which comcs out again in
company with one of the above-mentioned filaments, through the
ethmoiclal lamina. This internaI branch aftcrwards advanccs towards
the os unguis, and is distributed partly to the lacrymal sac, partly to
the upper portion of the pyramidalis muscle, and of the integuments
of the nose. The suborbital nerve, which is a branch of the superior
maxillary nerve, havirtg passed through the inferior orbital foramen,
transmi ts filaments to the external lateral parts of the nose; another
branch of the superior maxillary nerve goes ta the posterior narcs of
the same side, and is spent on the conchre and other internai parts of
the nose. (Exp. Anat., Traité de la Teste, n. 319-359.)
341. "The claustrum, which may likewise be termed vclum, or
valvula palati, terminatcs below by a 100 se, floating border, reprcscnt­
8 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

ing an arch, situated transversely above the base or root of the tonguc.
The highest portion or top of this arch supports a smaU, soft, and
irregularly conical, glandular body, the base of which is attaehed to the
arch, and the apex hangs freely downwards; this body is commonly
caUed uvula. The piUars or columns of the claustrum are four mus­
cular half-arches, two on each side of the uvula, to which the upper
extremities of them aU are united. They are so disposed, as that the
lower extremities of the two which lie on the same side are a Ettle
separated from each other, the one being anterior, the other postrrior,
and they leave between them an oblong triangular space, the apex of
which is at the base of the uvula. The two half-arches on one side, by
joining their feUows on the other side, form the entire arch of the
border of the claustrum. The posterior half-arches run, by their supe­
rior extremities, more directly towards the body of the uvula, than the
anterior. The anterior half-arches are continued to the sides of the
base of the tongue, and the posterior to the sides of the pharynx.
In the lower part of the space left between the lateral half-arches on the
same side, are situated two glandular bodies termed amygdalre." (Ibid.,
n. 489-491.)
342. For the l'est, see Boerhaave, on smeUing, In.st. Med., n. 491
-507; on the·action of the uvula, Ibid., n. 70, 71. Winslow, on the
ethmoid bone, Tr. des Os Secs, n. 241-254; on the proper bones of
the nose, Ibid., n. 396-403; on the inferi0r conehre, Ibid., n. 435­
446; on the muscles of the external nose, Tr. de la Teste, n. 329­
333. Morgagni, Advers. Anat. vi., tab. ii., fig 3: where the turbinatcd
bones of the nares are beautifuUy portrayed, and it is shewn that they
are three in number, the ossa turbinata inferiora, superiora, and su­
prema, the latter being the smaUest: and (Ibid., Anim. 53,) that these
bones are double, each nasal antrnm containing a set: and (Ibid., Anim.
89,) that whateverbe the position of the body, mucus flows from sorne
of the nasal cavities. Eustachius, Tabul. Anat., tab. xi., fig. 16, and
tab. xviii., fig. 1 ; representing the frontal muscles, the constrictorrs
palpebrre, and orbiculares labiorum; and the manner of their operation
on the dorsum and aIre of the nose. Tab. xv., fig. 1; tab. xiii., fig.
2, a; the left pyramidalis muscle serving to dilate the aIre. Tab. xviii.,
fig. 3, a; the proper semilunar muscle [depressor pinnreJ of the nose.
Tab. xx., fig. l, 3, 4, 5; the nasal bones in the skeleton. Fig. 14,
16; the cribriform bone, ilisplaying the foramina through which the
olfactory nerves pass out, and through which, according to Lancisi,
they also receive something from the externalnares. Ruysch, on the
mueous membrane, its arteries and glands, Thes. Anat. i., iii., vi.,
x. ; Epist. viii., ix., passim; and his tabulre. Verheyen, Corp. Hum.
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 9
Anat., tract. iv., cap, xv., tab. xxviii., fig. 4, 5; the cartilages of the
nose, including the three lesser cartilages, and which amount in all,
according to Ruysch, to nine in number. Fig. 6, the same. Fig. 8, 9 ;
the cavities of the frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones; exhibiting a
number of vesicles produced by inflation, respecting which, see the
same author, Ibid., tract. iv., cap. xvi. Cowper, Myotom. Ref. (8vo.,
London, 1694), p. 57; and Anatomy, App., tab. ii., fig. 35; repre­
senting the muscles of the nose. Mangetus, Theatr. Anat., tab. X.,
fig. 2, from Brown; representing the constrictor nasi, elevator, and
corrugator muscles. Tab. xii., fig. 2, also from Brown; the gland of
the palate, with the uvula reflected upwards. Tab. cviii., from Bidloo;
the interiors of the palate together with the uvula. Fig. 2, from the
same; the superior concave part of the mouth and the [naso-palatinc]
duct of Steno. See also many plates from Ruysch, inserted in the
same collection. Palfin, Nouvelle Osteologie, pl. i., ii. Drake, An­
thl'opoZogia Nova, tab. xvii., xviii. Highmore, Corp. Hum. DÙiquisit.
Anat., and his tabulre. Santorinus, Observationes Anatomicœ, cap. i.,
n. 9, where he ascribes eight pairs of muscles to the nosc. Vieussens,
Neurograplâa Universalis, lib. i., cap. xvi., treating of the aqueous
and emissary ducts of the head, and of the pituitary membrane.
 ANALYSIS.

343. As there is a high road from the labial entrance,

through the fauces and œsophagus, to the viscera of the abdo­
men (a), so there is a high road from the two entrances of the
nares, through the trachea, into the lungs, which fill the
chamber of the breast, or the cavity of the thorax. From
these entrances, then, as the natural beginnings, we commence
to speak of the viscera of this region; but adhering to the law
laid down in the first instance, we must make our exordium from
use (b). The nares, divided from each other by a septum or
partition, articulated by cartilages, fortified by bones, covered
in by membranes,-with their alre, point, spine, dorsum, and
root or brow,-I. Open the way, and allow the lungs the possi­
bility of respiring; for they are the first doors or gates through

(a) l'hat the way to the stomach, consequently to the viscera of

the abdomen, leads from the mouth through the pharynx and œso­
phagus, see Part L, n. 59. l'here are then two entrances in the head,
namely, the orifice of the lips, and that of the nares; the first leading
to the lowest region of the body; the second, to its middle region,
that is, to the thorax. In man, indeed, the labial orifice conducts
also into the thorax, and to the lungs; for we respire through
the mouth as weIl as through the nares; but the case is different in
brutes, for with them, the nasal passages are blocked up, and aIl respi­
ration that way is intercepted. The reason why in man the labial
orifice is common to both regions, will be pointed out in the sequel.
But the tongue, which is the motory organ of thc palate, and of the
whole apparatus of the mouth, is common to both, because it serves
for both eating and speech; and this is the reason why we began ollr
disquisitions with the tongue.
(b) See Part L, n. 32.
 TUE NOSE AND TUE UVULA. Il

which the breathings of this living worlel are carrieel to aml fro.
'l'hey temper with a gonde warmth the air which is cnterillg;
and impregnate with a dewy vapor the ail' whieh is departing;
and cleanse and purify it from floating particles of dust, and
noxious exhalations. II. They anticipate by the sense of smell,
what the atmosphere of the cireumambient world carries in its
bosom, so as to make the animal being aware Qf that whieh is
endeavoring to rush inwards into its lungs. Ill. TIy a kind of
unison, they regulate the artieulate sounds of speech, and to a
certain degree, as it were by provisional alœ, conspire to moelify
the words themselves. IV. They clear away the viscid phlegm
from the arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may
ascend to the sensoria of the cerebrum, and ta the other sensoria
of the head. Furthermore, they derive from aIl these organs
the ichorous streams that threaten inundation; that is to say,
from thc eye and the ear, from the medullary and cortical por-
tions of the cerebrum, from its meninges or membranes, and
from the sinuses of the eranium. V. By an extrinsically im-
ptùsive force, they excite the cerebrum. to its proper reciprocal
animations, synchronous with the respirations of the lungs.
VI. Like a kind of cynosure, they terminate and complete the
cornmon axis of the hemispheres of the cerebrum, and of its
parts, as well as of the bones of the cranial vault; and they in-
stitute and begin the common axis which l'uns from thence into
the thorax, as well as that which l'uns into the abdomen.
VII. 'l.'hus, from the ultimate boundary of this axis, they tran-
scribe the cerebrum into the face, and give it the power of
imaging its affections upon the surface or countenance thereof.
vVe shaH now proceed to consider each of these uses separatcly.
3,1,-1.. 1. Tite nasal entmnces open tlte way, and allow tlte
lungs tlte possibility of respiring. 'rhis proposition is obvious
and univcrsaJly admitted ; for through these causeways or brcath-
ing-holes the atmosphcric world flows in, but thro:ugh the others,
which likc thc nares arc scnsoria, only the natm'c or properties
of that world (c). Thc influent atmosphere, however, is instan-

Cc) Through this way alone, that is to say, through the larynx and
the trachea, that world, or the atmosphcre thereof, flows in substan-
tially; but it does not long remain withill, being immediately thrown
12 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

taner;usly expelled, lest it should claim power over a little world

not belonging to it; indeed it is admitted only as a eonvenient
servant. For this reason, the innermost spiracles or breathing­
holes,~the pulmonary vesicles,--open first (d); afterwards the
bronehia, beginning at their roots; then the traehea and the
glottis; lastly the nares, all the way to the aIre or pinnœ, whieh
are dilated by their muscles: thus the air is admitted, invited
and attraeted; and fiows in, as in a bellows at work, aeeording
to the given opening, the height of the ineumbent eolumn, and
the force of gravity dependent thereupon (e). The nares temper
with a gentle warmth the air which is entering; and as on the one
hand they prevent the eold,or the biting winter, from injuring
the lungs, and their pneumatie prineiples or initiaments, and
eontraeting them more rapidly than their reeiproeal alternations
demand; so on the other hand they provide a bland temperature
that will eonstantly further their respirations, and bathe and

out by expiration; so that according to our often-repeated assertion in

Part 1., the animal kingdom exempts itself universally from the rule
and domination of the circumambient world, and is governed purely by
the laws and principles existing in itself. See Part 1., the Chapter on
the Intestines. Consequently the air does not rush in unbidden, but is
admitted, allured and attràct~d, as every one may clearly observe in
his own person. Moreover, immediatelyon its entrance it is subjugated
in such a manner, that it is not at its own disposaI, and does not act
with all its gravity, but 1S derived into the lungs, both with respect to
its quantity and with respect to its direction, at their will and pleasure.
The other sensorial organs, as the eye and ear, admit the atmospheres,
indeed, but only the modifications thereof, by which nature manifests
lterself and her modes of forces.
(d) This will be explained more fully in the Chapter on the Lungs.
(e) In the Chapters on the Liver, the Pancreas and the Spleen, it
was shewn, that the blood is not intruded by force into their glandular
principles, that is, into their minute follicles, but is invited by acts of
expansion; precisely in the same manner as in the lungs. This pro­
duces a particular attraction resembling the attraction of bellows or
pumps, in which latter the air rushes in to fill the void caused by raising
the piston; so that the attraction is no property of the vacuum, but
rather is nature's aversion to, and avoidance of, a vacuum, in conse­
quence of which the matter near the scene of operation is continually
urged t~ fill the vacant space.
 TIIE NOSE AND THE UVUI.A. ]3

foment the crihriform plate, and the clelicate nerves issuing

thel'efrom. To produce these results, the nasal canals decrease
in size from the bottom to the top (1) j and in the midc1le of
their course, are refiected towards the palate and the larynx (g) j
while those which pass llpwards are folded from below to above,
twice or three times, into papyraceous convolutions or spirals (h) j

(f) The largest aperture of the nares is that which is comprehended

by the alre nasi ; the orificc becomes constantly narrower in passing
upwarùs.
(g) Where the cartilages terminate, two passages commence on
each siùe; one, leading upwards through the conchoo towards the cri­
briform plate; the other, passing obliquely ùownwards towards the
palate and.' the glottis; but the two latter reflected passages again uni te
into one. "Each of the nares," says Verheyen, "is ùiyided into two
parts or cavities; one of which goes upwards to the cribriform bone ;
the othel', which is much the longer, passes abovc the palate into the
interiors of the fances and mouth.... The latter on eaeh side unites
with its feUaw in the palate, and the two constitute one cavity....
whieh in this situation is very large, and ... placed directly aboye the
fissure of the larynx" (Corp. Hum. Anal., tract. iv., cap. xv). By
vil'tue of this inflexion and of the warmth imparted by the supcrior
region of thc nares, the eoldness of thc air cannot fail to be broken anù
tempered, and the breath inhalcù to be rendcred mild and warm; as
we have physical proofs to ùcmonstrate; for if the very coldcst air be
passed through even a short tube that has been previously warmed, it
instantly cornes out warm at the othcr end; and the morc in the narrow
passagcs of the nares, whcre warmth is imparted by aB the arterics,
membranes, anù constantl)' vibrating papyraceous bones.
(h.) For there are three pairs of cochlere, or as they are usuaUy
termed, turbinateù and spongy bones, through which the air circulates
in passing upwards; eonsequently none but warm air can possibly reach
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. On the way also, as thc air
l'uns through these gyres and whirls, it is cxamined, and purified of
aU noxious yehicles, fine ùust; or heavy anù misshapen particles, until
nothing is left that can injure or offenù the exquisitely delicate nervcs
in theirbeginnings. Morgagni has aùmirably dclineated the three pairs
of cochleoo, and ùescribes them as "the ossa turbinata inferiora, supe­
riora, anù suprema, and that these bones are double, each nasal antrum
containing Il set" (n. 342). These triple eochlere or conehœ are termed
by Vieusscns, the eeUs and sinuses of the ethmoid bone, and he like­
14 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

so that the air circulates in them exaetly according to its natUl'al

fluxion (i), and nevcr reaches the osseous sieve of the cribriform
plate, until it has traversed various labyrinthine windings, and
been warmed by a large extent of surface. Indeed, the organi­
cally constructed sinuses are so many correctives and prohibitives,
whereby the air, or the blistering wind, is prevellted from pene­
trating internally. The nares irnpregnate with a dewy vap01' the
air whiclt is departing,-they set free the fine aqucous exhalation,
leaving the mucus behind; as is sufficiently evident from the
waterilless of the expirations. Lastly, they cleanse and purify
the air' frorn floating particles of dust, and norcious exhalations.
This is the pUl'pose of the vibrissœ or hairs; also of the mem­
brane, perpetually moistencd by sa many lymphs from extra­
ueous SOUl'ces, and by so many proper to itself, and anoilltcd
with the viscid mucilage, left after the evaporation of the finer
dew (k), so that it cau ensnare irregular and misshapen cor­
puscules, aud snatch them ftway from the air. This also is the
reason why the orgau has a power given it of contracting itself

wise ùivides them into three pairs, although some anatomists divide
them only iuto t\Vo. "We reckon," says he, "six ethmoidal sinuscs,
intermediate between the frontal and sphenoidal sinuses, and which are
separated from each other by true bony partitions: these six sinuscs we
divide into anterior, middle, and posterior" (Neurogl·. Univ., lib. i.,
cap. xvi.)
(i) 'l'hat the air has a tendency to gyrate spirally, is abuudantly
proved by the phenomena of pneumaties, that is to say, by thc phe­
nomena both of aërial modification and of sound, and by the spiral
coehlere aud semieircular cylinders in the organ of hearing: the same
thing is also proved by the very naturc of the air, of which we shaH
speak in another place.
(k) Wc shall havc to shew presently, that thcre is a general deriva­
tion of humors hither, both from thc siuuses of thc cranium, and from
the adjoining scnsorial organs, nay, from the cerebrum itself, not to
say, from the uumberlcss arteries that supply the pituitary membrane.
It also appears that the breath expired is absolutcly fiHed \Vith moisture,
and as it only carries off the limpid and thiu portion, the remainder is
of course comparatively thick and viscid, and adapted for netting and
catehing the heavy effiuvia that the ail' brings in. The thickness of
the mucus may be aeeounted for in this \Vay.
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 15

by menns of muscles; by virtue of which construction it bears

a resemblance to a kind of rude strainer, cndowcd at the same
time with the faculty of smelling the substances that impinge
upon it.
345. II. The nares anticipate by the sense of S'mell, wltat
tlte atmosphere of the circumambient world carries in its bosom;
that is to say} whatever is floating freely in the little volumes of
the air} and is figured, angular} plane or smooth; round, cx­
tendeù or long; weighty and natul'ally inert (l); dcrivcd originally
from the terrestrial killgdom} but afterwarùs exhaleù from eithcr
the vegetable or the animal kingdom (m); whatcver} consc­

(l) 'l'hose things, we mean, that fioat about in the air, and are so
versatile as to be capable of applying themselves in the freest manner,
by means of the air, to the little sen soria or papillœ, and of imprinting
upon them, as perfectly as ul'on the most yielcling wax, the complete
figure of their sides, angles and planes; in the same way as the nutrient
particles of the food imprint their figures upon the tongue, which
l'articles, were they not dissolved and fioated by the saliva, or sorne
other extraneous liquid, could not possibly eommunieate any idea of
their form, or we should rather say, of their figure. 'l'here are then
tluee organs which receive sensations and sensuous distinctions from the
contact of corpuseular bodies, to wit, the organs of touch, taste and
smell; but the two other organs-the sensoria of hearing and sight~
rceeive their sensations and distinctions from the mere modifications of
the atmosphere. Although, hO'\l'cver, the former derivc their sensa­
tions from hard and diversely fignred particles impinging upon thcm,
nevertheless, those sensations arc not the less modifications on this
account; for the form imprinted upon the papillœ mounts up as
a modification along the fibres towards the gencral sensorium. See
n. 344 (c).
(m) Ali l'articles endowed '\l'ith vis incrtiœ or gravity come exclu­
sively from the mineraI kingdom; in fact, the carth is a collection of
such substances and clements. But these l'articles pass from the bosom
and womo of the earth, into yegetaoles, and thus from one kingdom
into allothcr; although in this case they are comhincd and disposed in
a differcnt manner,-into essential salts, jniccs, oils, spirits, rC5in5,
&c. From the yegetaole kingdom they mount into our animal king­
dom, as when wc eat yegctablcs, or cIse they pass into the animaIs
whose fiesh wc cat. Thus the parts of the mineraI kingdorn, suffering
a transform:ltion, come to oc of llse to man at last.
lG THE ANIMAL KlNGDOM.

qucntly, is mineraI, saline, or sulphureous j whether in finc it

be caUed acid, alkali, nitre, spirit, oil, syrup, juice, or by any
of the other infinite names of natural substances j provided only
that it be raised upon the wings of thc atmosphere, carricd
about, and adequate to the sensorial papillre, and communicate
exquisitely, by contact and application, aU its points, angles
and planes, or the entire figure of its sides, that is to say, its
corpuscular fOrill, to aU points of the little sensorium. By virtue
of an idea similar to the impression being excited and repre­
sented in the cerebrum, aIl over the termination of its fibres, or
in the universal cortical substance, sense is produced (n), the
affection of which sense is smell, either pleasant, sweet and
fragrant, or unpleasant, rank and stinking j or mediate, with
infinite variety, between these two extremes. To produce this
affectioll, certain fibres, drawn from the whole of the medullary
portion of the cerebrum, and collected into. a bundle termed the
mammiUary proeess,-certain most delicate fibres,-soft, full,
ilisposed fascicularly, encased in pia mater, proceeding to the
cribriform plate of the crest of the ethmoid bone, and pass­
ing eut, surrounded by dura mater, through its foramina (0),­

(n) In Part VIL, treating of the Cerebrum, it is my intention to

proye by many considerations, that aU sensual modification creeping up
along the fibres, terminates in the universal cortical substance,-the
last and first boundary of the fibres; not mounting, as would most
likcly be our general impression at first sight, to those organic prin­
ciples only that correspond to the fibres procecding to the organ of
sense; but mounting to the whole sensorium in common, this being
what is affected.
(0) We shaH treat of the olfactory nerves in the Part on the Cere­
brum; but as we are here investigating the sense of smeU, it seems to
be nccessary to give a short description of these nerves or processes,
extracted from Vieussens, Ridley, Willis, and other anatomists; from
which description we may be enabled in a summary to view the origin
and derivation of this sensation. \Vhen the fore-part of the cerebrum
is raised, the mammillary processes come in sight, together with the
olfactory fibres proceeding from them. In man they are very thin and
smaU, but in less perfect animais they are like two bottles, very large
and nearly round, broad at their commencement, and decreasing by de­
grees, and they occupy a very considcrable part of the fundus of the
 THE NOSE AND TUE UVULA. 17

thoroughly inseminate and distribute themselves through the

pituitary or mucous membrane: by these are produced organic
or villous forms, which are the little scnsoria of this species of
touch. Prom these preliminaries we may now conclude respect­
ing the path by which the modes and raclii of this sensation
mount from these little organs to the common sensorium of the
cerebrum,-we may conclude that they mount by way of the
fibres, and at the same time by way of the two meninges, and
thus meet in the middle and central cortical substance (p). To

cerebrum; and in animais, in the seal for instance, wc find these pro­
cesses to contain a cavity distendcd with limpid fluid, the inflation of
which cavity by means of the blow-pipe, will cause the whole mass of
the cerebrum to rise and swell up. But in man they are not hollow,
nor is the common opinion correct, that tbere is a passage from thcm
into the anterior vcntricles of the cerebrum. They lie immediately but
freely upon the dura mater, all the way from the clinoid processes to
the ethmoid bone: they are prctty soft; and when they reach the cri­
briform plate of the crista galli, they transmit a vast number of fila­
ments through its foramina into the cavities of the ethmoid bonc and
the cells underneath them. As they descend, thcy are invested with,
and accompanied by, an equal number of little prolongations of the
meninges of the cerebrum, and they proceed until they reach the pulpy
membrane, in which, and in its follicles, but particularly in the papillary
substance, they terminate. In man they are white; in sheep and many
other animals they are of a light grey: in these [animaIs), twigs de­
rived from the carotid follow them down to their divisions and delicate
fibrillœ. They consist of medullary fibrillœ, some of which dcrive
their origin extensively from the posterior and anterior lobes, and from
the middle portion of the centrum ovale; some, more limitedly, only
from the anterior and illferior part of the medulla oblongata, where
lyil1g obliquely and meeting each other, they appear finally to arise
between the exterior and posterior lobes. Some authors maintain that
their fibres arise from the corpora striata, and in this region receive fila­
ments from the anterior lobes of the cerebrum. The fibres of these
nerves are much stronger and more numerous in dogs than in the human
subject.
(p) We shall treat of these subjects more fully in the Part on the
Cerebrllm. That the modes of sensation mount up by way of the
fibres, is a proposition which no one can think of denying; for all
sense flies inta the cerebrum along the track of the fibres; and when
VOL. rI. PAltT rI. CHAP. I. C
18 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

heighten this cffect, from the most particular modes of touch

np to the general sensation, a sracious membrane is spread out,
and aU the cavities, ceUs, eonvolutions, leaves and sinuses are
amply and continuously covered by it, as weU as by a fine perios­
teuro and perichondriulU (q) ; 80 that the little scattered sensuous

the nerves are divided, sense is annihilated; and when they are injured,
sense is altered and perverted in exact proportion to the amount and
statc of the lesion. TIut this sensation also passes up by way of the
meninges or membranes, that is to say, by way of the pia and dura
mater; for in truth both these membranes aeeompany the fibres, or
faseieuli of fibres, as they aeeompany the nerves [of other parts], aU
the way to the pituitary membrane; in a word, to the organic ter­
mini; and the dura mater likcwise supplies them with little shcaths.
"The fibrillre of the olfactory nerves," says Vieussens, "are covered
with pia and dura mater as they enter the nares" (jVeurofj1". Univ.,
lib. iii., cap. ii.) And according to 'Vinslow, "The dura mater givcs
off as many little sheaths as there are foramina in the cribriform plate"
(Exp. Anat., Tl'. de la Teste, n. 22) : and again he says, "At the
samc place, the dura mater sends off a number of sheaths, that invest
and aecompany the nervous filaments and their ramifications, on the
intcrnal parts of the nose" (Ibid., n. 134). Inasmueh then as every
tremble, that is, cvery transcendent vibration, sueh as cornes une!er
the title of modification, pen-ades subtle iluid parts and contignous soft
parts, or passes along and runs over every continuum, therefore the
contact or subtlc impetus madc upon the organie papillre and their
membranes, cannot possibly cease bcfore it arrives in ultimates; con­
sequently, passing at once from the fibres and the two meninges, it
must go on until it arrives in the cortical portion of the cerebrum; in
whieh, therefore, a meeting takes place, as in a most multiple common
centre.
('1) Our authors shew throughout, that the pituitary membrane in­
vests not only the larger cavities of thc nares, but also the ecUs and
conchre of their superior chamber, ane! the frontal, sphcnoidal and
maxillary sinuscs, anù that it extends into the palate, the pharynx and
the traehea. "The pituitary membrane," says 'Vinslow, "is that
whieh lines the internaI nares, the eeUnlar comolutions, the conchre,
the walls of the septum, and by an uninterrupted continuation, the
inner surface of the frontal and maxillary sinuses, and of the ductus
lacrymales, palatini and sphe:'noidales: it is likewise continncd far­
ther, from the posterior nares to the pharynx, septum palati," &c.
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 19

modes of singulars, collected into a common idca, at length

emergc, in the form of evident sense, to our measure of percep­
tion and sphere of eonseiousness. And furthermore, with the
same objeet, the very osseous laminre themselves, thus eovered,
are eonvoluted into spirals and little vortiees, in triple arder,
deereasing in size from below ta above, or from without to
within, exactly in aeeordanee to the form of nature, eonsidered
as a modifying power (r); and by these vortiees the straggling
modes are drawn together, before they are diffused as one into
the cerebrum. And in order that a nerve may be present, to
announce with extreme and almost instantaneous rapidity the
state of this sense to the moving or muscular fibrcs, and dispose
them to suitablc action, a branch is sent thither from the fifth
pair (s). By these provisions the animal being is made aware of

(n. 340.) Vieussens traces it over the pharynx and larynx (Neurogr.
Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) ; so that it would seem to be continued, by
the membrane of the bronchia, to the innel'most parts of the lungs.
Since then this membrane is so extensive, and contains not only glands,
but papiIlœ, therefore, of necessity, the most particulaI' forces, actions
and modifications, must pass into it as a common membrane; and thus
aIl accidents must be communicated to aIl the papillœ that are associated
in the same function; precisely according to our declaration in Part 1.,
Chap. 1., wherc wc treated of the Tongue. Wherever there is a par­
ticular, there also there is a corresponding general; for without a
general or common modification, neither touch, nor any mode of a part
or parts, from whatever cause arising, could come to l'vident sensation.
Common or gcneral modes are the only modes by which we are affectcc1,
and thesc we perceive in some measure distinctly; but indiyidual or
singlllar moeles we pereeive '-l'l'Y indistinctly, or so subtly and fincly
that they appcar ta be nonentities; myriads of such require to be asso­
ciated together, to present a single modulus or little mode which reaches
our cOllsciousness.
(1') Sec aboye, n. 332, note (7'). Respecting the ceIls and conclu~:
of the upper part of the nose, termed by Winslow, the labyrinth, sec
that author's E,vp. Anat., Tr. des Os Secs, n. 247; and rcspecting thc
inferior conchœ, sec Ibid., n. 435-44(j.
(s) Besides thc proper branches of the olfactory neryes suppEed to
the organ of smcIl, sorne authors attribute to it also certain branches
from the fifth anel sixth pairs of nervcs. With respect to the fifth pair,
Winslow says, "The internaI branch of thc orbital or ophthalmic nerve
c2
20 THE ANDIAL KINGDO~I.

that whiclt is endeavoring to rush inwards into its lungs. This i8

still more exquisitely the case in those creatures that do not livc
under the guidance of a mind enùowed with a proper intellect
and will, but under the guidance of nature alone (t). Where­
fore, in order that the nares may attract pleasing odors more
fully and intimately, and remove fetid odors more completely,
from the lungs and the cerebrum, certain muscles are provided,
which either expand or contract the orifices and passages (u),
and dispose them to every state of sensation.

sends a filament through the small interna! anterior orbital fOl'amen into
the cranium, which cornes out again in company with one of the above­
mentioned filaments [of the olfactory nerl'es], through the ethmoidal
lamina. This internaI branch afterwards advances towards the os
unguis, and is distributed partly to the lacrymal sac, partly to the
upper portion of the pyramidalis muscle, and of the integuments of
the nose," &e. (n. 340.) The same thing seems to oceur here as we
before remarked in the organ of taste, the tongue, to whieh also a
little braneh is supplied from the fifth pair; with the view, it would ap­
pear, that sense may make instantaneous common cause with motion;
for the fifth pail' is in a manner a common regulator and messengcr,­
the Mercury of the Olympus of the head.
(t) On this account, animaIs impelled by instinct alone or nature
alone, have larger olfactory nerves than man, communicating also more
intimately with the whole substance of the cerebrum, as appears from
manifold experienee in both birds and quadrupeds. \Ve aU know per­
fectly well the power of smelling possessed by dogs. Indeed, these
and similar animaIs seem not only to have a keen sense of the particles
floatillg about, as effiuvia, in the gross air, but also to discern the purer
distinctions of particles, and the things which are circulating in the
sllbtler atmosphere of the ether: for smeU alone is sufficient to shew
them, whether the meat or food offered them, is suited to their nature
or not. But we shall speak further of these points in the Part on the
External Sensoria.
(u) Vieusscns sometimes makes mention of muscular fibres as ex­
isting in the pituitary membrane itself, within the cavity of the nares
(Neurof/l·. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) ; and which, if they do exist, are
perhaps continuations from the velum palati. But the external muscles,
by means of the contraction of the pinnre and cartilages, are quite suf­
ficient to prohibit the influx of injurious air. Besides which, we have
the power of stopping our nostrils with OUI' fingers; of suspending
 TUE NaSE AND TUE UVULA. 21
34·6. III. By a kind of 1tnison, the nares regulate the arti-
culate sounds of speech, and to a certain degree, as it were by
provisional alce, conspire to modify the words themselves. For
the sound emittcd by the glottis, and takcn up and circum~
scribed, under the direction of the tangue, by the velum palati,
and shaped according to the boundaries of each portion thereof,
speaking generally is carried out along the hoUow arch of the
mouth, through the opening of the lips, and equaUy also escapes
through the path of expiration, or the nasal openings; this
gives rise to a compound sonorous modification of the voicc,
which contributes to the sharpncss, definitioll, and unisoll of thc
very sound; anù also confers upon it that infinite véli'iety which
belongs to aU things. Vve may learn the particular nature of
this sharpness or discrimination, when the aIre of the nose are
compressed or dilated, either artificiaily or naturaUy; when the
passages are obstructed by stagnant or catarrhal mucus; or
when ,ve meet with individuals, who either on account of na-
tional peculiarity or acquired habit, speak more or less through
the nares, and accompany the voice uttered by the mouth with
a nasal sound. For the tremulous vibration of sound l'uns over
and strikes aU membranous, cartilaginous and osseous, and more
especially ail elastic parts, with wonderful velocity and conti-
nuity (x): thus it sweeps uninterruptcdly over the pituitary
membrane, from the very larynx, aU the way to the foliaccous
ossicles of the nose, and carries them into a similar but highcr
vibration, according to their spring, form, and mass; hencc wc
have a compound modification in accordancc with the structurc
of the labyrinthine recess of the nares.
347. IV. The nares clear away the viscid phlegm f1'om the
arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may ascend to the
sensoria of the cerebrum, and to the othe/' sensoria of the head.
This is evident from the numberless arterial ramifications that
pervade the palatine, nasal, or pituitary membrane, and indced
almost entirely construct it (y); from the wedge-like confascicu·

respiration for a time; of turning away our faces; or of removing our-

selves altogether from the locality of the noxious cxhalation.
(x) See aboye, note (p).
(y) Such is the abundance and luxuriance of arteries in the pitui-
22 'fIlE ANI1IlAL KINGDOllI.

lation of thcsc little arterics, and their tel'mination in excretory

glanùs (z) : from the multitude of filaments and ducts that l'un
over the membrane, and protruùe by their orifices into the cavi·
tics of thc nares (a) : from the fungoid and cellular texturc of

tary mcmbrane, that one would be inclined to say it was composed of

nothing cise. Sec Ruysch's Tabulre. Vicussens, who agrees with me
in stating that this membrane abstracts a pituitary and mucous humor
from the blood that is asccnding to the cerebrum, speaking of the
arteries of the membrane, has the following; "This membrane is sup­
plicd with much more numerous arterial ramifications than the other
parts of the mouth; thcy terminate in plexuses not unlike those of the
placenta" (Neltrog1·. Univ., lib, 1., cap. xvi.) The same inference again
may be deduced from the common office of this organ, (since we may
pass by induction from thc general to the particular,) namely, that it
carries away the pituitre of ail the organs of thc head, and therefore
purifies them, both in the whole and the parts, (bllt by two ways,) from
the ichorons inundation.
(=) You will also find these glands figured in Ruyseh's Tabull'C men­
tioned above, 11. 342. "The excretory ducts [of the glandular gra­
nules]," says 'Vinslow, "are very long near the septum narium, and
their orifices very visible" (n.340).
(a) It is evident from thc description of these ducts and glands,
that they absorb and carry off into the cavity of the nares, the pituitary
Iymph between the two membranes; that is to say, between the pitui­
tary membrane and the periosteum, and also the lymph that is flowing
down through the cellular tissue of the pituitary membrane; for the
glands appear on the former part, but the orifices of the ducts on the
latter especially. Vieussens speaks of these ducts; ""r e obserre
on this membrane," says he, "not only blood-vessels, bot also great
numbers of short ducts, which, in consideration of their office, l tcrm
vasa mucifera. These are Pl'illCipally seen on that portion of the mem­
brane whieh 1S appended to the posterior part of the vomer, and of the
two ossa palati" (Neurogr. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) And Winslow
says, "lly applying a blow-pipe to any of the orifices, the ducts may
be inflatcd through nearly their whole cxtent" (n. 340). That innu­
merahle foramina open in the cavities of the ual'es, is also declared by
Vieussens; "The surface of this membrane," says lie, "is pcrforated
in many parts by numerous smail foramina; if it he pricked with a
neeùle, or squcezed betwecn the fingers, mucus immediately cxudes
from it; anù if it be l'emoved and placed in watcr, it iwbibcs the water
 THE NOSE ~ND THE UVULA. 23
the same membrane (b) : from its continuaI excitation by the
varying influent air, and by the nidorous [or ammoniacal] parts
thereof, which either sooth or frct it: lastly, from the COlllmon
trembling of aH the parts, when the tongue and larynx are
speaking. Thus the nasal organ is the common emunctory and
purificatory of the blood which is mounting to the cerebrum;
and of that which is turuing aside to the organs of the senses,­
of sight particularly, and also of hearing and taste. The sali­
vary glands, indeed, as the parotids, the maxillaries, and several
others, are also emunctories of the same blood, but subordi­
nately to this common emunctory (c). The nares also imme­
diately derive from aU these organs the ichorous streams that
threaten inundation; as, for instance, from the eye. This is plain
from thc lacrymal duct or sac (d) : from the close vicinity of the
nose to the eye : from its intimate connexion therewith by means

like a sponge" (Neurogr. Univ., lib. i., cap. xvi.) But these foramina
are not continuous with the befol'e-mentioned ducts, but seem ta come
from the intermediate cellular tissue, and to provide a passage and
outlet for ail the Iymph that is poured out there, or flows down thither.
(b) Respecting the fungoid structure, see Vieussens above, note (a).
Respecting the cellular tissue, 'Winslow says, "If we make a small
opening in it [the membrane] with the point of a scalpel, ... and use
the blow-pipe, we discover a very extensive cellular substance" (n.340).
(c) That the salivary glands also secern the pituitœ of the blood,
see Part L, the Chapters on the Tongue, thc Palate and the Pharynx;
also those on the Liver and the Pancrcas; which organs likewisc reduce
the impure blood, and convert it into salivary juices. But that the
pituitary membrane draws off the grossest fœces of thc blood, is plain
from the excitative causes whence the attractive [causes in this part are
derived]; we mean, from the continuaI ingress, transit and egTess of
the air; from the impulse and irritant action of angular particlcs upon
the organs of smell; and from the general trembling excited by sounds,
&c. No excitation similar ta this has place in the salivary glands, but
they arc stimulated to their actions by the motion of the tongue, par­
ticularly during eating; wherefore they arc only subordinate emunc­
tories. From the cxcitativc causes we may conclude respecting the
quantity, and in some mcasure also respeeting the quality of the excrc­
tions from the arterics.
(d) H.espccting this littlc sac, sec Heister, n. 336; Winslow,
n. :~40.
24 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

of little bones, coats and muscles: and from the arterial ramifi­
cations which come off from the more considerable branches,
and l'Un to the eye (e). Likewise from the ear, through the
Eustachian tubes (1). Also, from the sinuses of the cranium,­
from the frontal, sphenoidal, and maxillary sinuses,-and per­
haps, too, interiorly from the interstices, cells, openings, and clefts
in the corresponding and other bones of the head (g). That the
nares derive certain streams from the cavities of the six sinuses,
is rendered probable by the continuation of the nasal mem­
brane; by the communication of the air; and by the visible and
discoverable perforation. And that an exudation is conveyed
between the membranes, is testified by their loose connexion
with each other, even in the very sinuses of the bones; by theil'
expansion into vesicles when infiated (h); and by the absorbent
and interfiuent ducts, conveying the discharges outwards (i).

(e) It is worthy of remark, that the arterial branches supplying

the eye, come principally from the branches that go to the pituitary
membrane; thus they more particularly abstract the pituitre from the
blood, for the organ of sight. The same conclusion may be drawn
from other phenomena, as from the fact, that the sight is rendered
remarkably clear by the use of snuff and other stimulant powders.
(f) That certain determinate ducts carry off the serosities of the
internaI ear, and also the air itself, particularly from the cavity of the
tympanum, will be seen in the Part on the Organs of the Senses.
(g) There are perpetuaI communications between the nares and the
innermost parts of the bones; but no great number of little foramina
have yet been discovered; for the pituitary membrane ramifies unin­
terruptedly upon the very leaves anù ceUs of the bones. " The eth­
moid bone," says 'Vinslow, "is of a very fine and delicate structure,
although compact and without any diploë; being almost entirely com­
posed of divers thin, bony plates. It is connected to the frontal,
sphenoidal, nasal, maxillary and lacrymal bones, and to the palate
bone and the vomer. Hs use is, ta give great extension to the pituitary
membrane, in a small compass" (Exp. Anat., Tr. de8 08 Secs, n. 252
-254). It would also seem, by its fissures and foliaceous interstices,
to afford a passage for the humor that is oozing from the cellular com­
pages of the adjoining bones.
(h) See Verheyen, Corp. Hum. Anat., tract. iv., cap. XX., and
particularly tab. xxviii., fig. 4, 5.
(z) See above, note (a).
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 2;)

348. The nares draw of]' the pituitary lympltS from the medul­
lary and cortical portions of the cerebrum, and from its meninges
or membranes. Of this wc are fully assured and convinced by
the continuation, connexion, and structure of all these parts;
by the determination of motion, the excitation of cause, the
manifest permeability, and by visible effects: the continuation,
namely, and production of both the meninges, and of the olfac­
tory fibres, from the pituitary membrane, through the foramina
of the cribriform plate, over the wholc surface and medulla of
the cerebrum (k). The connexion and communication of the
same membranes, with all the interior fibres and membranes,
cven to the cortical termini (l). The plexiform and porons

(k) The particular passage or running-forth and extension of modi­

fications and subtle vibrations and undulations, is to be inferred from
the continuity of coherent or solid parts, particularly of solid similar
parts, and from the continuity of fluid part~; consequently, in thc
animal microscosm, from the continuity of the fibres and membranes,
and in the macrocosm, from the cùntinuity of the particles of the atmo­
sphere. This property of modifications is troly amazing, for wherever
impressed or originating, they pour forth along everything continuous
and contiguous, and only when exhausted, either by graduaI diminution
of elastieity or increase of gravity, do they die away and eease to be
perceptible. If then we are to judge from continuity, it appears, that
the sensual fibre;-in the prescnt case the olfactory fibre,-is continued
without any interruption through the fibres of the mammillary processcs,
and into the meninges of the pia and dura mater; for the fibrillary
fasciculi are covered over in their course, with both the meninges, as
with little sheaths. See n. 345 (p). And if the meninges follow the
very fibre aU the way to its organic ends, that is, to the papillre, and
possibly there enswathe the first minute individual sensoriola with sorne
kind of most fine membranous film, or connect them with the fibres,
then the consequence will be, that when the little organ lS touched,
these extremes of the two membranes must also be affected by the con­
tact, and modified, and the modifications continued inwards into the
cerebrum. And if this be the case with the fibre and the two meninges,
then the humor eontiguous to them must necessarily beeome participant
in the same vibration.
Cc) If, as we have just said, we are to judge of the extcusion of
the olfactory modification, from continuity and eontigllity, then, taking
anatomy as our guide, it appears, that the fibre~ of the olfactory llerves,
2f> THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

structu?"e of the medullary substance (m), and the convoluted

and open structure of the cortical substance (n), which is conti­

if thcy are not absolutcly continuous with the fibres of the wholc me­
Julia cerebri, nevertheless communicate "i.th them in a wonderful man­
ner; for when those mammiJlœ or proccsses, (which are hollow in thc
seal,) are infiatcd, the whole medullary centre of the cerebrUin expands,
according to the experience of Willis; shcwing that there is a commu­
nication between the olfactory fibres of the nose and the whole medullary
fibre of the cerebrum. That this communication, however, is only general,
and indeed, with the fasciculi, lameJlœ or plexuscs of those fibres, will
be shewn in the Part on the Cerebrum; consequently that it is a com­
munication with all the interstices of the fasciculi or plexuses through
which a constant stream of gross and pituitary Iymph is flowing. If
then there be such a communication with the universal compagès of the
medllllary substance, then of consequence there is a communication
thereby with the cortical substance itself, which is the source of the
fibres. The same conclusion may bc deduced from the place where
thcse processes have their roots or origins, namcly, between the corpora
striata and the thalami ncrvorum opticorum; which situation is the
meeting-place and common forum of ail the fibres that descend to the
medulla oblongata. But with respect to the membranes, the dura
mater communicates throughout with the pia mater entirely by the
intcrchange of filaments and vesscls; ",hile the latter communicates more
immeùiately with evcry portion of the cortical substance. Thus there
is a double or triple communication between the olfactory fibres and the
cortical substance; namely, by the fibre, and by the meninge.s: hence
in the cortical substance itself, which oeeupies the place of a centre of
al! things, there is a meeting of the modifications. From thcse con­
siderations it follows, that a similar action is communicated to the
whole of the interfiuent and contiguous pitllitœ; for not only sensuous
modification, but also those other more violent modifications which arc
properly termed trcmors, penetrate thither.
(11!) We shall shew in the Part on the Cerebrum, that its medullary
substance is cxceedingly pol'ons, and being plexiform, therefore per­
meable in various directions from one extremity to the other; and that
the larger passages or channels l'un continuously towards the roots of
the mammillary processes.
(n) The convolutions of the cerebrum, formcd by the joint dispo­
sition of the cortical glands, are not unknown to even tyros in anatomy.
All these convolutions intercommunicate, and by a continuons spire of
circumvolntion arc detcrmined to the two extremitics of the axis;
 ')I"V
'l'IlE NaSE AND 'l'IlE UVULA. ~,

uuaUy moistcllcd by dripping arterics: likewise, the extensive

cavity betwcen the two meninges. The determination of motion,
namely, from the whole of the centrum ovale, or mcdullary
globe, towards the roots or origins of the mammillary proeesses,
and from them, as well as from the whole convoluted eireum­
ferenee, ta the eribriform plate; as it were from levers and
peripheries, through determinate paths, ta a centre of gravity
and l'est; which line of direction all the fiuids of the cercbrum
equally as of the body, arc bonnd ta follow (0). 'rhe excitation
of canse,-from the air attracted alternately; from the contact
and stimulus of odoriferous particles; from the tremulous vibra­
tion of the laryngeal sound: aIl which pervade every continuum,
and excite the animations of the cerebrum ta reeiprocations
synchronous with the respirations of the lungs; thus giving rise
ta a perpetuaI dctermination of the contiguous and encloscd
humaI', ta its natural reservoirs and outlets, consequently to­
wards the cribriform plate (p); in which there is a manifest

namely, to the fourth sinus, and to the cribriform plate. Hence, if a

stream of humor pass along the course of the furrows, and the unend­
ing flux of the convolutions, it cannot but be carried to the cribriform
plate, whieh is in one axis of those spires. Consequently, if any fluid
be passing hetween the two meninges, then such fluid, occupying the
natural channel of the fluxion and derivation, and following the gyres
of the convolutions, must be determined to the crista galli or spina
coronalis, as its ultimate port and asylum; for this spot is the tirst and
last boundary both of the silluses and processes of the dura mater, and
of ail the convolutions of the two hcmispheres of the cerebrum. Gl'ant­
ing, thel'efore, the altcrnate constrietion and expansion of the cere­
hrum, consequently, the alternate opening out and contraction both of
the convolutions on the surfacc, and the channels in the interior, then it
fol1ows, according to the natural laws of hydraulics, that thrre is a
moving forward of the intercepted flnid or pituitEC towal'ds this llltimate
goal or station.
(0) According to the statements just made, the anatomical experi­
ence propel' to which will be given in the Part on the Cerebrulll.
(p) It will be seen presently, that the cribriform plate occnpies, or
is sitnated at, the extl'emitv of the axis of the whole of the ccrebrulfl,
all(l that on the outside of tlle etlulloid bone it is continued to the axis
of the body extel1lling into the thorax: and wr have shewn all'cady
28 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

pe1"fneability bctween the fibrillary filaments, and between the

two meuinges wliich accompauy them outwards to their or­
ganic terroinations in the form of little distinct sheaths; and
which, actuated by the alternate motion of the cerebrum, by a
kind of purnping action, afford the lymphs an opportunity of
passing alternately through their minute interstices (q). We

thoughout our Analyses that aU fluid that passes through the pipes and
continuous foramina in the animal body, tends by a natural determina­
tion towards the axis, and from the axis to its extremity. Consequently,
should any humor be coUected in any part, within either the pulpy
meduUa, or the granular circumference of the cerebrum, or between
the meninges, such humor is necessarily forced, by the alternate ani­
mation of the cerebrum, to the extremity of its axis; the more espe­
ciaUy, since various external causes operating to excite the cerebrnm to
the reciprocal movements of respiration, exist in the nasal cavities, where
the extremities of the fibriUœ and of the meningesof the cérebrum
are nakedly exposed to divers impulses.
(q) There cannot, l think, be any reasonable doubt with respect to
the permeation of humor between the two membranes, the pia and dura
mater, even in the very foramina of the cribriform plate, where the
membranes, laid and applied one upon the other, issue out to the pi­
tuitary membrane; were there any concretion or growing together of
the membranes, there could be no possible distinctness in the sense of
smelling. Upon the cerebl'Um itself these two membranes are perfectly
distinct from each othcr; consequently they are also distinct in those
places where they appear to be more closely united. If there be a
space intervening, of course aU the humor that is contained between
thc membranes, must be carried thither along the stream of determina­
tions, and consequently must tend to enter those interstices: and not
alone between the membranes, continuously from the common cavity
between the same, but also between the fibres under the pia mater
itself; for l'very fibre, and l'very fasciculus of a fibre, is di visible from
its feUow, and acts distinctly; were it otherwise, there could be no dis­
tinct vital operations. Granting, then, the alternate expansion and
constriction of the cerebrum, we also grant the alternate elongation and
contraction of the fibres and fasciculi, consequently the alternate opell~
ing and closing of the interstices,-the interstices, namely, between the
fibres enclosed in the pia mater, and also betwcen the membranes them­
selves in these little foramina; consequently, again, we grant a species
of rcciprocal pumping, such as cannot by possibility exist in coUapscd
 'l'IlE !'lOSE AND 'l'IlE UVUr.,I. 29
Rrc also convinccd of the same thing by visible efJects; namely,
by the sensible vermination and crecping of the catalThal humor
which cornes from the cerebrurn; by its derivation towartls this
part of the surface of the face; by its diseharge into the antra
or eavities of the nares; or in case these are closcd up, into the
nerves of sorne other region (r); by its more full aud l'apid

and dead, but only in living and brcathing brains. Judging from the
ùead subject, Vicusscns and others after him have erroneously formcù a
contrary opinion; and sorne cali this transpiration in qucst.ion; as
lIeister, who says, "Whether the nares let out thc pituita or blood
from the cercbrum, as the ancients and Slevogt will have it thcy do,
or Dot, is still a matter of doubt." (Camp. Anat., n. 28G.) Merely
for this reason, that whcn the head of the dead subject is held down­
wards, no pituitary humor, or spirit of wine gently thrown in, is ob­
served to escape! But hitherto, so far as my knowledge extends, thc
attempt has never been made with fluid injections thrown in betwcen
the meninges, before a sufficient tirne has elapsed for the parts to
become agglutinated; or before they have collapsed so firrnly as to
block up the passage, and begun to repcl the fluid thrown in, by a folù­
ing or reaction caused by the force of the injection. Rence l fear the
right conclusion has been too stoutly and obstinately resisteù, although
fully borne out by plain faets and phenomena. Tell me, l beseeeh
you, what other place of diseharge has been discovered. On the other
hand, we know that it is undeniable that there is a continuaI afflux of
lymph bctween the membranes, and under the pia mater, between the
convolutions, and in the rnedullary substance itself; to say nothing of
the lymph in the ventricles, frorn which the humor is carried off
through other secret ways. In no part of the cerebrum or its meninges
do we find venous orifices, such as absorb collections of pituita, but
arterial structure prevails throughout, and gives off its excretions; nor
is there any passagc in the dircction of the sutures, nor through the
t.ransverse septum into the chamber of the cerebellum, and this way
into the spinal marrow; still less through the dura mater, by oblique
channels ta the bony cranium, from which all pituita of the kind is
carefully kept away. But this discussion respecting t.he olfactory ncnes
is merely preliminary; we shall caln-ass t.he subjcct point by point, and
more fully, in the Part on the Cerebrum.
(r) Nothing is more cornmon in llorthern climates than the percep­
tion of the crceping of catarrhal humor in the cerebrum, and its sensi­
bly-felt derivation iuto thc nares. l should faH short of the truth were
30 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

escape upon thc application of sternutatory substances; in fnct,

by the very phcnomcna of sneezing (s): also, by the existence
of icJlOrous collections between the membranes, in thc sponge­
like l":1edullary substance, and in the ventricles, as observed in
post modem examinations of the brains of thosc who have <lied
of apoplexy, epilepsy, paralysis, or hydrocephalus; and whosc
rcstoration to health would be a matter of impossibility, unlc88
this ontlet for dischargc could be properly opencd.
349. V. B!I an extrinsically impulsive force, the nares excite
the cerebm1n ta ils proper reciprocal animations, synchronous with
the respirations of the lungs. Of this we are likewise assured hy
the causes of the former effcct (t), whieh are, indeed, common
to this its fcllow; that is to say, by the continuation, connexion,
and communication of the fibres of this organ, with all the
p:crts, individually and collcctively, in boththe medullary and
cart,ical portions of the ccrcbrum: by thc pcrpctual irritation,
sa long as wc breathe the breath of life, arising from the air
charged \Vith odors, and by its varying affiatus <md contact,
affceting, titillating, twitching, and prieking the organic tissue,

l to say that l have myself experienced it more than a hundred

times.
(8) From the phenomena of sneezing, whieh is the greatest expan­
sion, and the sudden eonstrietion, of thc eereurum and the lungs, we
may sce what are the lesser effects and exciting causes of respiration;
fol' the cause is the same in both cases, and the diirerenee is only a
difference in degree,-the differenee betwecll great and small. The
gl'eatest dcgree of titillation and stimulation excites a total elevation, as
it were, a convulsion of the cerebrum; a lesser degree excites a similar
but more slight eirect. It is a plain matter of experience, that the dura
mater, and consequently the hemisphcres of the cerebrum, are violently
contraeted and expanded in sneezing; for in wounds of the head, where
portions of the calvarium have been lost, the contraction of this
membrane is sensible under thc finger, and even visibly perceptible.
Thns the pnrifieation of the cereurum from humor, and the discharge
thereof through the manifold natural outlets of the cribriform plate,
as weil as from the other cavities and si11uses, must certainly take
place; being a necessary consequence of such contractile and expansilc
motion.
(t) Respecting which, see aboye, n. 348.
 TUE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 31

in gcneral and in pal'ticular, and occasionally rousing both the

cerebrum and the Inngs to almost c011Vulsive expansions and
constrictions Cu). But there are differences in this respect in
different living creatures: the human l'ace has the power of
respiring tlu'ough the mouth as weIl as through the nose j in
order that the cerebrum may be excited to its alternate recipro­
cations of elevation, solely by causes within its own power,-by
internal causes,-and Hot at the same time, except so far as it
wiHs, by external causes (x): so that nothing may sever or in­
terrupt the analyses of its rational mind, and their .tacit and
quiet guidance (y). In confirmation of this fact we may also
add that

(u) l mean, to sneezing, whieh is the greatest degree of expansion

und eonstrietioll of the ecrebrum. See ubove, note (s).
(x) In arder to the knowledge and exploration of causes l'rom
effeets, it is of the first importance to know the influx and cooperation
of the causes of any given effeet; but this is a subjeet of vast exten­
sion. 'Ve must here eonfineourselves to stating, that causes arc divi­
sible into innermost, middle, and outermost. In order that the cause
may produee the effeet, ail these must neeessarily eooperate. The
innermost are the proper causes of the effieient,-they are the causes
belonging tb the very principle; but the outermost, although evoked
by proper causes, nevertheless should not be termed proper excepting
with respect to their deseent and evoeation. The innermost causes aet
most individually, that lS to say, separately or singly upon eyery indi­
vidual part; but the outermost causes aet upon ail the parts general!y :
thus the outermost represent the eommon bond of singulars. '1'0 give
an example: the eerebrum, from the causes belonging to its prineiple,
whether that prineiple be nature or the will, excites eaeh substance of
the cortex and eaeh fibre to a speeies of animation; yet the eerebrum
requires also to be exeited to the same reeiproeations by sorne other
and general prineiple; as in the present case, by the air flowing into
the nasal eaYities, whieh operates in a general manner, not only upon
the whole of the fibres, but also upon the whale of the meninges, and
by this means upon the cortical eerebrum, where the prineip1es with
their powers reside. The eerebrum aets, by the fibres, upon aIl the
veriest partieu1ars of the body; the 1ungs also aet upon the same, but
on1y upon the general eompages of the fibres, thus upon the organs
formed by the fibres. Sa in al! other cases.
(y) Every one knows l'rom his own experienee, that while his mimI
32 THE ANIMAL KINGDOY.

350. VI. The nasal cavity and prominence, like a cynosure,

terminate and complete a common axis. This proposition is
proved by the situation of the ethmoid bone, and its connexion
with the coronal, the sphenoid, the two maxillary, and the
lacrymal bones, and with the palate bone and the vomer, to
which it serves as a boundary, cornmon bond, fixed point, and
wedge (z) j also by the articulation of the other bones by means
of sutures, particularly by means of the frontal suture in young
subjects (a). That the cribriform plate of the cthmoid bone is

is revolving its ideas or reasons, and thinking intently, he retains or

suspends the respirations of the lungs, consequently also the brcathing
of the cerebrum, for a considerable interval; and takes every means to
prevent any deep inhalation of the air, from disturbing its rational
analyses or analytic equations. For when the mind is in this state, it
demands the most profound silence and the most peIfect quiet. This
suspension of breathing takes place, in order that everything of the
grosser blood may be driven away, or kept at sorne distance, from the
innermost organs; fo'r the blood pcnetrates deeply when the cerebrum
breathes or animates deeply. Hence man enjoys the power of trans­
mitting the pulmonic breath through the aperture of the lips, and
through the mouth; and thus the external cause is prevented from ex­
citing the internai, (as it does in brutes,) and the internaI is constantly
enablcd to caU forth or evoke the external.
(z) This is sufficiently shewn by the facts of osteology. The bones
of the cranium are mutual props and supports to each other; and each
bone has its middle terminus, whlch it respects as a centre; for both
in the part and in the compound there is a perpetuaI respect of centres,
axes and circumferences, which results in the unbroken nexus and
correspondence of aU things. With respect to the cribriform plate of
the ethmoid bone, Winslow says, "The middle part of this portion of
the ethmoid bone is a smaU horizontal lamina, perforated by several
foramina, and termed, cribriform plate; posteriorly it has a little notch
for its articulation with the sphenoid bone. This plate may be looked
~pon as the body and support of the whole bone" (Exp. Anat., Tr.
des Os Secs, n. 245). In the skeleton, the prominence of this part is
particularly conspicuous, and we see clearly that it proceeds, as the
cxtremity of an axis, from the point of junction of the other bones .
(a) The sutures respect each other mutuaUy, in the same manner
as the bones. In embryos and infants we generaUy find a suture run­
ning from the sagittal suture towards the ethmoid bone, and going to
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 33

moreover placed at the extremity of the axis of the cerebrum

itself and its membranes, is shewn by the longituùinal sinus,
and the falciform process of the dura mater j by the serpentine
gyres of the hemispheres j likewise, by the median fissure, run­
ning from the fOUlth ventricle, through the aqueduct of Sylvius,
the third ventric1e, and the septum lucidum, to the fissure of
the anterior convexities of the cerebrum (b) j aIl of which have
their starting-place and goal at the crcst and plate of this bone :
also, by thc communication of the mammillary processes with
the whole of the roedullary nucleus and of the cortical circum­
ference (c). The nares also institute and begin the common axis
which runs from the head into the thorax, as well as that which runs
into the abdomen; to wit, through the larynx and the trachea to
the lungs, and through the pharynx and the œsophagus to the
stomach; which ways the pituitary membrane continuously
follows, lays down and smooths, from the superior boundary of
the axis, far beyond their respective thresholds (d). From snch

the dorsum of the nose; and which sometimes unites with anothcr
that cornes round from the coronal suture to the orbits. Thcse very
sutures or articulations, like the bones themselves, are indications of
mutual relations and directions.
(b) AU these particulars wil! be clearly explained in the Part on the
Cerebrum. See below, note (d).
(c) These points were treated of in the preceding paragraph.
(d) It may be proper ta indicate, at this preliminary stage of our
investigations, that two very remarkable axes are observed in the' cere­
brum: one runs from the crista galli, along the longitudinal sinus and
the falciform process of the dura mater, that is to say, along the great
fissure of the hemispheres, al! the way to the fourth sinus or torcular
Herophili; the other runs in the middle or central portion of the cere­
brum, from the fissure of the anterior convexities,-thus like the former,
from the region of the crista galli or cribriform plate,-through the sep­
tum lucidum, the third ventricle, and ultimately through the fourth,
aU the way to the spinal marrow, and is a hollow axis, but intercepted
by divers partitions. The very surface of the cerebrum, convoluted as
it is, and wound into serpentine spires, and the whole of its interior or
medullary portion, respect these axes as continuaI goals, ta which with
one accord they tend. The cerebellum refers itself ta the spinal mar­
row, as a kind of axis continued from itself. But in the body there
VOL. II. PART II. CHAP. 1. Il
34 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

continuity, connexion, and communication in the extreme

boundaries,-in the last boundary of the head, and the first
boundary of the body,-there exists a common correspondence
of an things, and the same correspondence is excited alternately
by the contact of the air or breath as it passes by.
351. VII. Thu.~, from the ultimate boundary of titis axis, the
nares transcribe the cerebrum into the face, and give it the power of
picturing its affections upon the surface or countenance thereoj.
For from this boundary, as a kind of pole or centre, the cere­
brum evolves itself into new circumferenees, and in arder to be
continuous with them, it produces its axis into a beaked protu­
berance,-in fact, into a nose,-and perforates this nose with
cavitics, divides these cavities from each other by a septum, fur·
nishes them with alœ, and connects them, by means of coats,
ligaments, and muscles, with the Eps, chœks, eyebrows, and
forehead, suitably to evèry idea of the animal mind's representa.
tion (e). Renee correspondence, symmetry, beautYj and a na·

seems to be three general axes proceeding from the ethmoid bone; one
running through the pharynx and the œsophagus into the stomach, and
which serves as an axis in the whole of the cavity of the abdomen, as
we shewed in the Chapter on the Peritonœum: the second passing
through the larynx and the trachea into the lungs, which llre the general
beginning or principle of aU the motions of the body: the third going
towards the spinal marrow, which, as we before observed, is the axis of
the cerebeUum. That there is also sorne passage thither from the cavi­
ties of the nares, may be gathered from an observation of 'Vinslow.
"The particular situation of these cavities," says he, "deserves our
attention: the bottom of them runs directly from before backward, so
that a straight and pretty large stilet may very easily be passed direct
from the tip of the nose, as far as under the great apophysis of the occi­
pital hone" (n. 34.0).
(e) The proper muscles of the nose are two dilators, the pyrami­
dalis and the myrtiformis; also one constrictor, figured by sorne anato­
mists, and named by Brown, corrugator l1asi; to which wc may add,
the semilunar or falciform muscle of Eustachius, represented in his
Tabul. Anat., tab. xviii., fig. 3. In the plates of Eustachius and other
authors, as Cowper, llidloo, Brown and Santorinus, we see that nearly
ail the labial and the frontal and palpebral muscles communicate by a
wonderful influx with the nasal muscles. See Eustachius, Ibid., tab.
 THE NOSE AND THE UVULA. 35
tural and instinctive divination from the form of this prominence
respecting the cerebrum, or respecting its animal mind, which
in the face, constitutes expression (1).
352. The UVULA is a conical and pointed corpuscule, hang­
ing like a plummet or inverted balance from the junction of
the arches and columns of the velum palati; like an elongated
drop or tear from the roof of the nasal chamber; provided with
great numbers of museles, termed musculi staphilini, which
arise from the pharynx, the larynx, the root of the tongue, the
palate, and the Eustachian tube; furnished with numerous ves­
sels; excavated by little mucous crypts; surrounded by the
membranes of the palate and nares; reaching fOl"Warc1s to the
root of the tongue; flexible, capable of elevation, relaxation,

xi. and xviii. Thus confirming our proposition, that the whole face,
by means of the muscles, refers itself to the nose, as a kind of pro­
minent axis. But it was pointed out above, in our Chapter on the
Mouth and Lips, that the labial orifice occupies the place of a kind of
centre, the circumference of which centre is moveable, and that by
means thereof the face acquires the capacity and power of representing
infinite species of motions or expressions. On the other hand, the
uppermost part or root of the nose is an immoveable centre, from which
a radiation takes place to all points of the face as circumfercnces ; which
is the reason why there is sa close an intercourse betwccn these two
centres; for nearly an the nasal muscles operate upon the labial mus­
cles, and vice versâ. Everyone may experience this in his own person;
for the aIre nasi cannot be expandcd withont a simultaneous opening of
the lips, nor can the two bc comprcssed cxcept together.
(f) Thus we observe various classes of noses,-some aquiline, long
and hooked, sorne pincheù; others again, turned up, crooked, bulbous,
retracted, grooved or double; others again, smaU, sometimes so smaU
as to consist of little more than aIre; and if these forms be congenital,
not attributable to the mother's influence during pregnancy, we shaU
rarely be deceived in juùging from them. For if the state of the animal
mind,-whethcr it be anger, or melancholy, or sorrow of any kind,
or pride, or shame, or disgust, or contempt, or gladness, bcncvolence,
kindness, or the like,-be cognizable from alterations in the counte­
nance, then of course a very similar form in gcneral must be commu­
nicated to the infant by the nature hereditarily propagated from its
parents. It does not, however, seem that this rule ought to be ex­
tended to anything beyond the signs of the disposition or animal mincI.
D2
3G THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

contraction and extension, and determinable to aU the modes of

the tongue, the pharynx, the larynx, and the palate, when these
parts are in action j particularly and proximately to the modes
of the velum palati. Its uses are, Firstly, to give the velum pa­
lati the full power of accommodating itself to the actions of the
tongue in eating, and of the pharynx in swaUowing (g) : this
end being answered by the glosso-staphilini and pharyngo-sta­
philini muscles, assisted by the palato-staphilinus and the azygos
:M:orgagnii (h) j also by its membranes, continuous with the in­
teguments of the mouth and fauces. Secondly, likewise to assist

(g) The uvula appears to do no more than bestow upon the velum
palati the opportunity and power of accorr.modating itself to the respec­
tive modes of the tongue in eating and speaking. It is onlya pendulous
corpuscule, capable of elevating itself, contracting and expanding; but
like a plummet or balance it lends and communicates to the velum pa­
lati, a wonderful readiness and faculty of application. It is, in fact, a
perfectly moveable apex, to which the divers actions of the \'elum can
in an instant be concentrated, and thus thc velum be nimbly inflected
and folded to suit the minutest variations of the tongue and the pha­
rynx; whieh would be very difficult of accomplishment without sorne
weight or poise of the kind: for the circumferences, scattered an round,
obtain their ability of moving, from the moveable axis; inasmuch as it
receives aIl the vibrations and infleetions, as weIl as accommodates itself
thereto. The velum palati closes the passage, either to the laryn:x, or
to the nares, or ta the Eustachian tube, or to the pharynx; but not so
the uvula, which turns like a balance according ta aIl the little motions
of its scales. Respeeting the velum palati, and the palatine arches and
columns, and respeeting the manner in which the uvula depends there­
from, see Winslow, n. 341. But no author, l think, has more dili­
gently and suc.cessfully than Boerhaave, investigated the foldings of the
velum palati, and the various determinations of it and the uvula, both
when the tongue is eating and speaking. See his b18t. Med., n. 70,
71. For Boerhaave has taken the opportunity of examining the parts
under these circumstances with a lighted candIe; and has shewn how
readily this little cone accommodates itself to the varions actions of the
velum. Indeed to him l principally owe my knowledge of the nses of
this corpuscule.
(lt) According to myologists, the glosso-staphilinus, arising from
the root of the tongue, ascends tawards the palate and velum pa­
lati. The pharyngo-staphilinus, arising from both sides of the pha­
 THE NOSE ANn THE UVULA. 37

the velum or c1austrum palati, when the larynx is articulating,

and the tongue regulating, sound: this end being answcred by
the glosso-staphilini, the thyro-staphilini, the salpingo-staphilini,
and the pterygo-staphilini, assistcd by the palato-staphilinus (i) :
and hereby is conferred the power of rcspiring, modulating, and
speaking, either through the mouth, or through the nal'es, or
through both; which seems to be the reason why the uvula is not
found in brutes. Tltirdly, the uVlùa provides that the pituitary
and mucous humor of the nares, following the continuous pa­
rietes, and proceeding aud dctermiued by this ready road aud ex­
tended path (k), may be derived, not iuto the rima glottidis, but

rynx, proceeds in like manner, through the velum palati, towards. the
uvula. The palato-staphilinus, coming from the junction of the palate
bones, i5 inserted into the upper part of the uvula; so likewise is the
azygos Morgagnii. See Heister's description of these muscles, u. 339.
It appears then that the uvula docs nothing of itself,-nothing except
by means of the velum palati.
(i) These muscles respect the cooperation of the velum palati, and
thereby of the uvula, with the tongue and thc larynx; as the former
respect thc cooperation of the same parts with the tongue and the pha­
rynx. The thyro-staphilini, according to Heister (n. 339), arise from
the lateral part of the thyroid cartilage, widen as they ascend towards
the uvula, and are inserted, in the manner of an arch, into the side of
the velum palati. The salpingo-staphilini arise from the posterior part
of the Eustachian tube; thc pterygo-staphilini, from its anterior part.
The way in which thc Eustachian tube contributes to sound and spcech,
will be pointed out in the Part on the Organs of the Senses, in our
Chapter on the Ear.
(k) All humor, even the most limpid, still more that which is slug­
gish and mucons, constantly follows the parietes, and descends along
the plane surfaces; it never escapes from thc middle of the aperture of
an osculum, unless its quantity be great and superabundant. Since
then the uvula hangs forward from the bordcr of the orifice that opens
from the nares into thc cavity of thc palatc, t.herefore the mucus de­
scending from the nares cannot possibly follow any other than this
ready and continuous path, that is to say, along the uvula; conse­
quently it must pass to the very root of the tongue, with which the
uvula is in contact by its apex. Thus the uvula is the guide of the
mucous drippings or discharges from the narine cavities into the palate,
and thc moyer forward of the same towards the pharynx.
38 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

to the root or dorsum of the tongue, and thence into the

pharynx; and thus that it may not be commixed with the
saliva of the mouth, and blunt the delicate and agile fibres
of the tongue, and the sensoria of taste' (l). These causes are
confirmed by the actual effects witnessed in the mouth, on
holding a lighted candle to it when the tongue is eating or
speaking (m): by the change of state in both these operations
when the uvula is inflamed, stiffened, tumefied, bent, detached
from its muscles and frœna, excised, ulcerated, or eroded: and
lastly, by the situation and connexion of the uvula, and by its
powers of inflexion, contraction, extension, and application.

(l) The direction of the mucus that cornes down from the nares, is
alone sufficient to prove that it is different in nature from the saliva of
the mouth; for the interposition of the uvula, and its determination
towards the pharynx, make it evideut, that the only proper ways of dis­
charge for this mucus, are either through the nasal doors or apertures,
or else immediately into the pharynx, where it can be commixed with
the thick humor that is expressed from the palatine glands; possihly
also where it may likewise sheathe the crumhs and little pieees of
comminuted food, and convey them through the œsophagus into the
stomach. For the salivary humors increase in density from the lips aU
the way to the pharynx; and at last they are succeeded by mucus,
which is more muddy and thick than the other humors, and completes
the work. It is very c1ear, that without sorne guiding cone like the
uvula, the mucus of the nares would glide down promiscuously either
to the tongue, and so to the apex thereof, or else into the larynx;
particularly sinee the tongue is frequently speaking in the very middle
of the act of eating; and thus pervert the established order of nature
in the case of both these operations.
(m) That is to say, by Boerhaave, to whose observations (Imt.
Med., n. 70, 71) 1 again direct the reader's attention.
 Br

EPILOGUE.
456. THE lungs, in the first flower and golden age of their
life, or when the body and the thorax were enveloped and con·
fined by manifold swathings in the mother's womb, were un­
able as yet to expand, still less to open the mouth of their
larynx (a): but together with the brains, the heart, and the
members attendant thereupoD, they passed aud beguiled their
day, which was nine months long, in the deepest peaee, and as

(a) Although it may appear sufficiéntly evident and incontestable at

the first glance that the lungs could not have respired in the uterine
state, yet it may not be without its use, to confirm evell the common
opinion by a statement of proofs, for without proofs be given, the
minds of sorne individuals are apt still to remain in doubt. At this
time, then, the chest, with the ribs, the sternum, and the muscles,
was so bent inwards and compressed, that it had neither room nor
power to rise and open out. Besides, the spine of the back was sa
mueh incurvated, that it could not possibly, by any living force or ex­
pansion, have excited the costal nerves, which act upon the above
muscles. Again, there was no snrrounding atmosphere which the lungs
could have drawn ta them, if they had been raised; but instead of an
atmosphere, they would probably have imbibcd the liquor amnii in
streams, and have overwhelmed the bronchial pipes and vesicles, that
is to say, would have overwhelmed themselves, in sudden shipwreck.
Add to this, that the cardiac blood had not yet flowed in through thc
pulmonary artery, although this blood alone gives the lungs the power of
respiring, as we observed in the Chapters on the Lungs and the Pleura,
&c. At this time, the bronchial artery and the fibre of the pulmonary
plexus reigned sole and supremc, and might possibly have produced a
certain slight vibration sYllchronous with the movement of the heart.
332 THE ANIMAL KING DOM.

it WC' c in the temple of concord (b). At this timc the soul,

undc the auspices of the supreme mind, by means of the brains
and their fibres, and in the ultimate sphere, by means of the
heaTe and its vessels, mled and governed the helm of the king­
dom; it was the only pl'inciple of aH motions: the determina­
tions from this principle flowed through adopted and organicaHy
constructed forms, serving in orderly sequence and manifold
succession as fu'st, intermcdiate, and ultimate causes: hence aH
efforts, forces, actions, and modes thereof, agreeably to the
order appointed by nature, proceeded constantly from the first
spheres to the last, or from the innermost to the outermost (c).

(b) It is e\'ielent from the initial stages of the formation of the liv­
ing boely, that the fibre \Vas the first determination of aU things therein,
that is to say, the first, that wove aH the organic forms, and inspired
thcm with active, consequently with motive, force. If this be true of
the fibre, of course it foHows that the cercbrum in the widest accepta­
tion of the word, or as including the cerebeUum, the meduHa oblongata,
and the meduUa spinalis, which are the birth-place of the fibres,-it
foHows, I say, that the cerebrum was the first thing that excited the
machine to its motion; and that aH things received their origin, and
their principles of motion and progression, under the auspices of the
cerebrum, consequently of the fibres thereof. If we grant this, then
we must admit that the heart, the secondary principle of motion, was
Hot excited to its reciprocations by any other causes; and, therefore,
that the rhythmical movements of the heart were consonant with the
animatory movements of the brain, and hence that concord prevailed
throughout, so that the vessel never rose in insurrection against the
fibre, nor the blood against the spirit, no l', in a word, the body against
the soul. But we shaH treat this subject in greater detail in the Parts
on the Heart and the Cerebrum.
(c) \Ve can never arrive at a true knowledge of the animal kingdom,
unless we entertain a distinct idea of the subordination and succession
of efficient causes, and unless we have a distinct conception of the
nature of the prior and of the posterior sphere, or what amounts to the
same thing, of the interior and of the exterior, and of the difference
between them; for the prior and the interior are also the more perfect
and the more universal. The progression from the prior to the poste­
rior,-a priori ad p08teriora,-or from the interior to the exterior, is
identical with the progression from the soul to the body; but the pro­
gression from the posterior to the prior,-a po8teriori ad priora,-or
 EPILOGUE. 333

Thus the body was the body of its soul, and the subject of the
auspices of the snpreme mind. But when th,) period of these
c1estinies had passec1 away, and the mannikin, bursting the
swathings and bars of the womb, rushed forth upon the theatre
of the great w.orld, the state of life was instantly changed, and
the hinges of the determinations, forces and motions were in-
verted and bent backward against the order of the former life;
namely, from the outermo:;~t sphel'es to the innermost, or from
the body and its powers inwards, towards the proximate and
immec1iate powers of the principle or soul (d). In order that,

from the exterior to the interior, is identical with the progression frOID
the body to the sou1. 1 intend to cxpound again in the sequel the
Doctrine of Order add Degrees, as we11 as the Doctrine of Influx, * in
ordcr that we may have a just inte11ectual comprehension of the above
scale of progression. 1 will here only remark, that in the uterine life,
a11 active force flowed in, according to truly natural order, that is to
say, immediately from the soul into the ultimate forces of the body;
but afterwards, in the life after birth, inversely, from the body to the
soul; so that what was previously active, thenceforward became passive,
and at the same time reactive; just as we observed above of the bron-
chiaI artery, in the Chapter on the Lungs. where it was stated that
" this artery, in conjunction with the twigs of the par vagum and inter-
costal nervcs, was what conccived, engendered and eonstructed the
embryonic 1ung, and a11 ils vessels, aërifcrous, artrrial and venous;
and laid dowll a.nd fOl'med those direct passages along whieh the atmo-
spherie air and the eardiae blood are to pass and glide in the second
period of life : thus this artery was once the parent, but now the change
in its fortunes has made it the daughter and the slave" (n. 409). See
also ibid., note (0). But the reader will find this confirmed by a num-
ber of experimental proofs in another part of the W ork.
(d) If we are able to discriminate distinctly hetween the outermost
sphere and the innermost, we shall clearly perceive that the order is
entire!y Î1wel'tcd. The outermost forces of the body are the muscles
and their rnoving fibres, which, on this account, have their places in
the eircumference of the frame: the bones and cartilages a1so bclong to
this class of forces. The ultimate or lowest universa1 essence,-the

* The l'eader will find these subjects treated of in Swedenborg's "Allgelic

IVisdom corwerning tlte Divine Love and the Divine Wisdom," and in his " Inter.
course iJetween lite Soul and tlte Body."-(TI'.)
334 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

after this inversion, the last causes might take the first place,
the lungs were opened: the lowest atmosphere of the world was
admitted through the nares and the larynx into the trachea and
the bronchial pipes: the muscles of the thorax were unfolded :
the ribs with the vertebrre and sternum were moved from their
places, to and fro: and the reciprocal actions proceeding from
these ultimate causes, or from the body, were transferred
through the diaphragm, the pleura and the mediastinum, into
the innermost sphere of the lungs, whither also the atmosphere
was transferred through the larynx (e). On the instant the
blood also, which rushed from the venre cayre into the right
auricle and cavern of the heart, began to be the proximate
cause of the motions or pulses, even through the whole arterial
system; the proximate cause having previously been the fibre
and the spirit of the fibre (1). At the same time the organs of
proper essence of the body,-is the red blood, which is determined by
the vessels. The mediate essence, on the other hand, is the animal
spirit in the medullary fibresof the brain 'and the nervous fibres of the
body. But the first or supreme and innermost essence of the body is
the sou1. See Part L, the Chapter on the Peritonreum, n. 313, 314.
If then the causes of actions proceed inwards from the muscular fibres
and the ribs, &c., towards the lungs, and never stop until thcy arrive
in thc innermost parts or in the vesicles of the lungs, of course the
action proceeds from without to within,-ab extel'iori ad intel'iora.
Again, if the atmosphere be admitted to the innermost parts of the
lungs, the same remark will apply ; for the atmospheric air is the 10west
aura of the world. For as we shewed in the Chapter on the Lungs,
every action of respiration proceeds from the motion of the muscles of
the thorax, in such a manner that not eyen the minutest particular of
an action is irnpressed by those muscles, but has a similar action cor­
responding to it in the innermost parts of the lungs, conseqllently in
the particulars of the respiration.
(e) AIl these points were shewn in the preceding pages, in treating
of the trachea, the lungs, the pleura, and the diaphragm; and this
change and inversion of the state of life, was also explainéd aboye,
n. 429, ad Jin.
(f) In so far as the heart is a muscle, and in so far as its arteries
consist of a muscular coat, it is excited to its pulsations, or systolic
and diastolic movements, either by the nervous fibre acting upon the
fibres of the muscle, or by the blood. In. the embryonic state, the
 EPILOGUE. 335
the five senses were opened, to take up on the first threshold
the images, tones, forms, and an the play and manifestation of
the circumambient world, and convey them inwards even to the
sou! (g). Thus we entered, or rather fell, from the highest life
into the life of the body, which is the lowest, and the world's.
457. Now when the body undertook to manage the reins
which the soul relinquished; when the machine was so com­
pletely invertcd, that the powcrs flowed and rolled contrariwise,
or upwards instead of downwards,-then, in order that the ma­
chine itself might not be prostrated and perish by its forces (h),

nervous fibre was the proximate cause, but aftcr birth, the venous
blood; as l think was proved in the Economy of the Animal Kingdom,
• in the Chapter on the Motion of the Adult Heart, n. 512 seqq.; and
in the Chapter on the Arteries and Veins, n. 166-174. Thus the
fibre which once was the active, motive and first cause, afterwards
became the passive, reactive and remote cause. Ail the other structures
that depend upon the heart and its vessels, appear to have undergone
a similar fate.
(g) The same conditions are predicable of the sensoria, as of the
motoria or the muscles of the body. The organs of the senses are the
d<1ors through which the varieties of the world flow in, and through
which they penetrate to the intimate sphere, in short, to the souI.
For instance the eye, which takes up the images represented by the
mediation of the ether, and conveys them through the optic nerves ail
the way to the brain, and to the principles of the fibres thereof, and
the most perfectly organic forms. Likewise the ear, which drinks the
modulations of the atmosphere, and transmits them through the fibres
of the seventh pair of nerves to the same destinations. In like manner
the nares, which convey their smell through the mammillary processes ;
and the tonguc, which conveys the taste in the same way through its
sensorial fibres. Thus ail things go from without to within; and so
much is this the case, that our rational mind itself has to be educated,
and we may almost say, to be instructed how to think and to judge, by
its own ministering ol'gans. See below, n. 458. Thus ail things prove,
that the animal machine is so formed, that the active forces tend inwards,
until a kind of rational principle has sprung up, and has been so far
educated by these influxes, that it can undertakc the government, and
hold the reins of its kingdom. But we shall treat of this subject in
its proper place in the sequeI.
(11.) If we examine the animal machine with a proper amoilllt of
336 THE A~IMAL KINGDOM.

and in order that the life that '\Vas now transfcrred to the body,
might not be dissipated, and come to an end, it was providcd
and appointed that the lungs should perform a medialorial office
betwccn the soul and the body; whereforc, to bring them into
concord, the ordinanccs that follow were solemnly decreed. It
was decreed,-I. That the alternate respirations of the lungs
should concur, in momenta and degrees, with the alternate ani­
mations of the brains (i). II. That the will and nature should

insight, and consider it according to the laws of the doctrine of order

and degrees, we shaH readily see, that we live an inverted life, in fact,
principaIly a corporeal or external life, and in no wise a spiritual or
internaI life; for aIl things that belong to the very life, have their
beginnings from the body, and penetrate inwards. This 1.s the reason
why we are sometimes almost pcrsuaded, that it is the body alone that
lives; when yet aH the life of the body flows forth entirely from the
life of the soul; for we are deluded and led by the faHacies of the
senses, for instance, to believe, that it is the eye that sees, and the
ear that hears; although the eye and the ear are only the organs or
instruments through which the sou! perceives the modes of the ulti­
mate world: thus the instrumental cause simulates identity with the
principal cause. It is perfectly evident that these sensoria are only .
organs or instruments, from the very nerves that convey the modes of
sensations to the brain; and it is equaIly clear that these senses are
changed exactly in correspondence to the changes of state in those
nerves, and in the brain. The same may be said of the life of the
whole body, which life is purely sensitive, for actions are the determi­
nations of this life, which are alive in proportion as they have sensitive
life in them. But we must not delay longer at present over these con­
siderations. Since the state of the life is determined so eompletely in
contrariety to the order of the prior and former nature, hence, unless
this had been foreseen, and provision made to meet it, the organic
fabrics, in the revolution, might easily have been hurried astray, and
have come to ruin; like machines acting against their wheels, or rivers
against their sources. But these dangers are met from the very begin­
ning, and this, by the mediation of the lungs.
(i) This, l think, l have satisfactorily proved in the Economyof
the Animal Kingdom, in a particular Treatise upon the Coincidence of
Motion between the Brain and the Lungs; and l have given further
corroborations of it in the present Work, in the Chapters on the Lungs
and the Pleura, &c. In the former chapter the foIlowing words occur :
 EPILOGUE. 337

flow into every act of the respiration j and that the former
should conduct the inspirations, the latter, the expirations (k) j
wherefore the cerebrum was appointed to preside over the will,
and the cerebellum over nature j and each had its own nel'ves
allotted to it, to administer its department (1). III. That the
"The respiration of the lungs flows not only into the trunk of the
body, but also into the head, and into its organs of motion and sen­
sation; and in fact to the cercbrum, the very fountain of its motion,
to which it riscs iu infinite streams, as it were in mcanders and circles,
and associatcs itself with the reciprocal respirations, or, as we term
thcm, the animations of the cercbrum. Thus the lungs, and the
brains with the medulla oblongata and spinalis, are synchronous in
their rcspective animations and spirations; and this, in order that
causes may act harmonically, and conspire in operation, with effects ;
things prior with things posterior; and the spirit of the soul with the
spirit of the body; and in order that there may be an influx and reflux
of the one into the other" (n. 398). See also ibid., notes (y) and (z).
The reader will find these statcmcnts established more in detail, by
proofs derived from the nexus of substances, consequently of efficient
causes, in the Chapter on the Pleura, &e, n. 424.
(k) This was likewise proved, under the sanction of expel'ience, in
the Chapter on the Lungs, where the following words occur: "The
contraction of the voluntary muscles, united with the action of the
atmosphere, givcs the air the powcr of inflating the lungs, and of
overcoming nature; and the contractile action of the lungs, in conjunc­
tion with a similar action on the part of the levers of the thorax,-the
will the meanwhile being in a state of repose,-gives nature the power
of thrùwing out the eneroaching .iliolus; hence the province of the
will is eonfincd to admitting, and during good plcasure retaining, the
aërial guest; but driving it out, is left to nature" (n. 394). See also
ibid., (m). "Nature shares the empire with the will, for the latter only
constringes the ncrves and reins of the body, and keeps them con­
strictcd and drawn up, 50 long as it pleases; but as soon as it re­
laxes its hold, then nature takes up the governmcnt, and performs
the contrar)' operation; as when we draw a bow, and then rcleasing it,
shoot off the arrow, in which case the first act bclongs to the will, the
second, to nature, for the loosened string bounds back spontaneously,
and the arrow flies to its aim" (n. 400). See also ibid., (m).
(l) Inasmuch then as two principlcs bear sway in the animal body,
to wit, na~lre, that is, the soul, in which this nature dwells, and the
will, we mflY conclude, that this nature flows in, under the auspices of
VOL. II. PART II. 1\
338 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

lungs, as provisional powers, and common auxiliaries, shoulù

flow into these nerves, by the forces of their breathing appa­
ratus, that is, by living forces of constriction and expansion,
and should carry on the spirit of the fibres of the cerebrum
and cerebellum, until it arrived at effects, or at the goals of
causes (m). IV. That the lungs should infuse the general ani­
mations and motions of the cerebellum, into the members and

the supreme mind, -from first causes, through intermediate causes, into
efi'ects; and that the will determines nothing into act, except according
to those things of which the rational mind has been informed by the
senses of the body: wherefore also the rational mind produces nothing
by its will, as the principle of its actions, but what it has first imbibed
and laid hold of by the way of analysis, or of the senses. 'Thus, since
two principles of action exist in one body, it is necessary that there
should be two brains; one of them to be subject to the empire of
nature; the other, to the empire of the will. Were there only one,
then eithcr nature alone would rule, in which case there would be no
nced of external organs for instruction, for the life under whose auspices
nature acts is infinitely superior in wisdom to our inmost sensitive life ;
or else the will alone would rule, in wbich case all thi[igs would go to
wreck, aud perish in less than a moment. Therefore nerves pro­
cecd separatcly from these two brains, by which nerves operations
are determined, and which dividedly administer the government of the
kingdom.
(m) It was shewn above in the Chapter on the Lungs, that those
organs, by their respirations, or alternate expansions and constrietions,
influence the nerves themselves, partieularly those of the cerebellum,
namely, the great sympathctic nerves, and the par vagum; and as ex­
ternal, corporeal and general causes, excite them to action (n. 399) ;
and this, principally by the mediation of the pleura and the diaphragm
(n. 447, 448). For in arder that the organic fabrics or the viscera
may be roused to their rcspective modes of operating, it is not sufficient
that their nerves be inspired by the brains, but it is also necessary that
the lungs, as general auxiliaries, iufuse the respiratory motion, which
is brought to pass by an action upon the pleura, the diaphragm, the
peritonœum, and their ligaments; as well as by an accordant action
upon the nerves themselves. This is the reason why the viscera of the
abdomen are not inaugurated into their offices until after the opening
of the lungs. That the lungs excrt a similar influence an~ operation
upon the phrenic nerves, see n. 449, 450.
 EPILOGUE. 339

viscera of the whole body, by actions directed upon the nerves

of the ccrebeUum, as well as upon the mediastinum, the pleura,
and the cliaphragm, and by the mediation of these parts (n).
V. That the lungs should enter aU actions commanded by the
cerebrum, or the will, and the very forms of aIl actions, with
an assistant determination. And moreover should insvire them
with aU the spirit and fire of the will; so that aIl things
should be brought out in the last sphcre, precisely as they are
represented in the first (0). VI. That the lungs should live and
act entirely under the control and in the service of the cere-
brum; so much so, as to enunciate and manifest by the larynx,
prefixed as a head to their pipes, what the cerebrum revolves,
cogitates, and decides, or what it commands to be uttered (p).
VII. That the lungs should in no respect disturb the modes, or
systolic and diastolic movements, of their neighbor the heart, and
its arteries, but simply procure for these parts, by influx into
their nerves, the power of acting according to causes generated
in the body, or by the blood (q). And that the heart on the

(n) On this subject see the Chapter on the Lungs, n. 395, 396.
In that Chapter it was shewn, that "the lungs nat only effuse their
moving breath or breathing motion into the general connecting media
of the body,-as the tunics, the muscles, and the septa,-and thence
into the viscera enclosed thereby, as the stomach, the liver, the mesen,
tery, the pancreas, the spleen, the kidneys, the bladder, the testicles,
the vesiculre seminales, the uterns, the avaries, and the l'est; but they
also infuse it into the distinct particular congeries and simple forms of
those viscera, that is ta say, into their lobules, glands, and foUicles,
down ta the very intimate recesses of each: and thus the lungs excite
them, every one, in their general form as weIl as in aIl their parts, ta
operate in accordance ta their nature and structure, inspiring force into
potency, and thereby giving birth ta natural effects or actions" &c.
(n. 396). See also the Chapter on the Diaphragm, n. 450; and the
chapters on the several üscera of the abdomen in Part 1. of the Work.
(0) The reader will tind these points also treated of in the Chapter
on the Lungs, n. 399-402.
(p) This was clearly explained in the Chapter on the Lungs,
n.403.
(g) That the lungs extend their sphere of activity ta the heart
itself, and to an its arteries and veins, see n. 397, where the following
z2
340 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

other hand, by the pulmonary artery as a common key, should

nnlock the lungs, aud thus constantly place the universal cor­
poreal machine under the power and auspices of their motions;
and by its blood should give back to the lungs in like manner
the power of acting according to their causes (r). VIII. That

passage occurs: "The lungs ... l'ostel' in their embrace this ruler of
the kingdom, press him ta their breasts, and reciprocate the act of
love; for they likewise enter his pericardium with their common coat,
by means of the mediastinum and the diaphragm; and they enter the
sinus of his left auricle, with aIl their blood, venous constitution,
marrow and life: uay, they even surround his great arteries and veins,
the aorta and the vena cava, with the pleura, with the diaphFagm, and
finally with the peritonreum; and more than this, they enswathe his
bifurcations, l mean, the ischiadic, spermatie, and many other vessels,
with a similar covering. Thus the lungs extend their action ta these
parts, as weIl as ta their head, the heart; sa that wherever the heart
penetrates by means of the arteries,-whithersoever it carries the cir­
culatory motion,-thither also it brings with it the spirit of the lungs.
The heart, by means of the artcries, diffuses the bloOO, or the cor­
poreal soul, in aIl directions, while the lungs affuse the' spirit of this
world, the ultimate and corporeal spirit. Hence the nltimate or cor­
porcal life is the result of the union of these two principles, the
preliminary scene of its drama being opened and commeuced by the
lungs at birth, when we make our first entrunee upon the theatre of
this world's life." That the lungs also, by their uction upon the car­
diac nerves, communicate ta the heart the power of acting, and in no
way trench upon it, or hinder it l'rom performing its alternate motions,
see above, n. 423, where the followillg condition was statcd ta be one
of the terms of a covenant between the lungs and the heart: "That
the lungs, during cach alternate draught, do admit, and lend their
asssistance ta infuse, the living spirit of the cerebrum and ccrebellum
inta every nerve and muscle of the heart, its aUl1.cles, arteries and
veins; sa that the heart may perpetually enjoy the power of pcrforming
its systole and diastole, of which if dcprived, it, and its vasculaI' ap­
paratus, would l'aIl and die." See also ibid., ilote (c).
(1') This was laid down above in the Chapter on the Pleura, n. 423,
in the following words: "On the other hand, that the heart do pour
forth through the venous artery, aIl its own or the body's blood, for
the lungs ta conduct ta those innermost places of comitia or meeting,
for the purpose of renewing the terms of the covenant every time; 50
 EPILOGUE. 341

the heart with its blood and pcricardium, and the ccrcbrum
with its spirit and dura mater, should mect together at the
pulmonary vesicles, and thus in the iunermost spherc of the
lungs, in which as n'om its first causes theu' mediatorial office
commences (8). These are the conditions and solemn ordinances
by which the discords of the new life are brought iuto con­
corel. But in spite of ail, perpetuaI contentions prevail, which
constantly rend and depopulate the ill-adjusted state; whence
siekness, disease, old age, and the necessity of death (t).

that the lungs likewise may perpetually enjoy the power of maintaining
their respiratory alternations, of whieh if depriyed, they and their
air-pipes would eollapse and perish." See also ibid., note (d). For
unless the heart flowed with its blood iuto the lungs, the latter eould
not possibly be raised, or cxercisc their respiratory alternations; thus
the one obtains the power of acting from the other; but besides this,
the one does not in the slightest degree influence the other's modes of
action. Hence it appears, that the pulmonary artcry is the very key
whieh opens the door to aIl the operations that result from the action of
the lungs; for were it not for the influx of blood from the heart
through this artery into the luugs, not only they, but ail the l'est of
the machine that depends upon them as its wheel, would come to a
stand-still.
(8) It was shewn aboye in the Chapter on the Lungs, that the heart
flows in with its blood and perieardium aIl the way to the innermost
parts of those organs. That the eerebrum also flows in thither with its
dura mater, see the Chapter on the Nose, n. 345, 348, where a com­
munication was shewn to exist between the two meninges, and even
between the mednllary part of the cerebrum, and the pituitary mem­
brane of the nares, by the medium of the olfaetory nerves; also a
continnation of the pituitary membrane not only over the palate, but
also into the larynx and trachea, and consequently into the bronchia,
and their ultimate vesicles. From this continuity and meeting it follows,
that the heart and the brain are coneentred, by means of their cxternal
coats, in the innermost parts of the lungs, and that thus they both
acknowledge the lungs as mediators between the operations of both,
according to the proposition of the paragraph.
(t) If we attend to the causes that are perpetuaIly throwing our
blood and animal spirit into turmoils and changes of state, it will be
suffieiently evident, that the causes of the diseases, old age, and death,
of the subjeets of the animal kingdom, arc derived from the above
342 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

458. Since, therefore, we are inaugurated iuto this life, that

tends backwards from the last stages of the course to the first,
the consequence is, that we are born in the densest obscurity,
ignorant of all things, and the merest of infants; for the forces
of the body, which are now the first causes, feeling nothing of
themselves (u). Thus we live but little, if at an, in early in­
fancy, for to feel is to live: yet this very life increases, grows,
and approximates to perfection, as age advances. For the sen­
soria of the body are opened, into which the visible world fiows,
at first generally, indistillctly, and obscurely, with its modes
and images (x). These modes creep up to the sensoria of the

source; 1 mean, from our inverted state of life, and the ~ontinual
collisions and combats arising therefrom. It will be shewn, as 1 hope
very clearly, in another place, that these are the intimate causes of aIl
diseases, consequently of old age and death.
(u) It is a certain trnth, that matter and body cannot feel, still
less feel preëminently, or understand and think: this is repugnant to
their nature. Considering then that life has been transferred as it were
to the ultimate surface of the body, and more than this,. that aIl pas­
sage has been precluded from the outermost to the interior sensoria, it
follows, that the communication having been taken away, we possess
very little life in early infancy; for the brain is appointed to preside
over the external sensoria, and the way to the brain is not yet laid
down or made ready. Moreover, it seems to be contrary to the laws
of the order established by the Supreme Divinity, that this ultimate,
obscure and indistinct life, should immediately commix, or should be
confounded, with the life that is intimate, clear, and most distinct:
wherefore not only does a wide interval forbid, but barriers also are
interposed. Nay, even in adult age, these lives seem to be so perfectly
separate, that while the one is acting, the other must cease to aet; for
while we are thinking intently, the external senses are spontaneously
blunted, or deprivcd of their acumen.
(x) In the first instance objects flow into the senses in the most
general manner; in fact, the universe is rcpresented as one indistinct
thing: afterwards, less general objects, and in process of time par­
ticulars, insinuate themseh·cs. Thus the last compounds strike the
senses first, and afterwards the different things that enter into the
compound, until at last we perceive its parts distinctly. It has been
frequently observed before in our analytical disquisitions, for instance,
in speaking of the liver and the heart, thal throughout universal nalure,
 EPILOGUE. 343

cerebrum, which have been rendered accessible by conducting

fibres, and produce changes of state therein, by which they teach
[them] to receive, retain (y), and at last to perceive, that which
cornes up and penetrates through the external organic doors.
Then, in process of time, sensual images, adopted internally in
the sensorium of the cerebrum, become ideas; at first analogous
to sensual [ideas] ; afterwards, disposed into forms and series,
they become proximately higher, or imaginative ideas; these at
length put on rational forms, and become intellectual ideas (z).
Thus we are instructed by the world, by means of the senses,

essences are at first thrown together as it were in n rude chaos, and

there confounded with each othe l', but that presently, by means of
divers organs applied for the purpose, they are divided and counted out
into parts, and down to their unities, and 50 those things are brought
out or evolved, that will contribute to the object. in view, or to the
effect of the end.
(y) It wiU be shewn in our Psychology, that the sensual images or
modes that come up through the external sensoria, produce changes of
state in the internaI sensoria, and that these changes, which correspond
to ideas, are themselves the ideas that are said to be imprillted UpOll
the memory. But to state here, in advance, the place and manner in
which these changes are effected, without having previously treated of
the brain and its organism, would, 1 think, be premature. Mean­
while the foUowing process is known to us aU; that sensual modes
are first simply received, and fixed in the memory, and that by the
combination of them in various forms, a species of imagination is
caUed forth, which increnses for the most part as the memory becomes
stored.
(z) We may aH ascertain by reflecting upon our own minds, that
the ideas which constitute the imagination, arise from a number of
ideas analogous to visual [images]; and that the ideas which enter
Cinto the form of] thought, and are termed rational and inteHectual,
arise again from numbers of these imaginative ideas disposed in analytic
forms: thus the higher ideas are generated by a continual formation
and as it were multiplication of the lower ideas. But such elevation to
a higher power cannot possibly be accomplished, without a certain
higher or spiritual power, which as it were presents itself and flows in ;
for that higher pl'inciple that rules the thoughts, and disposes the
ideas of thought in analytic fonns, eannot possibly be natural, but is
spiritual, or is the veriest life of the thoughts.
34"1 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

the ministers of the life of the body, and are led from the dark­
ness of ignorance more or less into the light of knowledge.
There is in the cerebrum an eminent sensorium, and intimate
recesses thereiu, whither these sensual rays of the body ascend,
and where they can mount no further (a) j there the soul re­
sides, clad in the noblest garment of organization (b), and sits
to meet the ideas emerging thithcr, and receives thcm as guests.
This high and noble place is the innermost sensorium, and it is
the boundary at which the ascent of the life of the body ceases,
and the boundary from which that of the soul, considered as a
spiritual essence, begins. Here especially, the soul infuses her
power, and communicates the faculty whereby images become
ideas, may be convoluted and distributed into rational forms or
analyses, and may put on a certain spiritual attire (c) j thnt is
to say, whereby we are empowered to think below and above
ourselves from objects of the understanding, to conclude from
thoughts, to judge from conclusions, to choose fi'om judgments,
and thus to will and determine. Besides giving power and

(a) This eminent organism will be treated of in the Parts on the

Cerebrum, and the Cortical and Medullary Substances thereof: for
sensual images and modes, flowing alollg the continuous fibres, cannot
stop exccptiQg in the last and first boulldarics of the fibres.
(b) If the soul be the principle of active life in the body, and if it
flows in through first and through mcc1iate causes, into ultimate causes
or effects, then the doctrine, that thc causes by means of which the
sou! preparcs the ways for itself, are formed organically, is clearly a
derivation from the fountain of pure philosophy; for whatever is the
cause of the principle, is its instrumental cause. Wherefore this first
cause is said to be organic in the most emincnt degree, or as an organ­
ism infinitely to cxcel the inferior organic forms in perfection.
(c) Idcas themselves, intrinsically considercc1, are material, for they
only flow in From thc body by way of the senses; but when disposed
in analytic order, they are no longer ta be reckoned matcrial; but ra­
tional. The task of disposing them thus can only he sùstained by life
itself; wherefore to live is to feel, eminently to live is to think and to
judge. The soul itself, as we have often pointed out in our Analyses,
only regards ends, and in effects, uses, which are its ends; whercfore
we live more perfectly, the more we respect ends, and more sublimely,
the higher the ends.
 EPI.LOGUE. 34,5

faculty, the soul givcs us to distinguish, and as it were inti­

mately to feel, whcther the forms of images, and in fine whether
the forms of ideas, are in agreement or dissonance with the
order in which she hersclf is j if the former, she receives thern
with somewhat of love j if the latter, with aversion (d). The

(d) It is sufficiently manifest from the very series of our propo­

sitions, that there are no innate ideas in the human mind. The act of
imparting the power whcreby ideas may be distributcd in analytic order,
is as different from ideas, as the corporeal sphere from the spiritual, or
as analysis from the ratios of which it is formed. CoHecting and
supplying materials, is one thing; building them into a house, is quite
another. Sel' above, n. 423, notes (c) and (e). The intimate faculty
of feeling the goodness of forms, appears to be the only innatc pos­
session that we have; as was pointed out in the Prologue to Part 1.,
in the foHowing words: "The faculty of apprehending the goodncss
of aIl forms, consequently also the secret delights of truth, is inherent
and as it were connate in our senses, both extemal and intcma1. The
l'al', although untutored, apprehends, and in some dcgree fecls, the
measures, the harmony, and the melody of tunes; for the mind is
straightway affected in a corresponding manner: the eye spontaneously
apprehends the beauties of nature, and the graceful and harmonie con­
nexions between diffrrent objects: the tongue apprehends the agreeable
qualities of viands and wines; and the nostrils, the fragrancies of
various odors. So the rational mind, that is, the intellect, unhesi­
tatingly distingnishes the truths of things, and the forms consonant to
the order of nature,-at once to the nature of the universe, and to
that of the intellect itself; for they sweetly sooth and pIeasl', and call
forth deeply-nidden affections; wherefore, whenever a truth shines
forth, the mind exults and rejoices :-a proof that a certain superior
mind or soul, (which imparts to its mind, that is, to our rational
faculty, a faculty inferior and subjeet to it, the power of pcrceiving,
thinking, judging, and deciding,) at such times becomes kindlier,
more free, as if liberated from chains, more actiye, more present in its
influence, and closer in lts correspondence. For the soul, which flows
with its light into the sphere of the intellectual mind, has order and
truth in it, and thus, by virtue of its very nature, it feeIs, approvcs,
and indicates, in a certain universal manner, the presence of whatever
is congruous or harmonie. Whnt nppenrs thns connnte, is, howevcr,
an affection only, not a pnrticulnr idea; since aH pnrticular ideas are
Icarnt and formed by way of the senses and their organs" (n. 2).
346 THE ANIMAL KINGDDM.

intellect of the human mind is generated by the cooperation [of

these two gifts of the soul].
459. Such appears to be the ground why what is tenned the
ANALYTIC way, or that which conducts us from the posterior to
the prior sphere, or from effects to causes, that is, from the
body to the soul, is the only way whereby the human race is
permitted to attain Imowledge and finally wisdom (e) j and why
the othe:r:, or the SYNTHETIC, which goes in the opposite direc­
tion to the analytic, is the way of superior beings, and, there­
fore, c10seel against, and even interdicted to, the inhabitants of
the lowest worlel, or the dwellers upon the earth j for those who
pursue it, rush into continuaI errors ane1 fallacies, and at last
into insanities, like men kicking against the pricks, and daring
upon forbidelen ground (f). Thus we can never arrive at the
pinnacle of human knowledge and human wisdom, except by
continuaI analyses and concatenated series, derived by induc­
tion, with the assistance of the sciences, from phenomena and
effects j anel even then, indeed, we can never mount to truths,
whether natural or moral, still less to an understallding of spi­
ritual truths, without the influx of a higher power (g). 'l'herc
are then three causes which lead us to intelligence; namely,
ministering causes, mediate causes, and efficient causes. Ex­

(e) See the description of the analytic way or method, in the Pro­
logue, Part 1., n. Il.
(f) Respecting the manner in which the synthetic method carries
the human mind altogether astray from the truth, and leads it into
crl'ors, and for the most part into insanities, which neverthclcss appear
to be rational, see Part 1., n. 9, 10; from which it will be sufficient
here to cite the following: "Rence errors, mental obscurity, fallacies,
and strife; civil wars between the soul and the body; scholastic con­
tentions about straws and trifies; the flight and exile of truths; and
stupor and thick darkness in those very things where the light is most
brilliant: and this to such an extent, that the very altars and their
sacred fire are contaminated; which is the reason why the philosophy
of the humnn mind is solemnly proscribed in the divine records. All
these tbings flow from that single source,-we mean, from the habit
and the propensity of reasoning synthetically" (n. 9).
(g) This subject is explained in detail in the following pages, in the
series of the argument.
 EPILOGUE. 347

perience is the fh'st or ministering cause; the sciences are the

second or mediate cause; the fa culty of thinking distinctly is the
third or efficient cause.
460. With respect to the first division, or EXPERIENCE, it is
this that supplies the objects of rational analyses, and the indi­
viduallinks of the chain, and as it were the materials for build­
ing the edifice (h). For nature and the visible world flow with
these as their treasures, first into the organs of the senses, and
through their open doors to the general sensorium, and at
length present them for adaptation into analytic series as so
many rational ideas and quantities. Each sense brings its gifts

(h) Experience is a word of very broad signification:. It not only

involves those things that have been discovered by the learned in the
course of ages, committed to writing, and made part of learning,-as
the experience of effects, or observations made upon the three kingdoms
of nature, the mineraI, the vegetable, and the animal,-hence metal­
lurgy, botany, chemistry, anatomy, and in general aIl physical and
natural learning; but it also involves those particulars that concern
societies of men, their forms of government, customs and laws; as
weIl as many other things that properly belong to experience, by virtue
of which [experience] we are enabled to deduce and discover those
things that are hidden in nature, or that are comparatively remote from
our externa! senses. Among the materials of experience may also be
reckoned those pl'oducts that have been developed by the skill and in­
genuity of the learned from the things just enumerated; for after they
are once proclaimed, they become materials that, like the others, are
fixed in the memory; and when registered among the sciences, they serve
as bases for further investigation. But experience, in its most general
sense, comprehends the whole collection of those things that have been
ex~mined by us, with the organs of the senses, from early infancy to
adult age; in fact, that have been seen, heard, tasted, smelt, or
touched; and that are fixed in our memories in the form of material
ideas, and expressed by the formulas of words, of which speech is
composed. For there are so many objects of the senses pl'esented ta
every one from his early infancy. By means of these ideas, or these
matcrials of primitive experience, we learn to comprehend and express
the matters spoken of above; those, namely, that have been discovered
by the learned world, and made part oflearning. Thus whatever enters
by the senses, and remains in the memory in the form of an idea, be­
longs to sensual expcl'iencc.
348 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

and its treasures, and submits thcm to a kind of vision, not

dissimilar to ocular vision (i), and thus carries them to the
memory, into thc little cells or receptacles thereof, from the
gathered stores of which the rational mind chooses whatever
suits its purposes, and takes it out and mingles it with its reasons.
Hence, in proportion as the memory is enriched and provided
with these materials, in the same proportion the rational mind,
if backed 'by a bapI)Y genius, will be able skilfully, felicitously,
and appl'oximately and agreeably to the truth, to distribute its
analyses into series, to adjust and conclude them, of many
analytic conclusions again to form new analyses, and in the end
to evolve its ultimate analyses (k). But to explore causes from
effects by this way, ends from means, consequences fl'om pre­
mises, or those things that are hiddcn from those thàt are appa­
rent to the senses, is an arduous and vast undertaking. The
experience of one man's five senses, although hc should outlive
the years of Nestor, is slender and pOOl' indecd. vVeneed
accumulations of effects and phcnomena, collectec1 by numerous
Iaborers in the field, and dming successive lifetimes, and even
centuries; for we must he instructed by aIl things of one tbing,

(i) This may be best seen from articulate soumIs; for each word 01'
formula represents one idea similar to a visual idea; and as this caUs
forth other kindred and similar ideas, there arises a kind of internai
sight, which is termed imagination; and again, when the ideas of the
imagination are put together in a certain rational series, there arises an
intimate sight, which eonstitutes thought: shewing that the objects of
the external senses become cOlll'erted in the first instan<:e into visual
images, before they are exalted into rational [images], and finaUy
sublimated into the semblance of spiritual [images].
(k) This is corroborated by the common opinion, that the know­
ledge and intelligence of an indivldual are in proportion to the furniture
of his memory. Bilt it does not follow from this, that a powcrful
memory is always accompanied by ability, 01' by an understanding of
equal grasp. Fol' the faculty of retlucing the contents of the memory
to ortler, is a fresh inteUectual requisite. An edifice is not built, sim­
Illy by the acccumulation of implcments, bricks, tiles, anel other mate­
rials; these are only confused preparations: art and skiU must be
tasked to put aU things together in their places.
 EPILOGUE. 34·9

if wc are to know that one thing thoroughly (l). Each contri­

butes in some degree, and brings as it were its particular stone,
to build this edifice that truths can inhabit. It is the province
of the builder ta fit everything into its proper placc, sa that aU
the materials shaH he beautifllIly coherent, and harmonious in
their tendency. Hence the learned world, and mediately the
other branches of society, are furnished with the appliances and
means of attaining knowlcdge and wisdom, in proportion as
they are rich in the stores of experience. Of these stores
memory is the treasurer.
461. With respect ta the SCIENCES, or the methods and arts
that constitute the mcdiate or mediant causes, they are the
mistresses which teach us ta reduce the accumulations of expe­
rience ta arder, ta select what is fitting, to insert it in the be­
coming place, and as architects ta construct the edifice, sa that
aIl things shall be put together according ta rule (m). Then

(l) This was laid down more fully in our Economy of tM Animal
Ki7lfJdom, n. 12-17; where the following words occur: "Thus, in
investigating the causes of the action of muscle, or the qualities of the
moving fibre, unless we combine the particular experience of one indi­
vidual with aIl the experience of others; and unless, in addition to this,
we take into account the experience recorded of the blood, the arteries,
the heart, the nerves, the nervous ganglia, the glands, the medulla
spinalis, the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the cerebrum, and aIl
the other membcrs, organs, and tunics, endowed with the power of
muscular motion: and furthcrmore, unless we avail ourselves of the
facts that have beeu brought to light in physics and mechanics, respect­
ing forces, elasticity, motion, and many other subjects,-unless we do aIl
this, we shall assuredly be disappoiuted of the result for which we are
striviug" (Ibid., n. 13).
(m) This is not the proper place to discuss the use of any science
in particular, but only of science generally. The empirical sciences
yield nothing more than materials and instruments, but the theoretical
sciences give the laws and rules according to which we are to work.
The latter are in a manner architectonie, and teach us to arrange the
materials of experience in suitable order. There is, however, no science,
either practical or theoretical, that must not have derived its elements
from visible nature and the world: the sciences are only descriptions
and as it were types thereof; for instance, those which teach the laws
of motion, the rules of fluxions, or other harmonies and proportions,
3:')() THE ANDIAL KINGDO~r.

ag;,;n the scienccs examine with thcir compasscs and 1evels, and
asccrtain whethcl' the bnilcling that has been constructcd be
gmceful and reglliar in its rcsult. It is utterly impossible by
thc Ïtclp of experiencc alone, apart from the sciences, as patrons
of gcnins, to climb to that Helicon where simple truths reside,
and whcre causes take precedence of eifects (12). For the
sciences bring vague and scattered ideas together, under a few
heads, and place them before the eye of the mind in a simpler
and more connected form, and thereby give boundaries to the
rational sight, and concentrate it more closely upon the essences
of things: they also reduce those [ideasJ to fornnùas or words,
and cil'cumscribe and den.ne these words by terms, that they
may faB the more easily and rapidly under the comprehcnsion of
the master and the scholar (0); thus they give a c(}mpal'atively

are eithcr deduced from nature itself immediately, or by the aid of con­
clusions from other sciences.
(n) Let us confine ourselves to the sphcre in which we are at pre­
sent engaged. From the mere anatomy of the animal body, we gather
nothing more, than that the organic parts in any viscus have such and
sueh a situation, consistenee, and shape; but in order to bring out the
use from the parts, and to carry on the chain nntil at length we arrive
at the ultimatc use, we must necessarily consult the sciences, nnd learn
from them the nature of the case with respect to. the connexions of
things, and what they provc. Geometry, by its lines, as wcll as by
its proportions and analogies, teaches what snch connexion involves,
and how one thing is relnted to another, and what serics and equation
l'esults at last, when ail are summed np analytically; fmm which result
a conclusion may be formcd respecting thc ultimate effect and use.
Philosophy on the other hand informs us, not merely that motions,
forms, modes and qualities, are accidents, but also that substances are
the subjects of ail accidents; hence that motions, fluxions, forces,
modes, effects and uses, are determincd by means of substances; and
since geometry has substances for its objects, and demonstrates their
figures and forms, it follows that forces and ail accidents whatever
are similarly circumstanced; whereforc philosophy founded upon geo­
metrical principles, affords us conclusive instruction rcspecting the
effects of things. The same may be said in al! othcr branches.
(0) As geometry in linear and figured objects; ontology in philo­
sophical matters; and the l'est of the sciences as weil as arts, ail of
 EPILOGUE. 351
clea]' representation of those things that result from the compo­
sition of a number of ideas into one, and in the end, from a
number of such compound ideas, as conclusions; for these ideas
are all'eady produets, and as it were children, conceived and
brOl\ght forth by means of experience from the human facul­
ties (p). But since in the nature ofthe world, and in the world
of nature, and its three kingdoms, there are infinite varieties,
hence infinite genera of these varieties, and species of these
gencra, therefo1'e eaeh genus is presided ove1' by its tutelar muse,
or it'S peculiar science, who keeps several other sciences under
her gencral auspices, as a mistress having many handmaids; and
eacb ancillary science of this genus has in like manner many
others undcr her, as domcstic servants; and these, in their turn,
haVE their subordinates: for there is not the smallest part of a
sciencc, Lut is of such vast extent, that it has almost no bounds,
and contains things so infinite, that it is sufficient of itself, as
a partieular science, to occupy the entU'e sphere of one under­

which have particulaI' formulas and nomenclatures, by which their

objects are expressed. For words involve thc same number of ideas;
for the most part, compound ideas; hencc the same number of repre­
sentations in the mind, which comprehend simultaneously in one series,
whatever in common usagc, is in thcm or is brought into them, by their
definition. Thus a number of things are subjeeted simultaneously to
the rational sight, and arc instantly apprehended in proportion to the
degn:e of our knowledge of the science to which the)' belong. There­
foreall thc idcas that arc fixed in the memory, may be termed material;
for although the)' may involve what is not material, yet in order to
understand it, wc are obliged to regard something relative or similar
[to what is materialJ, and thus to obtain for ourselvcs an idca by
comparison.
(p) It is the province of the rational mind, to form one compound
idea out of many ideas, and of many such eompounds again to form
anotllel' idea, and to advanee in this manner by a continuaI progression,
or Stlceessivc clcvation, to higher powers. But whatever is brought
out rlnd concluded by such means, is immcdiately registered among the
idea~ laid up in the memory; as for instance, the laws of motion, and
many other things. Thus whatever is generated either by observation,
or a'nalytie induction, 1S retained under the form of an idea, without
furtlter rational investigation. Words themselves are but ideal types.
3;j2 THE ANl:>IAL KINGDO~r.

standing (q). TIut still therc is a connexion of ail the sciences,

and finally a concentration into one, the universal of aIl (r),
fl'om which superior beings and powers contemplate and govern
aU lowcr things, as placed in the circumferences. To them it is
givcn to descend by the path of synthcsis, or from the prior to
the posterior sphere, and through the veriest principlcs, and
tllUs through the mysteries of our human sciences (8). Thus
does the soul descend) under the auspices of the supreme mind,
while it is con~tructing the body, and exciting it to act in con­
formity to its structure; and hence there is nothing, how deeply
soever and intimately it be hidden in the bosom of our sciences,
-in geometry, mechanics) physics, chemistr~r, optics, acoustics,

(q) This may be illustrated by the case of physics, mathemntics,

philosophy, metaphysics, and theology, which being universnl sciences,
comprehenù in their embrace ncarly aU the other sciences: also by the
specific sciences, which respectively to their particular subdivisions or
branches, may ngain be considered as generic sciences. AU the parts
of cach science, may themsclves be elaborated and developed into so
many new sciences; for there is nothing but what involves a kind of
infinity : anù this is the reason why no individual, in whatever depart­
ment of a science or art he may be occupied, can ever attain to the
complete perfection of it; but in the whole course of his life may still
be advancmg in sorne degree to that cnù.
(1') Respecting the science of sciences, or the universal mathematics,
see the Economy of the Animal Kingdom, and specificaJly the Doctrine
of Order and Degrees, or the Introduction to a Rational Psychology,
n. 639, 649-651.
(8) The Prologue to Part I. contains the foUowing statement upon
this subjeet: "The power of divining true principles by the mincI
alone, and of descenùing therefrom, in the path of certainty, through
their consequences, to posterior things, belongs exclusively to highel'
beings and powcrs; to spirits, angels, and the Omniscient Himself,
who indeed inhabit the brightest light, and dwell in essential truth and
wisdom. They see all things, in one complex, as at once beneath
them and within them: they view the last things from the first, the
lowest from the highest, the outermost from the innermost; in a ward,
aU the circumferences from the centre; consequcntly, the very efi'ects
of the world, from their causes. Not so human minds, which derive
from the senses, or absorb through the senses, aU the materials which
they have to reason upon," &c. (n. 10).
 EPILOGUE. 353
pneumaties, logic, psychology, &c.,-whieh the soul does not
caU forth in arder, and determine into act, according to the end
in view in the effect, 01' according to use (t).
462. rl'HE FACULTY OF THINKING DISTINC'l'LY, or of taking
a clear view of the ideas raised up to the ken of the rational
mind, of combining them, framing them analytieally, and lastly
of bringing together the results of the reasons in one equa­
tion (u), in which [the mind] perspicuously contemplates the
cause of its effect, and the progress of the means to the end,­
this faculty is the efficient cause, and the highest natural gift.
Experience and science, apart from this faculty, are administer.
ing and instrumental causes without their principal j and like
forces without living power, which forces are dead (v). This

(t) The rcader will find this laid down in many parts of our Ana­
lyses; as in the Chapter on the Larynx, where it was observed, that
"there is nothing in acoustics, music, or harmony, be it ever so in­
ternaI and arcane; there is nothing in the vibrations and tremblings of
any continuous body, nor in the modifications of any contiguous volume
or atmosphcre, be it ever so hidden and profound, bnt nature has here
brought it forth from the innermost, gathered it into one, and con­
ferred it upon these two organs [the larynx and the ear]" (n. 359). If
wc carefully examine, and strive to explore, the mysteries of optical science
involved in the eye; the mechanism involved in the universal body;
the chemistry in the fluids; the philosophy in the internaI sensoria,
and particularly in the operations of thc mind, we shaH assuredly be
forced to confess again, that mere wondcrs greet us, so that could we
but really explore one ten thousandth part of them, "we should surely
be strickcn with holy amazemcnt, and from that ground alone adore
the wisdom of the Creator; and the pride of our knowledge and wis­
dom would not merely suhsidc, but would fall prostrate in sclf-derision.
Yct these are the lowest proofs of His omnipotence, fol' He has filled
the vilest insect with similar miracles" (n.455).
(u) The operations of the rational mind may not unfitly be com­
pared with the analytical operations of the algebraic calculus; for in
the algebraic equation, a number of ratios, and analogies of ratios,
are collected together as in one sum, and the unknown quantities are
discovered and shewn by the application of the knowll: but this com­
parison, God willing, will be statcd more fully in another place.
(v) As we remarked above, not only experiences, but also the
sciences, are matteJ's of thc memory, which matters the imaginative
VOL. II. PART II. A A
354 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

faculty arises either from primary conditions, or from secondary,

that is, use and education, but the best form of it is that which
results from both. Tt arises from primm'y conditions in those
whose fOl'tunate lot it is to have the ol'gans that take up, con­
vey, and ultimately imbibe ideas, conformed to the rule and
standard of nature, gifted with a liberal sphere of action, and
with a power of disentangling multitudinous particulars, and
arranging all things accol'ding to the present state of objects:
also, to have a happy memory, that will appropriate objects ac­
curately, distinctly assign to each series its proper chambers (x),
and supply therefrom in due order those particulal's which the
mind decrees, desires, or is enjoined, to fit in, either as antece­
dents to conclusions, or as means to an advancing end (y). But

faculty may indeed reduce ta a certain arder, yet not into cany order
different from that which is wont to affect the external senses and the
inferior mind of the body. But the act of abstracting corporeal and
sensual ideas from them, or of sa arranging those ideas, that they shall
involve something comparatively remote from the senses,-this is the
province of thought, consequently of the rational mind. \Vherefore,
without such a [aculty as has the power of folding and unfolding reasons,
until a certain analytic rationale or principle arises from thém, which
lies, not in the ideas themselves, but in their very nexus, and in the
Jepths of their form,-we cannat advance a hair-breadth. This is the
true living principle that infuses a kind of soul into the dead things or
iJeas of the memory. Each rational abject has in a certain sense its
own soul, which ean only be communicated ta it by that soul whieh
is alive.
(x) We ail know that sorne persons are born with almost super­
human memory; others with great activity of the memory, that is,
with great imaginative power, and others again with other gifts, either
of the body, or of the animal minù. Thus some are born poets; sorne,
musieians; some, arehitects; sorne, mechanics. The natural inclina­
tion communicated by the seeù of parents propagates this endowment
as an inheritanee ta their children. And thcre is not a subject existing
but what is born with sorne peculiar faculty. lt would seem that what
parents have sa thoroughly acquircù by nse and education, that it
becomes a part of their nature, is implanteù in thcir postcrity, in the
form of an inclination.
(y) That which determincs our tllOughts ta establish conclusions,
is either some prineiple, taken from ourselves, or ùerived from others ;
 EPILOGl'E. 355
without the secondary conditions of use and education, wc do
but stop on the threshold, and scm'cely survey anything more
than the courts of nature, and not her magnificent interior re-
cesses; wherefore the expcriences, with the abundance of which
at this day the coffers of the learned are overflowing, and with
them the learning and arts that have grown in elaboration and
completeness from the earliest ages down ta the present time (z),
mnst be invited into the memory, which is the treasurer of such
things, must be acquired for use, and laid up as pledges. Ta
these requisites we must superadd cultivation, or an assiduous
awakening of our faculties, and a constant exercise of the gift
itself, until it beeomes a part of our nature. Above all things
we must aim by education ta become thoroughly imbued with
the power of reeallillg the rational mind from the senses and
the animal mind; in short, from cares, from the lusts of the
body, the allurements of the world, and thus as it were from
our lower sclves,-while we are dwelling in its higher sphcrc;
and this, in order that the sellsoria of the body may be dcprived
of their light, sa long as the sensorium nearest to the soul is
lightened and illuminated with its light (a). By these means

this sometimes governs the entire train of thoughts, and we look in aH

directions for assurances or proofs of its correctncss; wherefore the
mind is said to decree it. The second case is, when any of us propose
to ourselves an end, in which the mind contemplates a promise of future
pleasure: the means to this contemplated end are what the mind is
said to de8ù·e,. for we embracc the mcans with the same love as the
end. itself, since we sec the end as it wcrc present in the means; and
what is successive is represented as simultaneolls. Thirdly, when
ncither the principle nor thc end is put in the first place, but those
things which the mind cmbraces as consequences of a chain of thoughts,
-in this case the mind is said to bc elljoined to embrace and acknow-
ledge these consequences.
(z) See the EconoillY of tlte Animal Kin.r;dom, Part L, n. 23,
24, 25,
(a) Daily experiencc shews thc same thing; namely, that in pro-
portion as light is suiltracted from the extcrnal senses, it is added to
the internaI: whieh elearly proves, that somewhat of shade is drawn
over the higher mind by the external senses, if they are taken into
fellowship; and that rational analyses, by their very nature, separate
AA2
356 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

we mount to our higher mind, or to the soul, which then be·

comes accessible, and infuses power (b). For in proportion as
we ascend upon these wings, in the same proportion that higher
mind descends to meet us, and enfolds and embraces our wings
in her winged sandals, and teaches us to convert our ideas into
reasons, and reasons into analyses: for this is not a corporeal
act, and therefore we. cannot derive it from the senses, but from
a power that flows into our sphere from the sphere above it.
That this is no property of ours, but is made [to appear] as
ours by a supernatural means of union,-of this we may be
perfectly convinced by reflecting upou the operations of our ra­
tional minds: for from the mind as their fountain, we derive
our sciences and arts j from the mind we take the laws and
axioms, of which, when digested in becoming order, we build our
doctrines, particularly our philosophical doctrines, which are the
mere operations of the mind, explored by processes of intuition
and reflection upon its modes of acting. Thus the principle
that acts c1wells altogether above us j and below [it] , the prin­
ciple that becomes conscious, and that is in some slight degree
instructed respecting the manner in which the action takes
place (c). But these are mere drops that we drink from this

and distinguish themselves. So long as we keep the rational mind in

a merely reactive state, we are in the closest communion with the
animal mind; but as soon as we bring it into a state of activity, we
proportionably detract from the activity of the external senses. But
we shaU speak further of this subject in our Psychological Treatises.
(b) See what we said above on this subject, n. 458 (b) and (c).
(c) It is beyond aU doubt, that the rational mind is in its very
nature philosophical, and possesses the ability to arrange and distribute
ideas in an analytic form, and to revolve and sum them up, so as to
form a certain conclnsion. For aU our philosophy and logic is derived
from no other fonntain, or collected from no other streams, than from
the operations of the rational mind, which Ilot only herald with their
light, but even instruct us, their suhjects, in the matter of philosophy,
and the manner of philosophizing ; which shews that we cherish and
possess in ourselves the very master of philosophy, to whose utterances
the most learned among us must listen in humble dependence: and so
much is this the case, that the philosopher may derive innumerable
materials deserving to be inserted in his code, from the common herd
 EPILOGUE. 357

immense lake of Imowledge and wisdom, and that we commu-

nicate to our lower power:> by literary exercitations.
463. But although wc may be surpassingly rich in experi-
ence, and accomplished in thc sciences, and gifted besicles with
a faculty of thinking with the grcatcst distinctness, yet it by
no means follows, that we shall therefore be able to l'id our-
selves of the mists that are involved in the fallacies of the
senses, and in the fallacies, of sensual origin, of the Tational
ideas, and to enjoy an insight into real truths, in simple cloth-
ing, or nakcd lovcliness. 'fhose are only COllntClfeits and ap-
pearances of truth that the infcrior facultics of the body present
to the superior faclllty. For certain misleading and as it were
phosphoric fires, form an alliance of compullionship with corpo-
l'cal icleas, and mimic the l'cal lights of life. These fires belong
to the body, to the animal mind, and evcn to the rational mind
itself. The fires of the body are the pleasures of the bodily
senses. The fires of the animal mind are lusts or cupidities,
whose name is legion. The fires of the Tational mind are the
ambitions and desires of ends, that converge to, and terminate
in, the love of self, as the ultimate centre (d). These heats are

of the unlearned. The boy and the youth, in their simple speech,
sometimes l'un through more axioms of philosophy and logic, through
more categories, and series of consequences, than the prince of phi-
losophers can distinctly set forth in his pages. Each copula or con-
nexion of words, contains sorne philosophical principle; much more an
entire oration; as every one may perceive, if he will only bestow
a little attention upon particular cases. The mind does not derive these
predicates from its body, but from a higher essence, in which the above
faculty is innate; in fact, from the soul, which lives immediately under
the auspices of the superior mind. Philosophy is a kind of anatomy
of the human mind; for as we are ignorant of what lics hidden in the
body, and of how the organic fabrics act upon each other, until the
viscera are opened and examined, so also, without investigation, we are
ignorant of ",hat lies hidden in the mind. The grand philosopher is
he, who scrutinizes these subjects with the greatest dcpth and dis-
tinctness.
Cd) The particular nature of the affections of the body, and ofthe
animal and rational minds, will be explained in our Psychology. Thus
thc affections of the senses of the body, are not themselves sen-
358 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

powers deriving their ground of activity from the body (e), which
operating in the rational mind, extinguish that holy fire anù

sations, but arise from the agreement or disagreement,-the fitness or

unfitness,-of the forms that modifications constitute by their mutual
relation or interaction. The affections of the animal mind result ill
like manner from the harmonies and discords of imaginations. The
affections of the rational mind are the goods [bonitates] that are in­
volved in truths, and respeeted in the ends whieh we propose and
desire. If these goods reslllt entirely from selfish loves, they are then
like covered fires, which enkindle the sphere of the mind, and at the
same time apparently illllminate it; so that there is always somethillg
either in, or under, its rational ideas, which caresses the sclfish love.
Hence minds in this state cannot possibly be affected by the pleasant­
ness of truths, for they reject and abhor evcrything that does not
primarily involve self: althollgh this is not only directly contrary to the
laws of truth; but contrary to the accomplishment of the very end for
which we were created. For each inclividual is only a small part of
society, nol' does he exist for himself, still less does society cxist for
him, but that alone is his which results ta him from his usefulness in
the service of the public. Consequently, if he place the end in llÏm­
self, he opposes a barrier which prevents the possibility of his aspiring
to a more universal end,-to an end higher than himself.
(e) This is very evident from aIl the affeetions of both the animal
and rational minds, which either exalt and vivify, or extingllish and
kill the bodily life. Pride itself, when favoring breezes waft us on, or
fortune smiles, not only puffs us up, but the vital spirits themselves
become so hot, that we come into more close communion with the
animal mind, into a clearer state of the understanding, and a greater
fullness of life: yet it is only a heat, more or less internaI or external,
subtile or gross, aeeording to the nature of that affection. AlI the
affections, indeed, both of our rational mind, and of the animal mind,
are given to us to serve as the fuel and heat of bodily life; but if we
allow them unrestricted play, they burst into Hames, and devastate the
whole kingdom. But the pure heat that kindles the life of the soul,
is so distinct from this heat, that the two eannot be present at the same
time in one mind as their subjeet; wherefore the one is extinguished
when the other is kindled. For this reason it is, that we are com­
manded to restrain the pasGions of the animal mind, and to extinguish
the desires of the body, in order that we may allow the Divine Spirit
to approaeh us.
 :EPILOGUE. 859

purely spiritual aIt,ar flame. A light still remains, warm in re­

lation to the body, but cold in relation to the soul and the supe­
rior mind (f). In this case, although we revolve and combine
ideas with distinctness, and perspicuously contemplate analyses
framcd of reasons, yet these are only the spectres and impure
phantoms of truths, which sec ultimate ends in ourselves, and
in the love of self, and wmch powerfully and confidently per­
suade us that they are Delphian vil'gins and graces j and lead us
to think, that if we ourselves applaud them, the whole Parnas­
sian band will applaud them as weIl: but they are far iudeed
from beiug truths, for they differ from them as much as the
phantasms of the body and the mockcries of the \Vorld from the
essences and forms of heaven. Thus if we wish to invite real
truths, whcther natural, or moral, or spiritual, (for they aU
make common cause by mcans of conespondence and represent­
ation(g),) iuto the sphere of our rational minds, it is necessary

(f) It will be shcwn in the Doctrine of Representations, that

rational sight is represented in ocular sight, and likcwise [rational] light
and the heat thereof [in natural light and heat]; and hence that wc
may arrivc by means of comparison nt sorne knowlcdge of those things
that are aboye the sphere of our mind: for without the idcas insinuated
and coming up through thc external senses, we cannat possibly conceive
those things that are above ideas: in fact, these mus't be in a manncr
attachcd to some sensual idca, beforc they can c.ome ta the sight of the
understanding. It is from the ground of representativc correspondency,
that objects are presented ta the eyes as clearly in the middle of winter,
as in the middle of summer; sa also ta thc rational sight; but the dif­
ference lies in the heat : also that we percci\'e the visible forms of abjects
by lamp-light, as weil as by the light of the sun; yet every one knows
what a difference there is bctween the two cases. This is the reason
why light and clarity, as weil as heat, and other things of the kind, are
as it \Vere appropriated ta the intellect, as wcll as to the eye-sight.
(g) The reader will find this cxplained in our Doctrine of Corrc­
spondencies and Representations. 1 am not now speaking of geome­
trical and philosophical truths, which are indctcrll1inate, and not applied
ta any natural or moral truth; but of the truths that result from the
determination and application of these, to given objects, and thus
redound to particular or gcncral usc. For an infinity of truths of this
kind have beell discoverccl, and arc in onr possession; but when we
360 l'ILE AN OIAL KINGDO,\l.

that WC extinguish the impure fires of the body) and thereby

our own delusive lights) and submit and allow our minds) un­
molested by the influcnces of the body) to bc illuminated with
thc rays of the spiritual power: then for the first time truths
flow in j for they aIl emanate from that power as their peculiar
fountain. Nor w hen they are present are there wanting a
multitude of signs by which they attest themselvesj namely) the
varied forms of sweetness and delight attendant upon truth at­
tained) and affecting the mind) as the enjoyments that result
from the harmonies of external objects affect the lower and sen­
sitive faculties of the body j for as soon as cver a truth shines
forth) such a mind cxults and rejoices (h) j and this joy is the
ground of its fil'st assent) and of its first delightcd smile: but
the actual confirmation of the truth procccds from its accord­
ance with numerous l'casons confirmed by cxpericnce by means
of thc sciences) and each point of which accorc1ance receives a
similar assent j the mind going onwards the while) with assidu­
ous attention and pains) by thc allalytic way) or from cffects to
causes. lu addition to thesc dclights) thcre are still more uni­
versaI signs j as the desirc and the passion for attaiuing tl'Uth j
the love of the truth attained) not for the sake of our own ad­

tlse them as bases for reasonings, or patrons of our faculties, we then,

by various and unfair applications, form conclusions from them which
are at variance with the truth: as we observed in the Prologue to
Part L, where the foUowing words occur: "For whenever affirmative
reasoning is applied to a preeonccption, an infinity of particulars, aU
voting the same way, fly to its assistance,-both the deerees of ratio­
cinative philosophy, and thc phenomcna of the world, laid hold of in
the faUacious light of the scnscs. Indeed, there is nothing but may
form a constitucnt part in different serics of reasonings, if not directly,
at lcast obliqucly; as a single particle of salt may fonn an ingredicnt
in an infinity of savors, and a singlc color in an infinity of pictures,"
&c. (n. 9). With respect to the sciences, see n. 23, where it is stated,
that "the sciences are indeterminatc, and of no profit or advantage,
unless they bc applied and madc subservient to uses. What is a know­
ledge of numbers, ratios, figures, and forms, in arithmetic and geo­
metry, apart from its benefits in civil life 7 What are the philosophical
scicnecs, with their predicates, qualities, modes, and accidents, without
thcy have reference to reality 7"
(h) Sce Part L, n. 2.
 EPILOGUE. 361

vantage, but of the advantage of human society; and neither

for the glory of ourselves or society, but of the Supreme Divinity
alone(i). This is the only way ta truths: other things, as means,
which are infinite, God Omnipotent provides.
464. Bllt for what end, it is asked, are the hinges of our life
sa completely inverted, that the last things should play the first
part, or that thc bodily senses ShOll.ld inaugurate the mind,
their mistress, into the sciences? aud why should we not see
from the begiuning, by thoroughly prepared and finished 01'­
gans, 'vith the utmost acutencss, the pcrfect truth in every­
thing? Assuredly the Supreme Mind, under whose auspices
we livc, never puts the least cause in operation exccpting for thc
sake of an end; the serics of causes and effects iuvolvcs a cor­
responding series of el1l1s (k); ultimate uses themselvcs declare
to us the end intendeù by the effect j the l'est is hiddcn from
our view. But since errds, as weIl as causes, describe progres­
sively a certain entire revolution and circle, henee there arc
proximate ends, remote ends, and ultimate cnds. It is cvident
from Il rational vicw of effects, that the PROXIMA'l'E ENDS [of
this inversion] are, Firstly, That we may inhabit the earth, the
ultimate region of the world, or the floor of heaven, from which

(i) See the Econorny of the Animal Kingdom, Part 1., n. 19,25, 26.
(le) It has been shewn throughout in our Analyses, that there is a
perpetuai chain of uses, corresponding to the perpetuaI chain of causes
and cffccts, and a correspollding chain of ends in the soul, brought
iuto play in the construction of the organic animal kingdom. Of this
wc may be still more clearly convinced by the contemplation of the
universe; for if we only consider the circumambient atmospheres, the
mineraI kingdom of the earth, then the vegetable kingdom, and finally
the animal kingdom, we shall have sufficient reason to conclude, that
one thing generates and sustains another in a continuaI series, and this,
hy a wonderful cil'cie ; as is also the case in ail the subjects of each of
these kingdoms. If it be evidence of wisdom on the part of man to
do nothing without an end and use, assuredly it is evidence of a Being
surpassing wise, to found such an orb of uses, and to govem it with
equal providence and wisdom. But to attempt to measure this orb
of uses, or the governmcnt of this Providence, especially in human
society, by the erroneous circles of our rnillds,-this is as impious as it
is futile.
362 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

we are designed to emerge; and so may be subjects that can

make use of aIl the plenty and the wealth with which that world
and its three kingdoms are furnished and adorned: and that we
may be essences and powers, that can convert these great pos­
sibilities to our own and the general weal (l). Therefore are we
introduced, in the body first, into this world as a theatre, and
its curtains rise by degrees; and thus these ultimate effects,
like scenic shows, strike and fascinate with delight, our senses
first, then the animal mind, and at last even the rational mind;
and are a profit and use to us, mingled with sweet entertain­
ment (m). Such could not have been the case had we com­
menced our lives with knowlcdge and wisdom; we should then
have looked upon these shows as theatrical illusions, or laugh­
ing-stocks of our high faculties; we should have contemplated
them, not as infants, but as aged fathers, with no pleasure of
the senses. Secondly, that we may institute a kind of terrestrial
society, in which these delights may increase by the communi­
cation of man with man, and in which the uses of things may
he augmented by the aid of numbers, and those proper to the

Cl) Apart from the subjects of the animal kingdom, nothing that
the terraqueous world produces, could be said to minister a use. There
must be subjects, in order that things may be applicable in the way of
use: and furthermore, these subjects must have power given to them,
to extend these uses still further, ta multiply them, and to send them
for th as it were in a new circle. For where there are causes, there also
there are means, by which the effcct is produced, and the cause ex­
tended. And inasmuch as nothing is done exeepting for the sake of a
use, it follows necessarily, that the subjects of the animal kingdom
are means, which apply these uses to thcmselves, and carry on the
chain of uses further; and indeed, at length so far, that effects, or
last uses themselves, retum by an incomprehensible gyrc to their first
end. Such is the progression of uses everywhere in the animal body.
Cm) This is the reason why aIl things smile and seem full of joy in
early life or childhood; and why they assume n comparatively gloomy
aspect as old age comes on. For pleasurc and delight arc nccessary,
since without them, idens are not insinuated into our minds, nor con­
sequently do the organs open, and makc the innermost scnsorium
accessible. These requisite conditions could not possibly exist, unless
we led this inverse order of life.
 EPILOGUE. 363

individual may go forth by determinate channels to the commu­

nity. Then a still more extensive field of uses is opened, into
which we are led as members of society j and which consists in
living for the human race by the mutual interchange of works
of duty. This is the moral field, world, or estate, into which
we cannot rise unless we have passed through the former, or
through our corporeal and natural estate j this supplies the
means to the moral estate as the end immediately above it (n) :
what results to the community from the administration of the
means, is so far moral, as the intelligence and the 'Yill to which
we attain, conspire to it. In order to the actual establishment
of such a society, it is necessary that a diversity of manners
should prevail, consequently a diversity of inclinations, affec­
tions, desires, ends, and principles j which could not possibly
be brought to pass without an inverted state of life (0). Thirdly,

(n) In this, as well as in our ideas themselves, we contemplate an

e1evation, (in the present case, of uses,) as it were to higher powers.
For the existence of the moral spherc, supposes the simultaneous ex­
istence of the natural and the spiritual, consequently the existence of
the rational. The means are natural that wc bestow or distributc, and
are to be called dutics, and reckoned among the virtues; but unless
there be an end in addition, for the sake of which we dispense these
means, in one way in preference to anothcr, no moral result can accrue
from them. Thus if we respect the advantage of soeiety as the end,
then natural uses assume a higher form. Wherefore morality is judgcd
from the end, and is identical with virtue. But we shall spcak further
of this subject in another place.
(0) No society can exist among absolute peers or equals. The
founding of a society involves a perpetuaI divcrsity of mcmbers. Snch
diversity can only be produced by this ordcr of our lifc. It could not
have place if we saw truths immediately by vil'tue of innate wisdom,
for then thcre could be no diversity of principles, nor consequently of
desires and affections: and as a further result, there could bc no diver­
sity of countenances and actions; and little or no speech; for the grand
business of conversation consists in discussing whatis true and good,
and what false and evil; we approximate to one side or the other by
probable arguments. If all things wcre seen with the most perfcct
clearncss, as settled truths, there would bc no occasion for reasoning,
examination, and othcr proccsses, that occupy the minds and conversa­
tions of men.
364 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

that in this ultimate circle of nature, we may reeeive the won­

der' of the ",orld, and as wc ascend the steps and ladders of in­
tel1wencc, receil'c still grcatcr wonelers, in ail their significance,
ami ,vith full vision j and that at length we may comprehcml by
faith thosc profound miracles that cannat be comprchcndcel b)'
the iutellcct: and from all these things, in the deep hllsh of
awe and amazement, vcncrate ane] adore the omnipotence and
providence of the SUpre11l8 Creator j and thus, in the contem­
plation of Him, rcgard as vanity everything that wc lcayc
behinc1 us.
1165. The REMOTE or priaI' ENDS of the inversion of the arder
of life (p), arc, that the last sphere may be united through
man with the first, the lowcst with the highest, the \Vorldly
with the heavenly, or the corporeal with the spiritual j for thesc
in thel1lselves, and in their nature, are sa dissimilar, and sa
wic1cly scparated, that they Call1lot })ossibly come togcther with­
out SOl1le uniting medium. Our rational mind is that uniting
mcdium, where mystic meetings arc carried on, and sacred
coyenants l'atifiecl. This enables us ta bc and to live, for that
which is our minc1's property, is peculiarly our own j aU things
that belong to the body, bclong ta the mind j by virtue of the
mincI we arc entitled ta the name of men; how much soever of
it, and whatsoever of it, is involved in our actions, is regarded
as human j from it wc derive the knowledge of things below and
around us; and from it, br relation, wc arc rendcred conscious
of ourselves; and by faith, embrace thosc things that are above
us. Now since \Vorlelly things flow into it n'am the lowest
sphere, through the gates of the senses, and hcavenly things,
fi'om the highest, through the portal of the soul, hencc it i8 thc
true centre of thc universe, divided into t\Vo powers j of which
onc, namely, the corporeal, is the very thing that i8 propcrly
our own j to this i8 given a will, and to the will, liberty, in
arder that it may be our own choice ta live to the body, or not

(p) The proximate ends, or the causes thereof, respect the cor­
pOl'eal state with which our lives commence. Hence the ends, or
the causcs, that follow, and asccnd ta the prior or still higher ends,
arc tel'Illed remotc; and are intermediate between the lower and the
highel'.
 EPILOGUE. 365

ta live to the spirit (q). Dut the other power, or the spiritual,
is not of our power) because it is aboye ours; hence it is not
for the forces of the body, or for the will thereof) to be united
to the superior p'Ower) but it is for the superior to be united to
the inferior which is ours: thus union is possible on the part of
the spirit) but not on the part of the body (r). The ideas of
our intelligence are so many dead forces j the ground from
which they can live must be infuscd into them from. above. Dut
by the Supreme Mind means have been most mercifdly pro­
vidcd) whcreby the superior power i8 enabled to adopt the infe­
l'ior, in order that both may be united in a sacred bond (8). In
consequence of this) we are organic subjects (t), through which
the lowest things ascend) and the highest descend j and human

(q) We shall treat of the will and liberty, Gad \Villing, in our
Psychology; wherefore we only touch upon them slightly in this place;
just sa much, in fact, as ta be able ta shew from them, that for many,
and even for thcse ends, we live at first almost in the body alone, and
ascend ta a higher life by degrees. Otherwise the will would not be
thus free on the part of thc body.
(1') That which is relatively imperfect, cannat unite itself ta that
which is more perfeet; nor the lower ta the higher; nor consequently,
the body ta the soul: but the soul must unite itself ta the body, and
l'educe its body ta such astate, that it can sen'e the soul as an organ.
Ta induce arder Npon things that are below, sa as ta bring them into
harmony, is the exclusive province of the highel' power; and this is
the reason why we cannot ÏJ1Yestigate truths without an influx from
above. Rence it is evident ho\\' important it is, that we should have a
distinct conception of the nature of the inferior and of the superior
sphere, and of the postcrior and the priaI'; for the priaI' and the
supcl'ior is more pcrfcct than the postcrior and the inferior. On this
account, the doctrine of arder and degrees should be sedulously cul­
tivatcd.
(8) l forbear ta l'econnt these means in this place, because they are
sacl'ed and theological subjects; and for the same reason, l pass over
wha! is sail1 ta be Jonc on the part of the body or the will, by the ap­
plication thercof, thc removal of impcdiments, and other processes.
(t) l must not at prcsent expatiate upon the proofs of this proposi­
tion, for it wouId carry me out of my field. Meanwhile, we are none
of us ignomnt of the text, that "in Gad we live, and maye, and have
om being."
366 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

minds are the very receiving-rooms of both these guests; thus

either temples or precincts of temples; consequently perpetuaI
objects of Divine Grace and Justice.
466. The LAST END, which also is the first, is, that our
minds, at length become forms of intelligence and innocence,
may constitute a spiritual heaven, a kingdom of God, or a holy
society, in which the end of creation may be regarded by God,
and by which God may be regarded as the end of ends. From
infinite wisdom, added to equal power, and this to equal pro­
vidence, such perpetuaI end flows constantly, from the first end
to the last, and from the last to the first, through the interme­
diate ends, that declare the glory of the Divinity (u).

(u) l shaH treat of these subjects, by the blessing of God, in the

last of my analytic parts. But as yet we are dwelling in the mere
effects of the world, which exhibit the amazing amI divine circle of
these ends before the contemplation of our very senses.

END OF PART TI.

 THE

ANIMAL KINGDOM,

CONSIDERED

ANAT011ICALLY, PHYSICALLY, AND PHILOSOPHICALLY.

PART III.

TH.E SKIN, THE SENSES OF TOUCH AND 'l'ASTE, AND

ORGANIC FORMS CENERALLY.

 THE ANIMAL KINGDüM.

PART III.

PROLOGUE.

467. IN the two preceding Parts we treated of the viscera

of the abdomen and thorax, or of the organs of the inferior
regions of the body; in the present Part wc shall commence to
speak of thc supreme region, or of the head, and its organs,
the external sensoria,-the sensoria, namely, of touch, taste,
smell, hearing, and sight: for it is our intention to advance
anà mount in regular order, strictly aeeording to the analytie
way, from the posterior to the prior sphere, rising successively
from the lowest forms, powers and forces of the human body,
to the higher and the highest; and thus, with doctrines to
guide us, to search out the essences and natures of things by
the indications and evidences of effects. 1'0 attain this end, it
behoves us to observe the order that natme herself marks out,
and as it were dictates to our intellect; in àoing which, and
following her, it will be found that she herself now opens to us
the subjeet of the present Part. For the circumstance that one
thing follows, unfolds, develops, consequently opens, another,
originates fl'Om orcIer alone. A rambling investigation, con­
dueted without order, 01' what amounts to the same thing, with­
out the contemplation of causes in a connected chain, may lead
to the preeipitate formation of surmises and eonjcctures respect­
ing truths; which, howcver, are mutually bOU1l<l ta each other
VOL. II. PAltT HL CIIAP. 1. il 1J
370 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

in concatCllated serics, and only in that serics allow thcmselves

to be properly surveyed. The thing which takes its form from
a random procedure, or loose and desultory investigation of this
kind, constantly retains a similar, that is, conjectural character,
in its successive devclopments, since it induces the same form
upon the whole series of things that come after it. For what­
evel' idea is assumecl to start with, detcrmincs a corrcsponding
principlc of the thing, and this principle, a corresponding inter­
pretation of the things fl.owing forth therefrom, or a corre­
sponding intuition of the mind in thosc objccts; therefore, a
corresponding conclusion. Rencc come hypotheses,. which arc
closely analogous to the unnatural marks and excrescenccs con­
tracted by the body of the cmbryo in consequence of the dis­
ordered impressions of the pregnant mothcr.
468. If wc view things in a confused or superficial manner,
through the coverings in which our senses envelop them, we
may readily be induced to believe, that the supreme region of
the boùy is constituted by thc external sensoria of the head, as
weU as by the internaI, of which the brain is the complex: but
if we consider the grounds of things, and make use of greater
c1iligence, distinctness, and depth of thought, wc shall clearly
sec that there are three spheres iR the living body, one superior,
prior and interior to, and simpler than, another, each of which
is divided into its regions; namely, a sphere of effects, a sphere
of causes, and a sphere of priuciplcs. The SPHEltE OF EFFECTS,
which is thc lowest or the outermost, properly involves that
which is callcd tl1e body, and comprehends thc viscera of the
abdomen and thorax, and the external scnsoria of the head.
Thc SPHEllE OF CAUSES, which is the superior or middle sphere,
vrope1'ly includes that which is caUcd the cerebrum or brain,
this sphere being the proximately efficient cause of the effects
and detcrminations in the body. On this account the cere·
brum, in thc ...vide acceptation of the term, is waUed round by
osseous bounda1'ies of its own, and like the body is divided into
l'egions, of which the cercbrum, prope1'ly so called, constitutes
the first; the cerebellum, the second; the medulla oblongata
in cOlljunction with the medulla spinaJis, the thi1'd. But the
SPHF.ltE OF PltINCIPLES, or the supreme and innermost sphere,
as it were the Olympus or heavcn of the othe1' spheres, is the
 PROLOGUE. 371

cortical or cineritious substancc, from which, as their beginning,

the fibres spring forth, and at which, as thcir end, they termi­
nate: for the fibre born of this substàllcc exereises aIl influence,
and delineates aIl structure, in the universal body; from it the
determinations of the will flow down into act, and to it the
modes of sensations flow in uutil ultimately they reach the in­
tellect ; for thc soul rcsides in this substance as in its principles.
But wc shall spcak more fully of this partition of the animal
kingdom into spheres, and of these spheres into rcgions, in our
next Part, in treating of the Cerebrum.
469. In the Index of Contents of the whole W ork, l pro­
mised that at this stage l should proceed to treat of the Heart,
the Artcrics, the Veins, and the Blood; of the Genital Members
of Males; [of the Genital Members of Females], and of the
Formation of the Fœtus in Utero. But thc heart, the vcssels,
and the blood, have already been fully treated of in my Economy
of the Animal Kingdom. And with respect to the members sub­
scrvient to generation, they must come bcfore us in the sequel,
after we have discovercd the nature of the animal spirit, and the
natme of the soul; for by these organs the soul comes off from
itself into the offspring, for the purpose of fonnding a new
kingrlom. l think it wonld thercfore be premature, and that l
should be unprepared, to dcelare anything definite of thcse
members, as instrumental causes, without a previous knowledge
of the principal cause. Our treatise would want the proper
clearncss and meaning, unless we had previously defilled that of
whose organs we were speaking,-those organs by means of
which ncw forms are conceived in the image of the Conu pre­
cerling them. Whcrefore, in order that the investigation may
procced with regularity, l have considcred that we must first
ascend by dcgrees to the supreme sphere, from whence we may
legitimatcly deduce the principles of things; and where wc may
speak of the soul with comparative eertainty and definiteness.

liB2
 CHAPTER II.

THE SENSE OF TASTE.

574. IN Part I., which treats of the viscera of the abdomen or

the organs of the inferior region, we spoke in the fi.rst place of the
tongue and its functions, and premised the anatomical observations of
Heister, Winslow, Malpighi, Swammerdam, and Boerhaave, respect­
ing the tongue, its nerves, arteries, veins, muscles, glands, conical
corpuscules, and papillœ 1 and therefore here, where we are only treat­
ing of the sense of taste, we are bound to preface no more particulars
than concern that sense, or sensorium, specifically. Yet on account
of the connexion of the papiUœ with the muscular fibres, that is to
say, on aceount of the relation of this sense to the action of the
organ, the reader will fiml it expedient to procure a knowledge of the
whole fabric of the tongue from the allthors in the place alludcd to,
and other sources.
575. HEISTER." The nerves of the tongue are very large; con­
sisting of two branches from the fifth pail' which are usually thought to
bc gustatory, and of two from the ninth pair which are considered
motor.... The muscular substance of the tongue is surrounded by
three involucra, tunics or membranes. The external, which is con­
tinuous with the common membrane of the mouth, forms a number
of pyramidal and globular pouches or vaginulœ, which are porous, and
serve for receiving the nervous papillœ of the third membrane. The
middle, or membrana retieularis Malpighii, consists of a beautiful net­
work, whieh transmits the nervolls papillœ through its apertures; this
is visible only on the upper part; but is more diffieult to detect in man
than in brutes. The third, or membrana papillal'is nervosa, visible
only in the same part of the tongue as the last, contains nervous pa­
pillœ of different shapes, but ehiefly fungiform, (similar to snail's horns
or fungi,) full of little holes, ... and capable of protrusion and retrae­
 TUE SENSE OF 'fASTE. 563

tion; also pyramidal papillœ large and small, and sometimes ineur-
vated. Both these kinds of papillœ arise from the internai membrane
of the tongue, and from its nerves; they pass through the little
foramina in the retieular membrane, and terminate in the vaginulœ of
the external membrane. These papillœ are the primary organ of taste."
(Comp. Anat., n. 285.)
576. "WINSLOW." The upper surface of the tongue is entirely
eovered with a thiek membrane or tunie of a papillary texture, upon
whieh lies a fine epidermoid membrane, whieh is likewise eontinued
over the lower surface, but without papillœ. Three sorts of papillre
are distributed over the upper surface of the tongue: capitatœ, semi-
lentieulares, and villosœ. The papillre of the first kind are the largest,
resembling little mushrooms with short stalks. They lie on the base
of the tongue in superfieial erypts or fossulre. They resemble small
conglomerate glands, seated on a narrow basis, and a little hollowed in
the middle of their eonvex side. They oecupy the whale surface of
the base of the tongue, and are arranged in such a manner, that the
anterior ones form an angle. These are glandular mammillre or papillre,
or salivary or mucilaginous glands.... The papillre of the second kind,
or lentieulares, are small orbieular eminenees, only a little convex, the
circulaI' border of which is contiguous to the surface of the tongue.
When we examine them with the microscope in a fresh tongue, we flnd
their convex sides full of small holes or pores, like the end of the spout
of a watering pot. They lie on the middle and anterior parts of the
tongue, in greater or lesser numbers, and are sometimes most visible on
its edges.... They soon lose their consistence after death, so that by
rubbing them several times, they may be drawn out in the form of
small soft pyramids, and laid down on one side. The papillre of the
third kind, or villosœ, are the smallest and most numerous, and occupy
the whole of the upper surface of the tongue, and even the interstices
between the other papillre. They would be more properly named
papillœ coniere, than villosre, from the figure which they appear to
have when examined in clear water through a microscope. They are
naturally softish, but they become so flaeeid after death, that by hand-
ling them they may be made short and thiek, whereas they arc naturally
long and smal!. (Exp. Anat., l'r. de la Teste, n. 506-512.) . Besides
the membranes of the tongue already described, it is customary to
mention another,-the membrana reticularis; whieh is commonly de-
monstrated from the boiled tongues of oxen or sheep, and sorne assert
that it exists in the human tongue. (Ibid., n. 529.) We observe four
nervous fasciculi or cords, going distinetly to the base of the tongue,
and continuing their course to the apex. Two of thcse are branches of
00 2
564 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

the inferior maxillary nerves, or of the third braneh of the fifth pair
from the meduUa oblongata. The other two are branches of the ninth
pail'.... The lesser portion 01' first brunch of the eighth pair, sends
likewise a nerve 1.0 eaeh side of the tangue. The great lingual nerve
on eaeh sicle glides forwards, ... and is distributed 1.0 the museular
fibres aU the way 1.0 the apex of the tongue; communicat.ing by several
filaments ,Vith the small lingual nervc or braneh of the fifth pair, and
with the nen'e from the eighth pair.... The small lingual nerve on
each side separates from the maxillaris inferior, sometimes al., and
sometirnes above its passage between the two pterygoid muscles. After
separating more and more from the trunk, il. passes under the lateral
part of the tongue, over the sublingual gland. It gives filaments 1.0
the nearest parts of the tongue as it passes, and then entering its sub­
stance terminates al. the apex, having sent a great number of filaments
ta ,the papillary membrane. It eommunieates, as has been said, ...
with the nerve from the eighth pail'. (Ibid., n. 533-535.) The lin­
gual nen'e of the eighth pair, which is the first braneh of this pail',
l'uns first of all on the inside of the digastrie muscle of the lower jaw,
and gi"es filaments to the genio-hyoidens, the neighboring muscles of
the base of the tangue, and those of the pharynx. Afterwards it
gi"es out ramifications and forms anastomoses, ... and lastly goes ta
the lower part of the tangue, where it eommunicates with the lingual
branches of both the fifth and ninth pairs." (Ibid., n. 538.)
577. MALPIGHI." In the exterior or superior part [of the tangue
of the ox], ... an immense number of bodics, disposed in a kind of
series, rise from the surface, and slightly curving, exhibit a uniform
inclination and position towards the posterior part of the tongue; sa as
to resemble a carding comb ...• In the ox they are cartilaginous, aud
seem ta haye a particulaI' resemblanee in figure 1.0 the teeth of the boar
and other similar teeth; and inferiorly they exhibit a coneavity, at
their roots espeeially. They are composed of a dense and tough mate­
rial, whieh looks like a collection of little twigs.... AlI these cornua
arc invested by the external membrane of the tongue, so that when
this membrane is pulled off, the external covering of thc cornua is
pulled off \Vith il.. ... The conical and obtuse bodies whieh supply
the place of the cornua al. the base of the tongue, arc evidently
hoUow, and their' substance beeomes so thin and sa lUuch dilated, that
il. not only affords room for the nervous papilla:: to enter them from
beneath, but is also transparent....
,,'When this membrane [the membrane in whieh the eornua are
implanted] is ... )Julled off, ... we observe a kind of glutinous sub­
stance, exteuding oycr thc sllperior part of the tangue especially, and
 THE SENSE OJo' TASTE. 565

of sorne thickness.... It extends in the form of a mcmbrane, or

thick l'ete, and has conspicuous openings corrcsponding to aB the
cornua; and innumerable little canals between them, which can be
seen only by the microscope: these are of different shapes, and open
on the surface of the tongue, whenee, if it be torn across, or examined
by the microscope up against the light, they become visiblc; and inas­
much as an accurate view shews, that on the inside this membrane
represents a dark-colored l'ete.... l therefore think it ought to he
rcgarded as a cribriform and reticular substance.... The glutinous
substance extends completely over the upper area of the tongue; at its
sides the dark portion is nearly obliterated; but traces of it are visible
in the palate and even in the cheeks.
" Artel' examining the glutinous substance, wc next comc to a ncrY­
ous and papiIlary substance, of a yellowish white color; extcnding in
the form of a membrane over the wholc of the superior area particularly,
and of considerable depth. This substance, on its inner surface, where
it is connected to the muscular parts of the tangue, appears smooth
and even; with the exception of certain nervous connexions or pro­
cesses, scattered here and there between the fleshy fibres, and to which
it is connected, or rather grows. On the exterior part, however, it is
rendered uneven by certain remarkable nervous papillre which proceed
from it, and which are disposed in a very astonishing order. In the ox,
the goat, the sheep, and in the human subject, these papillre may be
divided into three kinds, according to their threefold configuration and
magnitudc. Sorne are much larger than the l'est; these are situated at
the sidcs of the apex particularly, between certain others to be men­
tioned presently: they are disposed in It square on the superior arca of
the tongue; about its middle region, where it becomes white, very few
are observed: but there are sorne, and those of considerable size, at
the sides of the base. In substance and shape, these resemble the
emissile and retractile cornua which are ubserved in snails; they stand
on a long peduncle, which having risen through the mncous substance,
enùs in a little round head, that is placed in a sort of cavity in the
thin exterior membrane. They originate from the ncrvous and papil­
lary substance; for they are continuous with it, and the same circum­
stances, and a very similar structure, are observed in both. They have,
however, this peculiarity, (which l hear has also been observed by Fra­
cassatus,) that in the base of each there is a nervous twig, to which
it is appended, or rather grows. The nervous papillre of the second
kind are more numerous than those just mentioned; corresponding on
the inside to the cornua on the uutside of thc tonguc. Procceding
from the common papillary substance, they rise to sorne height, and
566 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

from their summits put forth nervous offsets, which enter the cavities
before spoken of, and meet the roots of the cornua; they are surrounc1ed
by almost innumerable papillre from the same origin, and which rise to
the same height, but which are conical and more slender, and entering
particular cavities in the mucous substance, at length terminate in the
direction of the external membrane. About the base of the tongue,
instead of the cornua, the nervous papillre already described project
outwards, and changing their form as they approach the base, they
successively become more obtuse, rounded, and depressed: and the
largest of them are Ilot very much unlike those observed in the cheeks,
at the roots of the teeth. It should, however, be noted, that the
same papillary substance, and both the coverings under it, are found
also in the palate and cheeks, although in a very attenuated form; but
with this difference, that larger papillre stand out in these places in the
form of cones, and near them are excretory vessels, implanted in sub­
jacent glands, and among the vessels are scattered a few very minute
nervous papillre.... Many nervous twigs proceeding from the trunk
terminate in the nervous and papillary substance." (Exercit. Epistolic.
de Lin!1uâ.)
 THE SENSE OF TASTE.

578. Tite abjects of taste consist of parts of the three kinp­

doms, ta wit, the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal, whiclt
parts a1'e comminuted and dissolved in their aqueous and Otltel'
liquid menstrua, and in the salivas particulm'Zy, and on being ap­
plied ta the little sensoria of the tangue, are perceived as ta thci?'
qualities j the perception or sensation itseif, is called taste. It i8
clear that the objects that excitc the feeling of taste consist of
very minute parts, that come out at last from the solutions of
the food, and swimming in fluid menstrua, are' applied by thcm
as vehicles to the sensorial papillœ; this being proved by the
first origin of those parts from their parent kingdom ; by the
process of comminution and solution that they undergo; by the
nature of the chyle, serum, and blood into which they change j
and lastly by those parts that are discharged in the forlU of
urine. By the oripin of those parts from their parent kir/grlom j
that is to say, in the first instance from the earth, or from its
proper kingdom, the mineraI; for out of this the vegetablc
kingdom is generated, brought forth, and maintained j from
which at length cornes the animal kingdom: thus whatever ar­
rives by order of succession in the animal kingdom, appears to
be taken originally from the mineraI, but to be transferred into
the animal body by the mediation of the vegetable kingdom,
By the process of comminution and solution that they unde1'[Jo j
for the materials taken by the lips and mouth, are ground be­
tween the teeth by thc action of the lower jaw, and are still
more exquisitely comminuted br the tongue; the buccal parietcs
and the palatc conjointly assistillg, and the liquids drank, and
thosc cxprcsscd [l'GIll thc succulent food, aud aboyc aIl, the sa­
livas, lending thcir nid; and this, until the aboye matcriab have
568 THE ANIMAL KIN6DOM.

been reduced ta the parts that fioat in those liquid menstrua, or

vehicles, and are applied for the purposes of taste ta the little
individual organs of that sensorium (p). By the natu7'e of the
chyle, serum, and blood into which they change, or for the pre­
paring and nourishing of which, they serve: for all the food
that is taken by the month, ground by the teeth and tangue,
and entrusted ta the stomach, is for the sake of the bloo<1 (q) ;
and when the latter, or its serum or chyle, is explored chemi­
cally, then the origin and charactcr of the minimally re<1uced
parts themselves that are applied on the very threshold ta the
papillre of taste, begin ta be manifest. Lastly, by those parts
that are discharged in the form of urine: for those matters that
do not admit of being comminuted, sucked out, and purified
sa as ta become chyle, are rejected as dead, in the form of
alvine freces; and those that are separated as stale, antiquated,
and useless, from the serum and the decompounded blood, are
excreted by the liquid way that is furnished by the kidneys, the
ureters, and the bladder. All. these considerations shew very
clearly the distinctive character of the parts that are first tasted
in the rostrum, or tangue, or that are explored by taste. By

(p) The palate concurs with the tongue in aU the offices of the
latter; in sucking, eating, tasting, transrnltting salivas, and absorbing
juices. (Part L, p. 71, 72, n. 61-63.) The fauces are cases and
forms rnodelled to the tongue. (Ibid., p. 76, 77, n. 66.) When the
tongue lS about to eat, it conspires in a wonderful manner with the
cheek and the palate. (Ibid., p. 78, 79, n. 68.) The salivary humor
is so prepared, as to be singly sufficient for aU the offices of the tongue ;
for restoring and renewing its states, for moistening the food rcceived,
and which is to be worked about, for dissolving it when ground by the
teeth, for sheathing the juices extractcd from it, and lIfterwards for
insinuating them into the lacunre and little canals. (Ibid., p. 41, n. 38;
p. 99-102, n. 81, 'IIZ, n.)
(q) The blood contains everything that ls contained in the body.
(Eeon. A. K., tr. i., n. 2,3, 5, 59, 61, 115.) AU things are for the
sake of the blood. (Ibid., n. 4.) There are many kinds of salts in
the blood (Ibid., n. 43-4!i, 91, 92), which lire carried to it by the
chyle (Ibid., n. (19), and by the pulmonic air. (Ibid., n. 50-52.) The
composition of the blood, what. (Ibid., n. 9 l, 92, 95, 96, 107, 108,
110, 371.)
 THE l'ENSE 01" TAs'rE. 569

the objects, in fine, we know tlle cltaracter of the organ, because

the two mutually correspond to each other; for the O1'!Jan repre­
sents a common form, whereof the mutations are so many types
fashioned exactly to the ·impressing objects as their ideas [or ante­
type.,] .
579. Speaking generaUy, aU figured parts, both simple and
compound, that have angles and planes, faU under this sense.
This is proved by the same arguments as we adduced in proof
of the former position j for from whichever of nature's king­
doms the parts are borrowed, if we examine thcm by the micro­
scope, they aU appear diversiformly angular, sharp-pointed,
convex, lunatcd, excavated, plane, ragged, rough, made up of
more simple parts, and varied in sncn infinite ways, that it is
impossible to express and designate them either by speech,
drawing, or geometry (1'). Light itself evidences the same thing
by variegations of shadc j being broken and refiected according
to every varicty in the composition of parts, which circnmstance
is rcpresented to our eyes by the varions species of colors j
wherefore colors thcmselves arc additional signs of the figured
charactcr of the parts that are taken from the three kingdoms
to become objects of taste (s). If this sense were not modified

(r) This is abundantly shewn in the treatises of many authors, who

have investigated the forms and figures of the parts of the three king­
doms with the microscope; and have demonstrated for instance the
nature of the parts of the minerai kingdom, whieh are simpler than
those of the other kingdoms, and for the most part triangulaI', rectan­
gular, equilatel'al or isoseeles, square, oblong, unequal in their sides or
sealene. The forfis of the parts of the vegetable kingdom are innu­
merable; as mueh so indeed as the genera and speeies of vegetables,
shrubs, juices expressed from them, resins, wines, oils, and spirits.
The parts of the animal kingdom are seen rcdueed to more perfect and
in short circulaI' figurcs and curves of different kinds. That stupend­
ons art, whcreby thc parts of the minerai kingdom, after having been
divided into their clements, or to thcir unitics, are disposed into infinite
kinds of forms, is only natural chcmistry. Meanwhile, it appears
from aH [authorities], that these parts are figured, or are possessed of
angles and planes.
(8) 1 think it is clcar enough, that when light traverses figured cor­
puscnles, it i5 espcciaHy varicgated by shadows, but not so when it
570 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

by cliversity of figures, it woulù bc unablc to inclicatc any dis­

tinctions at aU to its general sensorium, by corrcsponcling mu­
tations; for the organ represents a common form, whercof tlw
mutations are so many types fashioned exactly to the impress­
ing objects as their icleas [or ante-types] (n. 578). But the
shapes and configurations of parts are so numerous, that it
scems scarcely possible to reduce them to distinct classes, al­
though possible to reduce them to univcrsal genera and corn·
mon species. The most simple are trigons, inasmuch as thcsc
take the lead of aU angular forms; for aU bodies with solid
angles, in a word, aU polygonal bodies, as geometry shcws, are
ultimately redueible or rcsolvable into trigons as thcir constitu­
ents, jus,t as aU plane figures are ultimately reduciblc into tri­
angles (t).
580. But wlticlt are naturally so far inert and weighty, tltat
wlten applied to the little sensm'ia, tltey can imp1'int a type of

passes through minute spherules: and for this reason, color itself may
be taken as an argument that the above parts are possessed of angles
and· planes: for it is an ascertained fact, that nothing produces the
various conditions and fonus of shadowed light more distinctly and
exquisitely, than volatile, urinous, alkaline salts, and sulphurs, as
being so many triangulaI' corpuscules, or prisms and excavated quad­
l'angles; and when they are grouped together in an orderly manner, the
result is a joint modification, eithcr red, or green, or yellow, and thus
a scene is displayed that is not apparent., distinct, and compre­
hensible, save by the common perception of sight. (Beon. A. K.,
tr. i., n. 87, 88.)
(t) Respecting the figures of inert parts, or respecting the particlcs
of fixed, volatile, essential salts, oils, waters, &e., see our brief dis­
quisition in Beon. A. K., tr. i., n. 69-79. And that ail compounds when
resolved into their first clements, produce trigons, consisting of four
three-sided augles, aud of three sides similarly* hollowed in, see Ibid.,
11. 71, 72.

* Swedenborg had said previously: "Experience shews, tbat the individual

[elements] of sea salt are gencrated in the waters, or between the rndely-spherical,
hardish, and naturally almost inert aqueous particles. Granting this, it follows,
that these elements are of the form of the interstices between the l'articles of water ;
in short, that the y arc little cubes, with six sidcs and eigbt angles; and that their
sides are II01iowed in so as to fit the cOllvexities of thc aqueous l'articles." (Eeo n .
A. K., tr. L, n. 70.)-(Tr.)
 TUE SENSE (H' TASTE. 571

themselves, and cause a cOl'l'espondinrl mutation. This again i8

collected from the same arguments j namely, as wen from the
fact, that the above parts are taken from the three kingdoms,
and indeed originally from the mineraI kingdom (n. 578) j-for
the earth itself is a round mass of weighty corpuscules, resting
there as in thc spacious centre of their universe: their figures
also prove their inertia or gravity, in that they havc diversiform
angles and planes (n. 579) j-as from the other fact, that they
have to be disengaged from the masses in which they cohere,
and to bc bl'oken up hy menstrua j and again from the circum­
stance, that they have to be applied to the little sensoria by the
assistance o'f the fluids and salivas; and finally from their mani­
festly ponderable character. Thus it is clear, that taste and
smell are excited by corpuscules endowcd with vis ine1'tiœ, that
stamp a figure of themselves upon the little papillary forms (n.
522). The case is differcnt with sight and hearing, the organs
of which are accommodated to the modification of the auras, and
therefore do not receive the impulscs of inert forces, but the
forms of active forces (n. 523).
581. Arul rnoreover are of such a magnitude, that they
can act distinctly upon the individttal parts of the organ of
this sense. That which stamps must not excced in dimension
that which is to he stamped j if it cither exceeds this, or docs
not come up to it, or is largcr or less than it ought to be, no
mark is left, and no type mouldcd. The one must conespond
to the other in measure, modc, and dcgree, so that therc may
be a ratio between them (u). From thesc considerations it is
cvident, that the sense of taste, 01' that sav01', is excited by rneans
of fluids, by particles possessing figu1'e, vis incrtiœ, and just
magnitude.

(1~) It is c"ident from the papillœ themselycs, that the conditions

of taste are c1ifferent from those of toueh; for the papillœ of tnste arc
uot eongregated iuto buudles like those of toueh, but arc clivided and
diserimiuated from each other; iu order that each saporifcrons or cdiLJle
part carried to them by I11Cans of its liquid, may approach and affcct
its papillœ indi"idllally, and thus distinctly excite the unities of this
sense, so that thc eommon affection that is eallcd taste may procccd
l'rom many thus exeited; fol' the sellsorio-organie fon11 of touch is two­
fold (n. 565, (ul fin.)
572 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

582. The figures or configurations of pm·ts produce all the

vm'Ïeties and difJet'ences of this sense; consequently the sense it­
self, inasmuch as it consists in variety; but not so the forces of
the same parts, or the circumstance that they m'e intrinsically and
naturally inert or active, for the fm'ces only excite the life of that
sense, or cause taste to erist. But the measures or vm'ious dimen­
sions of parts, merely sharpen or blunt this sense, or render it more
or less distinct or obscure. The same law prevails in each of the
other senses; for example, in hearing, which has sounds for its
abjects; for the figures or fonns of the glottis, palate, tangue and
mouth, produce aU the varieties of sound, sa far as relates ta de­
grees of altitude, or ta differences between acuteness and gravity :
but the forces increase or diminish the intensity of each tone,
and cause the sound ta strike the organs of hearing with force
or feebleness; thus either excite or extinguish its life. Quan­
tities, again, make the sound distinct or obscure, shriU or duU.
The case is similar in sight; the forms and images that are its
abjects, according ta their varieties, induce val'ieties coordinatc
with sight. But the forces of light, according ta their degrecs,
illustrate, exalt, and intensify the same; while shades, as being
negations of force, completely obscure and extinguish thcm.
Magnitudes cause these forms ta appear distinctly or obscurely,
that is, acutely 01' obtusely. And the same obtains in the
other senses. Thus the figures of parts cause sense to be in po­
tency, for al! sense consists in variation of modes. The forces of
parts cause sense to be in act, or to exist. But quantities prescribe
limits to its spheres; and if it transcends these limits, it becomes
obscure, or fails from excessive subtlety. But ta apply this ta
taste specificaUy: inasmuch as figures cause this sense ta be, or
ta be possible, it is plain how many diffel'ences of it there may
be; ta wit, as many as evel' there are species and varieties of
mineraIs, salts, flowcrs, grasses, shrubs, roots, fruits, seeds,
jnices, ails, spirits, tinctures, menstrua, drugs; also as thcre
are varieties of flcsh and humors in the subjects of the animal
kingdom, bath in the simple and in the compound; or as thcre
are shapes intermediate betwecn those bodies that are most
pointed, and those that are cntirely devoid of angles; or in
general terms, between trigons and sphercs, the surface of
which latter is a kind of infiuity, wherc every angle and di­
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 573

versity of planes is obliterated: whereforc if saline acid be

assumed as the first boundary of simple taste, the sweetest
saccharine flavor will be the last boundary corresponding to this
first. But each species of savor has its first and last, conse­
quently innumerable middle terms: for taste comprises not only
acidity and saltness, but also bitterness, austereness, acerbity,
acrimony, and many other terms with their opposites, answer­
ing to aU the diversities of composition in nature's kingdoms(y).
But as regards the nature of forces specificaUy, impressions are
made not only according to the gravity of the object, but at the
same time according to the forces acquired by the motion of
the fluid vehicle: for the salivas and certain ex.tracts of the food
are of such a characte l', that they envelop inert parts, apply
them closcly to the papillre, and by their quick roUing power,
make them either impinge tooth and nail ~pon the points, or
gently rub against the plane and concave smfaces (z). But the
case is different with elastic, soft parts, possessing intrinsic
activity, which when applied to papill::e similarly elastic, soft,
and active, yield to them, and vice versâ,. these cause only
kisses and salutations, but not touches and impulses. Such ap­
pears to be the nature of the intercomse between many of the
salivas and the conical papillre; and also between the finest
chyle and the papillre of the stomach and intestines; for these
fluids either affect most blandly, or else enter the little mouths
of the pores absolutely without the papiUa or vein being con­

(y) Bitterness, as in emetics, purgatives, rhubarb, wormwood,

aloes, colocynth. AWltel'eneSs, as in certain unripe fruits, and even in
grapes. Acerbity, as in galls and cypress-nuts, &c. ACl'imony, as
in mustard, pepper, pellitory, euphorbium, &c.; besides other dif­
ferences, also involving something generic; for instance, unctuoWl soft­
ness, as exhibited in fats, ointments, glutinôus things, and oils and
balsams, the degrees of which run from the varieties of tenacity to the
greatest extremes of toughness. The varieties of saltness are equal in
number to the genera of salts, from common salt, or rock salt, down
to insipid alkaline salt. Mawkishness, as in certain earths and boles,
whereof various species produce nausea.
(z) Resperting the nature of the saliva, see Part 1., p. 99-102,
n. 81 (m, n). Respecting its varieties and different offices, see Ibid.,
p. 83, 84, n. 71 (i, k, l); p. 85, n. 72 (n).
574 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

scious of the circumstance; the particles of the food seem to be

tempe!ed in the lahoratories to so high a degree. Wherefore
the differences arising from the nature of forces, make their
stated boundaries between the highest life or sense of savor, and
its extinction. But with respect to the dimènsions of the cor­
puscules specifically, they sharpen or blunt the sense, or render
it distinct or obscure, and prescribe limits. For if there he
several things that simultfl.neously engage and irritate one pa­
pilla, indistinct and confused mutations are produced; and if
continuous quantities exceed the dimension of one or more pa­
pillee, they also equally obscure the sense; giving rise to indis­
tinct general ideas, and not to particular ideas. On the other
hand, if quantities be so very small as only to touch, hit, or
sooth sorne fibre of a papilla, no sensation of this degree or
genus results; for an cntire papilla is the unity of the senso­
rium, and hence a change of the entire unity produces the first
particular of the sensation (n. 549, 565). The larger quantity
falls above the sense, the smaller falls beyond it.
583. But the larger parts, which do not faU under the sense
of taste, or under savor, in the tongue, faU under a sense mm'e
akin to touch: and from this miTture [of senses], an additional
number of varieties and species of this sense arise, whiclt cannot
by any means be discriminated distinctly. Touch is present dis­
tinctly in the organs· of the other senses, and governs in a
general manner as it were with them as companions (n. 525).
And not only in the papillary cutis, but in every fibrous texture
whatever, therefore also in the sensorial organs (n.530). Touch
also admollishes the organ of taste of the existence, quality, and
quantity of that which is either taken in openly, or glides in
furtively, and which that organ is shortly about to explore in a
different manner (n. 570). Nevertheless, touch, taste, and
smell are different from each other in nature and character;
this being proved by the origin, degree, effect and use of each,
as weIl as by the evidence of our own feelings (n. 524). There
are three kinds of papill<e, to wit, capitatœ, lenticulares, and
conicee (a), aIl seated upon the upper surface of the tongue;

(a) Heister mentions only two kinds of papillee, for he distinguishes

the pyramidal papillœ into greater and lesser (n. 575). Winslow says:
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 575

the one receiving the marks of impressions alt.ogether differ­

ently from the others, if each be recipient according to its or­
ganic form: that is to say, undergoing changes from impressed
objccts differently, and reaeting differently (b) j applying thern­
selves also severaUy to different objects, because they severaUy
differ in magnitude j to wit, to particles and minute pieces [of
food], which are resolved again and again into lesser pieces, and
ultimately into least j which shews that the papillre are little
organs that correspond to every dimension of thc divided parts.
It is cvident that each specics eujoys a pcculiar sense, from the
fibrous tcxture of cach j for fibres creep up iuto cach from the
common basis or body (c). But what this sense iS,-whether it
is properly taste in one kind of papillre, properly touch in ano­
ther, is an object for investigation: if it be touch, it should
not be identified exactly with the touch of the papillary sub­
stancc of the cutis, since this substance is formcd of contiguous,
coherent papiUre, and feels under the scales of the epidermis,
with which it is covered in. But not so the three kinds of pa­
piU::e in the tongue, which arc not confasciated but discrimi~
nated, and not cû"cred in with scales, but only with a thin
membrane, or cornmon cap, which is elastic, and yields when

"Tluee sorts of papillœ are distributcd ovcr the uppcr surface of the
tongue : capitatœ, semilenticulares, and villosœ [or conicœ)" (n.576).
According to Malpighi: "In thc ox, the goat, the shcep, and in the
human subject, thesc papillœ may be dividcd into threc kinds, accord­
ing to their threefold configuration and magnitude" (n. 5ï7). "On
thc dorsum of th.e tongue," says Boerhaave, "espeeially at the apex
and edges thereof, under the skin, lie obtuse papillœ, whieh appear
to be of three different kinds; in a tongue that is alive, warm, moist,
thmst out, and applied to taste anything, they projeet from the sur­
face, particularly when the person is hungry." (Part 1., p. 30, n. 30.)
(b) Aecording to the peculiarities and successive modes of operating
stated above, n. 552.
(c) "Both thesc kinds of papillre," says Heister, [alluding to his
division of thc papillœ into greater and lesser,j "arise from tne in­
ternai membrane of the tongue, and from its nerves; they pass through
thc little foramina in the retieular membrane" (n. 675). The papillœ
of the first kind, or fungosœ and capitat::c, "originatc," says Malpighi,
" l'rom the ncrvous and papillary substance.... Thcy have, however,
576 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

the subjacent papilla extends (d). Therefore, in order to ex­

plOTe the appointed peculiar sense of the papillre, it is necessary
to examine their forms, both pmticular and gencral; for in
order to the existence of a sensorium that can apprehend the
several varieties of an object with their diffel'ences and distinc­
tions, the fibres must be disposed into an organic form: for the
fibres are put together and the form conceived with reference to
every kind of variety and idea of use (n. 531). Wherefore it
would be right and proper, if we would be instructed by the
sciences in the secrets of nature, to judge of the sense from the
form, and of the form from the sense; for in the organ, as in a
mirror, we may contemplate the sense, and see the nature of
it; and vice versâ; the one being exactly represented in the
other (n. 548). Since then we find three kinds of papillre, each
kind with a distinct form, planted upon the tongue, hence wc
have tlnee kinds of senses, an however related to touch, and
which correspond to the parts disengaged from the dry food, or
fioating freely in the liquids that have been drank; namely, to
the larger, the middle-sized, and the least parts: so that no so­

this peculiarity, (which l hear has also been observed by Fracassatus,)

that in the base of each there is a nel'vous twig, to which it is ap­
pendeù, or rather grows. The nervous papiUre of the second kind ...
proceeding from the common papillary substance, ... from their sum­
mits put forth ne l'VOUS offsets" (n. 577). And with respect to the
more slender and couical papillre, he says: "Many nervous twigs pro­
ceeding from the trunk terminatc in the nervous and papillary sub.
stance." (Ibid.)
(d) Winslow states that the papillre act under the coyer of Il con­
tinuous membrane resembling the epidermis, and not under the coyer
of scales. "The upper surface of the tongue," says he, "is entirely
covered with a thick membrane or tunic of a papiUary texture, upon
which lies a fine epidermoid membrane, which is likewise continued
over the lower surface, but without papiUre" (n. 576). And Malpighi
says [respccting the conical papillreJ, that they "terminate in the direc­
tion of the cxternal membrane" (n. 577); anù [respecting the fungi­
form papiUreJ, that they "end in a little round head, that is placed in
a sort of cavity in the thin exterior membrane" (Ibid.) And accord­
ing to Bcister, the papillœ "terminate in the vaginulœ of the external
membrane" (n. 575).
 THE SENSK OF TASTE. 577

lutions or divisions escape without being explored by an appro­

priate sense, and manifesting their external qualities and acci­
dents. This again is the source of infinite varieties j in fact, of
varieties thrice multiplied into themselves, or tripled j and which
it is the more difficult to display by the sense alone, inasmuch
as we have not yet explored the proper powers of each sense,
and so many varieties are involved in every one of the senses,
that myriads of them produce but one common affection (e) :
and there is again a further source, if these varieties be impli­
cated with another sense equally luxuriant in varieties of its
own. Wherefore, not to set sail on a boundless ocean, it is
better not to venture far from port, but only to make a short
excursion into general, and perhaps only into most general,
predicates.
584. The papillœ of the third class, conicœ, pyramidales, or
villosœ, are the principal sensoriola of taste or savor (1). For
they are the most numerous of aU the papiUre, filling every
little hollow of the tongue, and covering its upper surface from
the top and both the edges j and moreover they are so minute,
that they fill the interstices between the l'est of the papillre (g) ;

(e) We may see this clearly by a little attention, while we are eat­
ing, or bathing the tangue with sapid liquids: for ail the papillre that
beset the surface of the tangue, are saluted by the circumfused liquids,
or the ground and extracted food; and not only the conical papillre,
but also the others, as the lenticulares and capitatre: and nevertheless
fI'am these infinite touches, in which there may be innumerable varie­
ties, nothing but one common savor arises: as though we should
commix the most diverse essences, distinct in taste, whether essential
juices, or wines, or service-berries, into one, and form a common pro­
dud From them ail.
(f) The reader may see it explained also in Part L, in the Chaptcr
on the Tangue, that the cOllical or pyramidal papillre are the proper
sensoriola of taste (p. 49-52, n. 43) ; and that figured parts are the
abjects of taste. (Ibid., p.52, n.43,ff.)
(g) "T4e papillre of the third kind," says Winslow, "or villosre,
are the smllllest and most llumerOllS, and occupy the whole of the uppcr
surface of the tangue, and even the interstices between thc other
papillœ. They woulù be more properly named papillre conicre, than
villosre, From thc figure which the)' appear ta have when examined in
VOL. II. PART III. CHAP. II. PP
578 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

they are extensile, contractile, elastic, susceptible of every va·

riety of state and form (lt); adapted for scrutinizing the least
points of tangible substances; the first-born offspring and
growth of their parent fibres (i); therefore exquisitely sensitive;
most numerous, fine, simple, and modifiable, and most likc
their parent fibres in nature and genius, on the apex and bor­
ders of the organ, at the points which the food first touches,
and where it is first received; and as they are smaller thau the
other papillce, so also they are more perfect; closely resembling
the papillce of touch that exist in the lips and other prominent
or receding parts of the circumference of the body; the only
difference lying in the simplicity, origin, place, aud perfection
of the papillce of taste, and in their being sundered from each
other, and not grouped together in buuclles, but each searching
its own particle by sense, and aIl bringing together modes
and as it were shares of sensation into one; and conveyillg the
cornmon modification and affection thence resulting, to the sen­
sorium, or to the organie prineiples of their fibres: hence the
difference is, as between parts that aet separately, and parts
that aet simultalleously in a continuous expanse: or as betwecn
the lights, colors, or images of one plane, that fall into our
sight distinctly and yet simultaneously; andlights, colors, or
images that represent themselves confusedly as one thing. The

clear water through a microscope" (n. 576). Respecting the saille

papillce, Malpighi says: "They [the nervous papillce of the second
kind] are surrounded by almost innumerable papilIre From the same
origin, ... but which are conical and more slender, and entering par­
ticular cavities in the mucous substance, at length terminate in the
direction of the external membrane" (n. 577). These latter, being
conical, exactly resemble the papillre of touch, which likewise rise
From a broad base: not so the other papilIre, which grow from a narrow
and small base, and expand iota a broad surface.
(1.) "They [the papillœ conicœ]," says Winslow, "are naturally
softish, but they bccome sa flaccid after death, that by handling them
they may be made short and thick, whereas they are naturally long and
small" (n. 576). And Boerhaave says: "Laurence Bellini has shewn
by careful experiments, that thcse papillœ are the organ which receives
the impressions of taste from sapid objects." (Part I., p. 30, n. 30.)
(i) Sce above, note (c).
 THE SENSE OF 'l'AS'l'E. 579

former create a joint modification of a delicious kind, fuU of

diverse harmonies and pleasant play; the latter, an unpleasant
modification, destitute of variety and satisfaction, and chaotic,
confused, and obscure. W"e see from the papillary organ of the
cutis, that the papiUœ that rise through the foramina of the
corpus reticulare, represent the unities of our touch; and that
by the mutual apposition of these unities, and their orderly as­
sociation, an organic forro is produced, which is the organ, or
as it is commonly caUed, the sensorium of touch. The scales
of the epidermis regulate and temper the sense (n. 549). From
which it appears, that touch is the most obtuse and indistinct
of aU the senses; and more obtuse and indistinct in proportion
as a larger number of papillœ is pressed, 01' affected, at the
same time (n. 550). In this respect, taste is discriminated touch,
and thercfore its papiUœ are furnished and covcred with an epi­
dermis that is not divided into scales, but continuous, and ga­
thers together the particulars and ratios of touches in harmoni­
ous concert. Therefore, what principally distinguishes taste from
touch, is, that the papillœ of taste are discriminated, but the
papillœ of touch collected; and thus the former bring out thei1'
sense separately, but the latter bring out tlzeirs conJ9intly,
585. But the papillœ lenticulares, as well as the papillœ fun­
gosœ, seem to possess a kind of intermediate or obscu1'e sense of
taste. For they likewise are organic offsets or growths pro­
duced from a fibrous stock, yet not fashioned for receiving aU
varieties, as sensoriola should be; inasmuch as they ~,re at the
same time designed fol' foretasting and sipping the first chylife­
rous, essences, and the salivas themselves. Thus they are com­
paratively fiat, and resemble snails' horns, or fungi; for they
stand on a slender stalk or peduncle, and swell out at the top
into a little head, so that they are not pyramidal, but almost
the reverse. Then again they are perforated with little holes in
the middle and round about, to enable them to admit the more
refined lymphs, and the innocuous extracts, into the bosom of
their cavities, and to propel them onwards t1n'ough little tubes
into the blood. Thus they are inaugurated at the same time
into another function besides the serisorial function (k), in their
(k) The papillre fungosre or capitatre of the tongue are the very
organic parts that take the first taste of the nutrient essences of the
pp 2
580 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

performance of which they do not attend, like little sensoria,

to single varieties j nDr every moment assume fitting changes
accordiug to the solicitation of contingencies, and the use that
must ever be present. But still we may conclude from their
fibrous structure, and fl'Om their surfaces being even put fo1'­
ward iuto contact with advancing objects, that they do enjoy
an intermediate or second-rate sense (l). Touch exists not only

food, imbibe them with their little mouths, and transmit them through
continuous ducts and channels immediately into the blood. The glan­
dulœ semilenticulares represent the same as the larger glanduh:c fun­
gosœ, only in a still more perfect manner. Rence these two sets of
organs do not belong properly to the sensation of taste, but to the
libatory and manducatory offices of the tongue; not excreting saliva,
as commonly supposed, but drinking the first extracts and occult
essences of the food, or the juices that it yields, and satisfying and
renovating the needy blood, and breaking its fast. This is abundantly
proved by a multitude of effects. (Part 1., p. 44, 45, n. 42.) The
papillœ fungosœ, according to Winslow, "resemble small conglomerate
glands, seated on a narrow basis, and a little hollowed in the middle of
their convex side.... These are glandular mammillœ or papillœ, or sali­
vary or mucilaginous glands .... The papillœ ... lenticulares are smaU
orbicùlar eminences, only a little convex.... When we examine them
with a microscope in a fresh tongue, we find their convex siùes full of
small holes or pores, like the end of the spout of a watering-pot"
(no 576).
(l) Sensibility is not to be denied to the papillœ fungosœ and len­
ticwares, simply because the papillœ conicœ are properly sensorial.
(Part 1., p. 49, 50, n. 43, aa.) For they tao, according to IIeister,
are" .capable of protrusion and retraction" (n. 575); and according to
Malpighi: "In substance and shape, these [papillœ fungosœJ resemble
the emissile and retractile cornua which are observed in snails ; they
stand on a long peduncle, which having risen through the mucous sub­
stance, ends in a little round head" (n. 577). But here it will be weIl
to annex a part of the ùisquisition by the last mentioned illustrious
author, respecting the sense of these papillœ. "Whether," says he,
"aU the three orders of ne l'VOUS papillœ mentioncd above, or only
sorne of them, contribute to the production of taste, ... is a question.
The large size of the papillœ of the first kind; their intimate and firm
connexion with, and their continuation from, the nerves, seem to iden­
tifY them principally with the office of tasting. Yet as they are few in
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 581

III the papillary cutis) but in every fibrous texture whatever

(n. 530). Fol' it is excited by contiguous objects that strain the
connexion of the parts, and especially of the fibres; or influ­
ence their position) order, and series, and thus change and in­
vert their states) properties, and functions (n. 529). If any

number, compared with the othel'S, and are not observed in aU the
parts in which taste is probably exercised, ... and in other parts are
disposed in such an order, that a very considerable space is left betwecn
them; and nevertheless, there seems to be a sense of tasting in these
little parts [or little spaces],-on these grounds there is sorne room to
doubt whether the passion of taste may not find convenient organs in
the other papillre also. Whether or not they perform other uses, is
equaUy doubtful. Angelus Fortius in the last century taught that the
finer pllrticles of the food ascend to the brain through the radicles of
the nerves, &c.... There is a celebrated observation of Cardanus, in
[the case of) Augustus Corbetta, to whom pepper gave the feeling of
pain, and not of taste, &c." (Exercit. Epi8tolic. de Linguâ, p. 18,
19; fol. Londini, 1686.) By the principles already laid down, we
may see how touch is excited instead of taste, according to the experi­
ence of Augustus Corbetta, as handed down from Cardanus, by Mal­
pighi; and indeed according to the proper experience of each individual.
For since taste is principaUy distinguished from touch by the circum­
stance, that the papillre of taste are discriminated, but the papillre
of touch coUected, and thus the former bring out their sense sepa­
rately, bnt the latter bring out their's conjointly (n, 584); it foUows,
thllt the papillre and glands of any one of the three kinds, when
affected simultaneously, present the sense of touch, and not of taste :
for touch is a cornmon or simultaneous affection, but taste is the mani­
fested idea of particulars, aU agreeing in harmonious variety. Hence
when mallY papillre of the tangue are affected simultancously, -for
instance, by sorne large object, the idea of touch arises, and not that
of tllste. This again is clearly perceptible from the pieces of the food,
which come under the sense of touch, before they com~ under that of
taste. When pepper is taken and l'oUed upon the tongue, it evidently
produces both senses, for whatever is dissolved into parts by the pro­
cess of extraction, faUs instantly under taste. vVherefore, according
to the proposition, touch admonishes the organs of taste and smell, of
the existence, quality, and quantity of that which is either taken in
openly, QI' glides in furtively, and which those organs are shortly about
to explore in a different manner by thcir senses (n. 570).
582 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

particle in the living fabrics of the body be destitute of the

sense of touch, it is also destitute of life (n. 567). From which
it follows, that these parts are excited by their sense, both to
undertake and go through their functions j which consist in
drinking the first extracts and occult essences of the food, and
satisfying the needy blood, and breaking its fast en. 42J ; for
parts, and series construeted of parts, are excited by the irrita­
tion of touch, both to undertake and go through their functions
(n. 573).
586. The cartilaginous bodies that are found in the tongues of
certain animals, elevate this common and cmnpound sense to a ve'ry
91'eat deg1·ee. These corpuscules are implanted in the same
basis and membrane as the other papillœj they also rise throngh
the foramina of the reticular tunic or mucous substance; they
likewise are concealed under the common cloak j are covered in
by a land of fine peridemis, or rather perichondrium, and cover
the papillœ in a kind of excavated hollow j and those contiguous
to the papillœ transfer the individual concerns of aIl into the
general. Thus making the sensations more evident, they con­
vert them into a species of finel' touch (m). To say nothing of
the other offices that they attend to at the same time. This
provision is c1esigned to meet the case of those animaIs that live
on ltcrbaceous food, and have to receive their conditions of lifc
from the external senses, and not like the human race, chiefly
fI'om the internaI senses (n).
587. Touch, or the sense arising from the impulse of bodies

(m) The reader will fincl a complete dcscription giycn by Malpighi

of tlicse little cartilagcs, n . .1 7Î ; from which description wc may obtain
confirmation of our propositions: for sense is greatly exalted wbcre the
fibres and membranes are connected to cartilaginous, horny, or osseous
parts, as demonstrated above, n. 530.
(n) This is also a reason, why the tongues of the more imperfect
animaIs, as fish, and insects, that live almost in sense alone, or in the
instinct of a nature produced or excited by the senses, are likewise fur­
nished witb cOl'l1icles and squamous cartilages of the kind. Snch for
instance is the case, according to Swammerdam, with the naked or
house-snail, the covered snail, and the cuttle-fish ; in which latter, "the
tongue," says tbat anthor, " ... consists ... of sevcn little cartilagin­
')I\S l'<IIH'S, • . • 1:lIld 1 ('\'(,1'," 011(' nI' t 11(' S('\"('11 . • • is )ll'oYil1<'d \Vith lIhoU'
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 583

endowed with gravity or vis inertiœ, is sa universal, that it pre-

vails everywhere in the body, bath in its circumference, and in
its innermost recesses; fol' if any pal'ticle in the living fabrics
of the body be destitute of the sense of touch, it is also dcsti-
tute of life (n. 567). Yet as it is sa luxuriant in variety that it
is nover alike in any two points, but plays most diversely, ac-
cording ta an the organic forms upon which those [gravitating]
corpuscules impingc; thel'efore, in arder that this sense, with
its sa ~nnumerable, not ta say infinite, varieties, may fall under
more distinct ideas of thc understanding, l will divide it into its
propel' classes, or into genera and species, and present its diver-
sities for contemplation under these.
588. There are three univel'sal species, or superior genera, of
the sense of touch, each of which has its aUotted regions and
provinces in the living body. The first genus, and the most
general, prevails aU over the circumfe'l'ence, and is properly caUed
touch: in other words, it prevails in the boundary intermediate
between the ambient world and the eorpol'eal world; or between
the great world, and the little world made in its image (n. 484).
For which reason this sense, placed in this station, has the pro-
vince or function of attending ta, and occupying itself with,
an the mutations that can possibly assail the body from the
world without; and of exploring and indicating them, by taking
upon itself in each case a corresponding mutation. These mu-
tations are the abjects of this sense: for the fibres arc put
togethel' and the form conceived with reference ta every kind of
variety and idea of use; as the papillal'Y form with reference ta
touch (n. 531). Its fil'st use is, ta perceive all the changes
occurring in the cil'cumambient world, and communicate them
ta us: and thus ta keep bath watch and ward; ta notice what-
ever happens, and by means of its organ placed on guard, ta
protect, at thc same time that it institutes communications
(n. 568, 569).
589. The second genus prevails in the innermost parts of the
body, beginning f?'om the tongue; namely, in the œsophagus, the
stomach, the intestines, and in fine in aU the m'[Jans of the infe-

sixty curved, dentiform, cartilaginous papillœ, somewhat resembling the

papillœ of the tongue of the (lx." (Part L, p. 29, 30, n. 2!l.)
584 TUE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

rior region, or viscera of the abdomen. This sense, on its jîrst

threshold, is called taste. It is a most remarkable circumstance,
that the hollow viscera in a continuous series, from the first
mouth of the lips down to the very end, are covered with the
same papillary down, or silky villosity as it is called, as the pI'o­
labia themselves, and as the tongue, which is prefixed to those
viscera, and sits in the rostrum or pulpit thereof. 1 am now
alluding to the œsophagus, the stomach, and the small and
large intestines: and not only is it the case with these viscera,
but also with the liver, in its glandular follicles, which a second
time digests, filters, and washes the portion of chyle received
from the above viscera; lastly, with even those viscera that
carry down the liquid excrements, 1 mean the ureters and the
bladder. And corpuscules of the same kind as affect the tongue
with touch or taste, above, in the threshold of the viscera, that
is to say, in the mouth, also go to affect these succeeding cavi.
ties with a similar sense. Again these cavities in like manner
direct and apply their little villous sensoria to those corpuscules
that have passed down to them; and by their vermiculaI' creep­
ing, as the tongue by its rolling and folding, they suffer no
part to pass them, without taking a complete account of it, and
explorillg it by continued touch. Nay, that they search the
little fragments offered to them, with some unlmown power of
feeling, is evident from various symptoms; for instance, from
sudden changes, recoveries of strength, longings, loathings,
unnatural appetites; from anxieties, windy gripings, heartburn,
nausea, head-aches, fainting, &c., arising from the presence in
the stomach of incongruous food; bitter, styptic, emetic, or
virulent drugs; and particularly of worms, such as ascarides,
trenire, &c., that twitch and gnaw the internaI coats of the above
viscera, and the tender villosity of those coats (0). From these
(0) These particulars belong properly to this place, and therefore 1
have transferrcd them hither vel'batim from a former paragraph (n. 526);
but as they were there corroborated in the notes by the experimental
evidenee supplied by our authors, 1 forbear to dwell upon them again,
lest 1 should do my task twice over. Meanwhile, the reader will find
the subject more fully canvassed in Part 1, on the organs of the infe­
rior region, or the viscera of the abdomen, in my analytic investigations
of the several organs.
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 585

and many other considerations it is evident, that this sense has

the office of taking cognizance of, and exploring, the whole of
what is taken by the mouth fO?' the purpose of serving as nut7'ition
to the body, and principally to the blood (p). An such materials
are objects of this sense. But since the papillary forms of these
viscera do not depend upon fibres originating in the cerebrum,
but upon fibres originating in the cerebellum, hence the touches
in them do not reach the consciousness of the general scnso­
rium, that is, of our innermost sensorium (n. 527).
590. The third genus of titis sense likewise prevails in the in­
nermost parts· of the body, but beginning from the nares; namely,
in the lm'Ynx, the trachea, the lungs, and theit· vesicles; conse­
quently in the organs of the superior region, or thorax. This
sense in its first entrance is called smell. This sense, in the pro­
vince thus appointed for it, diligently scarches out thosc figured
and inert, but nevertheless volatile parts, that are flitting about
in the atmospheres of the world, (not like taste, those that are
floating in water and other liquids,) and penetrate in abund­
ance into the secret reolian recesses of the lungs (q).
591. These-are the supm'ior genera of this sense, which speak­
ing generally, is named touch; but with respect to the middle
genus, whiclt is properly called taste, it is divided into as many
inferiO?' genera, or less universal species, as there are visce1'a of
the abdomen. Offices differ from each other proportionably as

(p) 1 think there is no occasion to establish this proposition by

further arguments, since 1 believe it was proved satisfactorily in Part 1.,
where 1 treated of the viscera of this region, that aIl these organs are
formed entirely for the sake of preparillg the blood, and nourishing the
body by means of the blood. Thus: the blood is the principle of aIl
things in the body. (Part 1., p. 236, n. 179, b.) The viscera of the
abdomen are entirely for the sake of the chyle, the blood, and the
serum. (Ibid, p. 267, 268, n. 201, c; p. 510-526, n. 326-334.)
The offices of those viscera, in general terms, are chylification, san­
guification, purification, and again chylification. (Ibid., p. 510, sc'1q.,
n. 326, 327, seq'1')
('1) Havillg made up my mind to treat of SmeIl in the very next
Chapter, 1 think it would be premature and superfluous to illustrate
this subject further at preseut.
586 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

objects; viscera or organs, as offices; and sensations, as organs;

for one thing determines another, and all things flow in series
according to use, which is the first and last line and rule: for
the sake of use, sense is placed on guard as an informant and
messenger, and keeps watch and ward everywhere. The objects
that excite this sense, are not the same in the tongue as in the
O3sophagus, the stomach, and the other cavities and masses;
for with respect to their objects, the tongue rolls and foretastes
the comparatively crude and still undigested matters; the o3so­
phagus merely sips hastily the materials carried along it; the
stomach exquisitely explores the slowly digested essences ex­
pressed by trituration, together with the other fluids and solu­
tions; the intestines are different again in these respects, and
reduce the ill-conditioned, but unexhausted food, and search it
by a sense analogous to our taste. The case is still otherwise
with the other members of this province: for by the objects we
know the character of the organ, because the two mutually cor­
respond to each other; for the organ represents a common form,
whereof the mutations are so many types fashioned exactly to
the impressing objects as their ideas [or ante-types] (n. 578).
For the fibres are put together and the form conceived with
reference to every kind of variety and idea of use (n. 531).
Moreover, the differences between the different species of this
sense are very conspicuously represented in the papiHre of each
viscus; for in one place we find large, in another comparatively
small papillre; in one place the papillre are tender and delicate,
in another hard; in one place thiuly scattered, in another place
set more thiekly (r). In these and aH other partieulars we see a

(r) "The fourth or inl1ermost coat [of the œsophagusJ," says

Winslow, "resembles that of the intestines, except that instcad of
villi it has very small and short papillre." (Part 1., p. 91, n. i6.) Re­
specting the duodenum the same author says: "the entire surface of
the valves [valvulre conniventesJ is villous, as well as that of the in­
terstices between them. The villous coat of this intestine is thicker
than that of the stomach; but its substance does not so much appear
to be "illous, as fungous and granular, composed of an immense num­
ber of fine papillre of different figures, in which the microscope dis­
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 587

condition and disposition of parts manifestly corresponding to

all the most minute details of uses. But the viscera themsclves
have their bonds and relationships, and form series of affinities
according to their functions. Thus the stomach and intestines
form the closest affinities with each other: the spleen, the pan­
creas, and the liver with the gall-bladder, with each other: the
cellular coat of the intestines, the mesentery, and the thoracic
duct with the conglobate glands, with each other; and so OIl(S).
By this we may comprehend something fl1rther respecting the
llatural partition of this sense into specifie diff'erences, supel'ior
and inferior.
592. These speeies m'e divided again into as many particular
diiferenees as tltere m'e unities in eaeh vise~tS. So that there are
as many specifie diiferences, as viscera j and as many partieular
difJe1'ences, as unities. This again is concluded, not only from

closes a multitude of depressed points and pores, by which their whole

surface is pierced." (Ibid., p. 145, n. Ill.) In the jejunum, again he
observes, that "the papillre of the villous coat are ... more raised and
wavy than in the duodenum; and each of them seems to be divided
into several others, in a pecuEar manner. They have been very accu­
rately delineated by Helvetius." (Ibid., p. 146, 147, n. 112.) In the
gall-bladder, "the internaI or fonr.th coat has on the inside a great
number of reticular folds, covered with small lacunre, Eke perfornted
papillre." (Ibid., p. 260, n. 195.) The case is otherwise in the sto­
mach, the liver, the ureters, and the bladder, respecting which see
above, n. 526 01).
(8) The viscera of the abdomen form one series, which is divided
and subdivided into many others; and they all respect the blood.
(Ibid., p. 312, n. 227.) A trine is necessary in order to concIude any­
thing; and therefore a triad of viseera presides over every function.
(Ibid., p. 315, 316, n.229.) How the viscera constitute certain series
with each other, and how each viscus again constitutes a series in its
own parts. (Ibid., p. 316, 317, n. 230.) How there is a series between
the stomach and the intestines. (Ib·id., p. 156-164. n. 124-126.)
How, between the spleen, the pancreas, and the liver with the gall­
bladder. (IMd., p. 317-322, n. 231, and the notes.) Between the
cellular tunic of the intestines, the mesentery, the thoracic. duct, and
the conglobate glands. (Ibid., p. 196-198, n. 149, 150; p. 222, n.
170.) Abo hetw('cn the ki<ll\rys, thr nrrtcrs, anrl thr hlallctrr, &r.
588 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

compound forms, but also from the forms of unities or parts

(n. 531). For the parts of the same organ are specifically dis­
tinguished from their companions .by differences and variety,
and at the same time are conjoined with them in fitting har­
mony (n. 536). The tongue itself is a clear instance and expo­
nent of these differences between the sensoriola or papillœ;
consequently between ·the minute particulars of the sense itself;
for its parts, papilliform, glandular, cartilaginous, and the l'est,
are constantly and everywhere various; in its extremes, or apex
and borders, they are more slender, thus more capable of pas­
sion and reaction, than in the middle, or in the base, where,
following the law of use, they decrease in fineness, number,
and mutual intercourse (t). So likewise in the stomach and in­
testines (u). For nature ever plays her game through continuaI
varieties. Hence it follows, that
593. F~'om the variety of the particular sensations of one vis­
eus, a eommon sensation arises; and from the variety of sensations
of many viscera, a still mO~'e common sensation arises. And from
all and each of these sensations conveyed by the fib~'es to the ce~'e­
bellum, the sout, by means of this sense, here apperceives specifi­
cally the states of chylification, sanguification, and purification;

(t) The papillre of the first kind are arranged in such a manner,
that the anterior ones form an angle. The papillre of the second kind
lie on the middle and antcrior parts of the tongue, in greater or lesser
numbers, and are sometimes most visible on its cdges (n. 576).
The larger papillre, or those of the first kind, according to Malpighi,
"are disposed in a square on the superior area of the tongue; about
its middle region . . . very few are observed: but there are sorne,
and those of considerable size, at the sides of the base ... About the
base of the tongue, instead of the cornua, the nervous papillre ...
[the papillre of the third kindJ project outwards, and changing their
form, ... successively become more obtuse, rounded, and depressed"
(n. 577). And again he says, speaking of the cartilaginous bodies,
"Near the sides of the tongue they become so small, as to be almost
obliterated ; and at the base their place is supplied by certain membran­
ous bodies, whereof the anterior resemble cones, but the posterior,
obtuse papillre." (Part J., p. 26, n. 28.) Respecting these varieties
in the tongue, see Ibid., p. 55, 56, n. 47.
(u) See above, note (").
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 589

in a ward, of nutrition (.1'); and according ta the perception, dis­

poses those viscera ta the conservation of the whole and the parts,
which is the effect and use that this sense produces. Since the
papillary forms of these viscera do not depend upon fibres pri­
ginating in the cerebrum, but upon fibres originating in the
cerebellum, hence the touches in them do BOt reach the percep­
tion of our general sensorium, which is laid in the cerebrum
(n. 527). According to the sensation and affection there arises
a disposition to the preservation of the part or the whole; or a
change of state in agreement with the affection; then an effect
embodying the use that the sensation produces (n. 552). This
sense has the office of taking cognizance of, and exploring, the
whole of what is taken by the mouth Îor the purpose of serving
as nutrition to the body, and principally to the blood (n. 589).
But at the first point where the tangue is affixed ta the os hyoides,
and is succeeded by the pharynx prefixed ta the œsophagus, this
sense in a manner flies away, and betakes itself ta another senso­
1'ium, that is laid in the cerebellum (n. 527).
594. From taste as eœi,sting in the tongue, and the idea thereof
perceived in our general sensorium, we may in some measure
comprehend how this sense is circumstanced within the viscera.
When we carefully examine the anatomy of the tunics of the
viscera, we find, as noticed above, that similar little papilliform
cones, analogous to villi, stand out upon the inside of them,
as upon the tongue ; and these are rubbed against by particles
of the edible class, similar to those that rub against the tongue
itself: and that the ton gue is abundantly furnished with sense,
we have good reaSOll to Imow from taste. But as saon as these
particles, which are gravitating figures and inert forces, escape
past the tongue, and are swallowed by the gorge of the pharynx,
(x) The TIscera of the abdomen are entirely for the sake of the
hlood. (Part L, p. 267, 268, n. 201.) Speaking generally, their
offices are chylification, sanguification, and purification; and they form
together the following circle and everlasting chain of uses; namcly,
that chylification must take place; that what is chylified, must undergo
sanguification; that what is sanguified, must undergo purification; and
that what is purified, must undergo chylification; and so on perpe­
tually. (Ibid., p. 269-274, n. 202; p. 510, 511, seqq., n. 326,
327, seqq.)
590 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

this sense is as it were drowned in an abyss, or flies away in

smoke, and no longer stamps its mark upon our sensorium.
Renee we are indueed to believe, that the sense has really eva­
porated into nothing j and this so eompletely, that thereupon
we seem to wish to extirpate it from the family of the senses,
and to reject it among empty shades: supposing that what we
toueh and apprehend by sense is the sole reality. But this
judgment pl'oceeds from the ignorance and real darkness in
whieh we are, respeeting thc principles of our sensations, par­
tieularly respccting the soul, and even rcspecting our rational
mind itself. It is surely plain and clear from the common suf­
frage of an experience, that there are more things that fall be­
yond and also above our sensitivc sphere, than fall within it.
Beyond it l'un all the forces and modifications that mount im­
mediately by the fibres to the cerebellum(y): above it, aIl thosc
that f1y up through the simpler fibres, which are the unities of
our sensorium: and within it, those only that are formed of
myriads of forces and modes gathered together, and that rise
to the cerebrum. But bcfore l can loosen this knot, and open
up a knowledge of the soul, and of our common and innermost
scnsorium, l will in the meuntime complete this matter, whieh
is the object of our present investigation, by certain positions,
whieh the reader may still regard as doubtful if he pleases.
Suppose then that there is a sou!, that explores those thillgS
that do not reach our general sensorium (n. 565, 566). Suppose
that this soul, as being most minute, pereeives even proximately

(y) It \Vas explained above, n. 52ï, that ail the variations of

modes that rise ta the cerebellum, are stolen quite away from our com­
mon sensation. This is what we mean by falling beyond the sphere of
our sensations, because beyond the cerebrum, where our sensorium is
laid (n. 528). And we sa term it also on this account, that not only
the simpler modes, which are sa subtle, that thcy may be said to be
lifted aboyc that sphere, or cIse to be hidden within it, but also the
compound modes that arc carried up to the cerebellum fi-om our vis­
ccra, lie concealed from and escape our common sensation. The fibre
of the cerebrum occupics the very ultimate boundaries, or the muscular
and scnsorial circurnference of our kingdom: but the fibre of the cere­
bellum has for its lot the whole interior field circumscribed by these
boundaries, where the viscera of the thorax and abdomen live (n. 527).
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 591
the very essences of objects (n. 564). Suppose, therefore, that
it has a full sense, internaI to itself, of the agreement of those
objects with the state of the body (n. 572). Suppose still fur­
ther that it is the soul's chiefest end and love, to hold in society
and connexion with itself, entire and together, aU and singular
things that are rightly coéirdinatec1 and subordinated in the sys­
tem of the body: consequently that aIl those things that favor
that conjunction and love, represent themselves to the soul by
a specics of delight; and all others, that infringe the connexion
and disturb the order, are undelightful to the soul, and it re­
gards them with aversion and dread. From these positions it
foUows, that this sense affects the soul altogetlter differently ta the
manner in which it affects the principles of our geneml sensorium :
those things which are delightjul to us sometimes affecting the soul
unpleasantly; and those which are unpleasant to us aJfecting the
soul with delight ; for aU things taste according to knowledge and
affection resulting tlterefrom. The senses do not indicate to us
the essence, form, and nature, that objects have inwardly, but
only that they have outwardly j consequently only their figure
or cxternal form (n. 559). From these considerations, l think
we in a measure comprehend how this sense is circumstanced
within the viscera; and still more dearly when we know, that
the soul judges of pleasure from utility, but our sensorium, in
the inverse way, or of utility from pleasure.
595. Moreover in the tangue itseif tltere are few things tltat
faU under our perception or sensation; or within the sphere of
our sensation j which few things consist only of the general
mutations existing simultaneously in the whole crowd of papillre,
both those of the first, second, and third kinds; for aIl these,
when excited by touch, exhibit but one simultaneous idea, he­
cause one confused harmony, or ratber agreeable or disagreeable
discordance. The varieties answering to the diversity of touches
in the several papillre, multiplied in eacb genus of papiUre
(n. 583), introduce such infinitc things into one sense, that no
quantity can measure that sense, and no number comprehend
it. And furthermore, not only do fibres from thc sensorium of
the cerebrum insinuate themsclves into the papillœ of this sense,
but also fibres sent forth from the cerebellum, the latter of
which draw this sense away from our perception, and carry it
592 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

quite in another path. There are in fact three pairs of nerves

that go to the tongue and construct it, and are dedicated to its
three functions. The fibres of these nerves are so connected
and complicated, that in each funetion of the tongue they
maintain something common with those fibres to which such
funetion is peculiar and proper* (z). Such is the ground
of our ignorance respecting the distinct functions of the tongue,
or respecting the offices of its papillre, l'especting the organism
and seat of taste, the functions of the glands, whether they
sip the essences that escape from the solutions of the food, or
whether they pour forth saliva, and whether at the same time
they exercise a preliminary taste: and respecting other ques­
tions, that arise simply from the obscurity of our sense, devoid
of which we feel our way like the bliud, and guess out uses by
anatoroical inspections of the viscera. The case would be alto­

(z) For there are nerves both from the fifth pair, and from the
cighth and ninth pairs, that enter the tongue; some of which, with
their fibres, principally construct the muscles, some the glands, and
sorne the papillœ; yet still they seern· to be so complicated together,
and so mutually intertwined, as everywhere to stand in a social rela­
tionship to each other. "'Ve observe foUi' nervous fasciculi or cords,"
says Winslow, "going distinctly to the base of the tongue, and continu­
ing their course to the apex. Two of these are branches ... of the third
branch of the fifth pair.... The other two are branches of the ninth
pair. The lesser portion or first branch of the eighth pair, sends like­
wise a nerve to each side of the tongue. The great lingual nerve ... is
distributed to the muscular fibres all the way to the apex of the tongue;
eomrnunicating by several filaments with the ... branch of the fifth
pair, and with the nerve from the eighth pair," &c. (n. 57G). The
eighth pair of nerves, or the par vagllm, arises from the rnedulla cere­
belli (n. 527, c, d). The tongue has three common offices, to undcrgo
motion, to take a preliminary sip of the essences of the food, and to
explore those essences by sense; and ils proper offices are derived from
these. (Part 1., p. 35-37, n. 34; p. 37, 38, n. 35; p. 42-44,
n. 41, &c.)

* The meaning appears to be, that each organ of the tongue, motorial, libato­
rial, and sensorial, besides having its own function in a particular manner, involves
the two other functions also in a general manner.-(Tr.)
 THE SENSE OF TASTE. 593

gether different dic1 not the greatest part of this sensation slip
away from us (a).
596. The essential and innermost [impressions] of titis sense
report themselves distinctly to the soul alone: just as in the sense
of touch, in which it was observed, that the mutations that
exist within each papilla give the real essence and life that there
is in this sense (n. 564). Which mutations are most distinctly
presented to the soul, which alone gives the power to feel; and
this, according to the organic form in which the soul has disposed
and combined the fibres and papillre (n. 565). The essential or
innermost [impressions] of sense are those that transcend, or
rise abovc the sphere of our sensorium, or what amounts to the
same thing, hide tbemselves deeply within it: as, for instance,
in the tongue, those that conceive and generate the sense as it
were from its seed j which sense, after it has developed itself
into a large organic body, is then for the first time perceived by
the sensoria of the body, and being palpable, is acknowledged
to be something. Thus the tongue, like the other sensorial organs,
is governed by two rulers; to wit, by our understanding according
to the will, and by our soul. (n. 565, ad fin.)

(a) "No less disagreement is there among anatomists," says Mal­

pighi, "respecting the precise seat of taste. The generality of writers
have believed it ta be the office of the parenchyma of the tongue ;
others have thought that it is seated in the nervous offsets; others, in
the extended and surrounding membrane; and the last opinion given to
the world is, that the tonsils, which are placed at the root of the
tongue, should be considered as the principal gustatory organ. l need
not notice the lengthy controversics respecting the division of the
tongue, ... and its uses; further than to remark, that amid so great
a finctuation of opinion, l shaH regard my labor as not altogether in
vain, if l can establish firmly any point, he it ever so smaH." (Excl'cit.
Epistolic. de Lingul1, p. 13; fol. Londini, 1686.)

THE END.

VOL. II. PART ru. CHAP. II. QQ

 INDEX OF AUTIIüllS.

III this Index, tlu: nnlnilll nUJnC'rah inrticatc the vnlllU}('. \\Fhere Swc41cnb(lq~, aftC'f cxtr'lct.
illg:l 1':t;olS,IK(~ (ro/ll ail otlilhor, :.;ub5t:(llIcntly :ld<luc'~!1 porlilills of it, a:'l fi ~~J1('l'al J nle Illl: odginal
pa::s~~c ollly is rcf(:rr('cl ro.

---~---

llagr:. l'tt;'C.
Adolphus II. 426 Bohn 254, 255. 263
Alberti, Mich. . , .. 154 Dorelli 233
Albinus . .. .. H3, 154 Doyle ...•................ II. 186
Albreeht, .1. Pet. 154 Brown II., 9,3'1
Arantius ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 13rowne 69, n, 461
Aristotle . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329 Brunn 140, 147, 154, 155, 159,
Aselli .........•........ 186, 187 174, li5, 196.
Daglivi 494 Dncoldianus II., -12 i
Dartholill, Caspar , :-1%. II., 188 Camerarius II., 188, 426
llartholin, Thonlas G3, 69, 211, Cant 69, 86, 8l), n, 03, 210.
306,370, 3%,426,461. II., 217 II., 4.
13artholin, Caspar, Son of Thomas .... Canlanus II., ;,81
II., 215, ·128. Casserius II., 45
llauhiu , 155, 25·1, 3% Celsus 86. II., ·1, 121
Bellinger , II., 267 Charleton 211
Dellini. 30, 92, 233,416,425, 442 Cheselden 69, 1 n, 2:1'1, 461.
Déncclictus II. 427 II., 538.
Bianchi. 155, 25·1, 255, 458,461, Cicero .........•....•......... 86
·179. Citesius , , .. IL, 427
Bible, The ..... 451. II., 140, 142, Cole , ,........ 92, 2,,5
365. Collius , '19
Biclloo .... 31, 32, 36, 92, 210, 254, Cornelius II., lOI
264, 265, 282, 298, 309, 336. II., Cosehwitz 18, 19, 426, H7
9,34,162,171,447. Cowper 31, 60, 62, G9, i3 89, 92,
Doerhaave.... 30, 31,69,92,99, 125, 155, 191,210,217,221,233,461.
130,154,159,191,220,230-233, II., 3, 4, 9, 3'1, -15, 122.
263, 281, 29,1, :l05, 308, 309, 336, Doebelius .. . . .. .. .. .. 11., 188, 428
349, 350, 355, 3l.il, 370, 375, 390, Donatuii ..... ,...... 11., 188, 426
3%, 426, ·133, 4,,5, 461. IL, 8, ])ulI151a, ., .. 8!), H2, 155. II., 5".
36,38. 45, (l4, n, 144,175,179, Drake 6!), 87, ln, 210, 461.
247,379,380,433,435,466. II., 0,
596 INDEX OF AUTHORS.

Page. Page.
Dre1incourt 336
Hoffman, J. Maur 255, 309

Duvernay IL, 376

Hoffman, Maur. . . . . . . . . .. 306

Duverney, G. J 468
Hoffmann, Caspar 336

Duvernoy 18
Hooke 262, 466

Erisistratus 187, 329

Horne 309

Eustachius 31, 69, 73, 75, 86, 92,

Horstius II., 427, 428

97, 98, 154, 167, 173, 183, 184.

Joliff 211

185, 191, 195, 201,203,208,210,

Jonston .. . . . . . . . . . . .. II., 188, 426

212, 264, 309, 370,392,396, 413,

Jussieu 38

425, 435, 442,4-16,453,461,471.

Kerkring 140, 155

II., 3,8,34,45,54, 55, 117, 124,

Lancisi. 81, 263,266,461. IL, 8,

215,248,278,311,312,410.
45, 70, 74, 122, 220, 221, 224,

]<'abl'icius ah Aquapendente ..... , 370

248,251,279,305, '121, 424, 425.

Fabricius, Hildanus ......•• II., 427

Langius , , IL, 427

Fallopius . . . . . . • • . • . • . • . • .• 62, 483

Leal 233

Fantoni 88, 93, II., 400

Leclerc 88

Fortius ....•......•.......... 40
Leeuwenhoek 56,99, 103, ll5, 150,

Fracassatus . . . . . . . . • . .. .. II., 565

151, 196, ,137. II., 373, 377­

Galen .. 62, 187, 329. II., 122, 126

379, 466, 547.

Glisson .... 118, 119, 211, 253, 254,

Lentulus IL, 427

263, 336, 370.

Lister ........•............. 329

Graaf 233,309,461
Littre 263, 425, 441. 11., 40

Gregorius , II., 427

Locke II., 537

Grew ........•.......... , .... 154

Majolus IL, 188, 426

Hartmar,n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 119
Malpighi 26-29, 31, 35, 40, 58,

Harvey .............•........ 261

110, 189, 191, 192, 212, 227-230,

Havers .....................• 329

247,254,261,262,263,331,332­

Heister .... 17-21, 31,47,48,50,59

336,342, 346,347,364,367-369,

-64,69, 82, 86-89, 93, 109, 110,

395,396,415,420-425. IL, 121,

137, 140-lH, 154, 155, 163, 166,

125, 128-132,136,143,162,171,

179, 186-188, 191, 198, 210,211,

179,190,191,194,218-220,373,

233, 234, 253-256, 260, 264, 289,

374, 389, 399, 414,418,419,437,

306,307,318,328, 329,363-365,
447,466,564-566,580,581, 593.

392, 393, 415,416,425,457,458,

Mangetus .... 31, 92, 155, 174, 191,

481, 482. IL, 1-4, 29, 39-41,

298, 309, 356, 387, 425, 426, 439,

87, 88, 121-12·1,212-214, 217,

453, 461, 499. Il., 9, 208.

266, 267, 294, 295, 372-374, 393,

Mayer II., 213, 266

399, 420, 562, 563.

Mayow ...•...•......•... II., 503

Heister, the French Commcntator upon:

Mery .........•......... , 154, 204

see Senac.
Molyneux II., 537

Helvetius .... 63, 110, 143, 147, 154.

Morgagni. 19, 21, 31, 63, 86, 88,

II., 125, 128.

93, llO, 147, 154, 155, 182, 204,

Henllinger 210
209, 210, 254, 309, 350, 364, 396,

Hessus •..••...••.•...... II., 427

426, 457, 460, 461. IL, 2,3,4,

Highmore 61. IL, 9

5,8,43,44,15, 501,56,57,67,77,

Hippocrates 247, 329, 387, 409

78, 80, 91, 92, 106, ll5, 122, 128,

lEst. de l'Acad. Roy. des Sdences 304

132, 133, H6, 248, 272, 311, 376,

418.
 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 597
Page. Page.
Munnicks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
Schenck (John) ...... IL, 188, 426

Muralto .. .. .. .. .. IL, 266

Schenck (J. Theodore) ..•..• 370, 387

Musgrave 192
Schelhammer .•.... 92, 191, 25·1, 329,

Needham 204. IL, 136

336, 345.

Nicolai .......•••...••...••••.. 87
Schneider ......•••...•..... II., 2

Nuck .... 64, 69, 191, 212, 220, 222,

Schurig .. 119-121,153,154. 11.,426

224-227, 233, 234, 263, 290, 293,

Senac .... IL, 304, 305, 309, 312, 314,

426,450,453,481,485.
321.

Ortloh .......••............. 255

Sennertus Il., 188, 426, 428

Palfin 69. IL, 9

Sievogt IL, 29

Pascal . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. IL, 141

Smith .....••...•.•....... IL, 538

Pascoli II., 400

Spigelius •..•....•.... •.•• 22, 253

Paul II., 40
Steno .... 60, 62, 63, 67, 69, 92, 233.

Pechlin 174
IL, 2,9, 123,374,418,420.

Pecquet 210. II., 284

Swammerdam .... 29, 30, 68, 69, 91,

Peyer 144,147,155,159,166,174,
92, 115-118, 151-153, 155, 157,

196, 233.
174, 176, 184, 194,262,263,369,

Plancus ....••...•.....•....•• 254

370,514,515, 516,517,518,519,

Plato ...•....••••....••..•... 8, 9
520, 521, 522, 523, 524. IL, 133

Plempius II., 503 "

-137, 152, 175, 313, 380, 381.

Pliny ....•...••...•.•..•• II., 372

Swedberg Il., 428

Purcell . . . . .. . . .. . • .. .. .. .... 329

Swedenborg (Economy of t!te Animal

Quercetnnus ..•... IL, 188, 426, 427

Kingdom) .. .. 34, 37, 43, 95, 133,

Ray 191
156, 159, 205, 214, 215, 216, 218,

Redi .........•...............• 88
286,303,374. 11., 207, 248,251,

Rcies II., 188, 426

263, 313, 335, 336, 349, 352, 355,

Reverhorst ..••........ 263, 265, 293

361, 371, 414,417,419,421,425,

Ridley II., 16
429, 430, 454, 456, 458, 463, 466,

Riolan 38, 142, 155, 396

469, 475,476,477,478,490,491,

Rivinus 63, 364

493, 494, 495, 49~, 509, 514, 515,

Rudbeck 210,211. IL, 284

516,517,518,519, 550, 554.

Ruysch ..•• 31, 69, 87, 92, 110, 114,

Sylvius ....••.•.. 233. Il., 40, 175

115, 125, 131, 136, 137, 143, 154,

Terraneus 461, 472

155, 158, 159,175,191,201,203,

Thebesius Il., 217

211, 231, 233, 243,249,263,264,

Valsalva 88, 89,93, 392. Il., 4,

280, 281, 298, 309, 313, 329, 336,

47.

345, 347, 351, 356,370,381,390,

Vatel' 19, 21

415, 425, 426, 427, 439, 441, 445,

Verheyen 31, 36, 69, 75, 87, 88,

453, 461, 472. Il., 8, 9, 22, 122,

92, 93, 155, 179, 192, 195, 197,

175, 189, 199, 200,201,208,373,

200, 203, 216, 217, 220, 222, 255,

374, 389, 393, 400,412,418,447,

263, 265, 298, 309,314,319,323,

466, 508.
336, 370,396,426,461,48·1,485.

Salzmann ....••••••....•..... 210

Il., 8, 9, 13, 24,45,56, 57,61,75,

Sanctorius Il., 379

77,78,79,81,83, 104, 105, 123,

Santorinus •••• 64, 69, 75, 89, 92, 110,

146, 162, 170, 171, 179, 201, 228,

125, 154, 155. IL, 3, 9, 34, 40,

240, 267, 268, 271. 272, 283, 284,

45, 295, 393.

418, 421, 503.

508 DIDEX 01' AUTHOllS.

}Jal;(é.
P"I(C.
Vcrcdloni " 87, 93
Winslow .... 21-25, 3A, 45, 4G, 47,

Vesalius 20, 35, 69, A6, 8A, 309,

48, 51, 64-GA, 69, 73,86,89-91,

336, 370, 3A7.

92, 104, 110-114, 141-150, 188

Veslingius ...•.••........•... 396

-191,200, 204, 211,212, 256­
Vestus .........•......•....... 254
2GI, 307, 318,319, 329-332,3·13,
Vieussens .... 104, 127,200,466. lI.,
344, 351, 363, 365-367, 370, 386,

9, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21,22,

393-395, 4lG-420, 458-460,

29, 108, 1-14, H5, 228, 248, 311,

482-484. II., 5-8, 18, 19,24,

312.
32,41-14, 45, 54, 55, 59,8·1, 85,

Walther ....••.................. 64
88-91, 10A, 214-216, 217, 218,

Vleùdius 211, 218

246,247,248, 267, 295-299,374
Wcpfer , 182, 229, 304
-377,408,415,437,462,463,563,
Wier II., 427
564.

Wharton 17,63,69,192,233,309,
Wil'sungus .....•....••.•..• " 306

396.
Wiuln 210

Willis .... 92, 101, 104,107,125,127,

Wolffius II., ,127

155, 159, 200, 46G. II., 1G, 26,

Zambeccari ..••••.......•....•. 182

1oIG, 1G2, 171.

Zeller 457

 JnBLIOGRAPIIICAL NOTICES
RF.SPECTING CERTAIN AUTROnS CITF.U IN THlê

ANBUL KINGDOM.

THE following notices comprise those authors only l'rom whos~ works Swedenborg
has cited passages, or to whose plates he has made dctailed reference. Many of the
names in the preeeding Index are sim ply mentioned by him, 01' else oeeln' in the
passages that he quotes l'rom oLher authors; and therel'ore it has app<:ared unneeessary
to dwell upon them here. In general, only those partieulars arc given that connect
the authors with the "Animal Kingdolll;" none of their works being notiecd but
those to whieh Swedenborg refers, nor their diseoveries dwelt upon unless they
illustrate his doctrines.
These notices are principally drawn l'rom the following works :
Haller's "Bibli;ltheca Anatomica," 2 vols. 4to., Zurich, 1774-1777.
Eloy's "Dictionnaire Historique de la Médecine ancienne et moderne," 4 vols.
Ho., Mons., 1778.
Th(, " Biographie Unh'ersclle," :>2 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1811-182H.
Chambers' "Biogrsl'hical Dietionary," 32 vols. 8vo., London, IRl2-1HI7.
Aikin's " General Biography," 10 vols. Ho., London, 17!l!l-1815.
The" Penn)' Cycl0plCdia of the Society for the diffusion of Useful Knowledgc, "
27 \'015., London, 1833-1843.
For the most part these notices lay claim to no greatcr aecuracy than is guarantced
by the above ~ources.

BARTHOLIN or BAltTflOLI:'<E, THOM,'S, a Danish l'hysieiun and allutomist, born

at Copenhagen in 1r.IG, <lird at the same place in 1680. 1. Thomas Bar.
tholin publishrd the "Institlltioncs Anatomie::e" of his father, Caspar Bartholin,
unùer the title, "Anatomia ex Caspari Bartholini parentis Institutionibns, omni­
lImque reeentiornm ct p"opriis observationibus IOelll'lctata;" !ho., Ley,\(>n, lCi'11 ;
and the work was trl1nslatcd into ,'arious languages. It up)l'~a ..e(1 a sc!:o.."l timc
with ad,litions, S'o., 1,(\ytlol(, lCi-I:>. A Lhi ..,1 lime, \l'ilh l'nrther (H!,liLioHs, Svo.,
1,eyùen, lCi"l; 8vo., the lIugu,", IG5", IGGO, IGG3, IGGG; !ho., Ley<1('n ;l1l11
GOO DIBI,IOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Rotterdam. 1669. This third cdition of Bartholin was translated into English,
folio, London, 1668. The work appeared a fourth time, with the new anatomica!
discoveries of Steno, Swammerdam, Regner de Gr:laf, and Ruysch, 81'0., Leyden,
1673; 8\,0., Ibid., 1686; 8vo., Lyons, 1677; 8vo., Ibid., 1684. It was the
common t~xt.book in the schools until the publication of Verheyen's Anatomy in
1693. II. T. Bartholin's " Acta Medica et philosophica Hafniensia," a work con­
taining many contributions from his pupils and others, and sorne papers of his
own, was published in 5 volumes, 4to., Copenhagen, 1671-1680.
BIDLOO, GODFll.EY, a Dutch anatomist, born nt Amsterdam in 1649, died
at Leyden in 1713. He published 105 folio plates, representing the anatomy of dif­
ferent parts of the body, which were admirable as works of art, having been
engraved by G. de Lairesse, but deficient in point of accuracy. (" Anatomia Cor­
poris humani ccntum et quinque tabulis pel' artificiosissimum G. de Lail'esse ad
vivum delineatis dcmonstrata, &c., Amstelodami, 1685, in fol. maximo regali.")
This work was republished with sorne additions by Cowper. (See Cowper.)
BOERHAAVE, HERMANN, the most celebrated physician of his age, born in
1668, at Voorhout, near Leyden, in Holland, died at Leyden in 1737. He was
the author of numerous works of high reputation on medicine and the collateral
sciences. His" Institutiones Mediere in usus annuœ exercitationis domesticos di­
gestœ," was published in 8vo., Leyden, 1708, 1713,1720,1727,1734, and 1746.
The edition of 1708 was a very small work, but the followillg editions were gradually
enlarged, until that of 1727, aftcr which nothing was added. This work has been
reprinted frequently in different countries, and translated into various languages,
having been a text.book in the medical schools of Europe for many years. It is
doubtful what edition was made use of by Swedenborg. Haller, who was a pupi! of
Boerhaave, published his lectures under the title, "Prœlectiones in Institutiones Rei
Medicœ," 7 vols. 8vo., Gottingen, 1739-1744; and the work, together with the
"Institutiones," was translated into English, (but without mentioning Haller's
name,) as "Dr. Boerhaave's Academical Lectures on the Theory of Physic," 6 vols.
8vo., London, 1742; and ed. 2, 1751. Besides this there are two English trans·
lations of Boerhaave's "Institutiones;" one by Dr. Browne; the other, rather a
paraphrase than a translation, by Dr. John Crawford, entitled, "Cursus Mellicinre ;
or a Complete Theory of Physic, &co Done principally from those learned institu.
tions of the learned H. Boerhaave," &c., 81'0., London, 1724. These versions give
no idea of Boerhaave's terse and comprehensive style. His fame is founded
upon his "Institutiones Mediere" and "Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis
morbis." Perhaps no book of equal size in the literature of medicine involves more
thought nnd. learning than the former of these works. The first portion of it con·
tains an eelectic system of physiology, mechanical, chemical, and humoral. Boer­
haave contends for the existence of the animal spirits, elaborated in the cortex
cerebri, and adduces many rational grounds for his belief. (Inst. Med. n. 274­
285.) It is said that Swedenborg attended his instructions, at the same time as
Monr.:> , the reputed discoverer of the foramen of Monro; but this is uncertain. It
is, however, c1ear that Swedenborg was a diligent student of Boerhaave's works,
and his style in many parts of the" Regnum Animale" cannot fail to remind the
reader of the rapid manner and full sentences of Boerhaave: see a~ examples Swe­
denborg's descriptions of the spleen, the cutic1e, and the cutis. To Boerhaave the
world is greatly indebted for the preservation of Swammerdam's posthumous works.
(See Swammerdam.) Haller tel'ms him "the common preceptor of Europe at the
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 601
beginning of the eighteenth century;" and says of him as a physiologist, that" he
was wont to recognize many causes contrihuting to every function, and not, as
sectaries do, to l'est in some single cause, to the suppression of ail the l'est."
BRUNN or BRUN'NER, J. CONRAD A, a Swiss physician, born at Diessen­
hofen in 1653, died at Manheim in 1727. His work entitled, "Glandulle Dnodeni,
seu Pancreas secundarium detectu~, accedit Dissertatio de Glandulâ Pituitariâ,"
was published in 4to., Frankfort and Heidelberg, 1715. There are two editions-an­
terior to this, one of 1687, the other of 1688, but under the title, .. De Glandulis
in Duodeno intestino detectis." Brunn, like Swedenborg, holds that the pituitary
is a conglobate gland, and the percolator of the Iymphs of the brain.
CHESELDEN, WILLIAM, an English surgeon and anatomist, born at Somerby
in Leicestershire, in 1688, died in 1752. 1. "Treatise on the high operation for the
Stone," 8vo., London, 1723. II. "The Anatomy of the Humane Body," 8vo.,
London, 1713, 1722, 1726, 1730, 1741, 1750,1752,1778. This is an excellent
anatomical treatise.
COWPER, WILLIAM, an English surgeon and anaOOmist, died in London in
1710. 1. His "Myotomia Reformata, or a new administration of ail the muscles
of the human body," was published in 8vo., London, 1694; and a second edition,
more correct than the first, by Dr. R. Mead, folio, London, 1724. II." The
AnaOOmy of Human Bodies," folio, Oxford, 1697; folio, London, 1698; edited
by C. B. Albinus, fol. max., Leyden, 1737; folio, Utrecht, 1750. This work con·
tains the 105 plates of Bidloo, with certain alterations in his explanaOOry text, and
40 figures in nine plates proper 00 Cowper. The latter made no sufficient acknow.
ledgment of his debt to Bidloo, who therefore accused him of plagiarism, before
the Royal Society; a charge which he met by a lame defence in a malicious pamphlet
called "Eucharistia."
EUSTACHIUS, BARTHOLOMAlUS, a celebrated Italian anatomist, born in the
early part of the sixteenth century at San Severino, in the Marquisate of Ancona,
died at Rome in 1570, or 1574. 1. Eustachius published only a few short treatises,
which are nearly ail collected in his " Opuscula Anatomica: nempe de renum struc­
turâ, officio et administratione; de organis auditus; ossium examen; de motu
capitis; de Venâ qUle a?lI'Yo, Grœcis dicitur, et de aliâ quœ in flexu brachü com·
munem profundam producit; de dentibus." This work was published in 400.,
Venice, 1563, 1564; with the notes of Pinus, ibid., 1574; again ir, 1653; by
Boerhaave, 8vo., Leyden, 1707; 8vo., Delft, 1726. lt was one of the first works
of the kind, founded upon repeated dissections, and upon the comparison of dif­
ferent subjects; and is of authority even in the present day. II. EustachiuS'"
devoted many years to a great work, "De AnaOOmicorum Controversüs," which,
however, he never published, and the manuscript is lost: but thirty.nine coppel'
plates, engraved as early as 1552, and intended to illustrate the text of this work,
were found at Urbino in 1712, and given to the world two yeaI'8 afterwards by
Lancisi, with the aid of Morgagni and other distinguished anatomists. C" Eustachü
Tabulœ AnatomiCle, quas e tenebris tandem vindicatas, prœfatione notisque illus.
trnvit Joannes Maria Lancisi," folio, Rome, 1714.) Several editions of this
wOl'k have appeared with voluminous commentaries; by Manget, at the end of
his "Theatrum Anatomicum," folio, Geneva, 1717; folio, Amsterdam, 1722;
folio, Rome, 1728, an excellent edition; by Gaston Petrioli, folio, Rome, 1740;
by B. S. Albinus, folio, Leyden, 1744 and 1762. This work contains the thirty­
VOL. II. R R
602 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

nine plates which had been discovered, and eight others that were alreaùy known.
The best editions are those of Albinus. Swedenborg useù that of Manget, which
is not a good edition. It comprises the forty-se\'en plates in tlVenty-one, and in
other respects is a reprint of Lancisi's edition. Haller ùescribes Eustachius as a
man of keen powers, with a natural aptituùe for discovery, and for ùelicate and
difficult anatomical investigations, who embraced in his labors a larger field, and
made more discoveries, and corrections of previous errors, than any other llnatomist.
FANTONI or FANTONUS, JOAN NES, born at Turin in 1675, died in 1758.
1. "Dissertationes Anatomicre XL," 8vo., Turin, 1701. II.'' Anatomia cor­
l'oris humaui ad usum Theatri Meùici accommoùata," 4to., ibiù., 1711. This
edition, which is, in fact, a part of the precediug work, relates to the anatomy of
the abdomen anù thorax only. III." Dissertationes Anatomicre septem priores
renovatre, ùe Abdomine," 8vo., ibid., 1745.
GLiSSON, FRANCIS, an English physician, born at Rampisham in Dorsetshire
in 1597, died at London in 1677. 1. His" Anatomia Hepatis" was publisheù in
8vo., London, 1634; 12mo., Amsterùam, 1659 and 1665; 12mo., the Hague,
1681. The last-named edition is saiù to be the best. II. His" Tractatus ùe Ven­
trieulo et Intestinis," was publisheù in Ho., Lonùon, 1676; 12mo., Amsterùam,
1677. Both the preceding works are given in Manget's" Bibliotheca Anatomica."
Glisson's works were eollected anù publisheù at Leyùen in 3 vols. 12mo., in 1691
and 1711. (" Opera Omnia Medico-Anatomica.") Boerhaave describes Glisson as
"the most exact of anatomists." Accorùing to Haller, he was the first who inves­
tigated the nature of fibre, and who contraùistinguished irritability from sensibility ;
yet his doctrine in this respect must have been unlike the moùern one, for with him
"irritabilitas supponit perceptionem," anù "naturalis perceptio fibris insit."
(Tl'. de Venlo, tr. ii., cap. vii.) Respecting the animal spirits, he says: "Dari
spiritus animales haud gravatim concessero. Omnes l'l'ope Medici omnesque philo­
sophi uno quasi ore iùem testantur." (Ibid., cap. viii.)
GUAAF, REGNER DE, a Dutch physician, born at Schoonhove in 1641, died at
Delft in 1673. 1. His treatise, "De Succo Pancreatico," or "Disputatio Medica
de Naturâ et usu Succi Pancreatici," was publisheù in 12mo., Leyden, 1664; and
again with additions, 8vo., 1671 and J 674; and t"anslated into French, 12mo.,
Paris, 1666. II." De Virorum organis generationi inservientibus, &c.," 8vo.,
Leyden and Rotterdam, 1668, 1670, 1672. De Graaf introduced the anatomical
syringe and made use of .liquid injections. His works were collected aCter his death.
(" Opera Omnia," 8vo., Leyden, 1677; 8v.o., 1678; 8vo., Amsterdam, 1705.)
HEISTEU, LAURENCE, a German anatomist and surgeon, bom at Frankfol·t on
the Maine in 1683, died at Hclmstadt in 1758. His" Compendium Anatomicum
veterum reœntiorumque observationes brevissime complcctcns," was 'published in
4to., Altorf, 1717; 8vo., Altorf and Nuremberg, 1719, 1727,1732,1741,1761;
8vo., Amsterdam, 1723, 1748; 4to., Freyberg, 1726; 8vo., Venice, 1730: in
English, 8vo., London, 1721, 1752. It was trauslatcd into nearly ail the lan­
gnages of Europe. (See Senac.) Many additions were made to it in the edition of
1732, and again in that of 1741. It is uncertain what edition was maùe use of by
Sweùenborg. Heister's work is in the tabular form. Verheyen's Anatomy, which
had snperseded T. Bartholin's, was in its tum superseded by Heistcr's, which met
with immense and well.merited success, anù maintaineù its ground for a long time
in the medical schools of Europe. Heister regardeù anatomy as the hanùmaid of
 BIBLIOGR,\PHIC,\L NOnCES. G03
thcology: and he has the following tine pns~age respecting the cnds of anatomy :
"Finis anatomes multiplex est: primarius tamen est operum mirabilium Suprcmi
Numinis in corpore humano aliorumquc animalium cognitio et admiratio: cum
artificiosissimre fabricœ contemplatio, partium admiranda figura, conncxio, com­
municatio, actio et usus, Crcatoris non solum existeutiam, sed et immeusam et
stupendam sapientiam manifestissime, contra atheos, demonstrent, ct ad cultum ac
vcnerationem ejus invitent; ideoque finis primarius Anatomire. gloria Dei csto.
Atque hoc sensu Anatomia Philosophica, aut Physica, imo Theologica vocari potest,
omnibus verre sapientiœ ac Theologire cultoribus utilissima." (" Comp. Anat.,"
11. 8.) Heister wrote severai special treatises ou the applicatiou of anatomy Lo
Theology. (De Utilitate Anaoomes in theologiâ generatim, 4to., Altorf, 1717: ex
ventriculi fabricà, 4to., 1719: ex fabricâ intestinorum tenuium, 4to., 1720: ct ex
intestinorum crassorum fabricâ, 4to., 1720: ex musculis et mi.l'abili corporis motu,
4to., Helmstadt, 1721 : ex nervis, 4to., 1721 : ex partibns generationis, 4to., 1723:
ex ossibus et eorum nexibus, 4to., 1727: ex mammis, Ho., 1730.)
LANCISI, JOANNES MARIA, an Italian physician, anatomist, and physiologist,
born at Rome in 1654, died in 1721. T. His" EpisLola de humorum secretionibus
in genere, et prœcipue de bilis in hepate sepamtione eum historiâ hepatis," or,
" Epistola dc bilis secretione ad Joannem Baptistam Bianchi," \Vas published in 4to.,
Turin, 1711: 4to., Geneva, 1725; and with his" Opera Onlllia," 4to., Geneva,
1718; 2 vols. Ho., 172:;; folio, Venice, 1739; ,1 vols. 4to., Rome, 17·15. II.
His "Dissertatio de Venâ sine pari," \Vas published \Vith Morgagni's "Adversaria
AoaOOmica" V. (See MO''(Jagni.) III. His work, "De Motu cOl'dis et Aneurys­
matibus," commenced in 1700, was published al'ter the author's death, folio, Rome,
1728; 4to., ibid., 1735; 400., Naples, 1738; folio, Vcnice, 1739; 4to., Leyden,
1743. IV. Laneisi edited the plates of Eustachius. (See Eustacltius.) Ile was a
man of philosophical tendencies, and the first portion of his work on the motion of
the heart is admirable in this respect. He gives the following good advice to the
students of medicinc: "Interim vero futtll'um consulo, nt mcdicinœ tyrones agno­
scant, atque identidem revocent in memoriam, permagni interesse ad naturœ operam
(eum spe inveniendi) nnnquam acccdere, quin prius leges, ac pl'incipia, qnibus tum
natura, tum ars operatur, apud animum suum consuluerint: unum enim, idemque
Divinum excmplar tum natura, et ars propriis in actionibus, tllm philosophus in
rectis cogitationibus semper imibtur." He recolnll1ends the stlldy of analogies, for
says he: "Pleraque in re medicâ per anaJogiam inventa sunt." (Op. cit., lib. L,
sec. L, cap. iiL, prop. xvii.)
LEEUWENHOEK, LEEUWE~HOEC.{, or LEUWE~HOECK, ANTONY VON, a cele­
brated Dutch microscopist, and maker of microscopes, born at Delft in 1632, died
in 1723. I. His" Arcana Natnrre detecta" was published in 4to., Delft, 1695;
4to., Leyden, 1722. II." Continuatio Arcanorum Naturre detectorull1," 4to.,
Delft, 1697; 4to., Leydcn, 1722. Ill." Epistolre Physiologicœ," 4to., Delft,
1719. Many of this allthor's \Vorks consist of letters which \Vere inse~tecl in thc
"Philosophical Transactions." They \Vere mostly pnblished in Dutch, and after­
wards translated into Lutin. Leeuwenhoek devoted himself unintenuittingly fol'
fifty years to the use of the microscope, apparently without any othe.' end than the
accumulation of experimental kno\Vleclge; fol' he neither attempted 00 found a
theory, nor to draw conclusions: nevertheless, hc pursued his minute rcseurehes with
too lnuch singleness, not to have clicited ll1any facts which \Verc of nse to others.
604 IHHLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

MALPIGHI, MARCELLUS, a celebrated Italian anatomist, born near Bologna in

1628, died at Rome in 1694. 1. He published his "Epistolœ duœ de Pllimonibus,"
folio, Bologna, 1661; and the work was reprinted by Bartholin, 8vo., Copenhagen,
1663; 12mo., Leyden, 1672; in Manget's " Bibliotheca Anatomica i" and 12mo.,
Frankfort, 1678. II." Tetras Anatomicarum Epistolarum, De Linguâ, de Cerebro,
de externo Tactus Organo, De Omento. de Pinguedine et Adiposis Ductibus,"
12mo., Bologna, 1661, 1665; 12mo., Amsterdam, 1669. III." De Viscerum
structurâ exercitationes anatomicœ, accedit Dissertatio de Polypo Cordis," 4to.,
Bologna, 1666; 12~0., Amsterdam, 1669; 12mo., London, 1669; 12mo., Jena,
1677, 1683 j 12mo., Frankfort, 1678: in French, 12mo., Paris, 1683; by Sauvalle,
12mo., Montpellier, 1683 i 8vo., 1687. These dissertations are five in number.
1. De Hepate. 2. De Cerebri Cortice. 3. De Renibus. 4. De Liene. 5. De
Polypo Cordis. IV." Dissertatio Epistolica de Fomlatione Pulli in Ovo," 4to.,
London, 1673; in French, 12mo., Paris, 1686. V." Dissertatio Epistolica de
Bombyce," 4to., London, 1669: in French, 12mo., Paris, 1686. The works
written by Malpighi until 1681 were pllblished with the title of "Opera Omnia,"
2 tom., folio, London, 1686, 1687; and 2 tom., 4to., Leyùen and Amsterdam,
1687. The Dutch edition is the best, and has a valuable index: the London edition
is inaccurate. VI." Epistola de Glandulis Conglobatis," 4to., London, 1689;
4to., Leyden, 1690. VII. Malpighi's " Opera Posthuma" appeared in folio, London,
1697; 2 vols. 4to., Leyden and Amsterdam, 1698, 1700; folio, Venice, 1698.
The London edition of the Posthuma is very incorrect; the Dutch edition somewhat
better. The whole of Malpighi's works were published by Gavinelli, folio, Veniee,
1743. Most of his works have been reprinted in Manget's " Bibliotheca Anatomica."
Several of the best of them were addressed to the Royal Society of London, of
which Malpighi was an honorary member. He wrote in crabbed and difficult Latin,
so that it is sometimes almost impossible to guess his meaning. He was one of the
first who made use of the microscope in anatomical investigations, and who endeavored
to penetrate the intimate structure of the viscera experimentally; in this he was very
successful, and laid the foundation of our present knowledge of visceral anatomy.
His works on the viscera are constantly appealed to in the present day, but have
never been translated into English. He was a sagacious observer, and by no means
destitute of method, and philosophical instinct. In philosophy, Malpighi was a
follower of Borelli, who, according to Haller, was the first that applied mathematics
to physiology.
MAKGETUS or :MAKGET, J OANNES JACOBUS, a laborious compiler, born at Geneva
in 1652, died at the same place in 1742. His" Theatrum Anatomicum cum Eustachii
Tablliis Anatomicis," was published in 2 vols., folio, Cologne and Geneva, 1716.
This compilation is not in much esteem : nevertheless it will be useful to the student
of the "Animal Kingùom," from the number of well-executed plates by the best
authors which it contains , and from its embodying nearly ail the <liscoveries of the
17th century. It was severely hanùled by Morgagni throughout his " Adversaria
Anatomica" Il.-VI.; and by Heister in the preface to his " Compendium Anato­
micum." Le Clerc and Manget published together a large work entitled, " Bibliotheca
Anatomica," 2 vols., folio, 1685; 2 vols., folio, Geneva, 1699. An abridgement
of it was published in English, 3 vols. 4to., London, 1711. This work is chiefly
a thesaurus of the anatomists of the 17th century.
MORGAGl'l, JOANNES BAI'TlSTA, a celebratcd Italian anatomist, born at Forli
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 605
in Romania in 16B2, died in 1771. His" Adversaria Anatomica prima" was pub­
lished in 4to., Bologna, 1706. It is a amall work, but, as Haller says, almost
entirely consisting of new discoveries, or of more clear descriptions of parts than
had been given previoualy. Morgagni's account of the" appendices ventriculorum"
in the larynx has been overlooked by later anatomists, and the same cavities have
been recently brought forward as a new discovery under the name of "sacculi laryn­
gis." Five other collections of "Adversaria" were afterwards published by Mor.
gagni; namely, "Adversaria Anatomica" II., 4to., Padua, 1717: Ill., 4to., ibid.,
1717: IV., 4to., ibid., 1719: V., 4to., ibid., 1719: VI., 4to., ibid., 1719.
They were all published together as " Adversaria Anatomica Omnia," 4to., Padua,
1719; 4to., Leyden, 1723, 1740. According to Haller, Morgagni did not describe
the parts of the human body as if their form was one and constant; but noting the
varieties in different subjects, gathered from a number of accordant instances what
might be considered as the usual fabric; and in thus eliciting generalized facts excelled
all previous anatomists, perhaps with the exception of Eustachius.
NUCK, ANTONY, a Gennan by birth, but professor of anatomy at Leyden, bom
about 1660, died in 1692. His" Adenographia Curiosa, et uteri anatome nova,
cum Epistolâ de inventis novis," was published in Bvo., Leyden, 1692 and 1696 ;
with Reverhorst's Treatise, "De Motu bills Circulari, Bvo., Leyden, 1722, 1723 (see
Reoerhorst); and also printed in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." The greater
part of Nuck's works was published in 3 vols. 12mo., Lyons; 1722. The whole
were collected and published as bis" Opera Omnia," 2 vols., Leyden, 1733. Nuck
skilfully injected the lymphatics with mercury, and made use of the air-pump as an
appliance for this purpose.
PEVER, JEAN CONRAD, bom at Schaffhausen in 1653, died in 1712. His
.. Exercitatio anatomico-medica de glandulis intestinorum, eorumque usu et affec­
tionibus," &c., was published in Bvo., Schaffhausen, 1677; in Manget's "Biblio­
theca Anatomica;" also in Bvo., Amsterdam, 16B2. Peyer described the glandul~
agminatre of the smaU intestines, and the glandul~ solitari~.
REVERHORST, MAURICE VAN, a Dutch anatomist, and professor at the Hague.
His work, "De Motu Bilia Circulari," was published in 4to., Leyden, 1692;
Bvo., without date; Bvo., 1696; with Nuck's "Sialographia et Adenographia
Curiosa," Bvo., Leyden, 1722, 1723. ln this work Reverhorst gives plates of the
liver, and maintains that a considerable portion of the bile is reabsorbed by the
intestinal vessels.
RUYSCH, FREDERIC, a Dutch anatomist and naturalist, bom at the Hague in
163B, died in 1731. His works are numerous, but c.onsist in great part of accounts
of the preparations in his museum: they were collected and published at Amsterdam
in 1721 (" Opera Omnia Anatomico-medico.chirurgica," 4to.); and a better edition,
5 vols. 4to., Amsterdam, 1737. To this is added a "Historia vitre et meritorum
Frederici Ruysch," by J. F. Schreiber; and an admirable index by Ysbrand Gysbert
Al'lebout. Ruysch learnt the use of the syringe from De Graaf, and the art of inject­
ing with wax from Swammerdam, and made good use of these means, but nevel'
divulged his processes. His preparations, in making which he was assisted by his
daughters, were celebrated aU over Europe; Boerbaave studied from them, and made
them the ground of his vascular theory. Ruysch was little more than an anat.omical
artist, but in this respect his patience and neatness were wonderful. His great fault was
said to he a want of reading, and of acquaintance with what had been dpne by others.
606 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

He was an author for seventy years, and never f1agged in his labors. Although
aspiring to no other posit.ion than a collector of facts,-and Haller justly says of him
that he was "simplex totus et a ratiocinio remotus,"-yet he recognized the import­
ance of a higher branch of enquiry; for he says: "Ego totus in eo sum, et omnes
nervos intendo, ut quantum in me est, veram constitutionem perscruter, e.1:spectans
ut alii circa usum idem sint facturi. Difficile enim Jl1illi jam utrique negotio
incumbere." (" Thes. Anat." Il.)
SCHURIG, MARTIN, a physician living al. Dresden about the beginning of the
18th century. His works were published between 1720 and 1744. His" Chylologia
Historico-medica, sive chyli humani, seu succi hominis nutritii consideratio physico­
medico-forensis," was published .in 4to., Dresden, 1725. Swedenborg appears to
have made considerable use of this learned compilation, as supplying accounts of
certain remarkable diseases and diseased conditions, snch as adipsia, asitia, pica,
nausea and antipathies, catalepsy, ecstasis, &c.
SENAC, JEAN BAPTISTE, a French physician, born in the diocese of Lombez,
in Gascony, in 1693, died in 1770. Senac published a translation of Heister's
" Compendium Anatomicum," with physiological comments: viz., "L'Anatomie
d'Heister, avec des Essais de Physique sur l'Usage des Parties du Corps humain,
et sur le Méchanisme de leurs Mouvemens. Enrichie de Nouvelles Figures," &c.;
8vo., Paris, 1724; 8vo., Paris, 1735; 3 vols. 12mo., Paris, 1753. Haller speaks
of an English translation, 8vo., 1734. (Sec" Animal Kingdom," vol. Il., p.
304, 305.)
SWAMMERDAM, or SCHWAMMERDAM, JOHN, a celebrated Dutch anatomist
and entomologist, born al. Amsterdam in 1637, died al. the same place in 1680. 1.
His inaugural dissertation, "Tractatus physico-medicus de respiratione usuque
pulmonum," waspublishedin 8vo., Leyden, 1667, 1677, 1679; 4to., 1738; and
in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica." II. His" Biblia Natul'lE, sÏ\;e Historia
Insectorum, in classes certas reducta, &c.," was published in folio, Leyden, 1737,
in Dutch and Latin, witb a life of the author by Boerhaave, who bought the manu­
script of the work, and printed il. al. his own expense. The Latin version was
executed by H. D. Gaubius,' respecting whom Boerhaave says: "perhaps it woule!
have been a hard matter, if not impossible, to fine! another translator equal to the
task." The work 'l'aS translatee! into English, folio, London,1758. (" The Book
of Nature; or the History of Insects: reduced to distinct classes, &c. Translated
from the Dutch and Latin original edition, by Thomas Flloyd. Revised and improved
by notes from Reaumur and others, by John Hill, M.D.") Swammerdam intro.
duced the use of wax injections, and invented the now received method of making
dry preparations of hollow organs. He was an admirable microscopist, and dissector
of minute objects, and employed many peculiar and ingenious instruments and
methods in his researches. Notwithstanding his experimental studies, he appears in
the "Biblia Naturre" to have constantly had in view the end of displaying the
wisdom and power of God as manifested in the animal creation. In the latter part
of his life he became a follower of Madame Bourignon, and an admirer of Jacob
Behmen, and ultimately forsook ail his physical and anatomical studies, in order to
attend to his spiritual concerns.
VERIIEYEN, PHILIP, a celebrated Belgian anatomist, born at Vesbrouck in
Brabant in 1648, died al. Louvain in 1710. His" Corporis Humani Anatomia"
was tirst published in 4to., Louvain, 1693; and in 8vo., Leipsic. 1699, 1716.
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. 607
The anthor sllbsequently much improved the work, which afterwards appeared with
the title: "Corporis humani Anatomire liber primus. Editio secunda ab Authore
recognita, novisque observationibus et inventis pluribusque figuris aucta," 400.,
Brussels, 1710; and with a second volume, viz.: "Supplementum Anatomicum
sive Anatomire COl'poris Humani liber secundus," 4to., ibid., 1710: lt was reprinted
in 2 vols. 4to., Brussels, 1726; 2 vols. 4to., Naples, 1717 and 1734; 2 vols. 8vo.,
Leipsic, 1731: the Supplement alone, 8vo., Amsterdam, 1731. This manual super­
seded that of T. Bal'tholin; and met with great success, being the anatomical text­
book for a considerable period. It is written in a clear and occasionally elegant style,
and was certainly the best work on anatomy that had then appeared. Morgagni and
Heister attacked it on the score of inaccuracy and want of information, but without
perhaps making due allowances, or sufficiently admitting the usefulness of the book
in its own generation. HaUer regards the supplement as the most valuable of the
author's works. Verheyen's motto, written by himself, is as follows: "Philippus
Verheyen medicinre doctor et professor, partem sui materialem hic in cremeterio
condi voluit, ne templum dehonestaret, aut nocivis halitibus inficeret. Requiescat
in pace. fl
VIEUSSENS, RAYMOND, a French physician and anatomist, born at Rovergue in
1641, died at Montpel;;er in 1716. His" NeuJ'ographia Univel'salis; hoc est,
omnium corporis humani nerrorum, simul ac cerebri, medul1reque spinalis descriptio
anatomica," \Vas published in folio, Lyons, 1685; 8vo., :Frankfort and Ulm, 1690,
not so good an edition as the former; in Manget's "Bibliotheca Anatomica;" folio,
Lyons, 1761; 4to., Tolosa, 1775; 4to., Lyons, 1774. Vieussens'" Neurogra­
phia" \Vas incomparably more ample and faithful than anything on the subject that
had been done before it. Haller describes Vieussens as a man of unwearied industry,
who pursued his researches on the brain and nerves, which had hitherOO been studied
almost exclusively in the lower animais, in the human subject; and whose contribn­
tions to anatomy were most important. The reader of the" Animal Kingdom" will
find mnch vigorous thought in the "Neurographia," particularly on the subject of
the animal spirits, l'especting which our author has treated at length in several
chapters; as, " De naturâ et necessitate spiritus animalis, in quo de succo nervoso
disseritUl'," lib. i., cap. xv.: "De materià spiritus animalis, de loco, et verâ pro­
ductionis illius ratione," ibid., cap. xviii.' "De dispensatione spiritus animalis,"
&c., ibid., cap. xix.: "De diflerentiis motuum, qui spiritus animalis ope peraguntur,
in quo distincti ipsius fontcs explicantuJ'," ibid., cap. xx. On the points treated
of in these chapters, the views of Swedenborg agree in great part with those of
Vieussens.
WEDELIUS, JOANNES ADor,PRus, a professor at Jena, born at that place in
IG75, time and place of dcath unknown. He was the author of a number of dis­
sertations in the form of theses. His" Propempticon de vah'ulâ venre subclavire
<luctui thoracico imposita,,, was published in 4to., Jena, 1714; and again by Haller
in his "Disputationes anatomicre selectre," 7 vols. 4to., Gottingen, 1746-1752.
WILLIS, THOMAS, an English physician and anatomist, born at Great Bedwin
in Wiltshire in 1621, died in London in 1675. 1. His" Cerebri Anatome cui
accessit nervorum descriptio et usus," was published in 4to., London, 1664; 8vo.,
1670; 12mo., Amsterdam, 1664, 1667, 1674, 1676, 1683; and in Manget's
"Bibliotheca Anatomica." l11Îs was \Villis's principal work: and contained a new
method of dissecting the brain, and a much more accuratc account of its anatomy
608 BlBUOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

than had been given previously: it also contained the germs of those modem views
of the physiology of the brain which are adopted by phrenologists. The iden of the
brain being a congeries of organs is distinctly recognized. WiIIis, like Swedenborg,
makes the cerebrum the seat of the voluntary movements and inteUectual faculties ;
the cerebellum, of the involuntary movements, as those of the heart. In common
with nearly ail the great anatomists of former times, Willis held the doctrine of the
circulation of the animal spirits. II. His" Pharmaceutice Rationalis, seu diatriba
de medicamentarum operatione in corpore humano," Part 1., was published in 4ta.,
Oxford, 1673; 12000., Amsterdam, 1674; 12000., the Hague, 1675: Part II., 4ta.,
Oxford, 1675; 12000., the Hague, 1677: both Parts, 8vo., Oxford, 1678 or 1679 :
in English, folio, 1679. This work contains a good denl of anatomical description.
WiIIis's works were published collectively: viz., "Opera Omnia," folio, London,
1679; 4to., Lyons, 1676; 4to., Geneva, 1680 i 4to., Amsterdam, 1682; folio,
Venice, 1720: in English, 4to., 1681.
WINSLOW, JACQUES BENIGNE, a Danish anatomist, born at Odensee in the
island of Funen in 1669, died nt Paris in 1760. His" Exposition anatamique de
la structure du corps humain," was published in 4ta., Paris, 1732 i 5 vols. 12000.,
ibid. i 4 voIs. 12000., Amsterdam, 1743; 4 vols. 8vo., Paris, 1776; in English,
by Douglas, 2 vols. 4to., London, 1733, 1734, 1743, 1749; 2 voIs. 8vo., Edinburgh,
1743: in Latin, 4 voIs. 8vo., Frankfort, 1753; 8vo., Venice, 1758. This treatise,
in most of the departments of anatomy, superseded aU former manuaIs. Acéording
to Haller, it is the common fountain from which the later, and the French anatamists
especially, bave gained their anatomy; and it is the model on which the generality of
the text books of that science has since been constructed. Winslow changed his
religion from Lutheran to Catholic on reading the works of Bossuet, and on this
occasion Bossuet gave him the addition of Benigne ta his name. Before his time
anatomists generally took out of the body the parts they were about ta examine,
so that the relative situation and mutuai connexion of the parts was lost and rle­
stroyed; and when the cellular tissue was taken away, the very shape was altered.
Winslow has the distinguished merit of being the first who described ail things in
the body in situ and in ne~'u. He used ta dissect the organs undel' water.
 INDEX OF 8UBJECT8.

The nurnerals indicate the volume, the flgnres, the page: where the page has no nurnerals
prefixed to il, that which has been last mentiuDcd in the same article Ï! implied ; and where none
bas becn mentioned bcfore, the first volume Îe understood.

AnDoMllN. The offices of the abdominal viscera go forth and retum in a kind
of circle, 268. The viscera of the abdomen constitute four series, with distinct
offices, 302. They fonn a superior universal series, whicb respects the blood; and
is subdivided into three inferior universal series, which severally respect the chyle,
the serum, and tbe blood already formed, 312. Further subdivision of these series,
ibid. Every viseus, organ, and member thereof, reprcsents in itself a kind of
series, 316. Chylification. sanguification, and purification are the sum of their
offices, 510. Eacb contributes in sorne respect to the generation and regeneration
of the blood, which is the cornmon object of the abdominal viscera, 512. Why
these viscera are not inaugurated into tbeir offices until the lungs are opened, Il.,
338. See Series.
AnsTINENCE from food, 121; IL, 188.
ACTION. A single action is made up of an infinite number of forces, II., 85.
There is a connexion and everlasting chain between sensations and actions, 174. The
reaction of parts corresponds exactly to the action, this being the source of thei,'
natural equilibrium, 244. Action arises from circulation in conjllnction \l'ith respira­
tion: for circulation gives and renews potency, and respiration infuses force; whence
action, 461. The conditions of active force and action, what, 559, 560. See
Respiration, Sense.
ACTIVE, every, to be efficient, must be joined with a passive, 71, Il., 46, 394.
The membranes have a passive, the muscles an active power, p., 310. Reactive
power results from passive and active combined, ibid. Sec Diapltragm, Fœtus.
AFFECTIONS only are innate, not ideas, 2. The affections of the body, anelof
the animal and rational minds, Il., 357, 4<12. Ali the affections are given to serve
us as the fuel and heat of bodily life, 358. The aft"ections of the animal mind are
divisible into inferior, superior, and l'roper, 442. The affections Rowing from the
body, immediately seize tbe blood; those Rowing from the animal mind. the spirit
of the blood; those Rowing from the rational mind, the very so1l1 of the blood and
spirits, 443, 539.
ANALYSIS commences from effccts, and mOlluts to canses and principles, 7.
It is the only way to truths, 8, and II., 346. Requisitcs for attaining truths by
this way, 1., 8. When we have l'cacher! princil'Ies by analysis, we may then retum
VOL. II. ::: S
6lO INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

fmm principles, anù can contemplate ail things in a universal manner, 9. The
author considers that he is the first who has endeavored to approach the soul by
analysis, Il. It is the first object of analysis to procure gcneral notions, U. After
birth the synthetic way is converted into the analytic, II., 262.
ANGLES are hindrances to motion, 126. The angular form is the lowest of
forms, and is generated by the circulaI', ibid. See Body.
ANIMATION; sec Brain, Respirat'Îon. The animation of the brain, what, II.,
158. The external re.piratory forces of the lungs, and the internaI animatory
forces of the brain, united with the respiratory, mect in the centres of ail the viscera,
and l'ouse every part to operations corresponding to its structure and nature, 231.
ANIMAL MIND: sec Affections, Blood; Fibre, Nose, Respiration.
ANIMAL SPIRITS. Nature always encloses them deep in fibres, blood.globules,
spherules, or \ittle ova, lest they should be lost; and only opens these caskets when
the spirits are requirerl for use, 102, II., 411. The animal spirit is the lmiting
medium betwecn the soul and the body, L, 215, II., 425. There is an afrection
and desire of conjunction between the fresh spirit dcscending from the brain, and the
chyle ascending from the body, 1., 215. The animal spirit ie the most universal
essence of corporeallife, 250, II., 425. Sec Incitation. The cortical glands 1'1'0­
duce it, II., 425. It is generated from ethereal food, as the blood l'rom terrestrial
food, 426. It is inserted into thc blood-globules, and produces the life of the body,
ibid. "'hen the spirit acts, the blood yields, and vice versil, 445. The p"rogressive
series of causes in the preparation of the animal spirit, 517.
ANIMAL KINGDOM, the, is the last and central work of creation, consisting of
mere centres, II., 315.
AORTA, the, obeys both the cardiac and pulmonary motions, 218. Ail the
bloorl that comes from it at right angles, escapes beyond its power of determination,
II., 246. The blood is not intnlded into the viscera or muscles by the power of the
aorta, but attracted by eaeh viscus or muscle according to its wants, ibid.
ApPETITE, diseased, instances of, from Schurig, 120.
ARTERIES, the, are a continned heart, 157. How a vessel that carries venous
blood is enabled to play the artery, IL, 204. Sec Fibre. Ali but the innermost
coat of the arteries is dropped in thc least capillaries, 413, 421. The inncrmost coat
of the arteries is continuous with the outermost coat of the veins, 417. The outer­
most surfaces of the fibres are transposed into the innermost surfaces of the arteries,
anù these, into the outermost of the veins, 420. The arteries place their last boun.
daries in the cortical glands of the brain, where the fibres place their first, 447.
It is the nature of veins, that the fluid running through them suffers itself ta be
acted on by the coats of its vessel; but it is the nature of arteries that the vessel or
coat snffers itself to be acted on by its fluid, and reacts, 491. See Veins, Vesse/s.
ASSOCIATION. Similitude of function associates parts: exemplified in the proxi­
mity between the œsophagus, the carotid arteries, and jugulaI' ve.ins, 108. Between
the gall-bla(lder and the colon, 301. See Body.
ATMosPHEREs. Neeessity for an analogon to animation or respiration in the
atmospheres, II., 139, 140. The successive stages of the immigration and arrivaI
of the atmosphere in the lungs, 185. The atmospheric vesicles resemble the grand
atmospheric world, as a least volume resembles its largest, 186. The vast quantity
of efl1uvia contained in the atmosphere, ibid. To minister to the blood of the
animal kingdom is the final office of the air, 191. The action of the several atmo­
spheres upon the microcosm, 383. The spiral gyration of the air, 14.
 INDEX OF SUll.JECT8. 611
ATTRACTION in the body is always accompanied by propulsion, 201, 215. See
Fbâds, Invitation, Ton.r;lI.e. Its universality in the body, 271. The blood is not
intruded on the members by the aorta, but is attraeted by the members themselves,
348, 427. The attraetive power of the viscera exceeds the detrusive power of the
aorta upon the blood, 428. See Bloorl.
AXIS: sel' Centre. There are various axes in the body, more or less universal,
217. See Nose. There are two very l'l'markable axes in the eerebrum, II., 33.
The spinal marrow is the axis of thc cerebellum, ibid. There are three general axes
in the body proceeding from the ethmoid bone, 34. The œsophagns is the most
general axis of the body, 315. There are the axes of the respeetive viscera, and
also of several viscera, 01' of one series, 316.
AZYGos, the vena, imbibes the blood synehronously with the respirations, 218.
Described, II., 248. It is the cornmon receptacle of ail tbe blood of the respiratory
field, 251.
BIŒ. The hepatic bile, with the cystic, is the ultimate salivary menstruum, 277.
See Liver, Saliva. The bile is the freces of the blood and chyle that have been
treated in the liver, 2aO. It is not thrown away, but performs a use, and serves as a
menstruum, 2a3. The circulation of the bile, ibid. The hepatic bile does not
produce the gall, but serves it as a menstruum, diluting and softening it, 299. The
quantity of the cystic bile fol' the most part increases, as that of the hepatic bile de­
creases, 301. The hepatic bile is the refuse of the chyle, the cystic bile of the
blood, 302. The quantity of the cystic bile is afl'ected by a threefold order of causes,
ibid. The treatment of the cystic and hepatic biles never ceases, but continues
throughout the ducts, and afterwards in the intestines, to the rectum, 304. None
but the dead portion of the bile is rejected with the alvine freces, ibid. Sel' Pancreas.
The pancreatic juice is the first cause, the hepatic bile the second, the cystic bile the
third, 327. The infinite diversity of the biles, 326.
BLADDER, the, described by Heister, 457. By \Vinslow, 458. Particulars re­
specting from Morgagni, 460. Authors to be consulted respecting, 461. The
bladder and rectum being the lowest organs suffer themselves to be pressed and
trodden on by ail the others, 464. The ultimate of the will, and the ultimate of
nature, concur in constringing them, 465. The top of the bladder first is pressed
down and driven inwards, 470. In the fœtus the fundus of the bladder lies close to
the umbilicus, and why, 473. The terrestrial and gravitating parts of the microcosm
are thrown into the bladder and rectum, as the inert masses of the macrocosm are
consigned to the terraqueous globe; the matters in both cases being circumpressed by
the forces of the whole system, 473. The mode in which the urine is discharged by
external and internai causes, 475. Sel' a,'avity. The parts of the body act and press
on the bladder, not by mass and weight, but by force of motion; and the bladder,
on its contents, not by total closing, but by the power of its motive fibres, 476.
The action upon the urine is not propagated by continuity, but by series of forces
and motions, ibid. The bladder has a constrictile and expansile motion synchronous
with the motions of the Jungs, 477. Analogy of the bladder and ureters with the
vesicles and little ducts of the minutest glands, 479.
BJ,OOD. Whatever takes place in the mind, takes place in the innermost of the
blood, 8·4, The blood derives its spirit from the brain and fibres; its body from the
stomach and food, 108,371; and II., 192. Sel' Life. It attracts into it substances
corresponding to the passions of the mind, 1.,208; II., 175. The soul gives the
blood its life, the spirit its bond of union, and the chyle its embodiment; so that
612 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

every globule of blood has both a soul and a body, 1.,214, 371. Every time it is
resolved into its principles, its finer humors and spirit betake themselves into the
cellular coats of the viscera, and into the Iymphatics, 221, 373. No part of its
nobler essence is suffered to waste, 221, 271, 273, 373. It is the complex and semi­
nary of aU the fluids, and continents of fluids, in the body: and comprehends mere
simples, 236, 373. Sec Humor. In its parts it is subject to the same fortunes as
the body in its compound; it is born, dies, and is born again, ibid.; and II., 192.
The distribution of its constituent elements, when resolved, L, 236, 273, 373. Its
spirituous part is ultimately rendered back to it in a circle, and how, 237. The
functions of both the abdominal and thoracic viscera are performed on account of the
blood, 268, 303. Every time it circulates, it is sundered into its constituent parts,
236, 271. And purified, 272. The lustration of the blood, what, ibid. It lays
itself open to give birth to the vital tluids, and immolates itself for the welfare of the
kingdom, 272. !ts circle of life, what, 274. See Equation. It differs in different
subjects, and runs through infinite changes of state, 297. It assumes the state of
the Iife, and undergoes perpetuai purification and regeneration, ibid. \Vl,atever the
principles, intermediates, and extremes of the body demand, the universal mass of
the blood is bound to supply, 301, 337, 351. The purest scrum, united to the
spirit, gives the blood, 312. No portion of blood can circulate in the trunk without
heing purified by either the liver, the spleen, or the pancreas; and this, in conse­
quence of their subordination and coordination, 322. Whatever kind of blood is
expended on use, is proportionately supplicd, 275, 338. Every viscus attracts a
blood of its own kind, 351, 428, 429. The various qualities of the blood, 353, 355.
The blood serves in the liver as a menstruum, 356. It has in it none of those things
that are expressed by the received chemical terms, 373. See Fat, Omentum. Ne­
cessity for asylums for the superabundant blood; whence the adipose tissues and the
omentum, 383. The blood circulating in the great arteries ncver tums off laterally,
still less at right angles, unless a stronger force overcomc a relatively weaker one,
428. See Aorta, Attraction. A genus of blood, what, 428. The purely globular
blood tends to tlow in spirals, 437. See Spiral. The blood-globule contains a
spirit or prior blood, 438. It occupies the axes of cUl'ved vessels, ibid. The blood
may be divided into three kinds, 511. The purification of, where performed, 512.
It is the soul's deputy and vicegerent in the body, 525. It is the proper essence of
the body, II., 112. The modification and exhilaration of the blood by the vibrations
of the larynx and trachea, 118. The hostility between the air and the hlood, and its
grounùs, 184. The animal being elects the constituents of its blood from the whole
circumambient world, material, aërial, and ethcrial, 190. See Chyle. The change
of the blood from venous to arterial in the lungs, 192. The blood is fed with
etbereal food in the lungs, 429. The red globules are resolved into pellucid globules
in the least arterial capillaries, 430. See Skin.
BODY, the. By the body is meant all that lives from the blood, and consists of
the lowest, or angular and circular forms, 214, 371. The animal body is the temple
of all the sciences, both physical and pbilosophical, 317. In it wc leam tbe things
that are indeterminate in the sciences, ibid. There can be no intelligence in the
body, except as intelligence in the soul, 377. Distinct division and subdivision of
the body, 486. There is the same state, order, and form of government in the body,
as in a kingdom, 502. It consists of forms within forms, and series within series,
II.,315. The two halves of the body, in general and in particular, arenot symme.
trical, and why, 329. The adaptations of the animal body arc thc lowest proofs of
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 613
God's omnipotence, for he has filled the vilest insect with similar miracles, 330.
Two principles bear s\Vay in the body; viz., nature and the will, 337. The ordi­
nances by which concord is established between the soul and the body after birth,
336. The body is not subject ta the order and laws of the universe, but derives its
form and determinations from its own principles, 382. See Blood, Gravi/y, Mi­
crocos/n, Soul, Spirit. In every point of the body there is what circulates, what
breathes, and what acts, 4GO. \Ve may draw conclusions from the animal body re­
specting the forms of human societies, 468. Whatever is in the body is extraneous
to the cerebrum, 518.
BRAIN: see Animation, Cerebrum, Fibre. The animations of the brains are
coincident with the respirations of the lungs, lOG, 3·10; II., 234, 244, 245. They
constitute the inmost life of the body, L, 107. The brain is a chemical organ, 235.
The firstling blood of the heart is supplied to it, 275, 337, 348. The motion of the
hrain is synchronous with the heart before birth, and with the lungs after hirth, 403 ;
II., 153, 332. The animation of the brain is a natural necessity, to provide the
hody \Vith nervous juice, II., 209. Before birth all the blood passes through the
hrains, as afterwards through the lungs, and why, 263, 264. Necessity for two
hrains, one to be subject to nature, the other to the will, 338.
BRONCHIAL ARTERY, the, conceived, engendered, and constructed the embry­
onic lung, and aU its vessels, aëriferous, arterial, and venous, II., 202. After
birth, it teaches the pulmonary artery to play the artery, although it carries venous
hlood, 204. It regulates, balances, and equalizes the respective quantities of the
cardiac blood rushing into the lungs, and of the pulmonic blood retuming to the
heart, ibid. It equalizes the quality as \Vell as quantity of the venous blood, 206.
By means of the bronchial artery and vein, the lungs concur \Vith the organic machine
of the thorax, and produce unanimous actions therewith, 207. All the bronchial
arteries come origiually from the intercostals, 199, 208.
CAUSE: see Efficient, Use. Every cause is an efficient re1atively to thiugs
below it, and an effect relatively to those above it, 311. See Member. In proceed­
ing to an end, nature makes use of an entire causal series of. subordinations; and
multiplies the causes in proportion to the importance of the end, 315. Causes
always tlow into their effect, not by a single mediation or subordination, but by
several, 321 ; II., 62, 85. The modes of subordination of causes are various; and
something of their nature may be seen by examining the effect, if the signs of the
causative agents be given, L, 321. An efficient cause necessarily involves an active
l'rinciple, 377. Whatever belongs to the class of causes must be formed organically,
378; II., 344. See Elfect and End. Causes are divisible into innermost, middle,
and outermost, II., 31. The innermost causes act most individually; the outermost
act on all the parts generally, and thus represent the common bond of singulars, ibid.
The various intlux of causes varies the quality of effects, 85. Every cause and
etfcct involves a use, 141. Necessity for a distinct idea of the subordination and
succession of efficient causes, 332. It is our business to resolve every etfect into
its causes, 529.
CELLULAR TISSUE. The cellular tissues, lymphatics, thoracic duct, mesenteric
glands, and receptaculum chyli, are ail continuous, and identical in use, structure,
and nature, 222. There is a continual circulation through the cellular tissues, Il.,
255. See Peritonœum. The path taken by the humor in the cellular tissue of the
pleura, 256. The continuity and circumtlexions of the cellular tissue of the pleura,
258. See Cellular Coat.
614 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

CELLULAR COAT, the, of the intestines, ,'esembles a conglobate gland thl'Own

into a plane; the sphere of motion of the intestines there terminates, and that of
the mesentery begins, 197. The cellular coat is a Iymphatic p"ojel'ted into a plane,
222,319. See Cellular Tissue.
CENTRE. Everything is a kind of centre, 102. In the stomach, the centre of
motion is the centre of gravity, 134. Sec Gravi/y, Leasts, Mesentery, iIlie"oeosm,
Motion, Thoraeie Duet, Uni/ie.v. There arc centres of forces, both uniycrsal and
singular, general and l'articulaI', 474. The body consists of mere centres of grayity.
which by thei,' combination form diameters and circumferenees, 474; IL, 32, 314,
485. The mouth is the moveable centre of t~e face; the root of the nose, the
immoveable centre, IL, 35. The body is at once fi perpetuai centre and a perpe­
tuai circumference, 314. The general centre of the body is at the sJlot where the
œsophagus meets the diaphragm, 316. The throo lDOSt general centres of the body,
325. There are as many ceutres as points, and as many equilibria as centres, 330.
See Animal Kingdom, Diaphragm, Organie Forms. Centre of motion, see Pelvis.
CERIWELI>UM; soo Ce·rearum.
CEREilRUM; see Brain, N.rves. Tt is cognizant of whatever happens without
the kingdom; the cerebellum, of what happens within it, 51. Thc cerebrum and
cerebellum are uniyersally present in the body by menos of the fibres, 206. The
cerebrnm attracts to it the purer blood, for the put'pose of extracting and circulating
its spirit, 213; II., 118. It is a gland, 1., 247. Comparison of it with the glands
of the body, ibid. The cerebrum and lungs are the source of voluntary motion;
the cerebellum, of natmal motion, II., 112. The cerebrum rules in the da)', the
cerebellum by night, 147. The cerebrum presides oyer the will, the cerebellum over
nature, 337. In the cerebrum there is an innermost sensorium where the soul
resides, 344. The fibre of the cerebrum occupies the ultimate bonndaries of the
kingdom, the fibre of the cerebellum, the whole field circumscribed by those boun.
daries, 454. Our general sensorium is laid in the cel'eb,'um, which feels; but the
organ of the body acts the part of an instrument only. The cerebrum manifests to
us whatever it fools and perceiyes from the organs of the body: but not the eere­
bellum, 456. The cortical glands of the cerebrum arc the inmost sensorium or
intellectorium, 459. They constitute the supreme sphere of the living systcm, ibid.
CH ANGE; see Spiral. The innumerable changes of state in the uitimate sphere
of the body, and their causes, II., 391. The susceptibilityof the papillary fibre
of changes of state, 415. The causes of changes of state in the three spheres of
the living body, 441. The generallaws of ail mutations or changes in the body and
the world, 478. There are four genera of changes, yb.., change of station, turning
of circumfe"ence, internai change of form, and variation of magnitude, 480. See
Organ, Organic Forms. Variation of magnitude, Yiz., expansion and 'constriction,
is a natural ehange, the other three are voluntary, 480. The universality of muta­
tion in ail spheres, ibid. The mutations of state in the body are equal in number
to ail the possible affections of the body and of the animal and rational minds, 532.
CHYLE: sec Intestines, Stomach. The chyle of the body meds the chyle of the
tongue in the subc1avian vein, 85. The chyle of the tongue recruits the cranial
venous blood, ibid. The chyle is brought into relation with ail parts, by the saliva,
and led into the inmost chambers of the blood, 100. lt consists of perpetuai
globules, 178. The cellular coat of the intestines is the nrst rcceptac1e of the purer
chylc, and when it arrives there, it is beyond the intestinal .phere of motioll, 1 f)7.
The animus determines the naturc of lhe chyle; hence of the blood unet' the body,
 INDEX OF SUllJEC'l'S. 615
208. It is both fed and encouraged by the chyle, ibid. The chyle and Iymph are
eagerly desired and imbibed by the blood of the jugulaI' veins; and why, 213. The
cbyle is carried up to the subclavian vein by a number of means, 215. See Lympft.
The purification of the chyle, where efl"ected, 269. Its inauguration, impregnation,
marriage, and copulation, 270. The proeesses for forming and purifying it l'un in a
circle from chylification to chylification, 274. The regeneration, or perpetuaI gene­
ration, of the chyle, ibid. The great quantity of chyle that is sent from the
stomach and intestines to the livcr, 278. The two veme cayre divide the chyle of the
body between them, 292. The chyle, when in the arteries and veins, is called
serum, 312. The blood deprived of serum is the kindliest menstruum for the chyle,
356. The chyle of thc stomach, like that of the liver, is inaugurated by the pure
blood into the blood, 357. See Serum. There are three kinds of chyle, terrestrial,
aërial, and ethereal, II., 190,426. The chyle of the intestines is of a middle use,
that of the stomach is primary, 513.
CHYLIFICATION. In chylification the lowest things necessarily provide and
supply whate\'er the highest demand or desire, 209. It is the first of the chemical
operations of the body, 269, Where performed, 512, See Digestion, Sanguiji­
cation.
CIRCLE: see Centre, Use, AlI things that involve an end constitute a circle,
379. The simple circle, the progressive circle, and the transcendent circle, illus­
trated, 379. See Pleu1'a. The circles of substances involve corresponding circles
of ail their accidents, and corresponding circles of uses, 380. Sec Ends, Fat, Omen­
tum. The circles of uses in nature are a proof of the existence of an al\-provident
God; and in the body, of the existence of the soul, 381; II., 361. PerpetuaI
circle, see Spiral. The circle of uses, or the government of Providence, must not
be measured by the erroneous circles of our minds, II., 361.
CIRCULATION: see Circ/e. Ail the humors institute circulations after the image
of the circulation of the blood, 293. See Bile, Fat. There is a transcendent circu­
lation, viz., of the spirit through the fibres into the vessels, and of the blood from
the vessels into the fibres, II., 460. See Action, Humor.
COLOR, the, of the skin, originates chieft y from causes in the body; secondarily
from the heat of the sun, II., 394.
COMI'OUNDS. The eye sees only the last compounds of things, 35. We perceive
the changes of statc in compounds, not in singulars, 207. The form is the only
thing that varies the essence of the compound, 236. The senses shew the forms of
the [ast compounds of things, 310; 11.,19,539. See Organic Forrns, Toue!,.
CONFIRMATION. Any preconception may be confirmed bl' an infinity of .parti.
culars, 5.
CONTIGUOUS THINGS, definition of, 33.
CO!<TINUOUS THINGS, example of, 33. They are those that are in the same
series or degree; and they are homogeneous, because referable to the same or similar
unities, ibid.
CONTINUITY: there is p~rpetual continuity in the organic body, 102. The dis­
cern ment of li niversal connexion and continuity amounts to the disco\'ery of truth,
157. See Spiral.
CONTRACTION: see E:l-pansion.
CORONARY VESSELS. They dll not arise from the aorta, 516. TIl~y arc the
veins of the heart, ibid. They amwer t.o the bronchial vein in the lung>, and to the
hepatic vein in the livet', ibid.
ülG INDEX OF 8UBJECTS.

CORPUSCULES in rapid motion appear in ail parts where there is an abundant

afflux of spirits, 103. Corpuscules when gyrated tend through the diameters of the
gyre to the circumferences, 198.
CORPUS RETICULARE MALPIGHII: see Skin.
CORTICAL GLANDS: see Cerebrum.
CORRESPONDENCE, doctrine of, 10, Il, 451; II.,359. See Representation.
CUTICLE: see Skin.
CUTIs: see Skin.
DEGREES, doctrine of, 10, Il; II., 333. There are degrees of motion, and
also of heat, 1., 133.
DELIGHT. Necessity for delights in order to the insinuation of ideas, .and the
opening of the way to the innermost sensorium, II., 362.
DETERMINATION: see Relation. The viscera, organs, members, &c., are the
determinations of the essentials, 493; II., 112, 138. The vessels and nerves are
the essential detcrminations, L, 505 ; II., 138. The blood is determined by the ves­
sels, \l2. The essential determinations of the lungs, ",hat, 178. The animal
kingdom forms its own l'roper determinations, 285. There are in the body axillary
and diametral determinations, particular and general, 315. See Organic Fm'ms.
In the dctermination of organic forms there is always a progression from a lesser
unity to a larger, 526. Determinations fiow from the outermost sphere to the
innermost, and from the innermost to the outermost, 544.
DIAPHRAGM: described by Heister, II., 294. By Winslow, 295. It is the con­
currence of the pleura and peritonreum, 300. As it is the complement, the last line,
and the union, of ail the septa of the viscera, so is it also of ail their offices, 301.
It is not only mediately attached to the viscera by their coverings, but immediately
by bands detached from itself, exactly according to the causc in which the viscera
are engnged, ibid. See Pe,'iton(1!ltm. It transmits and immits the nerves of the par
vagum and great intercostal, as internaI bonds, and the blood-vessels, to the same
viscera, 303. As it is the most genernl ligament and uniting medium of ail the
members, so it is the general directory and uniting medium of ail their forces, mo­
tions, offices, and uses, 306. It effuses the puhnonic actions into the viscera and
pal'ts above and below itself, ibid. It receives the last serics of thoracic motions, and
reduces them from l'articulaI' and plural series, to a general and single series, 308.
It acts entirely under the auspices of thc lungs, 309. It is not only a membrane, but
a muscle, and thus compounded of two natures, a passive and an active, rcsulting
in an intermediate or reactive power, 310. It never acts cxcepting when acted upon
by causes in the body, ibid. See Active. The rcason why the phrcnic nen'es come
off from the ccrvical instead of from the intercostal nerves, and almost at right angles,
312. The diaphragm is the most general axillar)' planc of the body, transverse to the
œsophagus as the most general axis, 316. It is a general hypomochlium or centre of
motion, 317. It equilibrates ail parts, and Iimits the .allies of the will within the
circles of nature, 319. It is a trigastric musclc, 320. It communicates the col­
lec:ed forces of the thorax and abdomen to the reolian centl'cs of the lungs, 322.
!ts tendinous space marks the limits of the inthLx ,md contlux of the actions of the
thorax and abdomen, ibid. From the configuration of this tcndinous plane we may
infer the force, or ratio of forces, with which each point of thc circnmference acts,
ibid. The foramen through which the vena cava passes is thc innermost centre of
the diaphragm, 323. Therc are two grcat centres in it, the œsophagus l'uns down
through onc, the "ena cava l'uns up through th~ other; the fornlCr is the centre of
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 617
the sphere of the pulmonary motions, the latter, of the sphere of the pulses of the
heart, 324. The lesser muscle of the diaphragm is not a continuation of the
greater, but its antagonist, 325. It is an axis, because it conjoins the three most
general centres of the body, ibid. The invitation and determination of humor by
and through the cellular tissue of the diaphragm, ibid. During embryonic life it
"ppears to have instituted an intercourse between the pleura and peritonreum, and
between the thymus gland and succenturiate kidneys, 327.
DIGESTION: see Stamach. In its series may be compared to distillation, 162.
Pcrversions of the order of digestion, 163. The stomach and intestines merely
begin the work of digestion and chylification, 278. Digestion in the louse, 514.
In the covered snail, 519. In the cossus, 522.
DISTINCTION. In the mO"st perfect organic fOl'ms, the fibres are thoroughly dis­
criminated from each other, and most distinct in their action, II., 408, 473. Life
ceases with distinction of parts, 409, 47<1. The great mutua! distinctness of the
least forms in young subjects, 474. The mind is bright in proportion as it is dis­
tinct, ibid. Succession and separation in things are necessary conditions of distinct.
ness, 527. See Fœtus, Humar, Organie Fa'Ylls, Tangue, Vm·iety.
DRINKING: see Tangue. Two powers of the tangue and palate unite in the act
of drinking, 79.
DUCTUS CHOLIDOCHUS, described by Winslow, 259.
E."R: see Lm·ynœ. It is constructed on the principle of modified air, II., 449.
See Tauch.
E."TING is natural, and in its rudiments precedes volition, 50. See Tangue.
ECONOMY, the, of the animal kingdom, is replete with order, stupendous,
divine, 339.
EFFECTS derive everything from their causc·s, and these, from their principles,
194. Sec Cause, Efficients, End, Pane"eas, Uo·es. \\11at is natural and what volun­
mry in the body may perhaps be concluded from the nerves, hut more surely and
plainly from elfects, II., 108. Ali nitimate elfects are brought about by mere suc­
cessive mediations, 319. In order to unfold the skin we must have recourse to
elfects, these being more strongly and easily visible than tissues as examined by the
eye, 407. An elfect is the complex and sum of ail its antecedents, 529. See
Saliva, Stomach, Viscus.
EFFICIEl<T: see Cause, Effeet, Pancreas. The unanimous conspiring of effi­
cients and elfects, 276, 293. Their vast multitude, ibid. The continuously succes­
sive progression of efficients and elfects, ibid.
ENDS are ail in ail in means and elfects, 34. ldentity of end conjoins parts,
108. The last tlùngs so conspire with the tirst, that the end of the cause is apparent
from the elfect, 340. The organic form resembles the end inscribed upon it, 341.
The body is a mechanism of elfects, which are ail represented in the soul as ends,
377. See Cause, Effect, Saul, Use. The last elfect or use is the tirst in the cause;
or is the end; and thus completes the circle of uses, 379. In the animal kingdom,
every end is at the same time a beginning, 1., 283; II., 315, 330, 420, 446. We
live more perfectly the more we respect ends, and more sublimely, the higher the
ends, 344. End.~, like causes, describe progressively an entire l'evolution and
circle, 361. See Life. The ultimate end of Providence in human life, is the con·
stitution of a .piritual heaven, a kingdom of God, or a holy society, in which the
end of creation is regarded by God, and by which God is regarded as the end of
ends, 366.

VOL. II. l' T

 618 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

EPILOG UE, the, is analogous in its function to the pe"itonreum, 526.

EQUALITv, oneness and sameness, produce neither order nor degrees, 55, 56.
Nor any society, II., 363. Ali proportion, analogy and relation, perish in equality,
and ail sensation; and even union or unity itself, 477.
EQUATION. The effort of the fluids of the body, and particularly of the blood,
to equilibrium, may be called cquatio'o; referring both to the quantity and quality of
the blood, 274. In the body there is perpetualloss and restitution of equilibriuDl
and l'est, and consequently change of equation, ibid, and 275. The bronchial
artery tends to produce an equation of the cardiac and pulmonic blood, both with
respect to quantity and quality, II., 206.
EQUlLIBRruM: see Action, Equation.
ERRoRs. One source of errOrs is, that we judge of the things that act within
us, from those that pass without us, 173. Another source is, hasty generalizatioll
from a few facts of our own discovery, 267.
EUSTACHIAN TUBE, the use of, 44; II., 47.
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Nothing can be done in any part without
expansion and contraction: they are the vital princil'les of all operations, 286.
The alternate reciprocation and reci procsl alternation of expansion and contraction
produce apparent l'est, in which no motion is discernible; for the general contraction
of the mass, and the synchronous expansion of the glands, give the appearance of
absolute tranquillity, 325. The office of each organ determines its conditions of
expansion and contraction, 340. Inmost and outmost causes simultaneously concur
to the expansion of the fibres, ibid., A wonderful correspondence between expansion
and contraction prevails throughout the system, 341. Ali bodies that expand and
contract alternately have the marks of their motion imprinted on their surfaces,
which marks are generally occupied by the blood-vessels, 401. Necessity for expan­
sion and contraction in the whole and ail parts of the body, and of the universe, IL,
139, 460. The expansion and constriction of the cortical glands of the brain, 158.
\\'hen the blood.vessels are expanded, the spirit-vessels or fibres are compressed,
and vice t'et'sû. See Animation, Atmospheres, Bladder, Kidneys, Liver, Lungs,
Mesentery, Respimtion, Spleen, Succenturiate Kùlneys.
EXPERIENCE is 1'1entiful enongh at the present day to serve analysis for the
discovery of truth, 9, 15. Experimental knowledge, unless so made use of, is
like!y to perish, 9. Care must be taken not to wander far from experience, 18.
The confirmation of experience by reason, and of reason by experience, II., 116,
The various meanings of the word experience, 3H. Experience supplies the objects
of rational analyses, ibid. Particular experience is not sufficient for the discovery of
truth; general experience is required, 349. Experience cannot arrive at truths,
without the aid of the sciences, 350.
EXPIRATION: see Respiration.
EVE. It is constructed on the principle of modified ether, II., 4049.
FAITH. Those who can comprehend spiritual things by faith, need not read the
author's books, 14.
FAT, the, described by Heister, 364. By Malpighi, 368. Comparative anatomy
of, from Swammerdam, 369. It consists of the exuberant portion of the bodily part
of the blood, 373. The blood demands back this deposit, and therewith satisfies its
own hunger, and thnt of the stomach and other visccra, 389. The circulation of the
fat is an appendage to the circulation of the blood, ibid. It increases in purity by
degrees, ibid. The pellicle of a globule of fat is a miniature omentulll, ibid. Its ap­
 INDEX Of' SUBJECTS. 619
parent tenacity is owing to its membranes; in itself it is like the tllinnest milk, ibid.
See Omentum.
FIBRE, each, brings with it the nature ofits parent, 51, 206; II., 409, 416, 454.
The quality of the animus determines that of the fibre, because of tbe spirit thcreof,
L, 52, 339. The fibres of the body return in a circle to the brain, 156, II., 409.
The fibres are a continued brain, L, 157. They are the essential powers and vital
forces of the body, 200. The fibre, in its least forms, as the papillre, &c., accom·
plishes nimbly and distinctly, what in generals, as the tongue, &c., it accomplishes
sluggishly and obtusely, 207, 222. Longing, loathing, and other states, may be pre-
dicated of the fibres, as of the animus of the cerebrum, ibid. See Mesente;'y, Nu.
trition. Nervous fibre acts like muscular fibre, only more perfectly, 216. The
simplest fibres are so mauy determinations of the final ideas of the soul, 242, 339,
488. The simple fibre exclusively is what forms and acts in the kingdom of the soul,
242,339. The nervous fibres generate the vessels by circumvolution, 243; II., 412.
The simplest fibre is the essential form from which ail other forms arc derived, 1.,339.
The nervous fibre, what, 489. The corporeal fibre, 490. Every action of the cere·
brum and cerebcllum is determined through the fibres, and the fibres are determined
into act by their principles, Il., 158. Wherever any fibre prorluces a new corpus.
cule, there it lays aside its former nature, and derives a new uature from its new
body, 409. The fibre of the soul and the fibre of the body, ibid. The corporeal
fibre, why 50 called, -41 O. It CODstructs the inmost or Den'OUS coat of the arteries,
ibid., and 413. It arises in the skin, and terminates in the cortical substances of the
brain, 426. The interstices of the nervous fibres are permeable, as weil as the fibres
themselves, 432. The cortical glands are the principles of the nel'VOUS fibres, 461.
The varieties of fibres, and the confusion that arises by calling themall by one sub·
stantive name, 486. Both the outermost and innermost things are the extremes of
the fibres, 551. See Glands.
FLuIDs. It is a law that they permeate their canals from a greater to a lessel'
diameter, whenever they are going to an outlet, 46. They always tend fl'Om unquiet
to more quiet stations, 47, 386; II., Hl, 255, 286,326,327. The f1uids of the
body described by Heister, L, 234. Intrusion of the tluids is never permitted; lcave
to enter must be givcn, 239, 348. The summoning of tluid to the fibres according to
their need, by a kind of attractive force, II., 81. \Vherever therc are cavities con·
taining organic parts, there must be some humor, vapor, or ungueui', to anoint their
peripheries, radii and axes, that is to say, their joints and articulations, 268. See
Humor.
FŒTUS. The quiescence of the mind, and of many of the organs of the body,
during the fœtal state, 398. Ali things at this time proceed accordlng to the tenor of
nature's ends, 400. And the supreme power of the kingdom de,'olves upon a fe\\'
organs, ibid., 512. See Succenturiate Kidne:~s, Thymus Gland, No l'articulaI'
action scparate from the general action can be produced in the fœtus, and why, II.,
153. The life of the soul in the embryonic body is an order of forCes and operations
proceeding a priori ad posteriOl'a, but the life of the body is an order proceeding
a posteriori ad priora, 154, 262, 332. The conditions of the fœtal state, 263. The
relative perfection of fœtallife, 264. 'What was active beforc birth, became passi"e
and at the same time reactive after birth, 333. The life after birth is the inverse in
order and forces of the life before birth, ibid. The means and accompaniments of
this inversion, 334. In embryonic life the neryous tibre was the pl'oximate cause of
620 INDEX Ol' SU13JECTS.

the hralt's action; but after birth, the venous blood, 335. The perfect distinctness
of ail the structures in the embryo, HO. See Brain, Influx, Soul.
FoncE. Everything is modcllcd to the forces acting upon it, II., 450. See
Ae/ioll, Lungs, Potcney.
FORM. Every l'article has its own form and figure, 52. The least forms are the
antetypcs of the larger, 53. \Vhencvcr an action is intendcd, a eorresponding motion
is iuduccd, and a fonn corrcsponding to the motion gcnerated; thus the form of sub­
stances coincides with the form of the active forces; and of the motion producing the
action, 124. Forms aseend from lowest to highest, in order and by degrees, 126.
The degrees of forms are the angular, circulaI', spiral, "ortical, eelestial, and spi­
ritnal, ibid. The large, compound, and visible forms in the body, exist and subsist
from smaller, simpler, and invisible forms, whieh act like the larger, but more per­
feetly and universally, 129. \Vhatever is manifestcd in compound and u!timatc,
arises ft'om simple and primai forms, 130. The higher forms assume relations like
those of the gl'eat sphere of nature, 134, The simple eircle is not the most perfect
of forms, and why, II., 314. Our innermost fOI'ms are nourishcd by terrestrial, our
outermost by cele~tial, food, 446. See Angles, Cirelc, Spiral.
FORMs, DOCTRIl<E OF, 10, 11, 126. Nature's miracles iR the animal body cano
not be explored without a doctrine of forms, 198; II., 314. See Forma.
FORTIUS, ANGELUS, taught that the finer parts of the food ascend to the brain
through the radicles of the nen'es, 40.
FUTURE LIFE, the, II., 265.
GALL-BLADDER, the, described by Hei.tcr, 255. By \Vinslow, 259. Il is the
nltimate asylum of the unclcan and obsolete blood, 297, \Vhatever im purities cau­
not be defecated in the liver, are sent away into the gall.bladder, 298. Il derives its
bile, not from the liver, but from the rccrcmentitious blood of the gemellre cysticre,
299. Comparison betwecn the gall-bladder and the large intestines, 300. Il is a
blood.intestine and gall-colon; and also resembles the urinary bladder; being the
excretory vessel of the impure blood, as the Ul'inary bladder, of the impure serum,
301. Il in\'îtes to it the impUl'e blood, and hy what means, ibid. Chcmical exami­
nation throws no light upon the origin of the gall, 297, 30;,. Sce Livet'.
GENERAL, or COMMON. Nature for the most part produces a gencral on the
model of particulars, 48. From gcnerals we may expatiate into particulars, 74.
Every general deri\'es its nature from parts, 194. Neeessity for general principles,
235, See Univcrsal. A gencral is what contains and distinguishes a universe, its
integers and singular., 492; and II., 390. There are as many general limitations
and boundings, as essential parts, or detcrminations of essentials, 1., 492. A general
is more universal in proportion as it is less general, 493. Sec Mcmbmnc and PCI'i­
tonœU1n. In proportion as any part is loose from and ttnconfined by its general, ils
importance in the society of the body is diminished, 501. The general bonds are
relaxed by degrees as life advances, 505. \Vhcrever tbere is a l'articulaI', there is a
corresponding general, II., 19, 115. Singular states arc in no way changed by the
supe~induetion of general states, 58. \Vhat is l'l'Opel' to one thing mnst also be com·
mon to aU, 107, 120, 253, 260. Thegenerallife is but the sum and eomplex ofindi.
vidual lives, 192. The laws of influx relating to the common bonds or general
membranes, 234. Sec .Diaplll·agm. Partieular states c.onstitute the general state,
319. The parts always construct their general, and bring it forth from their own
body, 390. In cvery unanimous society everything must l'efcr itsclf to sorne gcneral,
 INDEX 01" SUBJECTS. 621
402. What is common grows out of its parts, and not vice versâ, 414. See Heart.
The form of the general is perfected when the form of the part or unity is perfected.
527. See Natnl·e.
GEOMETRY: see Philosoplty. The function of geometry in anatomical science,
Il., 350.
GLANDS. the, described by Nuck, 224. By Malpighi, 227. By Boerhaave, 230.
List of them from Nuck, 233. The conglobate glands rcgul~te the quantity and
qualityof the lymph, 239. The conglomeratc glands are so many models of labora­
tories, preparing infinite species' of humors, ibid. They are in a continuai series,
ibid. The uses of which they are the canses, are general, specific, and particular, 240.
A general idea of their operations, 241. AU their conditions are accommodated
thereto, ibid, Every gland in the animal kingdom enjoys a plenary communion of
its goods and f1uids, ibid. Sec lIfesentery. The soul disposes aU the processes of
the glands by the simplcst fibres, 242. The fibres composing the conglomerate
glands are fourfold in origin, nature, use, and determination, 243. The conglomerate
and conglobate glands are mutually antagonistic in their functions; the former de­
stroying the blood, the latter restoring it, 245, 246. Ali the glands, and the elements
of ea~h, have their differences and similarities, ibid. A small gland, if harshly pro­
voked, l'ours forth as much saliva as a large gland that is t"eatcd with mildness, 11.,
280. Necessity for rcgulative glands to preside over the excretion of the sweat, 417.
The glands lend themselves to aU circumstances, and supply whatcver is desired, 439.
Sec Pancreas, Pitni/m'Y Gland, Thymus Gland.
GOODNESS. The faculty of apprehending the goodness of forms is innate in both
the external and internaI senses, 1; IL, 154, 345. See Affections.
GRAVITY: see 1I1icrocosm. The parts received into the body are exempted from
the ordinary laws of gravity, 80; II., 285. Exemplified in the œsophagus, L, 99.
In the stomach, 134. In the intestincs, 172,474. And specifically in the jejunum
and ileum, 177.
GYRE: see Spiral.
HAIR. The hair that appears on the chin at puberty results from the afflux
thither of the pituitary and oily lymph of the sheath of the spinal marrow, Il., 77.
HEART, the, is produced, and excited to motion, by the small "eins, 15(;.
Sanguification is primarily performed in the heart, 213. The heart is a chemical
vessel for preparing liquids to enter into the composition of the blood, 214. Hs
motions are principaUy kept up by the afflux of blood fl'Om the brains and medullœ ;
but not by the blood of the bod)', 215. The heart and lungs supply ail the mem.
bers of the body with blood, 337. The heart's office consists in gathering the blood,
and transmitting it to every corner of the body, but Ilot in assigning to the viscera
the quantity or quality that their offices require, 348. See Int'itation, Lungs. No
part demands a freer sphere of activity thlln the heart, II., 234. Terms of the
covenant between the heart and lungs, 235. After birtl. the heart is raised into
diastole by the influx and impulse of the venous blood; ils systole being the result
of the reaction of ils nervous fibres, ibid. Before birth the heart acquired its power
of action immediately from the fibrcs of the cerebellllm. Thus it was actllutcd by
internal causes before birth, by external causes after birth, 238, 239. It unlocks
the lungs by means of the pulmonary artery, 340. The hcart grows ont of its
arteries and "cins, and not vice versil, 414. It is the common centre of the blood.
vessels, but is not a collcction of a number of centres, like other part" ,IR;'. .lt j,
the invcrse of other sphcrcs of thc bod)', and ho\\', 191.
622 IXDEX OF SUBJECTS.

HEAT, the degrees of, in the body, 133.

HUMOR. The recrementitious humors always perform Some use before they are
thrown out, 183. The use of one humor is a means 1.0 the use of another, 239.
The humors, and the glands that produce them, are correlatives with respect 1.0 use,
240. The purer animal juices aspire not onll' 1.0 the prolongation, but 1.0 the pel'.
petuation of life, ibid. There is no possible humor 1.0 which the blood cannot give
genesis, origin, and existence, 242. Ali the humors institute a continuai circuit,
after the image of the circulation of the blood, 293, 379, 380. Every humor that
naturc prodl1ces is of so perfect and consummate a character as 1.0 be a universal
menstruum, 326. See IUember. Ali humors constantly follow the parietes of parts,
and descend along their plane surfaces; and never escape from the middle of an
aperture, unless their quantity be superabundant, II., 37, 275. See Fluid. In
order that ail things may act distinctly, they must be kept separate by an interfluent
and circulllfluous humor, 269.
HUN'GER and thirst are a general desire, arising from the sum of particular
desires in ail the veins, 85. The singulars and individual elements of the body are
what really hnnger and thirst, 207, 236.
IDEAS: sec Life. There are no innate ideas, 2; II., 345. The higher idcas
arc generated by a continuai formation and as il. were multiplication of the lower
ideas, 343,351. This process supposes the influx of a spiritual powcr, ibid. Ideas
in themselves are material; but when disposed in analytic order, they are no longer
to be reckoned material, bnt rational, 344, 351. \Vhen the ideas of imagination are
disposed in a rational scries, there arises an intimate sight which constitutes thought,
348.
hlAG1NAT10N is referable to the first internai sense which comes next 1.0 ocular
vision, II., 95. It cannot reduce the materials in the memory to any order but that
which affects the external senses and the inferior mind of the body, 354. It is thc
activity of the memory, ibid. In respect of sensation, it is nearly at one with
ocular sight, 442. It is distinct from both sight and thought, ibid. It exists in
brutes devoid of reason, but thought is properly human, ibid.
INCITATION. Ali parts of the body are excited by Il propulsive, active, and
living force, which mal' be called incitation, 274, 294. See Attraction and Invita­
tion. The general cause of incitation or propulsion is t.he unanimous effort of the
spirits to e'luilibrium, 275. Incitation in thc gall-bladder, 301. The office of each
organ determines its incitation and invitation, 340. Incitation is produced bl' con­
traction, ibid.
INDUCTION. \Ve may pass with unfailing induction from continents to con­
tents, and vice versa, 185, 219.
INFIDELITY. Its intellectual accompaniments and moral consequences, 14, 15.
The author indites his work for those who believe nothing but what they can sec; thus
to open up a new way of approach 1.0, and acknowledgment of, spiritual things, 15.
INFLUX. After birth ail things flow inversely, or from without to within, II.,
335, 336. See Fœtus.
INFUNDIDUI.UM, the, represents a preëminent Iymphatic, 251.
INSPIRATION: see Respiration.
INTELLECT, the human, how generated, II., 346.
INTELLIGENCE. There are three causes that lead to intelligence; cxperience is
the first or ministering cause; the scienccs arc the second or mediate cause; the
faculty of thinking distinctly is the third or efficient causc, II., 347. These three
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 623
causes willnot conduct to intelligence of real truths unless we extinguish the impure
fires of the body, and our OWn delusive lights, 357.
INTERCOSTAL VESSf;J,S. The blood does not enter them synchronously with
the cardiac, but synchronously with the pulmonic movements, 217; II., 246. They
come off at right angles from the aorta, 246.
l~TERCOSTAL NERVE, the great, arises from the cerebellum, II., 455, and
plUisim.
I)[TESTINES, the, described by Heister, 140. By Winslow, 144. Comparative
anatomy of, from Leeuwenhoek, 150. From Swammerdam, 151. Curious particu­
lars of, and remarkable ingesta found in, from Schurig, 153. Authors to be con­
sulted respecting, 154. The intestines are a new, continued, or consecutive stomach,
157. They are analogous to the stomuch in thcir structures, 158. The spires in
the concave surface of the stomach are developed into equal solids in the intestines,
159, 160. Theil' motion and flmdon are spiral, 160, 194. The operations of the
alimentary canal are successive, like the articulations, 160. The intestines receive
from the stomach nothing but its refuse, 162. They treat the food successively with
more vehement motion, grosser heat, longer delay, and a more acrid menstruum,
ibid. Each articulation effeets and produces something particular for itself, some­
thing general for what comes after it, and something most general for all in the
series, 163. Eaeh has its own spring of saliva, 164, 181. The intestines perform
movcments synchronous with those of the lungs, ibid., 515, 520. The movements
l'un from node to node, to and fro, 165. The small intestines wreathe forwards to
the valvula coli; the large, backwards to the same point, ibid. They meet at the
valve during diastole, but mutually recede from it during systole, 166. The cœcum
is thcir field of expansion, 166. The simple expansion and contraction of their mus­
cular coat produces their movements, 167. Theil' dilatation involves their extension;
their contrac~ion, their retraction, 168. The intestinal gyre respects the fimbriated
border of the mesentery as its central circ1e, and the receptaculum chyli as the centre
again of this circ1e, 169. See Gravity, Mesentery, Spiral. The intestines first
throw their contents from their axis, or continued centre, to their concave parietes ;
and so into their cellular coat; where another force transfers them to the receptaculum
chyli, 171. The duodenum inaugurates the intestines into their spiral form and mo­
tion, 174. It digests the exhausted and undigested contents of the stomach, and im­
bibes their first products, ibid. None of the vapor taken up by ,the arteries of the
intestines rises immediately to the cortical substances of the brain, ibid. The glands
and papillœ of the intestines absorb t1uids, and do not ex crete mncus) 175,196. The
intestines do not give, but receive, ibid. Rationale of the operation of purgatives,
ibid. The glands and papillœ are the principles of the intestines, 176. The duoèe.
num is capable of an inverse movemcnt, 177. The action of the jejunum, ibid. lt
evacuates its contents more rapid'ly than the others, 179. Office of its valvulœ con·
niventes, ibid. The ileum imbibes none but the less pure chyle, ibid. The cœcum
and valvula coli, 180. The appendix cœci vermiformis is the tongue of the balance
of the intestinal motion; and pours a tluid into the large intestines, 181. This fluid
is proximately obtained from the cellular coat of the intestines; remotely from the
cellular coats of the peritonœum and abdominal viscera, 182. The harsh and violent
action of the colon, 184. It retains and macerates the food, ibid. The rectum, 185.
INVITATION. AU parts of the body are excited by an attractive physical force,
corresponding to incitation, which muy be called invitation, 274, 294. See Liver.
The general cause of invitation is the unanimous effort of the t1uids of the body,
624 I~DEX 01<' SUBJECTS.

and particularly of the blood, to equilibrium, ibid. See Equation. Invitation of

the blood by the gall-bladder, 301. See Incitation. Invitation is a kind of attrac­
tion, 340. It is brought about by the particular fabric, situation, connexion, modus
opcrandi, and activity of the viscera, 348. See Attraction. By virtue of a corre­
sponding invitation and incitation, there is an equation and perpetuai circle of ail
things, and each has its conditions from the eommunity, 360. Embryos suck out
the maternai blood through the umbilical vessels; so that the blood is not poured in
by the womb without invitation, 408. The air does Ilot rush into the nares un­
bidden, but is attraeted and invited, II., 12. Likewise into the lungs, ibid. No
humor eyer crosses without invitation into the region of another humor, 260. Not
a drop of t1uid can t10w into the bed of an organ, without the organ inviting it, and
determining both the quantity and qnality to be supplied, 279. The heart invites
the liquor pericardii into the pericardium, ibid. See Aorta, Spleen.
JAWS, the, described by Heister, 60. Their muscles, 62.
KIDNEYS, the, and the Ureters: described by Heister, 415. Dy ~rinslow, 416.
By Malpighi, 420. Authors to be consulted respecting, 425. The kidneys are most
busily actuated by alternate expansions and contractions, in the whole and in every
part, 431. \Vhich are synchronous with the mo\-ements of the respiration, 432.
The sinuosity of the kidneys is their central region of motion, from wlùch their ex­
pansion and contraction begins, into which it returns, and where it terminates, 432.
The cerebellum by menns of the fibres keeps up their interiOi' motion; the lungs, by
means of the peritonreum and diaphragm, their exterior motion, 434. When we
know their motion and structure, we can undcrstand their modus operandi, 436.
They expunge the stale serum from the artcrial blood, and how, 436. The vessels
prolonged from the foramina of the blood-vessels of the kidneys, are the first and
simplest urinary duets, 441. The mode in which the urine is excreted and eminged,
ibid. The primitive ureters, the middle ureters, and the ultimate ureters, what, 444.
The kidneys act upon the serum by violent detrusion, ibid. The tubuli uriniferi are
wider above than below, the inverted pyramidal form reigning throughout the urinary
series, 446. From the outcast serum, throughout its passage, the veins recover and ab­
sorb the finer elements of the blood, 44 7. The lymphaties redeem its spirituous and
essential palts, 449. The suprarenal glands also rescue their portion, 451. The spiri­
tual meaning of " Searching the reins," 431. The kidneys draw off the sluggish and
noxious phlegm from the peritonooum, and perhaps a portion of the effete fat, 452.
The results effected by them are brought about with infinite variety, according to the
states induced by internai, intermediate, or external causes, 454. The varieties in
the urine have corresponding to them as proximate causes the same number of changes
of state in the body of the kidneys, 455. See Blood, Serum, Spiral.
LAcTEALs, the, described by Heister, 187. By Winslow, 190. Authors to be
consulted respecting, 191.
LARYNX, the: see Tongue. The larynx modifies sounds, 77. Described by
Heister, II., 39. Dy Winslow, 41. Observations on, by Morgagni, 44. Authors
to be consulted respecting, 45. The larynx and the ear are correlated as active and
passive, and commuuicate with each other by two ways, 46. Unlike the other
organs of the senses, their construction cornes within the sphere of sight, 48. AU
the mysteries of acoustics, music, and harmony, are inscribed on them by nature,
ibid. The larynx ur,dertakes and performs the first department of offices in respira­
tion, modulation, and speech, 50. It must have acquired the faculty of opening
the glottis into aU measures, figures and forms whatever, that can be described by
 INDEX OF SUllJECTS. 625
the geometric compasses, or snmmed nI' by the analytic calculns; namely, l'rom the
line or fissure, throngh ail possible intermediate curves, both simple, and com­
pounded and mixed in infinite ways, to the complete cirele, 52. It must be able
to dimiuish and enlarge these diversiform apertures of the glottis, that is to say, the
diameters of the above-mentioned figures, within stated limils, and by reason of thc
varied dimension, to dilate the field, and multiply the details of the modifications,
57. It must have the power of disposing and conforming the cavity of its tuhe com­
prehended by the cartilages, to the whole nature of sound, to the relative size of the
aperture of the glottis, and to the correspondent condition of the palate, the tongue,
the lips, and the month, 62, At the very moment when singing or speaking are in­
tended, the membranes must be put in readiness to receive the sonorous tremblings,
and instantly prepared for the proximate series of varieties, 63. The uses of the
ventrieles of the larynx, ibid., and 68, 70, 73. The laryngeal tnbe, with ail the ap­
paratus below and above il., l'rom the lungs to the aperture of the month, mnst sull'er
itself to be extended or contracted, suitably to every heightening or lowering of the
sound, 68. There is li correspondence between the apertmes of the mouth, palate,
and glottis, in speech particularly, 70. The larynx must have acquired the power
of heginning the sonorous modification at any point whateve\', and of determining il.
whithersoever and in whatsoever qnantity il. pleases, either throngh the labial orifice,
or through the nares; also of stopping il. suddenly in midway, snspending il., and
thus brellking il. articulately, introducing pauses, taking il. up again, continuing and
limiting il., according to the articulations and breathing times i1l speech, 70, 71, 72,
73, 75. In order that the power of performing these offices may subsist in perpetuaI
integrity in its organic parts and membranes, the larynx must renovat.e them in such
manner and measure as use demands, with an unfailiug spring of the most snitable
hnmor, 77. The laryn.x subserves the pharynx in the office of ellting, 82. By the
disposition of the epiglottis, ibid. Dy securing the glottis, 83. Dy reducing the
glottis to a mere fissure, and unlocking the sphincter of the phal'ynx, 84.
LEASTS: sec Atmosphere, Fibre, Form, Liver, Lungs, 1I'lotion, Or,çan, Sue/ion.
The stomach consista of lesser and least stomachs, exercising mOre perfect and uni­
versaI offices than the large stomach itself, 131. The nniverse is only the SUffi of
infinite similar leasts, 173. \\'hen the vessela are in their leasts, they perform their
play with the most perfect distinctness, 283. The least glands of the hody are the
principles of ail operations; and also the ends; and therefore resemble centres, 286.
The lungs derive their nature l'rom their centres, or leasts, II., 195. The least vessels
in the lungs govern the larger, 197, Everything in the visible world has its determi­
nate maximum and minimum, and proceeds l'rom its maximum to its minimum, and
vice versa, 469. The viscera educe l'rom their leasts their power of operating, 475.
The greatest is represented in the least, and vice versil, 476. The least fibres that
engender each papilla of the skin are whal. give il. essence and potency as a compound,
548.
LIFE, in its essential form, is not predicable of the body and the blood, but only
of the soul and the spirit, 204. Did we not live our life in single parts, consequcntly
in the single individualitics of the blood, we could not possibly live in the whole, or
general congeries of the parts, II., ln. See General. 'Ve are only instmments
or organs of one life, fl'om which one intrnmental cause flows into anothe,', 319.
The pl'ogression of life l'rom infancy to adult age, or from sensations to ideas, ncxt
to higher or imaginative ideas, and then to intellechlal ideas, 343. The euds of the
inversion of the order of life, 361. The proximate ends, ibid. The remote ends,
VOL. II. UU
G2G INDEX Ol;' SUBJECTS.

:~64. The ultimate end, 366. There are three common fountains of life, the brain,
the lungs, and the heart, 429.
LIPS, the, described by Heister, 59. By Winslow, 65. Authors to be con·
sulted respecting, 69. The passage l'rom the lips to the intestines is partitioned by
seven doors, 70. The lips commence, and conspire with, the office.;; of the tongue ;
and enable thc fac~ to express the affections of the cerebrum, 71, 72, 74.
LIVER, the, described by Heister, 253. By \Vinslow, 256. Particulars respect.
ing, l'rom Malpighi, 261. Comparative anatomy of, l'rom Swammerdam, 262.
Authors to be consulted respecting, 263. It is the general purificatory and defeca·
tory of the chyle, the blood, and the sel'Um, 266, 277, Its functions are the comple.
ment of those of the other abdominal viscera, ibid., 277. Its operations may be
termed, perpetuai chylitication, 269. It receives the erude chyle and impure blood,
and mixes them together, 278. See Chyle. Thc glands of the liver are sa many
least livers, 280, 286. They are the centres and meeting-places of the abdominal
viscera, 282. The relative position of the hepatic vessels in them, what, ibid. The
ramifications of the vena portœ probably serve these glands as a basis and wall, 283.
The hepatic artery necessary for the defecation of the chyle and the lustration of the
blood in the liver, 284. It does not primarily nourish the liver, 285. The little
capsule of each hepatic gland is permeable, ibid. There is an alternate expansion
and contraction of ail the constituents of the liver, 286. The hepatic duct, and the
stomach and intestines, exert a similar elaboration and action on the chyle, 289.
The cellular tissue of the liver is a most multiple prolongation of the capsule of
Glisson, and external membrane, 290. The biliary passages work and treat the
chyle just as the stomach and intestines do the food; and div ide and lay open the
antiquated blood, and marry it ta the chyle, ibid. The hepatic veins pass at right
angles into the branches of the vena cava, hecause the sphere of the liver there ends,
and that of the heart begins, 291. Powers and forces are almost redundantly luxu­
riant in it, 293. Ali its parts conspit'e ta one course of action, ibid. It expands
and contracts synchl"Oliously with the lungs, giving rise to an incitation of ail its
parts, 294. They are also invited to the same movements, 295. Ali the actions of
the liver proceed so tranquilly that scarcely any motion is perceptible, ibid. The
hepatic duct is analogous to the small intestines; the gall-bladder, to the large, 301.
See Blood, Panclwl8. The liver corrects the hard blood, and refines the chyle and
inaugurates it iuto the blood, 355. It demands back the embodiment of the blood,
l'rom the omentum particularly, 390. Sec Gall-bladder.
LUNGS. Ali the viscera of the abdomen are under the government of the lungs,
107. The motions of the lungs pour forth into ail points of the body, as do the
lungs themselves by the pulmonary pipes in insects, 156. See Head. The lungs
provide the melubers with a universal motion, 337. We contcmplate ail parts of
the lungs in the trachea, as the smallest effigy in the largest, Il., 93. Description of
the lungs by Heister, 121. By Winslow, 124. Their structure described by Mal­
pighi, 128. Particulars respecting them by Morgagni, 132. Comparative anatomy
of them l'rom Swammerdam, 133. The uatural state of the lungs is a state of con­
traction 143, 145, 147. Not only do the lungs themselves respire, but they also
cause the whole organic system to respire along with them, 150. They cause ail the
vis('cra to operate in accordance ta their nature and structure, inspiring force into
potency, 152. They are the very gymnasia of the excrcises, effects, and uses corre­
sponding ta the end., or intuitions of the soul, 153. \Vhat the pulsations of the
arteries and the respirations of the lungs respectively contribute to the excitation of
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 627
the organs, ibid.; and II., 461. The lungs extend their motive action to the heart
and artcrics, 1., 155. The corporeal life is the result of the union of the blood of
the heart with the spirit of the lungs, 156. Their respiration ~xtends to the cere­
brum, and associates itself with its animations, 157, 336. The lungs, the brains, and
the spinal cord perform synchronous movemcnts, and why, ibid., and 336. The lungs
conspire in the way of general assistance, to ail the motions, effects, and actions of
the body, common and partieular, natural and voluntary, 159. How they aecommo­
date themseh'es, by infinitely varying states, to the varieties of action, 161. The
external muscles alone are made use of to induce upon the lungs the various states of
respiration, ibid. The lungs can dispense the air to every form of action, 163. The
air is summoned from one lobule into another according to every requirement; so
that the cavity of the chest may be disposed variously to a single action, while the
quantity of air remains the same, ibid. DUl'ing the waking state the lungs associate
and marry the voluntal'Y motive life originating from the cerebrum, with the natural
motive life f10wing from the cerebellum, 164, 339. They supel'add to actions some­
what of their own powers and propertics, and inspire them with a kind of fire, 167,
168, 339. They concur with the trachea, the larynx, and the palate, to produce,
exalt, and regulate the sounds of singing and speech, 168. See Sound and Speech.
The brains and the lungs concur with unanimous spirit to produce every effect in the
body; and are so absolutcly united, that when the one moves the other moves, and
when the onc stops the other stops, 173. The lungs initiate the sensual life of the
body, ibid. They are the general colatones of the blood, and evaporatories of its
aweats, 177. They do not really purify the blood, but only correct its serum, 183.
Analogy between their office and that of the kidneys, ibid. They are the refectories
of the blood, the preparatol'ies that change it from venous to arterial, and the lustra­
tories of the air, 186. See Atmosphere. They are the appendages and productions
of the heart, and not vice versil, 193. In the pulmonic field of leasts, or the vesicles,
reside the essential pneumonie power and nature, as well as the circulatory power
that propels the blood in the lungs, 195, 237. The interlobular cells of the lungs
with their vascular l'ete are always in a state of expansion as weil as of contraction;
one half of them constantly alternating through these states with the other half, 196.
Effects of this upon the pulmonary circulation, 197. See Le(JJJls. The pulmonary
vessels are completely peyond the sphere of the heart's activity, and undergo their
systole and diastole synehronously with the movements of the respiration, 197.
Likewise the l'ete mirabile, 198. Attraction of the blood by the l'ete mirabile, illus­
trated, ibid. See Bronc/lial Artery, Respiration. The lungs manifest what the
brains conceal, 211. After the lungs are opened all action is invèrted, or proceeds
from without to within, 227, 262. See Animation, Brain, Heart. External causes
actuate both the lungs and heart to perfol'm their rcciprocations, 237. The lungs
draw forth the spirit through the nel'ves into the whole corporeal system, 239, 338.
When the order of life is inverted at birth, the lungs perform a mediatorial office be­
tween the soul and the body, and thus prevent the fabrics from being ruined in the
revolution, 336. They live and aet entirely under the cerebrum, 339. They in no
rcspect disturb the movements of the heart, ibid. The heart and brain are eoncentred,
by means of their external coats, in the innermost parts of the lungs, and thus ae­
knowledge thc lungs as mediators between the operations of both, 341. The humor
in the cells of the lungs performs the offices of a vehicle and menstruum, and how,
proved, 506. The three offices of the lungs, ~ 11.
LYMPH, the, is the true purer blood, 219. Its nature is shewn by its vessels,
628 INDEX OF SUllJECTS.

ibid. It and the chyle require but a slight force to impel them, 220. It is the link
betwecn the chyle and the spirit, ibid. It is a kind of ultimate saliva, and digests
the chyle as the common saliva digests the food, ibid. It inaugurates the chyle into
the blood, 221. Its return into the blood is always attended with an acquisition of
new chyle and new spirit, 273. The lymph thrown out rises to the surface of the
viscera, and is there first taken up by the lymphntics, 289.
LYMPHATIC GLANDS of thc mouth and neck, described by Winslow, 68.
LYMPHATICS, the, described by Hcister, 211. See Blood, Ccllulm' Coat, Infun.
dibulum, Pancreas. The ceUular tissue is the emporium of the lymphaties, 289.
The lymphatics demand back the spirituous parts and valuable essences of things,
and restore them to the blood, 448.
MAGNETISM, a kind of, pervades the wodd, 215.
MALPIGHI, his opinion, that somewhat of the subtler food is sucked up by the
minute papillre of the tangue, 40. See Fortiu8.
MAN is born in dense ignorance, 7.
MEANS. There is a kind of chain and cil'cie of menns, 240; II., 361.
MEDIASTINUM, the, described by Heister, II., 212. It is probably a reservoir
for humors, 278.
MEMDER, every, can imbibe aU it wants l'rom the common lake, 102, 208, 241.
See Glands, Mesentery. No member puts forth aU its forces on contiguous and
continuous members, 107; II., 339,340. This law prevails in the minutest parts,
1., 107. Each articulation of the intestincs has its own sphere of activity, 163.
The nature of every member, and the part it plays, œn be learnt only from the
whole, and l'rom its connexion with the whole, 267, 297, 310. The more universal
the cause, the more members concur to it, 311, 314. \Vhatever the members desire
or demand {rom the universal mass of the blood, is accorded to them, 337, 341 ;
II., 289. Likewise whate"er the parts of the members require, as the glands, and
the vessels and fibres, 1., 338. AU members that are covcred by a loose sac, are
surrounded by a peculiar humor, 386. lliustrated by machines, 387. Members,
viscera, and organs, mean distinct things, 488.
~'lEMBRAIŒ: see Diapl,ragm, Peritonœum, Pleura, Tongue. The membranes
of the body specified, 486. Each communicates with the othcrs in proportion as
the organs they enclose are dignificd in office and aet in society, ibid. Each makes
common, special, and particular cause with the viscera and members that it em­
braces, ibid., 493. The common covering produces itself in order into ail its
viscera, and their parts, and parts of parts; and ",hy, 494. Sel' Oryanic Forma.
MEMORY is the trcasurer of the stores of expel'Îence, II, 349. Both experience
and the sciences are matters of the memory, 353.
MESENTEItY, the, described by Heistcr, 186. By \Vinslow, 188. Its glands,
189. Authors to be consulted respecting, 191. By ail their gyrcs the intestines
respect the orbit or plane of the mesentery and mesocolon, 195. The mesentery is
distinct from the mcsocolon because the motions of thc large and small intestines are
reciprocal, 195. Through the mesentery the intestines respect the receptacnlum
chyli as the centre of a circ1e, 195. The powers that transfer the chylc l'rom the
ci.rcumference of the intestines, bc10ng to the mescntery; and are gencral, specifie,
partieular, and individual. 198. The mesentery expands and contracts synehro­
nously with the lungs, stomach, and intestines, 198. This givcs rise to a physieal
attraction of thc chyle and lymph, 199. The blood-vessels enter the mesentery by
lill opposite way to thc ncrvous fibres, 201. The plexuscs of the abdominal viscera
 INDEX OF SUllJECTS. 629
re"pect that of the mesentery as their principal and central plexus, 200. Not a
fibre l'rom the cerebrum enters the mesentery, and why, 205. The fibres in thc
mesentery represent the states of their principles in the brains, and exercise longing,
loathing, &c., 206. See Fibre. The glands in the mesentery can imbibe their
milk l'rom the common lake, and l'rom all the streams at once, 208.
MICROCOSM: sec Gravity. The microcosm imitates the maCl'Ocosm in ail its
properties, 134, 173. There are innumerable microcosms in the macroc:osm, 103.
The body is exempt l'rom the laws and power of the macrocosm, 193; II., 12,382.
A mixed action of the microcosm and macrocosm commences in the bladder and
rectum, 1., 474. Man, as weil as every individual living subjec:t, is a microco.m,
II., 382. Whut the microcosm derives l'rom the great world, and what l'rom it.elf,
383. Analogy between the microcosm and the macroscosm, 383, 392, 444.
MODIFICATION, doctrine of, 10, Il. Its universality and importance in nature,
II., 49. We cannot be iustructed respecting it better thun by nature herself in the
auimul kingdom, 50. In order to learn the nature of modifications a posteriori,
we have only to study the lungs, 140.
MORAL. The existence of the moral sphere supposes that of the uatural and
the spiritual, consequently, of the rational, 11., 363.
MOTION. In ail parts of the body there are l'articulaI', special, und general
motions, 217. The form of motion, what, ibid. In every member intended for
motion there is throughout a relation of circumference, axes, and centre, 432. In
the kidneys the confluence of infinite little motions produces a single and general
motion, 433. The division of viscera into lobes is an evident sign of motion, 434.
See Sense. The natural and preternatural motions of the visœra, 500; II., 112.
The motions of the body are natural, voluntary, and mixed, ibid. There are threc
general sources of motion, viz., the animation of the brain, the systole and dias­
tole of the heart, and the respiratiou of the lungs, 138. The motions of the heart
and arteries only give existence and life in potency; those of the brain and lungs
give life iu act, 139. Motion and connexion of parts are exact correlatiyes, 22G.
The determination of substances involvcs a corresponding determination of ac:cidents
and motions, ibid. In reality the only universal motions are those of the brains
aud heart, 242. See Substance.
MOUTIt and FAUCES, comparative anatomy of, l'rom Swammerdam, G8. The
varieties in shape and size produced in the month by the muscles, 73. Necessity of
the mouth as the moveable centre of the face, 75. The parietes of the mouth eat
and drink the purer extracts of the food, and the saliva, 84.
MUSCLES, the voluntary, require a more clean and agile blood than the viscera,
and why, 350. The moving fibres are the active forces of thc body, of which the
tendinous fibres are thc nltimate determinations, IL, 319. The cause of muscular
motion is to be sought in the conflicting actions of the blood upon the vessels and of
the spirit upon the fibres, 445.
MUSIC. Ali the instruments of voice suifer themselyes to be influenced by the
inmost principles of music, 77. Sec Larynx.
NAR>:S: see Nase.
NATURE persists constantly in her measures and degrees, 48. Nature and the
will have their separate departments, 51; II., 148. Nature develops ail the re­
sources of art and science l'rom their innermost grounds and principles, 1., 123. She
advunces progressively in ail her operations, 132. She never takes the most trifling
step, exœpt in order, according to luws, and for an end, 168, '342, 378. Every
630 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

l'article has an order and nature of its own, 193. ln the animal kingdom, the
empire is divided between nature and the intellect, 205. Nature is almost universally
occupied in preparing series of menstrua, more and more universal, to prolong the
life of the body, 235. Nature continually reduces her universes to a kind of chaos,
that shI' may select ail things therefrom, and distribute them in their places, 279;
Il., 176, 342. ln the animal kingdom the word nature signifies ail that principle
which sets in the cause, 1., 377. Sel' Soltl. Whenever nature is mentioned, the
soul is meant thereby, 398. Nature makes use of various means to recall detached
parts to thcir general, 501. ShI' is the mistress of ail arts and sciences, and the
principle of ail minds and faculties, 502. There is perpetuai contention between
nature and the will, Il,, 56. Nature's perfection c<;msists in influencing and inspir.
ing l'very particular with a common spirit, and making one thing satisfy the neces­
sities of many, 80, 105. Whatever proceeds in consecutive order from prior to
posterior, flows according to nature's stream, but what proceeds from posterior to
prior, too oftcn goes contrary to nature, 103, 262. Ali activity resulting from the
will tends to disturb the natural position and connexion of parts, and nature is
obliged altemately to take the reins from the will, and restore them, 149, 165, 166.
The will acts from without to within, but nature from within to without, 161, 165,
209. The force of nature decreases as that of the will increases, and vice versâ,
209. Nature is perpetual in her measures, proportions, and rules, and her govern.
ment lies in equilibrium and equation, 281. That which must be accounted preter­
natural in natural life, may be natural in the preternaturallife that we live at this
day, 282. Nature and the will flow wonderfully into each other as it were in gyres,
455. The absurdity of attributing life to nature, 554.
NERvEs. The importance of rational neurology, 44. The fifth nerve comes
chiefly from the cerebrum, and is distributcd to the sensoria of the body; the eighth,
from the cerebellum, and belongs to nature, and not to the will, or consciO\lsness,
50, 5 J. The nerves of the cerebellum are nerves of nature; those of the cerebrum,
nerves of the will, II., 108. See Diapl,ra!1m. The action of the phrenic nerves
does not proceed from the expansion and constriction of the spinal marrow, but of
the lungs, and why, 313.
NOSE, the, described by Heister, IL, 1. By Winslow, 5. Authors to be
consulted respecting, 8. The nares open the way, and allow the lungs the possi.
bility of respiring, Il. They temper with a gentil' warmth the air which is entering,
12. They impregnate with a dewy vapor the air that is departing, 14. They cleanse
and purify the air from floating l'articles of dust and noxious exhalations, ibid.
They anticipate by the sense of smell what the atmosphere of the circumambient
world carries in its bosom, 15. By a kind of unison, they regulate the articulate
sounds of speech, and to a certain degree, as it were by succenturiate alre, conspire
ta modify words themselves, 21. They clear away the viscid phlegm from the
arteries, in order that a pure and clean blood may asccnd to the sensoria of the
cerebrum, and to the other sensoria of the hcad, ibid. The nose is the common
emunctory and purificatory of this blood, the salivary glands being only subordinate
emunctories, 23. The power of thc excitative and attractive causes in the nose
l'l'oves the gross nature of the excretions it withdraws from the blood, ibid. The
nares derive from the l'yI' and ear, from the medullary and cortical portions of thc cere·
brum, from its membranes, and from the sinuses of the cranium, the ichorous streams
that threaten inundation, 23, 24, 25. By an extrinsically impulsive force, they ex·
cite thc cerebrum to reciprocal animations synchronous with the respirations of the
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 631
lungs, 30. Why man has the power of respmng through the mouth as weil as
through the nose, 31. Like a cynosure, the nares terminate and complete the
common axis of the hemispheres of the cerebrum and its parts, and of the cranial
bones; and institute and begin the common axis that l'Uns from thence into the
thora.x, and also that which runs into the abdomen, 32, 33. From the ultimate
boundary of this axis, the nares transcribe the cerebrum into the face, and give it
the power of picturing its affections upon the surface or countenance thereof, 34.
See Centre. The nose often indicates the character of the animal minci, 35.
NUTRITION is primarily owing to the fibres, and not to the vessels, 285.
ŒSOPHAGUS, the, described by Heister, 86. By \Viuslow, 91. Comparative
anatomy of, from Swammerdam, 91. Authors to be consulted respecting, 92. It
acts successively, from point to point, like the tonguc, 98. It is divisible into two
tubes, one inside the other, 98. It summons salivas from every province of the head
and chcst, 99. It reccives them first in its cellular coat, 101. It supplies them to
the stomach both in such quantity and of such quality, as the food, the stomach, the
chyle, and the blood require, ibid. It eructates the air, 103. It unites the lowcst
things with the highest, ibid. As it connects the substances of parts, 50 it connects
their forces, 105. It transmits the pulmonic motions through the stomach and aIl
the viscera subjacent and appended to it, 105. It is introduced into thesc motions
from head to foot, 106. Its inconstant motions during eating soon clie away into the
pulmollic motions, 107. The œsophagus lives by the brcath of the trachea; the
trachea, by the food of the œsophagus, 108. Friendship between the carotid arte­
ries, jugulaI' veins, and œsophagus, ibid. See Axis, Centre, Diapltragm, Tracltea.
OFFICES. From the organic fabrics we may conclude with certainty respecting
the offices that are performed, Il., 524.
OMENTU~, the, described by Heister, 363. By Winslow, 365. By Malpighi,
367. Authors to be consulted respecting, 370. It is the storehouse of the better
parts of the blood, 375. Conditions necessary for this purpose, 376. The circle of
uses is represented in the omentum, 378, 380. It deposits the exuberant portion of
the blood in its cells under the form of fat, 380. It is a diverticulum to the blood,
381. Sce Blood. It is a balance equilibrating the quantity and quality of blood in
the abdominal viscera, 384. It covers and connects its viscera ; defends them against
heat and cold, injurious vapors, and various impulses, 384. It exhales a rank
moisture, to anoint them, and prevent them from falling into atrophy and lethargy,
385. Sec Fat, Livl<r, Spleen.
ORDEIL Those organs that are superior in situation, are also superior in forces,
power, dignityof office, and use, 462. SimUar is the order of the parts in the
organs, and of the unities in the parts, 463. The circumstance that one thing fol­
lows and opens another, originates from order alone, II.; 369. Sec Body.
ORGAN: see ll1:t<mbe,', Visclt8. The anatomy of one organ is not suflicient to
indicate its nature; we must learn the nature of each organ also from ail that are
connected with it, and that succeed it, 34. The auatomy of the whole body indicatcs
the nature of each organ, ibid.. Ail the organs are composed of least organs similar
to themselves, 37. Each organ of the body has its appointed limits, 95, 107. Each
derives its organization anù power of action from thc very nature of its office, 340.
Every organ, viscus, and member is so formeù, as to assume and undergo intinite
changes of state, and yet to subsist and remain constantly in integrity with respect to
its esscnce, 455. See Spiral. The more numerous the statcs into which any organ
can change, and the greater the subordination whcl'ewith the gcneral states correspond
632 INDEX OF SUDJECTS.

to the individual, the more perfect such organ is, 456. The law by which one organ
is a%isted by others, II., Ill.
ORGANIC FORMs. In order to the existence of a sensorium that can apprehend
the several varieties of an object with their differences and distinctions, the fibrcs
must be disposed into an organic form. For th~ fibrcs are put together and the form
conceived with referenee to every kind of variety and idca of use; as the paplllary
form with reference to touch, II., 463. In general, the organic forms of the body,
whether they be sensoria, or muscles, or viscera, are perfect in proportion to the
simplicity of the forms or ideas that they commence from, and which are their
unities, 465. The unities of organs associate together mutually, and the associations
so formed, again combine: thus unities generally ascend to the third series or dimen­
sion of composition before they complete their determinations, 468. These series,
or bodies of trine dimension, viscera, members or organs, are at thc same time
conjoined by bonds; the unities themselves, by theirs; the series proximately derivcd
from the unities, by theirs; finally the composition itself, or the whole; which is
covered with a coat, as the bond of ail, or the common bond, from which the little
coats and bonds of the other parts proceed, whereby the parts are bound to the
common service, and live in a harmonious division of labor, 471. Nevertheless,
organic forms are perfect, in proportion as the sevcra! parts that essentially entcr
and compose the form, are placed distinctly with respect to each other; but yet
concur unanimously to produce common effects and uses, 473. Organic forms again
are perfect in proportion as their unities and compounds stand related to a similar
type, and shew themselves to be of one genus, in their power and manner of acting.
Also in proportion a' the parts of the same organ are specifica!ly distinguishcd from
their companions by differences and variety, and at the same time are conjoined with
them in fitting harmony, 474. The scnsoria, motoria, viscera, in a word, the
organs and members of the body, and their parts, are perfect in proportion to the
promptitude and case with which thcy can change their states, and after change,
recovcr their pristine natural state, and preserve it unimpaired, 478. See Ckanfle.
Unities are the centres of their viscus or organ; and theyare the beginnings and ends
of its determinations; also the first forces and efficient causcs of its effects, and deter­
minant causes of its uses. so far as they arc uses: but the reason why the unity is
such a cause, is eontained in its form, 482. Unities and continuations of unities
are the essential determinations that eonstmct the form of the whole, or the common
form; but fibres with vessels are the essential determinations that construct the
forms of the unities, or the particular forms, 486. TIte little canals and the brauches
that flow into the least glands as into their centres, make their end and last boundary
therein; but those that tlow out from them, as from their centres. make thcir begin­
ning or first boundary therein: the former are the active forces of their body; the
latter, the passive forces; which two kinds of forces in conjunction generate and pro­
duce the organic fabric, 490. Rence determinations and tluxions proceed from the
outermost sphere to the innermost, and from the innermost to the outermost; or
what amounts to the same thing, from the greatcst to the least, and from the least to
the greatest, or from eompounds to simples, and [rom simples to compounds, 493.
The proper vessels of the organs and viscera, that go out from them, bear in every
point of them exactly the same charaeter and nature as the unities from which they
are produced; and carry out with them, wherever they go, this character and nature
received from their unities, as principles; so that they are the unities continued.
But the proper vessels that enter the organs and viscera, and terminate in the
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 633
unities as centres, take the character and nature at once of the compound and the
unity: thus again the same, because compounds and unities, as sunilar types, re­
semble each other in their manner of operation; or mutually represent each other,
493, 494. Hence compounds are only aggregates of simple substances, or sums of
their unities put together upon the model of use, 498. In the organic fabrics of the
body, tbe series in the progression of causes appears throughout to be as follows :
the object or material out of which and by means of which the effect is produced,
cornes from without; it is immediately carried away by distinct paths towards the
centres; and at the same time is collected in a receptacle, that the centres may con­
stantly supply theu' necessities therefrom. This material is examined and prepared
ou the way to the centres; it is then received, turned about, digested, and discrimi­
nated into parts, by the centres; the finer portion is chosen out, and sent forth for
use; the vi1er portion is separated or secreted, sent away, corrected on the way as in
the centres; and is expended upon some middle use; lastly, the residue, which is
worthless, is thrown out. This is the ratio of ail composition, ibid. Exemplified in
the liver, 499. In the lungs, 502. In the stomach, 511. In the heart, 514. In
the cerebrum, 517. In the sensorial and motorial office thereof, 520. Such is the
influx of sensations into our intellect; such is the treatment of those that f10w in;
and such the influx of the will into actions: or if influx is preilicated of sensations,
etllux must be predicated respectively of actions, 522.
PALATE, the glands of, described by Heister, 62. The palate, described by
Winslow, 66. The palate and fauces are modelled to the tongue: they are instru­
mental causes; the tongue, their principal cause, 71, 76. The palate and the tongue
perform a conjugal office for each other, 77. The palate and lips,carry sounds for­
ward, ibid.
PANCREAS, the, described by Heister, 306. By Winslow, 307. The pancreatic
juice, described by Boerhaave, 308. Authors to be consulted respecting the pan­
creas, 309. It is the link between the spleen and the liver, 313. It purifies the
blood for the spleen, and draws off the serum, ibid. As an intermediate member, it
causes the action and sequence of effects, and the subordination of efficient causes, to
be full and perfect, 314. When the pancreas or spleen is absent, its office is trans­
ferred to the next member of the series, 315, 318, 321, 360. The pancreatic glands
are the parts wherein the progression of its series ends, and from which it begins,
317. The pancreas is the model of the conglomerate glands of the body, because its
continuons series is most distinct, 316. \Vnen examined in series with its fellow­
members, it instructs us respecting the subordination of efficient causes, and the pro­
duction of effects, 317. Relation and parallel between the pancreas and the spleen,
ibid.. The pancreas is the mediate purificatory of the blood, as the liver is the ulti­
mate purificatory, 318. It is supplied with blood from three sources, and acts in
part independently of the spleen, ibid. It is destitute of Iymphatics, 319. It trans­
mits a fatty and unctuous Iymph to the omentum, 320. See Liver. Use of addi­
tional pancreases, 321. See Blood. Comparison between the pancreas and liver, in
form, operation, and use, 323. The tranquillity of its operations, 324. It acts by
invitation, incitation, alternation, and reciprocation; and by movements synchronous
with those of the lungs, 325. The pancreatic juice is of a nobler nature and use than
the two biles, ibid. Like them it circulates, ibid. By the mixture of the three, a
universal salivary menstruum is prepared, 326. The infinite diversity of the pan­
crcatic juice, ibid. It is both a salivary and a biliary menstruum, 327. See Spleen.
PAPILLiE, of the tongue: see Ton,que. Papillre analogous to the papillre conicre
VOL. II. X X
634 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

are fonnd on the internai membmnes of manyof the viscera, 50; and 11., 584.
Theil' source and mode of origin, 1., 50. In the intestines they perceive the nature
of the li'Juids driven against them, and act as guards, surt'ounding the glands, pores,
and foramina, 178. See Tasle, Touch.
PAR VAGUM, the, conspires to the same motions as the lungs, 106. It carnes
the abdominal viseera into thcse motions l'rom the innermost, 106. It announces ail
the states of the stomach, and their changes, immediately ta the soul, 138. It arises
l'rom thc cerebellum, 205; 11., 108, 147, 455. The reason why the trunk of the
par vagum dare not come in contact with the trachea, 109. How and why it passes
through the diaphragm, 304.
pARTlCULAU: sec General. 'Ve are instructed in the liver how natnre distin-
guishes particulars, and distributes them for various uses, 280. Inexpedieuey of
hcaping up tao many particulars, IL, 160.
PASSIVIè: see Acltve.
PELVIS: there are as many centres of motion as points of the pelvis, 473. The
most tranquil region of the body is in the pelvis, ibid.
PERICARDLUM, the, deseribed by Heister, IL, 217. By \Vinslow, 218. Sin-
gular morbid appearances in, described by Malpighi, 219. Points respecting, l'rom
Lancisi, 220. The li'll1or perieardii, inversely ta the liquor pleurœ, f10ws iuto the
cavity l'rom the cellular surface, 284. See Pleura. The pericardium constitutes in
the chest a gyre within a gyre, and the internaI membrane of the pleura is the exter-
nal membrane of the pericardium; hence ",hat tends outwards in the pleura, tends
inwards in the pericardium, ihid. The d(~tenninntion of the li'J11o\' pericardii, 286.
The region of the greatest rest of the pericardium is the region of the greatest motion
of the heart, ibid.
PERITON,EUM, the, described by Heister, 481. By \Vinslow, 482. By Ver-
heyen, 48,1. It praduces itself in order into the viscera of the abdomen and their
parts, and parts of parts, 494. The members of the abdomen are bound and
guarded by the peritonreum and the diaphragm, closely and thoroughly in proportion
ta their dignity of office and usefulness in the kingdolll, 495. In proportion as any
of them are slightly confined by the peritonreum, they are more apt to rush into pl'e-
ternatural motions, and more difficult ta recall ta the standard of nature, 500. The
.peritooalum reduces the preternatural motions of the viseera ta the constant natural
motions, ibid. It is the common external bond of the viseera of the abdomen, and
the cornillon internai bond of the muscles, eartilages. and bones thereof, 502, The
peritonreum and the stomach respect each other rnutually as the eircurnference and
axis of a wheel, ibid. It is a general centre of motion to its viscera, ibid. It is the
pl'oximately remote general bond between its members and those or' the thorax: and
the more remote genel'al hond hetween its members and those of the head, ibid. It
sustains the motions of ail these as a centre of motion, 50~~. \Vhen the peritonreum
begins to be slaekened, ail the operations of the viscera are performed imperfectly,
503. See General. The f1uid that permeates the peritonreum cornes from the ab-
dominal viscera, 506. It circulates through the whole of the cellular tissue, 507.
It never escapes l'rom the eeUs into the cavity of the abdomen, unless the membrall-
ous partitions be ruptured by over distention, ibid. The pel'itonreum absorbs the
fatty vapor with which the cavity of the abdomen abounds, 508. It conveys this
serosity ta the kidneys, and in the fœtus ta the renal capsules, ibid. The peritonreum
performs 1ll0l'emeots synehronous with those of the lungs, II., 154. See Pleura.
plèRSPIRhTION: sec Glands, Skin, Va,'ifty.
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 635

PHARYNX, the, described by Heister, 86. By Winslow, 89. Authors to be

consulted respecting, 92. It is the receiving vessel of the palate, and the head of the
œsophagus, 94. It is both active and passive, ibid. Its sphere of action begins
from its linea alba, 95. Its actions foliow, and reciprocate with, those of the larynx
and trachea, 97. It and the œsophagus receive their blood from many sources,
because in their actions they conspire with many parts, 96. It attencts various ex­
cretions, from the mouth, the brain, the nose, &c., 97. The pharynx and larynx
are married partners, 105. See La1·ynx.
PHILOSOPHY founded on geometrical principles affords conclusive instruction
respecting the effects of things, IL, 350. Its function in anatomical science, ibid.
PHRENIC NERVES: see Diaphragm.
PITUITARY GLAND, the, pours n'ew spirit into the blood of the lateral sinuses,
213. It is the conglobate gland of the cerebrum, 251.
PLAN or summary intended to be followed by the author in the "Animal
Kingdom," 10. Plan of constructing the work, 17. Further development of plan,
II., 388.
PLEURA, the, described by Heister, II., 212. By Winslow, 214. If we pursuc
its circumflexions, we are conducted at last either to the innermost parts of the lungs,
or to the innermost parts of the heart, ibid. They perform a spiral gyre, 223. The
circle of the pleura is a transcendent circle, 224. It is the common and proper in­
tegument, Iimit, and bond of the cavity of the thorax, 226. It connects the outer­
most constituents of the thorax tn the innermost, and causes external forces and
actions to flow in unimpaired to the vesicles of the lungs, ibid., and 229. The tho­
racic actions flow in by way of the pleura to the lungs, but not vice versc1, 227. The
pleura not only infuses the actions of the muscular chest into the lungs, but effuses
the forces of this activity into the viscera of the abdomen, both by the external way
of the peritonreum, a:ld the internai way of the nerves, al'tel'ies, and veins, 230. It
transfers the active efforts of the thorax and lungs to the heart, its arteries and veins,
233. It penetrates to the pulmonary vesicles, and with the pericardium enables the
heart and lungs to settle their differences, and make a covenant by means of the
blood, 235. It conveys the actions of the spinal marrow tn the dorsal and inter­
costal nerves, and thereby to the respiratnry muscles, 242. It causes the systaltic
movements of the spinal marrow to coincide with the respiratory movements of the
lungs, 243. It conveys the actions of the respiratory muscles and lungs to the spiual
marrow; and lends round the influx and reflnx of causes and effects in an everlasting
spiral, 244. It controla not only the spirit of the fibres, but also the blood, dispens­
ing it according to the state of the respiration in conjnnction with the bodily actions,
246. The impletion of the plenra with blood, necessary to its fnnctions, 248. The
impletion of its cellular tissue with the fluid expressed from its little artcries, neccs­
sary to its elasticity, and adaptability to the motions of the chest and lungs, and to
its offices as a purificatnry and colatnry of the blood, 252. The distribution and
elimination of its blood and humora, 253. The communication of its humor to the
peritonreum, 260. Analogy between it and the peritonreum, ibid. See Peritonœum,
Succenturiate Kidl/1.eys, Thymus Gland. The cavity is permeable for humor into
the pleura and lungs, or inwards, but not outwards, 282.
PORES: see Skin.

POSTERIOR: see Prior,

l'OTENCY. What potency ulone calI do iu any subjcct, II., 236. One membe,'

uever imparts tn another auythiug more thau potency; fol' it never deprives the other
636 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

of the liberty of acting thus or thus, in one way or another, 237. Nothing results
from potency alone; there must be an active foree ruling by its motion in order that
an action may be produced, 439, 559. The potency of corporeal life requires to bc
exeited by sensation, before it can act and live in the shape of foree, 559. Sec
Action, Force, Lungs.
PRIOR AND POSTERIOR things are in series and degrees above or below each other,
33. There is no successive progression froll\ p,'ior to posterior things, 276. The
progression from prior to posterior is identical with the progression from the soul to
the body; the progression from posterior to l'rior is identical with the progression
from the body to the soul, II., 332. The prior and interior spherc is relatively
perfect and ulÙversal, ibid. Sec Nature.
PROGRESSION. In the skin there is a progression from the greatest softness to
the least, and from activity towards inertia, II., 403. See Efficient, Prior, Series,
Spiral, Use.
PULMONARY ARTERIES AND VEINS; see Lungs.
RATIONAL ANATOMY, limits of, 96.
RATIONAL MlND; see Jdea, Thoug1lt. Its operations, 34. It produces nothing
by its will but what it has imbibed by way of the senses, II., 338. Its operations
may not unfitly be compared with those of algebra, 353. Every rational object has
its OWll soul, 354. The rational mind is in its very nature philosophical, and the
fountain of philosophy, 356. It is the uniting medium between the worldly and
the heavenly, the corporeal and the spiritual, 364. It constitutes our pl'opcr
humanity, ibid. It is divided into two powers, a passive and an active, ibid.
REACTION; see Action, Active, Diapl.ragm.
RECEPTACLE. The vena portœ is a receptacle of the blood, 278. The omentum
is a receptacle, 380. The trachea and bronchia are rec.eptacles of the air, II., 502.
The veins, and specificaUy the pulmonary vessels, are so many receptacles of the
blood, 509. The stomach performs the office of a reeeptacie, 512. The right
auricle of the heart is a receptacie, 515. There are numbers of receptacles in the
medullary portion of the cerebrum, 518. The memory is a receptacie of sensa­
tions, 521.
RECEPTACULUM CHYLI. It resides.in the centre of the body, 202. Ita tran­
quillity and security are necessary to the weU-being of the body, 204. Dcscribed
by Heister, 210. It exercises a propulsive foree upon the chyle, 2lü.
REGENERATION. The fWlCtions of the body are an image of the processes in
man's regeneration, 451.
RELATION. The perfect mutual relation of ail things in the tongue, 53. Thel'''
is a perpetuai relation of parts to their generals, 54. Relations and detenninations
arise from spheres -:Jf circumgyration, 194.
REPRESKNTATION, doctrine of, 10, Il. Extemal things represcnt what internai
things contain, 84. Rational sight is representcd in ocular sight, and rational light
and heat in naturallight and heat, IL, 359. The life in the last sphere rcpresents
the life in the first, II., 461. See Leasta, Soul.
RESPIRATION is the essential outermost life of the body, 107. Sec Brains,
Lunga. AU the functions peculiar to the body commence and ccase with the respira­
tion, 399. The muscles of respiration describcd by Heister, II., 123. Respiration
opens the scene of bodily life, and in a certain image represents the higher life,
140. Inspiration is brought about by the force of the incumbent air, assisted by
the contraction of the respiratory muscles, Hl, 262. Expiration is brought about
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 637

by a general contractile cffort on the part of the internai constituents of the lungs,
assisted by the return of the ribs, and the natural compression of the thorax, 145.
In ordinary respiration, inspiration alone belongs to the will, and expiration lo
nature, 148, 264, 337. In extraordinary respiration, the will sometimcs govcl'1ls
expiration, 149, 166. Respiration caHs forth the intimate lives of the determina.
tions into actions, or into their ultimate lives, 152. See Sound and Speech. Rcspi­
ration' is threefold, natural, voluntary, and mixed, 208. Irregularities of the
respirations, 209. The different qualities of the respiration are 50 many general
diagnostic marks of the ailments and diseases of the body and animal mind, 210.
The respiratory field, 248. The means by which respiration was prevented dllring
uterine life, 262, 331. Every part of the body respires, 460. See Action, Ani­
mation, Atmospheres.
SALIVA, the, is adapted to aH the offices of the tongue, 41. The tongue is the
principal agent in drawing the saliva from the glands, 81. The excretion of saliva is
the office of the instrumental cause, not of the principal, 83. The saliva is a men·
struum and vehicle, ibid. It is different in every animal, ibid. The oral saliva
increases in density from the anterior to the posterior part of the mouth; and why,
ibid. The saliva varies continually, according to the affections of the tongue, the
brain, and the mind, 84. Whatever takes place in the mind, takes place in the
innermost of the blood, and of the saliva, 84. The saliva defecates the blood for
the brain and sensoria, 85. The qualities of the saliva are best shewn by its elrects,
99. The saliva is in a successive series throughout the alimentary canal, 164, 239.
Sec StorrUlch. The bile is a saliva, ibid., 277. See Bile. The last species of
saliva distils from the vermiform appendage, ibid. The salivas perform their par­
ticular, general, and most general uses, ibid. When the saliva has ceased to be of
use to its own member, it is derived into the cavity of the next, 164. Each intes·
tine has its own spring of saliva, 164, 181. Why the saliva is alrected in rabies,
208. The chyle is introduced into the blood by means of the saliva, 274. See
Intestines, Pancreas.
SALIVARY GLANDS, the, described by Heister, 63. By Winslow, 66. Com.
pal'ative anatomy of, from Swammerdam, 69. Authors to be consulted respecting,
ibid.
SANGUIFICATION. Chylification and inauguration of the chyle jointly consti.
tute sanguification, 270. It is the work of no one viscus, but of many combined,
ibid. Where performed, 512. See Heart.
SCIENCES, the, should be applied to use, 15. The empirical sciences supplY
materials and instruments, the theoretical, laws and mies, II., 349. AH the sciences
derive their elements from visible nature and the world, ibid. The sciences con·
centrate ideas, and submit them to terms, and hence give a clellr representation of
compound ideas, 351. The necessary sub<livision and suhordination of the sciences,
ibid. The infinity of each science, and each part of each, ibid. There is a con­
nexion of ail the sciences, and a concentration into one, the universai of aH, 352.
AH the sciences are 50 many signs of the deceptions and faHacies of our senses, 541.
See Experience, Thought.
SECRKTlON: see Serum. The secretions and excretions are either profitable or
unprofitable, and consist of either obsolete or superfluous materials, 271.
SENSE makes instantaneous common cause with motion, II., 20. See Action.
The five senses are opened at birth when the inversion of life takes place, aIllI
convey the forms of the world inwards to the souI, 335. Each sense submits its
638 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

gifts to a kind of vision analogous to ocular vision, and carries them into the memory,
348. The experience of no one man's senses is sufficicnt for the exploration of
causes, but the world's general experience is required, for we must be instructed by
aIl things of one thing, if we are to know that one thing thol'oughly, ibid. Sensa­
tion exists essentially nowhere but in the soul, 462. Certain sensations go tirst into
the memory; certain others go immediately towards the innermost sphere; the latter
are analogous to the hepatic and bronchial arteries, 521. Bach sensation is a com·
pound of simpler sensations, 54.7. See Taste, Touch.
SENSORIUM. In ail the sensorial Ol"gans, there must constantly be involved, or
continually be influent, a power l'rom above or within, and at the same time l'rom
below or without, in order that the organ may be in a state for rcceiving, and apply.
ing to itself, that which is offered and reprcsented, II., 559.
SERIES, doctrine of, 10, 11, 316. Every series eomprehends an idea of its
universe, 37. Everything is a series, and in a series, 53, 317. Digestion is pel'.
formed in a series, 173. Every series has its ma.ximum and minimum, 276. The
passage by a COntinuons series l'rom compounds to their simples, is called successive
progression, 276. From a continuai series of differences a compound results that is
thoroughly adapted to nature's end, 313. No series can be complete or effective
without involving at least a trine, 315. Illustrated in the offices of the abdominal
viscera; and in geometry, arithmetic, physics, rationals, and logic, ibid. See Ab.
domen, Saliva. There are both successive and simultaneous series, but the latter
always arise l'rom the former, 316; II., 85. One thing generates and sustains
another in a continuai series, 361. See Unities.
SERUM: see Blood, Chyle, Kidneys. The chyle, when initiated into the blood,
is called serum, 270, 372. The puri!ication of the serum takes place by secretion,
270; II., 288. The different kinds of serum are distributed and treated differently,
1., 271. The sera admit of being divided into three general classes, 372, 511.
In the fœtal state serum serves instead of chyle, 405, 408, 409, 452; II., 292.
The impure serum can only flow in straight lines, and hence is eliminated in the
circumflexed vessels of the kidneys, 1., 437. See Succenturiate Kidneys, ThymU$
Gland. The animal spirit has its serum as weil as the blood, II., 431. As these
sera are perfectly distinct, so their excretions are not confonnded, ibid.
SIMPLES, the, of the blood, what, 236. The blood contains simples of several
degrees, ibid. and 270. The more exactly simples are distinguished l'rom cach other,
the more fitly they are combiued, and the more ordinately they are related to their
generals, the more perfect is the state of the member, 53; II., 18. There is a
perpetuai dcrivation, composition, and convolution of simples, illustratcd, 412.
See Blood, Leasts, Or,qanic Forma, Unities.
SKlN: see Tovc:h. The skin described by Heister, II., 372. By Winslow,
374. The pores of, described by Leeuwenhoek, 377. Excretions of, described by
Boerhaave, 379. Comparative anatomy of, l'rom Swammerdam, 380. The CUTlCLE
or EPlDERMIS described by the Author, 386. It collects thc particular utilitics and
functions of ail the tunics and strata that lie under it, represents them in itself in a
general manner, and completes them; for by those tunies, and on their account,
its formation and character are such as we see, 388, 389. It maintains the con­
nexions of the parts spread under it; sustains their changes of state; and impels
them to perform their offices aright, 391, 392. Like a coat of mail, constructed
of wonderful scales, folds, and joints, it protects and defends the sensitive, soft,
and agile tunics that it covers in, against injury l'rom the surrounding air, against
 INDEX 01' SUBJECTS. 639
its heat, cold, pCl·turbations, and various conditions not in agreement with the
state of the body; and moreover against the rough and stinging particles of its
vapors, and of different fluids: and it takes upon itself in the first instance the
<,hanges to "hich these will give rise in the body, tempers them, and tends to
break their force, 392-394. lt institutes the proximate communications between
the circumambient world. and the corporeal world that it encloses; that is to say,
it admits from the air and ether comparatively pure, simple elements, whieh are in
harmony with the natural state, and sends them down, as new aliment, into passages
that lead to the blood. On the other hand, it sends out obsolete volumes of
effiuvia, and sweats consisting of useless Iymph, brine, and rancid fat, and disperses
them into the contignous air, 394-396. lt puts together the primai singular
modes of sensation of the fibrillœ and papillœ, into a kind of common mode that
is tcrmed the sense of touch; which it regulates, sharpens, and blunts, so as exactly
to produce the varieties that nature requires of that sense in the different parts of the
body, 397. The CORPUS RETICUI.ARE MAI.PIGHII described, ibid. It servcs as
a basis and support to the cuticle: also as a link and instrument of union between
the cuticle and the papillary substance, the glands, the vessels, the fat, and in
fine, aU the subjacent parts: thus as a mediating organ, and as an organ for
transferring the modes, actions, feelings Ilnd changes of the above parts, to the
scales of the epidermis; and from these scales, on the other hand, to those parts,
398-402. It sustains, strengthells, and balances the snbjacent parts of the
cutis, 402. It gathers together scattered parts, bridges them over, gives thcm
distinctness, rcduces them to fOl'm: thus it causes everything to refer itself to
a general; to proceed in successive series; to flow backwanLs and fonvards in a
certain gyre; and to conspire and tend incessantly to equilibrium and l'est, 402-404.
See P,·og,·e88ion. The CUTIS described, 404. Its first general use is, to serve
as a new source of fibres, and as an end and beginning to the vessels, 405.
For there are pores, ducts, and little canals, of a threefold kind, origin, nature,
and function, arising from the fibres, and from the same number of organic sub­
stances belonging to the cutis, ,107. See Effecis. The pores of the first kind have
their origin from the first composition of the cutaneous fibres: their nature is, when
drawn back from their apertures, to represent new tibres, which are to be named
corporeal fibres: their function is, to suck in the purer elements of food Crom the
air and ether, and to carry t.hem to their ends, and expend them upon the uses of
life, 408--410, The pores of the second kind, more properly termed ducts, have
their origin from the pores of the first kind, so convoluted as to form a vessel; eOll­
sequently from the papillœ, to the commissures or intersticcs of which, they run
continuously: their nature is, to be the first and last ends, thus the begi.nnings, of
the a.rteries: their function is, to expire t.he thin but worthless etnuvia of the blood,
411-414. The ducts of the third kind, rather to be called little canuls, have their
origin from the subcutaneous glands: their natu"e js, to he the beginnings of the
veins: their function is twofold; on the one hand to throw out of doors, away from
the cutis, the vapors and sweats received from the urteries; on the other hand,
to suck in the same, and insinuate them into the new formed veins, 416, 417.
These thl'ee kinds of vessels do not end, excepting where the innermost coat of the
artel'ies, and the outermost coat of the veins, place thcir bonndaries; namely, their
boundaries, but of a middl~ kind, in the chambers of the heart, where ail the
vessels come together; thcir ultel'ior boundaries, in the innermost sphere or vesicles
of the lungs; but their last boundaries, where the fibres place their tirst, in the cor·
040 INDEX OF SUDJECTS.

tical glands of the brain ; hence the indissoluble conjunction and connexion of the last
sphere with the first by means of the heart, 420, 422. From this it appears, that
the fibres springing up in the brain, again commence anew in the ultimate limit of
the body, that is to say, in the cutis, and return in a gyre to their principles ; and
thence run forth again in company with the parent fibres into their field of uses; so
that their circle is an everlasting circ1e, or spire, in which the idea of continuity,
perpetuity, or infinity, is represented, 423.-The second general use of the cutis is,
to serve as the foster.mother of the spirits, and the nurse of the blood; and further­
more, as the instrument for throwing out useless matters from both, ibid. For the
pores of the first kind, simply bibulous and feeding, immediately convey the ele­
mental food that they sip from the ethereal and celestial auras, through their corpo­
real, thus venous, fibres, in part to the cortical glands of the brain, which are the
prime laboratories of the spirits; in part to the pulmonic cells, which are the little
refectories of the blood, and the preparatories that change it from venous to arterial ;
in part to the left chamber of the heart, the starting place from which the arterial
blood comes forth: use and want regulating and dispensing the quantity and quality
of this aliment, ~24-430. But the pores of the second kind, which we have termed
ducts, simply expiratory, put to flight and exterminate the injurious and recremen­
titious matters that infest the purer blood and the spirit, that irritate the interstices
of the fibres and of the nervous fascic1es, and that beset the lesser cutaneous parts,
430. The ducts of the third kind, more properly called little canals, in nature and
office both excretory and adductory, thus hermaphrodite, purge the arterial blood,
the subjacent fat, the muscles, and the integuments of the viscera, that is to say, the
peritonlllum and the pleura, of their grosser impuritics, when the outlet through the
other doors provided by nature is not available. At stated times also they seek out
and suck in the purer lymphs, or even the thicker vapors, from the air itself; and
pour them into the continuous veins, 435-439. And this, unintermittingly, with
a kind of systolic and diastolic action synchronous with the pulsific movements of
the heart and arteries, which seizes ail the cutaneous parts, the little arteries, the
papilllll, and the glands, and rouses them to their functions, 439. But with infinite
variety, according to ail changes of state arising from sensation and affection, outer­
most, innermost, and intermediate, 440. By an attentive review of the above po­
sitions, a knowledge of many of nature's secrets is brought to the light of our un­
derstanding, although still in· only an obscure manner; for instance, we understand
in this way, the derivation, production, and generation, in living bodies, of the
inferior and ultimate universal essence from the superior and supreme, 446.
SLEEP. The soul operates to restore the body, particularly during sleep, when
the will is at l'est, 139; II., 102. The cerebrum collapses during sleép, but opens
out during the waking state, 164. The states of sleep and wakefulness compared,
165.
SMELL: sec Nase. The modes and radü of this sensation mount both by way of
the fibres, and of the two meninges, and meet in the cortical substance, II., 17. See
Taste, Touch.
SOUL: see Body. A knowledge of the soul is the end proposed in the" Animal
Kingdom," 10. The soul is in the sphere of truths, ibid. It is in vain to seek for
the soul anywhere but in her own kingdom, the body, Il. She is represented in the
body as in a mirror, Il, 12, 13, 34. It is impossible to leap immediately from the
body to the soul; and hence the passage between the two must be effected by means
of certaÏl:l doctrines, Il. Ali things of the body contain the SOlÙ, because they re·
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 641
present its series of ends, ibid. As we approach the soul we recede from the body,
39, 52; II., 355. All parts and forms have both a soul and a body, 1., 108, 214.
The soul's single object while it lives in the body is, to preserve all the l'0wers of the
body in their primitive integrity, or to make them subsist as they at first existed,
339; IL, 591. The form of the ideas that constitute the nature of the soul, is ex­
actly represented in the organism of the body, 1., 341. See Circle. Whatever we
predicate of nature, we mean to predicate of the soul, 397. It is the architect of the
body, 398; IL, 141. What share the senses and the soul have respectively in the
formation of the intellect, ibid. The soul was the only principle of all motions during
embryonic life, 332. It regards only ends and uses, 344. The body cannot unite
itself to the soul, but the soul unites itself to the body, 365. At death the soul be.
takes itself completely to its own higher sphere, 386. It perceives all mutations in
the body that are imperceptible to the general sensorium, 549. It is the only
essence by which we live, and is absolutely distinct from the intellectual mind,
550. It judges of pleasure by utility; but the senses, of utility by pleasure, 591.
See Touch.
SOUND, the quantity and quality of, II., 53, 57, 75. In the animal kingdom,
the principle of sound is twofold, 72. The universal essences of sound, what, 77.
The sonorous tract, 117. The series of causes producing vocal sound, 169.
SPEECH. How speech, at first voluntary, becomes in a manner natural, II, 109.
ln singing and speech the will performs the part of expiration, 169. Before we are
prepared to speak or sing, the air is determined into the most superficial vesic1es of
the lungs, ibid.
SPHERE. Relations and determinations arise from spheres of circumgyration,
194. There are three spheres in the living body, a sphere of effects, a sphere of
causes, and a sphere of principles, II, 370. The soul administers the supreme
sphere, and governs the states of principles; the spirit, the inferior sphere, and
governs the states of causes; and the blood or body, the lowest sphere, and governs
the states of effects, 441. There is perpetuaI battle and collision of these spheres
with each other, 444. The sphere of the body, or the lowest sphere, subsists on ter­
restrial aliments; tbe supreme sphere, on ethereal and celestial fOl'd; the middle
sphere, on both, 445. See Viscera,
S~lRITS: see Animal Spirits.
SPIRAL: see Intestines, Stomac!., Use. The spiral form occurs in the intestines
or ultimates of the b<;>dy; in the brains, or principles; and throughout, in the inter.
mediates; being the essential form of motion or fluxion in tIle animal world, 125.
It is the parent and measure of the circular ; and may be called the perpetual-circular,
126. It emulates spontaneousness in its motion, 126. In the spiral fluxion, the
foci are never in the same plane, 128. When nature would so exalt her powers as to
retum to her own spontaneousness, she betakes herself to spirals and perpetuaI
spirals, 160. A spiral has a circ1e for a centre, and remotely respects the centre of
this circ1e, 168. Other properties of the spiral, 169. It never returns to the point
it started from, ibid. It has the power of infinite variation; and its perfection con­
sists principally in exercising tbis power, and yet constantly maintaining its own
essence, 170. It is capable of adapting itself to every spaee, ibid. The spiral
flexures of the vessels correspond to the tendency to spiral motion in the blood, 437.
See Blood. The air circulates according to its natural fluxion in the spiral bones of
the nares, II., 14. Proofs that the air tends to gyrate spirally, from the spiral
cochleœ in the ear, &c., ibid. The perpetuity and perfections of the spiral and
VOL. II. yy
G4·2 L\'Dl~X OF 8UllJECTS.

higher form., 315. In ail natlll'e'. organie forms wc find the idea of eontinuity, per­
petuity, and spiral, ,j20. See Pleu,·a.
SPllllTUAL \VOllLD, the, hoIds the physical and material world at its beck a\HI
nad, 525.
SPLEE:<, the, dcscribed by Heister, 328. By Winslow, 329. By Malpighi, 332.
Authors to be consulted respecting, 336. Swedenborg's description of, 3'12. Tt
purifies the blood somewhat in the same manner as the penis, 3H. It extravasatcs
thc arterial blood into its membranous cells, and thcrc works and rcduces it, 345.
The great splenic vein, and a host of Iymphatics, are its excretory ducts, 3·17. It
undergoes expansion and contraction in the whole and ail the parts, 3-16. It draws
011' the impure blood from thc tnlllk of thc aOl'ta, :HB. It discriminatcs or separates
this blood, 351. It receives no serons, but only purely globular or l'cd blood, 353.
There is no place in thc body for unbinding the blood, but the spleen, 35'1. The
blood prepared by it is a menstruum for the ncw chyle in the liver, 3;)5. It does
not break up the blood-globliles, but only sepamtes those that are sticking togcther,
ihid. Ey its preparation of a sanguineous menstruum, it assists both the liver and
the stomach, 356. By its Iymph the spleen prepares a menstruum fol' the chyle in
the mesentery, 357. It dispenscs its gifts equitably between the liver and the mesen­
tery, 358. \Vhile its artcry and vcin contract, its eells expand; SO that no move­
ment of any part is apparent, the incitation being exactly correspondent to the
invitation, 359. Sec Live,., Pancreas. The purification of the blood may be per­
formed without the spleen, and how, .'360. What takes place when thc spleen is
exeised, ibid. See Omentum.
STOMACH, the, described by Heister, 109. By Winslow, 111. Ruysch's ob.
servations on, 114. Comparative anatomy of, from Swammerdam, 116. From
Glisson, 118. Curious particulars respecting, from Schurig, ibid. The stomach
digests and absorbs the food, and sends what it has not thol'Oughly acted lIpon into
the intestines, 122. The salivas, alld ail the liquids drunk, serve it as a menstruum,
ibid. 1t resolves the salivas into their component spirituous and bodily parts, and
makes usc of thesc, ibid. It pcrforms ail its operations on its ingesta, by motion,
warmth, and delay, 123, 132, 133. Its operations procced, by degrees, from out­
most to inmost, and from both to both at once, ibid. The stomach is active; the
food, passive; the saliva, the active medium, 123. The stomach winds in a stu­
pendous and e"erlasting gyre, ibid. It has l'oies, axes, and foci, 124. Its form i.
the "lliral, 125. The vortical motion in the stomach of thc stlll'geon, 125. The
structure of the stomach shews the nature of its spiral fOl'm, or of its det,'rmination
of motion, 126. The convolutions of the stomach are analogous to those of thc in­
testines and brains, 127. They have no discoverable bcginning or cnd, ibid. Thcir
gencral determinations only can be discovered, ibid. The fibres of the muscular coat
are spiral; those of the common membrane, circulaI', 127. The distribution of the
nen'es, artcries and "eins, is according to the poles, axes, and circumferences, ibid.
No two of the orifices of the stomach are in the same plane, 128. The motion of the
stomaeh is synchronous with that of the lungs, and l'uns from the cardia to the py­
loms, once during each respiration, 128. Likewise the motions of the lesser forms
of the stomach, the orifices of which are minute pylori, 129. The stomach is the
centre of ail the motions that the lungs pour forth, ibid. The amazing velocity of its
motions, ibid. It is composed of lesser stomaehs, exercising more perfect and uni­
versai offices, 131. These Hetle stomachs reccÎ\'e the materials that have been once
digested by the stomach, and digest them mOre perfectly: again, in likc manner, the
 INDEX OF SUBJEC'fS. 643
lcast stomachs, 131, 132. And absorb them through their minute pylori and intes·
tines, ibid. The stomach can assume every curve involved in the circular form, 133.
The food in it has no gravity or tendency of its own, but is exempted from the laws
of the surrounding \Vorld, 135. The parts of the stomach are lesser stomachs in
respect of function, ibid. The stomach sends its purest products to the brain; the
next puresl to the blood; the next, to the chyle; the next, to the liver; and none
but the refuse through the pylorus, 135, 138. Certainty in these matters is rather
to be sought from eifects, than from ocular evidence, 136. The stomach, by its ab­
sorption, prevents life from being dangerously dependent on the thoraeic duct, 138.
IL thro\Vs out the refuse alone through the pylorus, and imbibes ail its olVn chyle
itself, 161. It is the principal viscus of the abdomen; and the a.."is of a \Vhed,
round \Vhich the other viscera, and their functions, rcvolve, 495, 502. See
Pe>"itonamm, Saliva.
SUnsTANcl~: see i\fotion. Substances are the subjects of ail accidents, II,, 30G.
Forces, motions, operations, and actions cannot be explored exeepting through the
organic nexus of substances, ibid. Wherever there is a modification, thcrc is a
substance also, 524. Ali causes lIow according to the nexus of substances, 525.
SUCCENTURIATE KlDNEYS, described by Heister, 392. By Winslow, 393. By
Malpighi, 395. Authors to be consulted respecting, 396. They exercise a sove­
reignty during the fœtal state, 400. They enjoy an alternate expansion and con·
traction, 401. Their expansile and constrictile motion converges to thei,' fissurc,
ibid. Their operation depends on this motion, 403. This motion is synchronous
with the heart before birth, \Vith the lungs afier birth, ibid. They attract to thcm
certain blood and serum, 404. They are cOl'cula for circulating the serum through thc
cellular tissues of the peritonœum and its viscera, ibid.; and II., 261. They mingle
their blood alld serum, and distribute it in various ways, L, 405. Theil' vein is
their excretory vessel, 407. The dark humor in their cav\ty is an extremely pure
extract of the blood, of which a sman '1uantity is capable of converting a large '!uan.
tity of serum into blood, ibid. They perform an analogous office in embryos to the
liver in adults, 408. They regulate the quality and '1uantity of the supplied mater·
nal and of the fœtal blood, 408. Defore birth they divert the stream of serum from
the kidneys; after birth, the liner portion of it, 409. They prevent the immoderate.
seizure of the flower of the blood by the testicles, 411. In long abstinence from
vener)', they are diverticnla to the testicles, 412. They transmit the blood by a
short cut from the aorta to the middle of the vena cava, ibid. Why they \Vaste away
as age advances, ,j 13. They absorb the pure serum circulating through the pleura,
and send it forth in a circle through the peritonœum, II., 261. See Diapllragm,
Fœtus, Serum, Thymus Gland.
SUCTlON. The ruode in which successiveness of action conterfeits suction, 98.
Minute tubes exercise suction morc perfectly than large cavities, 178. See Tongue.
SYNTHESlS, one \Vay adopted for discovering truth, 4. The synthetic way passes
from the prior to the l'0sterior sphere; the analytic from the posterior to the prior,
ibid. Synthesis is nothing but a meagre form of analysis, ibid. It favo,'s Ollr own
state and order, and pimps to vanity and self-love; but is contrary to nature, and can
never win the goal of truth, 4, 5; and II., 3'16. It gives rise to errors and civil
wars between the soul and the body, and causes the banishment of truth, I., 6.
l'ASTE, the true objecbs of, as described by Boerhaave, 30. The conditions of,
30, 3 I. The varieties of, 31. Touch apprehends parts; tllste and ~mcll, parts of
parts, ;)2, 79. The sense of taste j,; ",hat ~cts thc whole machine of the tonglle
644 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

and contiguous and continuous organs in motion, 79. The objects of taste consist
of parts of the three kingdoms, to wit, the minerai, the vegetable, and the animal,
which parts are comminuted and dissolved in their aqueous and other liquid menstrua,
and in the salivas particularly, and on being applied to the little sensoria of the
tongue, are perceived as to their qualities; the perception or sensation itsclf, is called
taste, II., 567. By the objects of taste' we know the character of the organ,
because the two mutually correspond to each other; for the organ represents a com­
mon form, whereof the mutations are so many types fasmoned exactly to the im­
pressing objects as their ideas or ante-types, 569. Speaking generally, ail figured
parts, both simple and compound, that have angles and planes, fall under this
sense, ibid. But which are naturally so far inert and weighty, that when applicd to
the little sensoria. they cao imprint a type of themselves, and cause a corresponding
mutation, 570. And moreover are of such a magnitude, that they can act distinctly
upon the individual parts of the organ of this sense, 571. Hence the sense of
taste, or savor, is excited by means of t1uids, by particles possessing figure, vis
inertiœ, and just magnitude, ibid. The figures or configurations of parts pro­
duce ail the varieties and differences of this sense; consequently the sense itself,
inasmuch as it eonsists in variety; but not so the forces of the same parts, Or the
circumstance that they are intrinsically and naturally inert or active, for the forces
only excite the life of that sense, or cause taste to exist. But the measures or
various dimensions of parts, merely sharpen or blunt this sense, or render it more
or less distinct or obscure, 572. Thus the figures of parts cause sense to be in
potency, for ail sense consists in variation of modes. The forces of parts cause
sense to be in act, or to exist. But quantities prescribe limits to its spheres; and
if it transeends these limits, it becomes obseure, or fails from excessive subtlety,
ibid. But the larger parts, which do not fall under the sense of taste, or under
savor, in the tongue, fall under a sense more akin to touch: and from this mixture
of senses, an additional number of varieties and species of this sense arise, which
cannot by any means be discriminated distinctly, 574. The papillœ of the third
c1ass, conicœ, pyramidales, or villosœ, are the principal sensoriola of taste or savor,
577. What principally distinguishes taste from touch, is, that the papillœ of taste
are diseriminated, but the papillœ of touch collected; and thus the former bring out
their sense separately, but the latter bring out theirs conjointly, 579. But the
papillre lenticulares, as weil as the papillœ fungosœ, seem to possess a kind of inter­
mediate or obseure sense of taSte' ibid. The cartilaginous bodies that are found in
the tongues of certain animals, elevate this common and compound sense to a very
great degree, 582. There are three universal species, or superior genera, of the
sense of touch, each of which has its allotted regions and provinces in the living
body. The first genus, and the most general, prevails ail over the circumference,
and is properly called touch, 583. The second genus prevails in the innermost
parts of the body, beginning from the tongue; namely, in the œsophagus, the
stomach, the intestines, and in fine in ail the organs of the inferior region, or vis­
cera of the abdomen. This sense, on its first threshold, is called taste, 583. This
sense has the office of taking cognizance of, and exploring the whole of what is
taken by the mouth for the purpose of serving as nutrition to the body, and prin­
cipally to the blood, 585. The third genus of this sense likewise prevails in the
innermost parts of the body, but beginning from the nares; namely, in the larynx,
the trachea, the lungs, and their vesicles; consequently in the organs of the supe­
rior region, or thorax. This sense in its first entrance is called smell, ibid. These
 INDEX OF SUllJECTS. 645
are the superior genera of this sense, whieh speaking generally, is named touch;
but with respect to the middle genus, which is properly called t<lste, it is divided
iuto as many inferior gcnera, or less universal species, as there are viscera of the
abdomen, ibid. These spedes are divided again into as many partîcular differences
as there are unities in cach viscus. So that there are as many specifie difl'erences,
as viscera; and as many particnlar differences, as unities, 587. From the variety
of thc particular sensations of one viscns, a common sensation arises; and from the
variety of sensations of many viscera, a still more common sensation arises. And
from ail and each of these sensations conveyed by the fibres to the cerebellum, the
soul, by means of this sense, herc appercei"es specifically the states of chylification,
sanguification, and purification; in a word, of nutrition; and according to the
perception, disposes thosc visccra to the conservation of thc whole and the parts,
which is the effect and use that this scnse produces, 588. But at the first point,
where the tongue is affixed to the os hyoides, and is sncceeded by the pharynx pre­
fixed to the œsophagus, this sense in a manner flies away, and betakes itself to
another sensorium, that is laid in the cerebellum, 589. From taste as existing in
the tongue, and the idea thereof perceived in our general sensorium, we may in
some measure comprehend how this sense is circumstanced within the viscera, ibid.
This sense affects the soul altogether differently to the manner in which it affects the
principles of our general sensorium: those things which are delightful to I\S some­
times affeeting the soul nnpleasantly; and those which are unpleasant to us affecting
the soul with delight; for ail things taste according to knowledge and affection rcsult­
ing therefrom, 591. Moreover in the tongue itself there are few things that fall
under our perception or sensation, ibid. The essential and innermost impressions of
this sense report themselves to the soul alone, 593. See Tangue, Touch.
TEETH, the, described by Heister, 61.
TERMS. Ali new arts and sciences at their first appearance require new terms,
269. Transmutation of terms is necessary when rules ure applied to different sub­
jects, 488. The inexpediency of wasting much time or pains upon alterations in
terminology, II., 193.
THIRST: see Hunger.
THORACIC DUCT, the, described by Heister, 210. By Winslow, 211. By
Eustachius, 212. It contracts and propels the chyle, 216. It runs through the
general axis of the body, and through mere centres, ibid. Since it passcs, there­
fore, through continuai equilibria, it is obedient to every power, whether attractive
or propulsive, 217. It follows the movements of the respiration, 217. The so­
called valves at its mouth are merely directing planes, 219.
THORAX. The three great cavities of, and the members in them, require to bc
lubricated with an oily halitus and uneluous milk, 11., 270. See Taste, Tliym1J.s
Gland.
'fHOUGHT: see Ideas, Imagination, Intelligence. Experience and science, apart
from the faculty of thinking distinctly, are instrumental causcs without their prin­
cipal cause, II., 353. This faculty arises from two orders of conditions, primary
and secondary, 354.
THYMUS GLAND, the, described by Heister, II., 266. By Winslow, 267. By
Verheyen, ibid. See Thorax. It is placed in the middle of the stormy regions of
the thorax, and of all the three cavities thereof, in order that it may pour a lacteal
unguent into each, 271. It is broken and jagged as beseems u channel for lllotions
and impulses, and why, 272. The cellular tissne surrounding it is a grand and
Il''
 646 INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

general duct leading both into the cavity of the pleura and into the cavity of thc
pericardium, 273. By its suprathoracic portions it anoints the trachea, œsophagus,
carotids, jugulars, and great nerves, 275. Its humor anoints only the surfaces,
but does not penetrate into the substances and cavities, since it is only an external
unguent, ibid. The thymus overhangs and stands at the head of its great cavities
and members, 276. The activities of its viscera are the exciting causes that deter­
mine the quantity of its excretion, ibid. The latter is not intruded on the viscera,
but invited by them, 277. And this also with respect to quality, 278. The state
of the thymus in the embryo, 280. The assailant motions of the lungs cause it to
waste after birth, and why, ibid. See Glands. As life advances, the office of the
thymus is distributed to glands on the pleura and pericllrdium, 282. In the fœtal
state, the thymus secreted a serum from the blood, and thus purified the latter, 288.
As a corculum, it circulated this serum, and thus servcd as a companion in office to
the succenturiate kidneys, 290. It advaneed the purified blood into the veins through
a brief circ1e, according to ail requirements, 291. The thymus and succenturiate
kidneys are the two chambers of a single serous heart, ibid., and 327. It prepared
and laid down a way for the chyle about to come through the thoracic duct, and how
and why, 292.
TONGUE, the, described by Heister, 17. By Winslow, 21. By Malpighi, 26.
Comparative anatomy of, from Swammerdam, 29, 30. Particulars respecting, from
Boerhllllve, 30. Authors to be consulted respecting, 31, 32. It involves more
uses, ends, and offices, than any other member, 35. Hs primary, proper, and
natural office, is sucking, sipping, eating, and drinking, ibid. The tongue is a
simultaneous body; but its operations are divisible into successive modes and actions,
ibid. These successive actions, what, 35, 36. The tongue nourishes the blood by
its parts, as the body by its compound, 36. The parts of the tongue perform the
same office, not only as the tongue, but as the whole series, from the lips to the
anus, 37. The existence of little tongues on the surface of the tongue, confirmed
by experience, 36, 37.. Tasting is the second office of the tongue, 37. The
mobility of the tongue and its parts necessary for tasting, 37, 38. Speaking is its
third office, but is not proper to it, 38, 77. Persons have spoken without the
tongue, 38. By speech it foods the mind; by eating, the body, 38, 39. Therefore
it is placed in a common relation to the abdomen, the chest, and the cerebrum, 39.
It has many other, but derivative, offices, ibid. It does not excrete saliva, but
draws saliva to it, from many glands far and near, by suction, 39, 40. See Mal­
pighi. Ali its uses involve corresponding structures; and a fitting order, form,
and series, 41. Its muscles so balance it, that it is ever ready to obey the brain,
41. Subdivision of them into extemal and internal, which respectively belong to
the first and second processes of eating, 41,42. Those of the os hyoides belong to
deglutition, 42. The nerves of the tongue come from throo sources, and have three
uses, 43. The tongue is associated with the internai ear by a branch of the fifth
pair, in order that the voice, in its conception, may be in unison with the voice as
received by the external ear, 44. The papillre of the tongue, ibid. The glandulre
fungosre or capitatœ are organs of imbibition, or nutrition, ibid. They represent
the functions of ail the members and cavities of first nutrition, 45. The glandulœ
lenticulllres have a similar but finer and more perfect function, ibid. The papillœ
conicœ are sensoria of taste: therefore capable of ail possible states and forms, 49.
Ali the other papil\œ enjoy a rude kind of sense, 49, 50. Therc is more of the
involuntary titan of the volwltary sphere in the tongue, 51. External and internai
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 647
causes that affect the tongue, 51, 52. The nceessity of graduated membranes in
the tongue, 54. Community of afl"ection in all the papillre thereof, and its canse,
ibid. Association of them by their nerves, 55. Necessity of perpetuai variety in
the tongue, ibid. The fitncss of the tongue for its uses is determined by the dis­
tinctness of its structures with regard to each other, 57. The extensive field from
which further particulal's must be gleancd, ibid. The simpler tongues of insects
involve the simultaneous performance of a greuter number of actions than the human
tongue, ibid. The tongue has two means of enlarging the interval between it and
the palate; one pl'Oper, the other common, 76. 'Vhen it is about to speak or sing,
it conspires with the whole mouth, face, larynx, trachea, and chest, 77. It guides
sounds, ibid. When it is about to eat, it conspires with the whole mouth, face,
chcst, and abdomen, 7B. When it is about to drink, the palate palticnlarly con­
spires with it, 79. The sphere of action of it and the palate extends to the linea
alba of the pharynx, 95. Sec Taste.
TOUCH: see Skin. Touch expresses and represents the other senses as it were in
a grand type. particularly taste and smell; for these senses agree with touch in their
fibrcs or papilhe, II., 447. And taste and smell, like touch, are excited by corpus.
cules, endowed with vi.y inertiœ, that stamp a figure of themselves upon the little pa.
pillary forms, 449. The case is different with sight and hearing, the organs of which
are accommodated to the modification of the auras, and therefore do not receive the
impulses of inert forces, but the forms of active forces, ibid. Nevertheless these
senses,-namely, taste, touch, and smell,-are different from each other in nature
and charaeter; this being proved by the origin, degree, effect, and use of each, as
well as by the evidence of our own feelings, 450. As weil as from the cireumstance,
that tO\lch is present distinc.tly in the organs of ail the other senses, an·d governs in a
general manner as it were with them as eompanions, 451. In tO\lch we have also a
type of that sensation by which the viscera are affected in their innermost parts, par­
ticularly the viscera of the abdomen, as the œsophag\ls, the stomach, the intestines,
the ureters, the bladder; where similar papillary fibres are secn, which are pressed
by tactile objects of a not dissimilar character, ibid. Everything in the body derives
its life from touch, ibid., and 462. But since the papillary forms of these viscera do
not depend upon fibres originating in the cerebrum, bnt upon fibres originating. in
the cerebellum, hence the touches in them do not reach the consciousness of the
general sensorium, that is, of OUI' innermost sensorium, 453. Touch is commonly
excited by contiguous objects that strain the connexion of the parts, and especially of
the fibres, in the organic body; or influence their position, order, and series, and
thus change and invert their states, properties, and fnnctions, 459. Not only in the
papillary cutis, but in every fibrous and vascular textnre whatever, particularly in the
periostea, the perichondria, the dura and the pia mater, the part under the nails :
therefore also in the sensorial organs, as in the tongue, the nares, the ear, and the
eye, 462. In the papillary organ of the cutis, as in a mirror, we may contemplate
the sense of touch, and see the nature of that sense, and vice versil,. the one being
exactly represented in the other, 524. We see from this papillary organ, that the
papillre that rise through the foramina of the corpus reticulare, represent the unities
of our touch; and that by the mutual apposition of these unities, and their orderly
association, an organic form is produced, which is the organ, or as it is commonly
caUed, the sensorium of touch. The scales of the epidermis regulate and temper the
sense to suit every use that can possibly be intended in these e"tremes, 525. From
these considerations it appears, that touch is the most obtuse and indistinct of ail the
G48 INDEX 01' SUlJJEC'l'S.

senses; and morc ohtuse and indistinct in proportion as a larger numher of papillre is
prc~sed, or affected, at the same time, ibid. But this sense may be rendered more
acute and distinct in varions ways; nay, it is actually more distinct wherever use
demands it, 527. In toucb, as in ail the other senses, there is first an impression,
involving in it an action, either from some inert, or from some active force, that
comes from without. Next, ans~vering to the impression, a mutation in the excited
part of the sensorial organ; and hence a reaction corresponding to the action. Then
a perception of the mntation in the general sensorium, giving rise to a sensation.
Forthwith, according to the perception, there arises an affection: according to the
affection, a disposition to the preservation of the part or the whole; or a change of
state in agreement with the affection: then an effect embodying the use that the-sen­
sation produces, 528. The papillre are expandcd, extended, and soften, whcn they
come in contact with a pleasant object; but are constricted, retracted, and harden,
when they eome in contact with an unpleasant object, 531. Whate\'er soothes the
parts and cements their union, is pleasant; but whatever twinges and destroys, is
unpleasant, 532. The objects that imprint their image upon the papillary organ,
or indnce mutations upon it, are many in number, both bodies or substances, and
aceidents and modes, with their degrees and momenta: to wit, ail things whatever
that change and affect the natural state of the organ or its parts, 533. In order
that objects may be properly known, tonch is instructed by sight, and vice versil,
sight by touch, 535. Besides the affections ari~ing from external sensations, there
are also affections from internai causes, which vary our senses, and touch particularly,
in a singular manner, 538. Touch, like the other sen~es, does not indicate the
essence, form, and nature, that objects have inwardly, but only that they have out­
wardly; consequently only their figure or external form; wherefore experience, art,
and study are necessary to explore these objects more thoroughly, 539. Each pa­
pilla, which represents a unity of our touch, consists of fibres, or simpler papillre ;
consequently each unity of our touch arises from other most minute unities, 541.
From these fibrcs, which are the parents or unities of the papillre, the sense of touch
derives its distinctive generic character, 542. The objects of touch induce mutations
not only upon the common series or form of the papillre, but also upon the parent
fib~es of each papilla; and in fact mor~ considerable and distinct mutations in pro­
portion as the organic forms are more perfect, 543. We may see by calculation how
many myriads of mutations constitute one l'articulaI' of touch, 547. The mutations
that exist among the fibres in each papilla, give the real essence and life that there is
in this sense, 548. These mutations that exist within each papilla, are most dis­
tinctly presented to the soul, which alone gives the power to feel; and this, according
to the organic form in which the soul has disposed and combined the fibres and papillre,
549. From these considerations it is manifest, that the sensorio-organic form of touch
is twofold: namely, one form simple, the other compound; and that the compound
arises from the simple: bnt yet, althongh the form appears double, it is nevertheless
one in this respect, that both its elements together produce this sense. Also that the
simple or fibrillary form immediately refers its modes of sensation to nature, or to
the soul, in which that nature is involved; but that the compound or papillary form
immediately refers its modes to the general sensorium, or to our understanding, to
which such sensorium is assigned, 550. The soul has so organized the body, that it,
namely, the soul, is conscious by means of the senses, and by means of touch par­
ticularly, of whatever happens in its extreme, that is, outermost and innermost
spheres, as well as in its intermediate srhere; in order that from the first moment of
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 649
bodily life to the last, it may keep ail and singular things under its auspices, and
dispose them according to contingcncies, ibid. If any particle in the living fui)rics
of the body be destitute of the sensc of touch, il is also destitute of lifc, 55'!. The
uses of touch are, to perceive ail changes of state occurring in the circumambicnt
world, and communicate them to us: and thus to keep both watch and ward; to
notice whatever happens, and by means of its organ placed on guard, to protecl-, at
the same time that it institutes communications, 555. 1'0 announce to the under­
standing whate\'er comes in contact with, assails, or beats against the skin; what it
is, its quality and quantity, and where it co mes from i so as to aUow that faculty,
from the evidence of the impression, to judge of what is intended i and at the same
time to put the body either in a state of protection, or in a way of taking advantage
of the thing, and receiving benelit from it, 556. Touch also admonishes the organs
of taste and smell of the existence, quality, and quantity of that which is either
taken in openly, or glides in furtiveIy, and which tbose organs are shortly about to
explore in a different manner by their senses, ibid. That those which appear to be
the ultimate qualities inherent in things, may be known, and be denominated, ac­
cording to this sense, and its perceptions and affections, 557. 1'0 announce to the
soul the subtle particles that wasb against the little moutbs of the pores of the skin,
and that will serve as aliment to recruit the organic principles, and therewith the
higher life of the body, 558. That the parts, and the series constructed of parts,
or the members, may be excited by the irritation of touch, both to undertake and
go through their functions, 559. See TaRte.
TRAcIŒA. Described by Heister, IL, 87. By Winslow, 88. Particulars
respecting, from Morgagni, 91. Ilrom Boerhaave, 92. There is no difference be­
tween the t~achea and the Inngs, except such as tbere is between the general and the
parts, or between continuous and discriminated quantities, 93. The proper uses of
the trachea are the common uses of the lungs and the larymc, 94. The trachea affords
a channel for the atmosphere, and for the breath of the lungs, to pass and repass,
and accommodates itself to ail the nUmerous and diversilied modes of action of the
lungs, both in inspiration and in expiration, 95. In no part do so many motions
meet as in the trachea, 96. Its cartilages may be tcrmed the cervical or tracheal
ribs, 99. It examines and corrccts the air that ïs about to pass into the lungs, and
prevents anything hurtful from entering, ibid. In moistening the trachea, as in al!
nature's operations, there is a general and a particular, viz., general and particular
glandular springs, 100. It impregnates with vapors the air that is passing out:
thus it entangles effete exhalations, and prevents the contiguous parts from being
injured tbereby, 101. The trachea likewise in a general manner clears the lungs
from viscid phlegm by expcctoration, ibid. It serves as a pillar and support to the
larynx; and adapts itself exactly to the beck and nod of the latte'·, and to its tremu­
lous vibrations, Hi3. It disposes the parietes of its canal, so that the air may
impinge upon them; and stretchrs or tightens its membrane, so that when the air
impinges the membrane may tremble i and thus excites the rudimentary sound, for
the larynx aftenvards to form into singing or speech, that is, to modify, 104. In
the trachea, the tremblings proceed according to true natural order, from purer to
grosser, correspondently to the membranes, 105. It moistens the larynx con­
tinually with a vapory dew, 106. It aids and assists its neighbor, the oesophagus,
in the office of deglutition, 107. The reason why the t1'acheal nerve is recnrrent,
and why the par vagum does not immediately approach the trachea, 109. The
"DL. II. ~ ~
G50 IN DRX (n' SUDJ"ECTS.

tr3ehea dividcs and sharcs the salivary humaI' proceeding from its ~prings, in jl1st
proportion betwc~n itself and the œ~ophagu~, accorrling to the necessities of each,
\lOt It is the grand œsophageal sulivary gland, Ill. lt l'Ours the alternate re­
spiratory motions of the lungs into the neighboring parts, and thereby into the
remote and ultimate parts; nam<ily, into the œsophagus, and thereby into the
stomach, and so into the viscera of the abdomen: also into the great sympathetic
nerves,-the intereostal and the par vagum: and into the ascending carotid artery
and the descending jugulaI' vein; and thereby into the universal sl'stem: thus it
renovates the motive life of the body, \lI-Il 6. It insinuates into the neighboring
parts, and thereby into ail other parts, high and low, its own sonol'ons tremblings,
as weil as those of the larynx: thus it excites the arterial blood mounting to the
head and brain, and the venous blood returning from the head and brain, together
with the ear, the companion in office of the trachea, and exhilarates and animates
them bl' a general modification: thus it renovates the sensual life of the body, 116­
ll9. See Blood. The tremblings propagated from the laIJ·nx and trachea are the
most intense where the thoracic duct enters the subclavian vein, ll9. The trachea
represents in itself, as in an image, how every member of this body or kingdom
lives for ail the other members, and not for itself alone, ibid.
TRINE: see Series.
TRUTH is the source of wisdom, 1. Every truth is a combination of an infinity
of other truths, 2. The more numerous the truths that go to form one truth, the
brighter is its light, ibid. A truth is never opened without an infinity of others being
opened a\so, 3. Truth in man is according to his order and state; hence the truths
in the rational mind do not deserve to be called truths, but principles, ibid. Two ways
for discovering truth; synthesis and analysis. ibid. See Analysis, Synlhesis. The
power of perceiving truths a priori belongs to God and spiritual beings, but not to
man, 6, and II., 346, 352. In proportion as we ascend to truths by the proper
means, truths descend to us, l., 8. Purity of mind and respect of universal ends
are necessary for the discovery of truth, 8. Plato's experience on the subject, 8, 9.
Evcn the truths legitimately explored by analysis are only appearances of truth, 9.
The soul is in the sphere of truths, 10. The signs that accompany the truth to them
that receive it, II., 360.
UMBILICUS. It is a centre of gravity to ail the tunics of the body, 466.
UNITIES, what; exemplified in the muscles and glunds of the tongue, 53. Ail
things are related to their unities, ibid. Any series may be assumed as a unity, ibid.
See Leasls, Organic Forms, Simples. Every form or series has its proper unities,
II.,465. AU accidents, modes, &c., have their I1nities, 467. Unities are noble in
proportion to the priorityand height of their origin and extraction, ibid. Unities
are not to be understood as indivisible, but as those things that are the least in each
series, and enter its form as its essential parts, and which are proper to it, and would
not suit any other series or form if they were applied to it, 466. Different kinds of
unities may coexist in one viscus, ibid., and 482. It is impossible to arrive at a
knowledge of the use of the viscera, unless at the same time of their unities, 467.
Unities are predicated of the greatest things as weil as of the Icast, 468. The unities
of human society are men, thus entire bodies; the unities of the muscular system are
entire muscles, ibid. Unities generally ascend to the third series of composition,
but sometimes rise no higher than the second, sometimes as high as the fourth, 470.
Compositions are homogeneous with their unities, 475. See Conliguous Things.
 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 651
Effects and operations go no higher than to unities, and from them, 482. Unities arc
centres, wherever in their viscus they are situated, 485. The fibre~ with the vessels
infuse into the unities of organs their passe and esse, or potency and essence, 490.
UNIVERSAL: see General. Every universal derives its nature from singulars,
194. A universal is that which exists and acts universally in the whole, and in ail
parts of the whole, 487. In the human microcosm the soul is' such a universal, 488.
Every whole has its proper superior universal, inferior universal, and ultimate uni.
versai, ibid. The three universals in the human body, what, 489; II., 425, 446.
The mode of derivation of the lower and lowest universals from the higher, what, 1.,
489; II., 446. The universal gives the essence, and determines it; the common
bond defines and bounds it, 1., 492. In proportion as essences are pure, they ale
universal and abundant, II., 434. There are three universal essences that govem
the body, viz., the soul, the animal spirit, and the blood, 440. See 8kïn.
UNIVERSE. Everything in its first principles represents the universe, 173. The
body is a kind of universe, 193. Sec Leasts, Microcosm.
URETERS, the: see Kidneys.
URINE: see Kidneys. It is continually varying in all its conditions, 454.
USE must be the first object of enquiry, since all things are formed according to
use, 33, 429. The use, as the end, first of ail manifests itself, sinee it is continually
present and involved in the series of progression, 34. Use determines the harmony
of varieties, 56. A sllperior universal use is always ultimately respected, 240. Ali
parts are organized for use and by use, 301; II., 462. The use determines and
unfolds the reason of the strueture; but the structure,· apart from the use, does not
give a reason for itself, save as interpretable by examining numerous effects and
causes in series, 1., 341. The circle of uses, what, 375, 378; II., 141. The series
and circle of causes involve a correspondîllg series and circle of uses, 1. 377. See
Cause, Effect, Efficient, End. There is a similar progression of uses as of effects,
ibid. See CircZe. Every point in creation f10ws from a use, and tends to a use,
381, 409. If the use of a viscus be unknown, its structure must be opened, and the
use interpretcd therefrom, and how, 431. If the use be known, we must then
enquire into the series of subordination existing in the cause, ibid. Ali thing~ should
be examined not only with a view to their situation and cOlmexion, but also to their
particular uses, 462. We are to enquire how use brings forth use, since there is a
chain of ail things, II., 141. Such is the progression of uses, that effects retum by
an incomprehensible gyre to their first end, 362. Were it not for the animal king­
dom, nothing that the terraqueous world produces could be said to minister a use,
362. The cuticle is modified in exact correspondence to use, 393. In unfoldîng
uses, we must take account of contents as weil as continents, 430. See Organic
Forms. There are as many minors of uses, or of progression from the first end to
the last, as there are organs and viscera, and parts thereof, 464.
UVULA, the, described by Heister, 11.,4. By Winslow, 8. If gives the velum
palati full power of accommodating itself to the actions of the tongue and pharynx in
eating and swallowing, 36. It assists the velum when the larynx is articulating and
the tongue regulating sound, 37. Why not found in brutes, ibid. It determines the
humor of the nares towards the pharynx, ibid.
VARIETY: see Distinction, Kidneys, Organic For1Tl$, Tangue, Urine. No
society can exist among absolute peers or equals ; there must be a perpetuai diversity
of members, II., 363. The amazing variety of the perspirations, II.,391, 416.
Unity supposes variety, and perishes in equality, 478. One thing joined to another
652 INDEX 01' SUBJECTS.

with becoming variety, remarkably exalts the life of sensations, 533. The sensoria
are fashioned for infinite varieties, ibid.
VEINS, the generation of, in the subcutaneous glands, II., 417, 418. Theil'
passive and female natw'e, 417. See J1rteries, Vesse1s. Theveins demand back the
embodiment of the blood, 1.,447. Sec Lymphatics.
VENA PORT.~, the, described by Heister, 256. It is a sewer and turbid gulf of
hum~)rS, 279. It divides them into three species, 281. See Liver.
VESSELS, the coats of the, and their fiuids, are mutually determinant of each
other, 219. Where the vessels end, there they also begin, 283. See A,·teries,
Veins.
VISCUS. Pmy state or animus induced on the brains, is indueed on the fibres,
and hence on the viscera, 139. There are as many spheres as viscera, 193. Ali the
viscera are chemical organs, 235. Ali viscera designed for the separation of con­
creted particles, require to be divided into lobes, united by ligaments, and parted by
fissures; in order that everything may be done tranquilly, 296. Those viscera that
are employed generally in a similar office, constitute corporations, 429. The viscera
take different and unequal quantities of blood, 430. The mutability of state of the
viscera, ibid. The use of many viscera is shewn by their ultimate effects, not by
their structure, ibid. The abdominal viscera are analogous to the earth; the thoracic
press and actuate them as the atmospheres press and actuate the earth, 526.
VOl CE. Distinction between sounding, singing, and speaking, 11.,50. Change
of voice from puerile ta manly, 77.
WILL: see Nature, Sou1. The will acts for the most part from the decrees of
the senses, the blood, or the body, 205. The will alone is ours, 397. The quality
of an individual, when predicated of himself, is predicated reaUy of his will, 397.
Ali the voluntary motions are actions different from natural action, II., 102. If the
will alone ruled, aU things would perish in less than a moment, 338. The will is
free, 365.
WINSLDW, THE FORAMEN OF. The spot where it is situated is the cornmon
hinge of the abdominal viscera, 386. The exudation given out there, diffuses itself
continuously along all their coat.~, ibid. This spot is the centre of the motions of the
viscéra, ibid.
\VORLD. The world sustains the orders and states of our bodies, as a cornmOll
auxiliary, IL, 386.
 APPENDIX.

AN ACCOUNT OF SWEDENBORG'S PHYSIOLOGICAL :>IAN1JSCRIPTS IN THE

LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF STOCKHOLM. BY
DR. J. E. SVEDBOM, LIBRARIAN 1'0 THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
OF STOCKHOLM, PH. D., .'1..101.

THE following statement is the result of an investigation undertaken for the purpose
of replying to Ml'. Wilkinson's question,-" Whether the MSS. of Swedenborg,
enumerated in the preface to the 'Animal Kingdom' (pp. xiii. and xiv.), are to be
found in the Library of the Ro)'al Academy of Sciences of Stockholm?" It appears
best to give an answer to the particular details of the question separately, ad ding
certain bibliographical observations, in order to enable the reader to form an idea of
the contents and size of each manuscript, and of the amount of labor necessary for
transcribing it.

1. Frailments on the subjeet of the Economy of the Animal Kinildom, and on

the subject of the Animal Kingdom itself, among which is a T"eatise on
the Part.~ of Generation in both sexes, and on the proceS$ of GenC'·ation.
Among Swedenborg's manuscripts preserved in this !ibrary, there is one in folio,
the title of which, a considerable portion of the beginning, and the end, are wanting ;
but the matter seeDlS to agree with the title given above. This book contains various
treatises, each with sorne number and title prelixed to it. The leaves are not regu­
larll' numbered, but distinguished in some cases by numbers, in others by letters.
The book begins with a page marked u u, in the middle of the twenty-second trea­
tise, as it would appear l'rom what follows. The other treatises, of which but little
seems to be wanting, are as follow :-23. The Periosteum, p. vi. 24. The Mammœ,
p. xii. 25. The Ear and Hearing, p. xxix. The end of this treatise is wanting,
together with the title and beginning of thè next treatise, but which, to judge fl'om
what is left of it, seems to have been headed,-26. The Eye and the Sense of Sight.
Of this treatise there remain p. xl., but the end of it is wanting. 27. The Spermatie
Artel)', p. x. 28. The Testes, Epididymes, &c., p. xv. 29. The Scrotum, p. v.
30. The Vasa Deferentia, p. vi. 31. The Vesieulre Seminales, p. xvii. 32. The
Prostate Gland, p. vii. 33. The Urethra, p. viii. 34. The Penis and Corpora
Cavernosa, p. xvi. 35. The Semen, p. viii. 36. The Membra Gen. Mulierum ext.,
p. xi. 37. The Uterus, p. xvi. 38. The Ovaries, p. iv. 39. The F.allopian Tubes,
l" viii. 40. The Dtems (a second trcatise), p. xiii. 41. The Placenta, p. xv. 42.
The Chorion, Amnion, and Liquor Amnii, p. x. 43. The Umbilical Cord, p. ix.
654 APPENDIX.

44. Conjectures respecting the State and earliest Stages of the Embryo, p. vii. Next
we have, in the same volume, various excerpts from the works of other authors re-'
specting certain animals.
The heirs of Swedenhorg, who dellvered his book~ and manuscripts to the Royal
Academy of Sciences, in the catalogue which accompanied their letter of donation,
state that the above treatises are fragments of the books entitled .. Œconomia
Naturalis" (50 they write it), and" Regnum Animale." ln the course of reading
and comparing, 1 have found that the style of treatment is the same as that adopted
by Swedenborg in his .. Œconomia Regni Animalis;" in 50 far as this at least, that
the faets and experiments of the learned are first premised, and the author's own
sentiments unfolded afterwards, under the heading .. Induction."
The greater part of the contents of this volume is closely written, and will be
difficult to read or make out.

2. The Animal Economy, (consisting of T'reatises respecting both parts of

Man, respecting the Cerebrum, the Medulla Oblongata and Medulla Spinalis,
and respecting the nerves,*) considered analytically, physically, and philo­
sophically, &c., p. 760.
There is a book in 4to. bearing this title, but the title is crossed out with the pen,
and does not seem to correspond with the contents of the book. Thus the latter
contains, in various places, the Author's Diary [Itinerarium] from 1733 to 1739,
with a brief description of his travels from 1710, written partly in Latin, partly in
Swedish: also extracts from various authors on physical and philosophical subjects :
a treatise on .. The Mechanism of the Sou! and the Body," respecting which see
belo.w (3), &c. It appears from the Catalogue mentioned above, that this volume
once contained 760 pages, whereas it contains now ouly 714.
(Respecting the treatises which we have elsewhere, written by Swedenborg, on
the •• Cerebrum," &c., see below under the head Additions 1. and II.)
3. The Mechanism of the Soul and the Body.
The treatise to which this designation refers, is found in the volume last men­
tioned, of which it occupies pages 116 to 131. It is written, in places, in a hand
somewhat difficu!t to read. From the kind of writing, 1 should infer that this
treatise is only a sketch [adumbrationem], and not digested into the form of a fully
developed work.
4. The Animal Spirit, p. 24.
5. Sensation, or tlte Passion of the Body, Chap. XIII.
6. Action, Chap. XXXV.
ln the 4to. vol\U!le (2), we find these three little treatises, as weil as certain
others. The first on" The Animal Spirit," is in 24 pages, and XVII. Chapters.
The second, on .. Sensation, or the passion of the Body," is in 11 pages, and XIII.
Chapters; but it ends with the headiug, Chapter XIV., which would lead one to
suppose that the subject was not finished. The third, on "Action," is in 30 pages,
and XXXV. Chapters, and appears to be complete. These little treatises are easy
to read and make out.
(Respecting the other treatises that are contained in the same book, see below,
Addition III.)
• It apf>C&J'S tbat Swellenborg published a Uttie work on thia subject, entitlcd, Il Di~llertationes due:: de Fibra et
Suceo Nervoso/' 8.0., Rome, 174,O.-(T1'.)
 APPENDIX. üi:i5

7. General SeMe, and its infiu:J: bita Ille Soul.

1 filld this title given in the Catalogue already rcferred to, as belonging to sorne
" Fragment" preserved among the manuscripts of Swedenborg; but in the course of
my examination, 1 have not been able, at this time, to discover any treatise so
entitled in the manuscripts.
B. The Muscles of the Face.
9. The Human Ear.
These are two treatises having the abovc titles, both contained in one volume
folio.
The treatise on the" Muscles of the Face" contains 13 pages and various chap-
ters, headed separately : as for example,-" The Muscles of the middle region of the
Face;" "The Muscles subservient to the Nose," &c. This treatise, however, has
not the appearance of being fully carried out, but seems rather ta contain the out-
line of sorne projected dissertation. It is closely written.
The other treatise, on "The Human Ear," is in Il pages. It appears, how-
ever, that this treatise, although written by the hand of Swedenborg, is not of his
composition, but consists only of certain excerpts from a work by J. F. Cassebohm
(" Tractatus VI. de Aure Humanâ," Haire, 1735). But there are two manuscript
treatises by Swedenborg himself, on the same subject, in other parts of this collec-
tion, but with different titles. The one, "On the Ear and Hearing," of which
mention was made above (1); the other with the slightly different title-" On the
Ear and the Sense of Hearing;" and which latter is found in the volume of which
we are at present speaking. (Respeeting this second treatise, see Addition 1.)

ADDITIONS.
1 might here have brought this Memoir to a close, having given answers to the
best of my ability, to ail the particulars of the question proposed. But 1 bope it
will prove agreeable and acceptable to the London Society, by whose efforts and
labors so many of the writings of Swedenborg have been published; and particularly
ta MI'. Wilkinson, who is now engaged in publishing a translation of the "Animal
Kingdom," if 1 proceed a little further, and record certain observations 1 have made
in examining the MSS. of Swedenborg, and which have a close connexion with the
design of thc London Society," and of the Translator of the work already alluded to.
1. Wbile occupied in scrutinizing the MSS. of Swedenborg, (which have never
yet been satisfactorily examined, nor indeed could be, until they were better arranged,)
1 chanced upon a manuscript, with neither title nor termination, but which, never-
theless, powerfully arrested my attention. Like many others in the Library Cata-
logues, tbis book was classed under the general designation " Anatomica et Physio-
logica," along with the rest, without any indication of its subject matter; nor was
there a trace to shew, that any searcher of the MSS. had hitherto turned his attention
to it. Throughout, as 1 perused it, and considered the contents, 1 was led ta the
notion that it contains a CONTINUATION OF THE "ANIMAL KINGDOM," unknown
ta exist, sa far Q$ l am aware, up ta the present time! And although 1 am not
sufficiently versed in Swedenborg's writings, to affirm with certainty tbat this con-
jecture is weil founded, yet thus mucb 1 will say, that it has grown in probability in

• Dr. S...e.lbom is Dot awarc. that the" Society for Printing and PIlblislung the Writiuga oC Swedenborg, inSti·
luted in I.ou.\on in 1810," il exclusÎ\·ely occnpicd in the publication of the Theological Works of tbe Autbor, and
tloes nol, al Il body, take cOlflliumce of an j' other departmcllt in SwcdcuborgiaD Litcrature.-(Tr.)
656 APPENDIX.

proportion as 1 have examtned the book, and compared it with the treatises which
Swedenborg himself published on the subject of the "Animal Kingdom" in his
lifetime. This book is in 241 closely-written folio pages. It begins with p. l,
Prologue, the subject matter of which is remarkably simiJar to that of the Prologue
prefixed to the" Animal Kingdom," Part III. (London, 1745); although the two
do not coincide verbatim; the manuscript Prologue being much fuller and longer
than the other. The treatise which follows, from p. 3 to p. 241, seems to embrace
not only a summary of the subjects contained in the" Animal Kingdom," Part III.,
(briefly stated however, and only the results indicated,) but also a good part of those
subjects which the Author, in the Index of Contents of the whole work prefixed to
Part 1., promised the reader that he intended to treat of, but which he did not deve­
lop in the thl'ce parts which he himself published. In proof of this, we have the fol.
lowing titles prefixed to the several treatises. After the Prologue, which stands as n. 1.,
we come to II. The Common Tnmks of the Carotids ; the External Common Branch
of the Carotid; The first Extemal Branches of the Carotid; The other External
Branches of the Carotid. (These subjects occupY p. 3-11.) III. The Sense of Taste
and the Tongue ; Sense in General ;. The Sensorium of Taste in General and in Par­
ticular (p. 12-31). IV. The Sense of Smellt(p. 32-43).::: The Sense of Touch, 01' the
Layers of the Skin [cuticulis] (p. 44-60). The Ear and the Scnse of Hearing (p.
61- 83, with additions on p. 99). The Eye and the Sense of Sight (p. 84-121),
in which we have various sub.titles; fol' example, Ltght and Colors; the Muscles of
the Eye; the Coats of the Eye, &c. Next follow, commencing from p. 122, Phy­
sical and Optical Experiments, whether by Swedenborg himself, or extracted from
the writings of other authors, 1 cannot say. Epilogue, on the Senses, 01' on Sensa.
tion generally (p. 129-150). And afterwards, In brief, A General Statement of
the Subjects of Sensation and Affection (p. 150-159). Next, A continuation re­
specting Hannonic or Musical Laws (p. 160-187). In the course of which we
have a treatise on Speech (p. 185-187) ; next, The Understanding and its Opera­
tion (p. 187-196); last, an Index to the preceding, filling four pages, but which
are not numbered. Then follows, Preface to the Part on the Brain, but prefixed im­
mediately to the first chapter (p. 198-202) ; also Chapter 1. The Brain, its Struc­
ture and Motion, and Sensation generally (1'. 202-204). The following heads occur
on the last-mentioned page (204) :-Chapter II. The Cranium, and the Bones of the
Cranium. Chapter III. The Dura Mater, and the power (?) of production, and so
forth; without any development of the subjects indicated. There is ne;d a continu­
ation of the dissertation on The Structure of the Brain (p. 206-209); The Func­
tions of the Brain (1'. 209-232); and a Summary of the same (p. 232, 233). The
Dura Mater (p. 234-241).
The several treatises to which the aboye titles refer, do not appear to be finished
productions, fully reasoned out, but rather to be outlines, which the author intended
to develop farther at a future time, and digest iuto formai dissertations. Notwith­
standing this, the author's opinion, unless 1 am mistaken, is fol' the most part
.. A note of the author is berc appendcd, writtcn, as il8PPC8.r.!o, 811bscqnelltly to the trcati!le. and in the Swcdil!h
langnage, 8tar.îng that tbis chapter i~ to he tram,fcn-cd from ils present situation to the Bpiloguc, l!\incc ~lUcb expli­
cation iu tbis place would he cont-rary to tlle .. enulytic method." (J. E. S.)
t The fi Seuse of SmeU" WhS to have been the subjcct of fi the ver)' ncx.t Chnptcr' in the" Animal Kingdom,"
nad Swedenborg contiuuoo thc Work. Sec Vol. 11., p. 58a, note (q). U Hellting" and" Sigbt" would probably hn\'c
bcen the next IJubjccts, complcting Part III.; I\JH1 thc "Ccrcbrnm" wns intended to bc the subjcct of P&rt. IY.
The munuscript on the Cerebrum, according to Dr. Svedbom .. contain!l li. de.clopment of the subjeet," and il;
"' aceurately written out," so that Swcdenborg would scem to have Ilrcparcd it for the ]lreu-(Tr.)
~ The Uoman numeral:!! prefixl'!d to the title!'!, ccnse in tbis place. (J. E. S.)
 APPENDIX. 637
sufficiently unfolded to be perfectly apprehensible. The style of trcatment is the
same as that peculiar to Swedenborg in the former parts of the ,. Animal King­
dom;" there being first a statement of Experience, and after this, an Analysis.
The fil'st department of each treatise, containing the Experience, is very brief; nor
are the passages from the authors quoted, writtcn out, as was Slyedenborg's custom
elsewhere in these essays: but the second department, or the Analysis, is much longer
and more full. "Vith respect to the hand.writing, the greater part of this book is
written very small, and is extremely difficult to read and make out; so much so,
tbat it would task the best abilitics of the copyist to perform his part correctly.
From tbesc particulars, unless l am deceivcd, there is ground to hope, that this
book, in conjunction with that mentioned above (1.), contains many things that will
hereafte,' prove supplementary to Swedenborg's " Animal Kingdom."
II. It will be recollected that the subject matter of the manuscript entitled The
Cerebrum, &c. (2), greatly disappoints the expectation raised by that title. On the
other hand, from what has just been said, it appe&-rs that another volume, lately
mentioned, presents the disappointed and almost unhoping reader, with a Disserta.
tion on the Brain and its functions. But as this Dissertation, like ail the others in
the same book, seems to give nothing more than an outline of some future treatise,
it will perhaps be agreeable to the reader to be informed, that l have found two other
books, which seem to contain a development of the subject of the brain, accurately
written ont. Both these books are indeed incomplete, being destitllte of begin­
ing and termination.* The greater part of them, however, appears to be left: and
certainly quite enough to merit the close attention of the enquirer. Thus the one
MS. has on the Brain pp. 65-433; the other, which is much the larger, pp. 73­
1482.t Both are in quarto, carefully written out, and not ditlicult to read; the latter
more diffuse in its style of penmanship, and with somewhat wider lines than the
fOl·mer. But l have not yet had leisure to compare tbese books with each other, or
with the above-mentioned outline; and therefore l can only mention them here, and
must postpone the more accu rate examination of them till another time.
III. In the manuscript mentioned above (4-6), there are certain matters which
should not be passed over without notice; among these we have the' Red Blood
(p. 24, chap. xxüi.) The Origin and Propagation of the Soul (p. 6, chap. iv.) At
the end of the same MS. a longer treatise begins, but both its title (p. 1 and 2) and
continuation, are wanting. After a short preface, whieh occupies p. 3 and 4, we
read on p. [) the following : -

Trealise 1. T!.e Soul, and lite Harmony oelween il and lite Body, considered
generally.

The work begins with these words, "The Mind never really acquiesces in any
system concerning the intereo\l\'se and harmony between the Soul and the Body,
that supposes the existence of an unknown and Incomprehensible prineiple," &c.
The treatise ends on p. 80, in the middle of a sentence. The leaf containing p. 7
and 8 is wanting. In the preface at the beginning, the Author says, "Kind reader,

• This, [ find 311blcq,llently t.o be an crror; the ~econd and tarrer Treatisc appenrs to he complete 'a'ith rC5pect
to il'" rermlnation.-(J. E. S.)
t The pfobability is, that the beginning of the3e 'l'refttlaca hu bcen inserted in the" Econoroy oC the .\nimal
KingtloUl," tr. Ii., chapter li.• n. 69-207. "On tbe Cortical SubstiDte of the Brain specifically j" and should
th,,, Ilto,'e to bc the calSe, tbcn tbe larger Treatise ma)' be reS'Arded as quitc complete.-(Tr.)
VOL. II. AAA
658 APPENDIX.

-1 was long in doubt whether to bring together in one volume or work, the result
of all my meditations on the Soul and Body, and tbe mutual action and passion of
the two; or whether to divide my labors into separate numbers and treatises, and to
publish them, one by one, in the shape of Transactions." He goes on to say, that
it would be a "Iabor of many years," and would " require volumes" to explain the
soul and the state thereof, together with its intercourse with the body, and the con­
nexion between the two, by means of. harmony; that is to say, •• to set forth the
whole animal kingdom with all its parts, and the functions and offices of each,
philosophically, analytically, gcometrically, and anatomically." As he foresaw
that it would be impossible to finish this immense work satisfaetorily at a single blow,
he deemed it most advisablc "to divide it into treatises and numbers, and to pllblish
frequently." He promises, therefore, that he will come before the reader often ;
perhaps not less than five ,or six times a year, and that the fasciculi of his work will
be issued under the title of "Psychological Transactions." At the end of the
preface, the author signs his name, pseudonymice, J. S. E. G. ü. F.
1 leave the character and number of these Psychological Transactions, if they be
identified with the parts published and unpublished of the" Animal Kingdom," to
be detennined br those who are more versed than myself in the writings of Swe­
denborg.
Such are the particulars which 1 have hitherto observed in going over the manu­
scripts of Swedenborg. It will be a matter of the greatest gratification to me if the
preceding statement contains any novelty, or anything that is worthy of the kind
consideration of those who are laboring so earnestly in the publication of Sweden­
borg's works.
J. E. SVEDnoM,
Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Arts.

Stockholm; the Library of the Royal Acadel1lY

of Science., Dccember, 1843.

CORRECTIONS IN THE WüRK.

Vol. L, page l~ line lG (rom the bottom-foT, Cl of dift'ereut sizetl." ~ad. "large and small."
Ibid., page 78, line 3-for "The kcys may produce evcrlRsting harmonies (rom these principle!, without c\'et ex..
haustiug the !Ource," read. Il From this source the ke)'" can draw 10rtb tbeir s~ieDce wilbmlt ever exbaulltlng it."
Ibid., page 110, llDe 10 from the bottom-after" animaIs," inscrt, "so that 1 bave no longer an)' doubt respectiug
tllem."
Vo). II., page 10. liDe 8 from the bottom-for Uwith tbem, tbe nlU'lal pa!l8agea arC blockel:l up, and a11 respiration
that 'Nay i~ intercepted," read, "wllh them, ",ben the nasal paslages are stopped up, al1 rcspiration il intercepteù:'
Ibi<1., page 294, (0' epP'111 read eppfllfr.