EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

UNIT 1
Introduction
We make measurements everyday. For example, we routinely measure our body weight
on a scale or read the temperature of an outdoor thermometer. We put little
thought into
the selection of instruments for these routine measurements. But when the stakes
become
greater, the selection of measurement equipment and techniques, and the
interpretation of
the measured data can demand considerable attention.
The objective in any test is to answer a question. So we take measurements to
establish
the value or the tendency of some variable, the results of which will help answer
our
question. But, how can a measurement system are used so that the engineer can
easily
interpret the measured data and be confident in their meaning? There are
procedures that
address these measurement questions.

Reasons for Experimental Stress Analysis

Material characterization
Failure analysis
Residual or assembly stress measurement
Acceptance testing of parts prior to delivery or
use
General Measurement System
is an act ofA assigning
measurement
a specific value to a physical variable. That
physical variable is the measuredmeasurement
variable.
is a tool Aused
system
for
quantifying the measured variable. As such, it is used to extend the abilities of
the
human
senses
sound,
specific
stages:
measurement
sense
the
color,
that,
(1)
to
physical
sensed
Sensor-transducer
system
while
and smell,
they
variable
variables.
and the
The
can
aresystem
primary
detect
(Measurand)
limited
Basically
stage;
output,
and
function
(2)
and
recognize
such
and
Signal-conditioning
relative;
a quantity
performs
of
a system
the
different
they
first
that
either
consists
are
stage
is
degrees
not
astage;
used
mechanical
of
is
very
part
to
to
of
(3)
adept
infer
detect
roughness,
or
Output
orall
atan
the
orof
length,
assigning
four
stage;
(4)
value
electrical
Feedback
general
ofand
control stage.
the
Sensor
to physical
These
Transducer
stages
variable
formStage:
measured.
the bridge between the input
1
to the

transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form. The sensor is a
physical
element that employs some natural phenomenon by which it senses the variable
being
measured. The transducer converts this sensed information into a detectable
signal form,
which might be electrical, mechanical, optical, etc. In most cases, however, the
physical
variable is transformed into an electric signal because this is the form of
signal that is
most easily measured.
The purpose
Signal ofConditioning
the second stage
Stage:is to take the transducer
signal and modifies by amplification, filtering or other means so that a
desirable output is
available.
Provides an indication
OutputofStage:
the value of the measurement. The output
equipment might be a simple readout display a marked scale or might contain
devices
that can record the signal for later analysis. Examples of these devices are tape
recorders,
chart recorders and computer disk drives.
In those
Feedback
measurement
Control
systems
Stage:
involved in process control a
fourth stage the feedback control stage, contains a controller that interprets
the measured
signal and makes a decision regarding the control of the process. This decision
results in
a change in a process parameter that affects the magnitude of the sensed
variable. It is
very important to realize that the accuracy of control cannot be any better than
the
accuracy of the measurement of the control variable. Therefore one must be able
to
measure a physical variable accurately before one can hope to control the
variable.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are often employed to describe the quality of an instruments
input ofbea referred
device.
Thetransmitted,
The
electrical,
It
algebraic
as is
thethe
measurand.
expressed
mechanical,
analog
difference
ofExample:
bythe
between
pneumatic
starting
Measured
Temperature,
the
the
orVariable
upper
other
lowerand
Pressure,
variable
and
produced
lower
upperrange
applied
rate
range
by a ofto
reading.
The
region
between
the
limits
Range:
within
which
a
quantity
is
measured,
received
or
transducer.
flow. the
values.
Avalues.
quantity property
Span:
Measured
Output
A signal
Signal:
orSignal:
Variable:
condition
deliveredthat
by aisdevice,
measured.
element
Sometimes
2or system.
will

The accuracy of an instrument

Accuracy:indicates the deviation of the reading from
a
known value.
The difference between
Precision:
the instruments reported values during repeated
measurements of the same quantity. Typically, this value is determined by
statistical
analysis of repeated measurement.
Is the ability of Repeatability:
an instrument to reproduce the same measurement each
time the same set of conditions is repeated. This does not imply that the
measurement is
correct, but rather that the measurement is the same each
time.
The change of an instrument
Sensitivity:
or transducer output per unit change in the
measured quantity. A more sensitive instrument reading changes significantly in
response
to smaller changes in the measured quantity. Typically an instrument with higher
sensitivity will also have better repeatability and higher
accuracy.
The smallest increment
Resolution:
of change in the measured value that can be
determined from the instrument readout scale.
An instrument is saidHysteresis:
to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference in
readings depending an whether the value of the measured quantity is approached
from
above or below. Hysteresis results from the inelastic quantity of an element or
device. In
other word, it may be the result of mechanical friction, magnetic effects,
elastic
deformation, or thermal effects. Hysteresis is expressed in percent of
span.
are entities that influence
Variables
the test. A variable that can be changed
independently of other variables
independent
. Ais
variable
knownvariable
as
that
an is
affected by changes in one or more other variables
dependent is
variable.
known as a
signal
Variables
is aasrandom
that
a consequence
are
variation
not orofof
cannot
the
different
thevariation
value
be controlled
from
of of
the
its
the
controller
during
true
variables.
behavior
measurement,
that
Noise
is
interprets
increases
but that
thedata
affect
Interference
scatter.
measured
the
imposes
held at
undesirable
constant
valuevalue
Noise
interference.
deterministic
of the
during
variable
the
trends
measurement
measured
.onA extraneous
the
variable
controlled
are
measured
process
called
that
variables
variable
is
value.
3can
called
. beAny

Parameter
We define a parameter as a functional grouping of variables. For example, a
Moment of
Inertia, or a Reynolds number has its value determined from the values of a
grouping of
variables. A parameter that has an effect on the behavior of the measured
variable is
called a control parameter.
Calibration
A calibration applies a known input value to a measurement system for the purpose
of
observing the system output value. It establishes the relationship between the
input and
output values. The known value used for the calibration is called the standard.
The most
common type of calibration is known as a static calibration. The term static
implies that
the values of the values of the variables involved remain constant, that is, they
do not
vary with time or space. When the variables of interest are time (or space)
dependent and
such varying information is sought, we need dynamic information. In a broad
sense,
dynamic variables are time (or space) dependent in both their magnitude and
frequency
content. A dynamic calibration determines the relationship between an input of
known
dynamic behavior and the measurement system output.
Random and Systematic Errors
Random error is a measure of the random variation found during repeated
measurements
of a variable. A system that repeatedly indicates the same wrong value upon
repeated
application of a particular input would be considered to have small random error
contributions regardless of its accuracy.

Strain, Force, and Pressure Measurements

The most popular electrical elements used in force measurements include the
resistance
strain gage, the semiconductor strain gage, and piezoelectric transducers. The
strain gage
measures force indirectly by measuring the deflection it produces in a calibrated
carrier.
Pressure can be converted into a force using an appropriate transducer, and
strain gage
techniques can then be used to measure pressure. Flow rates can be measured using
differential pressure measurements which also make use of strain gage
technology.
Strain Gauge Basics
A strain
When
subtly
indicators
measure
anbend.
object
these
gauge
that
These
minute
is
a building
aunder
bends,
device
changes,
a lot
nearly
used
is
aging
giving
oftopressure,
impossible
measure
or
engineers
beginning
the
to an
see
mechanical
material
to
easy
with
buckle.
way
can
thestrain
to
Strain
slowly
naked
monitor
oneye,
gauges
fatigue
anaobject
can and
be or
structure.
begin
early
constantly
structure's
to
Factors
condition.
Ease
Readability
to of
be mounting
considered before selecting a Strain
5 Gauge:

Required operation skill

Weight
Cost
Range and accuracy required
Types of Strain Gauges
Depending upon its magnification system, the strain gauges may be classified as
under:
1. Mechanical
(a) Wedge and screw
(b) Lever Simple and compound
(c) Rack and pinion
(d) Combination of lever and rack & pinion
2. Optical
3. Electrical
(a) Inductance
(b) Capacitance
(c) Resistance
(d) Piezo-electric and Piezo-resistive
5. Magnetic
6. Acoustical
7. Pneumatic
8. Scratch type
9. Photo-stress gauge
with
The
AWhen
actual
manometer,
single
wedge
ainserted
conical
structure.
screw
gauge
which
between
extensometer
point.
is
measures
The
simply
two
The
magnification
acontact
shoulders
the
triangular
isrelative
thepoints
other
in
clipped
plate
this
motion
are
type
instrument
to
with
inserted
between
and
theits
used
test
longer
in
two
is
for
specimens,
prepared
accomplished
coaxial
measurement
sidesholes
tubes
related
extensions
solely
of
marking
each
strain
by abya
Types and
of to
Mechanical
strainmm.
gauge
1:10 slope.
could
in
screw
provided
known
be
Wedge
detected
Screw
nearest
type:0.05

gauge length on the structure. In this device, extensions could be measured to

nearest
0.0025 mm with a probable accuracy of 0.005 mm under normal operating conditions.
Lever Simple and compound

Simple lever magnification

The simple lever strain gauge gains its magnification factor by a suitable
positioning of
the fulcrum. The magnification of this type is unlimited. However, the
magnification
ratio is limited to 10 to 20. The gauge length is generally 50 mm and the strain
is
magnified 10:1 on the graduated scale.

Compound lever magnification

Berry strain gauge comes under this type. These gauges use a lever magnification with a

dial indicator to show the magnified motion. It consists of a frame with two
conically
pointed contact points. One point is rigidly fixed to the frame, while the other
is pivoted
from the frame and is integral with a lever arm, which alone magnifies the strain
about
5:1. A screw micrometer or dial indicator is used to measure the motion of arm.
The
strain measurements could be done to the nearest 0.005 mm.

pointer
It
a
point.
magnifies
consists
and
converted
Movable
e,
movable
the
ofmotion
point
where
a to
frame,
point
actual
is
further
andintegral
b
which
transmits
strain
magnification
which
supports
with
values
it,
serves
arm
the
through
byh.
occurs.
lever
dually
application
linkd
Its
system
asThe
rotation,
part
reading
of
including
in
of
multiplication
athe
knife
resulting
taken
lever
the
edges
from
system
fixed
from
factor
m
the the
and
contact
as
motion
and
scale
an
contact
f
(=
point
toare
the
Huggenberger Extensometer
/a1a2),
l ,l1l2

which is established for each instrument by calibration. Mounting may be

accomplished
with a clamp, spring or screw pressure as the frame to hold points a and
b in contact
with the test piece. The magnification may vary from 300 to 2000 depending on the
odel. The gauge length varies from 12.5 mm to 25 mm. m

Johansson Extensometer
These extensometers use tension tape or twisted metal strip between two knife
edges.
Half of the strip is twisted to one direction and remaining half is twisted to
other direction
and a pointer is fixed at the center of the strip. On application of load,
displacement in the
movable knife edge takes place with high amplification due to stretching of
twisted metal
strip.

follows
The
gauges
indicator
rack
in
the
and
which
consists
motion
pinion
theof
to
magnification
principle
be
an measured.
encased
along
gear
system
Awith
spring
train
is
various
incorporated
actuated
imposes
types
sufficient
byofain
gear
rack
dialtrains
cut
spindle
indicator.
in is
the
force
employed
The
to
in
dial
spindle,
maintain
which
Rack and pinion

a reasonably uniform and positive contact with the moving part. The gear train
terminates
with a light weight pointer which indicates the spindle travel on a
graduated dial.
Combined lever, rack & pinion magnification
The Whittmore strain gauge is an important gauge of this type. This gauge is a
self
contained instrument consisting essentially of two frame members A bound
together by
two elastic hinges B for parallel frictionless motion. One 45 conical
contacts point C
is attached to each frame member. For ch
strain
contact
measurements
points areea
inserted
predetermined
into drilled
gaugeholes
length.
of Motion
defining
between two
frame members or strain is measured directly with a dial
indicator.
Electrical resistance strain gauge:
In electrical resistance strain gauge the displacement or strain is measured as a
function
of resistance change produced by the displacement in the gauging
circuit.
When the conductor is stretched, its length will increase and area of cress
section will
decrease this will result in change in resistance. Change in resistance per unit
strain is
defined as Gauge Factor.
Gauge factor indiuge.
cates the sensitivity of the strain
ga
Characterics
istofauges
Electrical resistance strain g
- should be of extremely small size
- should have significant mass
- should be easily attached with materia
l
- higher degree of sensitivity and accuracy
Elec metallic
sensing
element may
- should
be unaffected
by be
temperature
broadly classified ctrial resistance
-gauge
should
be
capable
atic
ofgauge
measuring
and
dynamic
both
strain
st
- should be used bothin
Types
strain
asto
a.-sensing
b.
four
of
Un-bonded
Bonded
should\ld
electrical
- groups.
should
element
with
wire
wire
exhibit
strain
be
resistance
and
strain
available
linear
also
gauge
in
strain
at
response
transducer
reaso
nable
gauges
to98cost
systems

c. Foil strain gauge

d. Weldable strain gauge
Un-bonded wire strain gauge:
The principal of the un-bonded metallic strain gauge is based on the change in
electrical
resistance of a metallic wire due to the change in the tension of the wire. This
type
consists of a stationary frame and a movable platform. Fine wire loops are
wounded
around the insulated pins with pretension. Relative motion between the platform
and the
frame increases the tension in two loops, while decreasing tension in the other
two loops.
These four elements are connected approximately to a four arm Wheat stone bridge.
These type strain gauges are used for measurement of acceleration, pressure,
force etc.

Bonded Wire Strain Gauge:

The bonded metallic type of strain gauge consists of a strain sensitive conductor
(wire)
mounted on a small piece of paper or plastic backing. In us this gauge is
cemented to the
surface of the structural member to be tested. The wire grid may be & flat type
or wraparound. In the flat type after attaching the lead wires to the ends of the grids,
a second
piece around
of papera cylindrical
is cemented over
thethe
wireform
as cover.
in the
wrap-around
type,
wound
core in
of a close
wound
helix. This
corethe
is
wire is
flattened
then
insulation.
& cemented
Formerly
between
only
layers
wrap-around
of papergauges
for the
were
purpose
available,
of protection
but generally
and

11

Foil Strain Gauges:

The il
foil
grid
type
made
of up
strain
of thin
gauges
strain
has sensitive
a fo
foil. The
width
mparedoftothe
thefoil
thickness
is very(microns)
large as so
co that larger area
of the gauge is for cementi
ng

Weldable Strain gauge:

Weldable strain gauges are easy to install in minutes in any environment compared
to
bonded type strain gauge. The weldable strain gauge
strain
consists
sensitive
of a
element, Tungsten,
the nickelhoused
Chromium
within
or platinum
a small diameter
stainless
ent is insulated
steel tube.
from The
the strain
tube with
elemhighly compacted
ic insulation. This gauge ceram
is subsequently spot welded to structure under test
and
provides
in. The bonding
test specimen
to transfer
which the
is put
strainto tension or
gaugescreep,
are preferred
elevatedas
temperature,
they are superior
performance,
to wrap-around
stabilitygauge
& current
in terms
carrying
of
hysterisis,
capacity.
itted
compression,
strain
through
tube. the
These
weld
stress
for
gauges
static
to is
mounting
can
transm
orbedynamic
used
flange
flat
applications.
andgrid
10
in to

ACOUSTICAL STRAIN GAUGES

This gauge essentially consists of a steel wire tensioned between two supports a
predetermined distance apart. Vibration of the distance alerts the natural
frequency of
vibration of the wire and this change in frequency may be correlated with the
change in
strains causing it. An electromagnet adjacent to the wire may be used to set the
wire in
vibration and this wire movement will then generate an oscillating electric
signal. The
signal may be compared with, the pitch of an adjustable standard wire, the degree
of
which adjustment necessary to match the two signal frequencies being provided by
a
tension screw on the standard wire. Calibration of the screw allows a direct
determination
of the change of length of a measuring gauge to be made once the standard gauge
has
been tuned to match the frequency of the measuring wire. The visual display
produced or
CRO renders adjustment easier.
Strain Gage based measurements

Strain:Strain Gage, Piezoelectric Transducers

Force: Load Cell
Pressure: Diaphragm to Force to Strain Gage
Flow: Differential Pressure Techniques
The resistance strain gage is a resistive element which changes in length, hence
resistance, as the force applied to the base on which it is mounted causes
stretching or
compression. It is perhaps the most well known transducer for converting force
into an
electrical variable.