Chapter 11: Metal Alloys

Applications and Processing

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How are metal alloys classified and how are they used?
What are some of the common fabrication techniques?
How do properties vary throughout a piece of material
that has been quenched, for example?
How can properties be modified by post heat treatment?

Chapter 11 - 1

Taxonomy of Metals
Metal Alloys

Ferrous
Steels
Steels
<1.4wt%C
<1.4
wt% C

Cast Irons
Cast
Irons
3-4.5
wt%C
3-4.5 wt% C

Cu

Al

1600

1400

austenite

+L
4.30

800
ferrite

600
400

L+Fe3C

1148C

1000

0
(Fe)

727C

Eutectoid:

0.76

Eutectic:

+Fe3C

Ti

Adapted from Fig. 9.24,Callister 7e.

(Fig. 9.24 adapted from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-in-Chief),
ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
1990.)

Fe3C
cementite

+Fe3C
3

Mg

microstructure:
ferrite, graphite
cementite

T(C)

1200

Adapted from
Fig. 11.1,
Callister 7e.

Nonferrous

Co , wt% C

6.7

Chapter 11 - 2

Steels
High Alloy

Low Alloy
low carbon Med carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt%C

high carbon
0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
plain
treatable
Cr,V
Cr, Ni
Additions none
none
none
Ni, Mo
Mo
Example 1010 4310
1040
4340 1095
Hardenability 0
+
+
++
++
TS
0
+
++
+
EL
+
+
0
Name

plain

Uses

auto
struc.
sheet

HSLA

bridges
towers
press.
vessels

plain

crank
shafts
bolts
hammers
blades

pistons
gears
wear
applic.

wear
applic.

tool
Cr, V,
Mo, W
4190
+++
++
-drills
saws
dies

increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

Based on data provided in Tables 11.1(b), 11.2(b), 11.3, and 11.4, Callister 7e.

austenitic
stainless
Cr, Ni, Mo
304
0
0
++
high T
applic.
turbines
furnaces
V. corros.
resistant
Chapter 11 - 3

Refinement of Steel from Ore

Coke
Iron Ore

gas
refractory
vessel
layers of coke
and iron ore
air
slag
Molten iron

Limestone
BLAST FURNACE
heat generation
C+O2 CO2
reduction of iron ore to metal
CO2 + C 2CO
3CO + Fe2O3 2Fe+3CO2
purification
CaCO3 CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 slag

Chapter 11 - 4

Ferrous Alloys
Iron containing Steels - cast irons
Nomenclature AISI & SAE
10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (10 ~ 20%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.4 - 0.90%), Mo (0.2 - 0.3%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel -- >11% Cr
Chapter 11 - 5

Cast Iron
Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast
Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite
Fe3C
3 Fe () + C (graphite)
generally a slow process

Chapter 11 - 6

Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

T(C)
1600

Graphite formation
promoted by

1400

Si > 1 wt%

+L

1200

slow cooling

Liquid +
Graphite

Austenite

1153C
4.2 wt% C

1000

+ Graphite

+
800
0.65

740C

600
Adapted from Fig.
11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2
adapted from Binary Alloy
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed.,
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

+ Graphite
400
(Fe)

90

Co , wt% C

Chapter 11 - 7

100

Types of Cast Iron

Gray iron
graphite flakes
weak & brittle under tension
stronger under compression
excellent vibrational dampening
wear resistant

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.

Ductile iron
add Mg or Ce
graphite in nodules not flakes
matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
Chapter 11 - 8

Types of Cast Iron

White iron
<1wt% Si so harder but brittle
more cementite

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron
heat treat at 800-900C
graphite in rosettes
more ductile

Chapter 11 - 9

Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

Chapter 11 - 10

Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density
2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

Chapter 11 - 11

Nonferrous Alloys
Cu Alloys

Al Alloys

-lower : 2.7g/cm3
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity
(costume jewelry, coins,
-Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant)
-solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are
strengthened (struct.
subst. impurity
aircraft parts
(bushings, landing
& packaging)
gear)
Mg Alloys
NonFerrous
Cu-Be:
-very low : 1.7g/cm3
Alloys
precip. hardened
-ignites easily
for strength
-aircraft, missiles

Ti Alloys

Refractory metals
-lower : 4.5g/cm3
-high melting T
vs 7.9 for steel
Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T -Ag, Au, Pt
-oxid./corr. resistant
-space applic.
Based on discussion and data provided in Section 11.3, Callister 7e.

Chapter 11 - 12

Metal Fabrication
How do we fabricate metals?
Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
Molding - cast
Forming Operations
Rough stock formed to final shape
Hot working
T high enough for
recrystallization
Larger deformations

vs.

Cold working
well below Tm
work hardening
smaller deformations

Chapter 11 - 13

Metal Fabrication Methods - I

FORMING

CASTING

JOINING

Forging (Hammering; Stamping) Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)

(wrenches, crankshafts)
force

(I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)

roll

die
A o blank

A d often at

elev. T

Drawing

force

Ao
die

Ad

roll
Adapted from
Fig. 11.8,
Callister 7e.

Extrusion

(rods, wire, tubing)

die

Ao

Ad

(rods, tubing)
Ao
tensile
force

die must be well lubricated & clean

force

container

ram

billet

die holder
Ad

extrusion

die
ductile metals, e.g. Cu,
Al (hot)
Chapter 11 container

14

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING

CASTING

JOINING

Casting- mold is filled with metal

metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying
elements added. Then cast in a mold
most common, cheapest method
gives good production of shapes
weaker products, internal defects
good option for brittle materials

Chapter 11 - 15

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING

CASTING

JOINING

Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)

trying to hold something that is hot

what will withstand >1600C?

Sand

Sand

molten metal

cheap - easy to mold => sand!!!

pack sand around form (pattern) of
desired shape

Chapter 11 - 16

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING

CASTING

JOINING

Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)

Investment Casting
pattern is made from paraffin.

Sand

Sand

molten metal

Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster
die formed
around wax
prototype

mold made by encasing in

plaster of paris
melt the wax & the hollow mold
is left
pour in metal

wax
Chapter 11 - 17

Metal Fabrication Methods - II

FORMING

CASTING

Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
auto engine blocks)
Sand

Die Casting
(high volume, low T alloys)

Sand

molten metal

Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
plaster
die formed
around wax
prototype

JOINING

Continuous Casting
(simple slab shapes)
molten
solidified

wax
Chapter 11 - 18

Metal Fabrication Methods - III

FORMING

CASTING

Powder Metallurgy
(materials w/low ductility)

Welding
(when one large part is
impractical)

pressure

filler metal (melted)

base metal (melted)
fused base metal

heat

area
contact
densify

JOINING

unaffected
piece 1

heat affected zone

unaffected
Adapted from Fig.
piece 2
11.9, Callister 7e.

Heat affected zone:

point contact
at low T

densification
by diffusion at
higher T

(region in which the

microstructure has been
changed).

(Fig. 11.9 from Iron

Castings
Handbook, C.F.
Walton and T.J.
Opar (Ed.), 1981.)

Chapter 11 - 19

Thermal Processing of Metals

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.
Stress Relief: Reduce
stress caused by:
-plastic deformation
-nonuniform cooling
-phase transform.

Spheroidize (steels):
Make very soft steels for
good machining. Heat just
below TE & hold for
15-25 h.

Types of
Annealing
Process Anneal:
Negate effect of
cold working by
(recovery/
recrystallization)

Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister 7e.

Full Anneal (steels):

Make soft steels for
good forming by heating
to get , then cool in
furnace to get coarse P.

Normalize (steels):
Deform steel with large
grains, then normalize
to make grains small.
Chapter 11 - 20

Heat Treatments
800

a) Annealing

Austenite (stable)

T(C)

TE

b) Quenching

P
600

c) Tempered
Martensite
B

400
Adapted from Fig. 10.22, Callister 7e.

0%

10
0%

50
%

0%

M+A

200

50%

M+A

a)

b)
10

-1

10

10

time (s)

10

90%

Chapter 11 - 21

c)

Hardenability--Steels
Ability to form martensite
Jominy end quench test to measure hardenability.

specimen
(heated to
phase field)
24C water

flat ground

Adapted from Fig. 11.11,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.11
adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials
Science, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York,
1978.)

Rockwell C
hardness tests

Hardness, HRC

Hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Adapted from Fig. 11.12,

Callister 7e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 11 - 22

Why Hardness Changes W/Position

Hardness, HRC

The cooling rate varies with position.

60
40
20

distance from quenched end (in)

T(C)
600
A

0%
100%

Adapted from Fig. 11.13, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 11.13 adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.)
Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
Cooling Transformation Diagrams,
American Society for Metals, 1977, p.
376.)

400
200

M(start)
AM

te a
rli Pe
lit e e a +
ar P ite
Pe ine ens
F
t
ar ite
M ens
t
ar

0.1

0 M(finish)

10

100

1000

rli
te

Time (s)

Chapter 11 - 23

Hardenability vs Alloy Composition

(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640)

--contain Ni, Cr, Mo
(0.2 to 2wt%)
--these elements shift
the "nose".
--martensite is easier
to form.

60
4340

80 %M
50

40

20

2 Cooling rate (C/s)

100

4140
8640

40

"Alloy Steels"

10

10

Adapted from Fig. 11.14, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 11.14 adapted from figure furnished
courtesy Republic Steel Corporation.)

100
Hardness, HRC

Jominy end quench

results, C = 0.4 wt% C

5140

0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from quenched end (mm)

800

T(C)

600

400
200
0 -1
10
10

TE
shift from
A to B due
to alloying
M(start)
M(90%)

103 105 Time (s)

Chapter 11 - 24

Quenching Medium & Geometry

Effect of quenching medium:
Medium
air
oil
water

Severity of Quench
low
moderate
high

Hardness
low
moderate
high

Effect of geometry:
When surface-to-volume ratio increases:
--cooling rate increases
--hardness increases
Position
center
surface

Cooling rate
low
high

Hardness
low
high

Chapter 11 - 25

Precipitation Hardening
Particles impede dislocations.
700
Ex: Al-Cu system
T(C)
Procedure:
600
--Pt A: solution heat treat
(get solid solution)
--Pt B: quench to room temp.
--Pt C: reheat to nucleate
small crystals within
crystals.

Other precipitation
systems:
Cu-Be
Cu-Sn
Mg-Al

500
400

+L

+L

300
0 B 10

(Al)

CuAl2

20

30

40

50

wt% Cu

composition range
needed for precipitation hardening

Adapted from Fig. 11.24, Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.24 adapted from
J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.)

Temp.
Pt A (soln heat treat)

Pt C (precipitate )
Adapted from Fig.
11.22, Callister 7e.

Pt B

Time
Chapter 11 - 26

Precipitate Effect on TS, %EL

2014 Al Alloy:

200
100

149C
204C
1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time

%EL (2 in sample)

ma
pre ny s
ci p m a
ita ll
ag tes
ed

300

%EL reaches minimum

with precipitation time.

fe
pre wer
ov cip larg
era itat e
ge es
d

400

no
so n-eq
lid uil
so .
lut
ion

tensile strength (MPa)

TS peaks with
precipitation time.
Increasing T accelerates
process.

30
20
10
204C
0

149C

1min
1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time

Adapted from Fig. 11.27 (a) and (b), Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.27 adapted from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing
Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979. p. 41.)

Chapter 11 - 27

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Alloys
substitutional alloys
can be ordered or disordered
disordered solid solution
ordered - periodic substitution
example: CuAu FCC
Cu
Au

Chapter 11 - 28

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Interstitial alloys (compounds)
one metal much larger than the other
smaller metal goes in ordered way into
interstitial holes in the structure of larger
metal
Ex: Cementite Fe3C

Chapter 11 - 29

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Consider FCC structure --- what types of
holes are there?
Octahedron - octahedral site = OH

Tetrahedron - tetrahedral site = TD

Chapter 11 - 30

Metal Alloy Crystal Stucture

Interstitials such as H, N, B, C
FCC has 4 atoms per unit cell
4 OH sites
8 TD sites
1
2

1
2

1
2

metal atoms

4,

1 3
4, 4

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

OH sites

4,

4,

TD sites
Chapter 11 - 31

Summary
Steels: increase TS, Hardness (and cost) by adding
--C (low alloy steels)
--Cr, V, Ni, Mo, W (high alloy steels)
--ductility usually decreases w/additions.
Non-ferrous:
--Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Refractory, and noble metals.
Fabrication techniques:
--forming, casting, joining.
Hardenability
--increases with alloy content.
Precipitation hardening
--effective means to increase strength in
Al, Cu, and Mg alloys.
Chapter 11 - 32