Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.1 Interdependence among Living Organisms

Species
A group of organisms of the same kind that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
Population
A group of the same species of organisms that live in the same place at the same
time
Community
Populations of different species in the same place that interact with one another
Habitat
The place where a particular organism lives
Provides an organism with air, food, shelter and a place to breed
Ecosystem
Is made up of living organisms and non-living things (water, air, temperature, light)
that interact with one another
Biotic components the living things
Abiotic components the non-living things
Interaction in an environment
For survival, living organisms that live together in an ecosystem are interdependent on
each other and also interdependent on the non-living components in their environment
such as air, water and sunlight for survival
The interdependence among living organisms and the environment creates a balanced
ecosystem.
A balanced ecosystem is a stable ecosystem because the living and non-living
components in it do not change very much over a period of time.
The example of interaction between living things and non-living things in a pond
Aquatic plants obtain sunlight for the process of photosynthesis
Aquatic plants obtain mineral salts from the soil in the pond
Aquatic plants depend on aquatic animals to obtain carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis
Aquatic animals depend on aquatic plants to supply oxygen for the process of
respiration
Small fishes and tadpoles eat aquatic plants
Big fishes eat the small fishes
The kingfisher eats the fish
Interaction between living things and non-living things in the environment is important as
it maintains
Balance in the environment (the number and types of living things within the
environment remain the same)
Balance in the carbon dioxide and oxygen cycles (oxygen and carbon dioxide content
in atmosphere remain the same)
In order to maintain a balanced ecosystem, the following factors need to be maintained
The number of individuals in the different population
The number of populations in the different communities
The composition of gases in the air and the quality of the air
The availability of water, soil and nutrients
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.2 Interaction between Living Organisms

The organisms in a community interact with one another to obtain food, shelter,
protection, transport, support and many other necessities.
This interaction creates a balanced and stable environment.
There are three major types of interactions between living organisms:
Prey-predator
Symbiosis
Competition

4.2.1 Prey-predator

Also called as predation

In this interaction, a predator kills a prey for food.
A predator is an organism that hunts and eats another organism
Normally, the predators are larger than their prey
Predators are carnivores or omnivores. They have special adaptions such as powerful
jaws, sharp teeth, sharp claws, strong beaks or good vision.
A prey is the organism that is hunted and eaten by other organisms
A prey usually has the ability to run away with special adaptation such as monoscopic
vision and run fast.
In the prey-predator relationship, predator benefits while prey loses.
Examples:
Predator
Prey
Tiger
Deer
Kingfisher
Fish
Lion
Buffalo
Snake
Chicken
Chicken
Worms
Owl
Rat
Guppy
Mosquito larvae

4.2.2 Symbiosis
The relationship between two species of organisms that live closely together and interact
with each other
One organism always benefits by receiving food, a place to stay and shelter. The other
organism may benefit, be at a disadvantage or is not affected.
There are 3 types of symbiosis
Commensalism
Mutualism
Parasitism
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in which one organism (the
commensal) benefits from the other (the host) without damaging the host.
Examples of plants that live on trees to obtain sunlight are: the money plant, the
staghorn fern, the pigeon orchid and the birds nest fern. Though they take tree trunk
as a home, they do not harm the tree.
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Examples of animals that live on other animals to obtain food (that fall out of the
host's mouth), as well as for shelter and transport are
(a) Barnacles that live on the shells of crabs, cockles or snails
(b) Remora fish (commensal) that is often found attached under a shark. It feeds on
the scraps of food left by shark without harming the shark.
Mutualism
Mutualism is an interaction between two different organisms that live together in
which both organisms benefit. It can be between two animals, two plants or one
animals and one plant. They obtain nutrition and shelter from each other.
Examples:
Sea anemone and hermit crab
(i) The sea anemone has tentacles that can sting, and protects the hermit crab
with them.
(ii) The sea anemone obtains transport and food ( food bits that drop ) from the
hermit crab.
Ox peckers and buffaloes
Ox peckers eat the ticks and leeches that feed on buffaloes.
The Egyption Plover bird and crocodiles
The Egyption Plover bird eats leeches as well as food particles stuck between the
crocodile's teeth.
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and leguminous plants
(i) Rhizobium bacteria live in the root nodules of leguminous plants. They
convert the nitrogen in the air and change it to nitrates for the use of the plants.
(ii) These bacteria obtain food and shelter from the leguminous plants.
Green algae and fungus
(i) The algae provide the fungus with food.
(ii) The fungus protects the algae and release carbon dioxide for the algae to
use during photosynthesis.
Symbiotic bacteria and herbivorous animals
(i) Symbiotic bacteria live in the digestive tract of herbivorous animals and help
in the digestion of cellulose.
(ii) The bacteria obtain food and shelter from the host.
Parasitism
Parasitism is another type of interaction between two organisms.
Only one organism benefits (parasite). The others organism is harmed or even
killed (host).
Examples:
Tapeworm is a parasite that obtains food and shelter from human. Human as a
host are harmed by losing nutrients, resulted loses weight and becomes weak.
Tick that live on a host feeds on the hosts blood
Stem borers and oil palm leaves
Tree barnacles and trees
Aphids and mustard plants
Mistletoe and a tree
A parasite may live outside the body (ectoparasite) or inside the body (endoparasite)
of other living organisms (host).

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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.2.3 Competition

Happens when organisms living in the same habitat compete for the same basic needs.
Animals compete to obtain food, water, breeding mate for reproduction and shelter.
Plants compete to obtain water, sunlight, minerals salts and living space.
Competition becomes more intense when basic resources are limited.
Stronger organisms are success, while weaker and smaller organisms are driven out.
2 types of competition are intraspecific competition and interspecific competition
Intraspecific competition is the competition between living organisms of the same
species for the same resources in an ecosystem.
Male deer compete for a mating partner
A pride of lions compete for food
Interspecific competition is the competition between living organisms of different species
for a limit resource in the same area.
Flowering plants compete with weeds to obtain water and minerals.
Plants in a tropical rainforest compete for basic needs. Taller trees obtain sunlight
more easily

Types of Interactions
Prey-predator

Symbiosis
Mutualism
Commensalism

Competition
Intraspecific
competition
Interspecific
competition

Parasitism
4.2.4 Importance of Interaction between Living Organisms and the
Environment
Interactions between living organisms and the environment are important because they
create a balanced ecosystem by maintaining the size of populations in it.
When a population of living organisms grows too large, the living organisms of the same
species will compete with each other for their basic needs.
The living organisms which are stronger able to adapt to the changes in the environment
will survive whereas the weaker ones will die. This reduces the size of the population.

4.2.5 Biological Control

Biological control is a method of reducing the number of pests using the natural
predator of the pests.
Biological control uses prey-predator or parasitism interaction
Biological control is used in agriculture to control pests that attack crops and fruit trees
without using chemical pesticides.
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

For example:
Owls and snakes are used to control the rat population in oil palm plantations
Guppy fish are reared in ponds to control the population of mosquito larvae
Ducks are used to control snail and weed populations in paddy fields
Ladybugs are used to control the aphid population in fruit orchards
A Trichogramma wasp is laying its eggs in the eggs of a moth. The growing larvae of
Trichogramma wasp feed on the moths caterpillar and kill it. Caterpillars are pests
that destroy fruits leaves.
Advantages of biological control
Does not pollute the environment
Does not affect or kill other organism because the predator feeds on specific prey
Cost-effective over the long term (cheap and safe)
Does not affect the health of human
Disadvantages of biological control
The results are not instant. It takes time.
The introduction of new species may upset the balance of an ecosystem
Some predators attack the other organisms
The population of predators increases
Not every pest has its predator that can control it. Chemical control is often needed.
Biological control has its advantages and disadvantages. The implementation of
biological control should be planned and monitored closely to ensure that its
effectiveness is sustained.

4.3 Food Web

4.3.1 Food Chain
A food chain shows the feeding relationship between living organism
A food chain is an energy link showing the energy in food is passed from plants
(producers) to animals (consumers).
The sun is the main source of energy for all living organisms in a food chain.
Producers are all green plants that make food through photosynthesis.
Consumers are animals that eat plants or other animals.
Primary consumer normally is an herbivore that eats the plants.
Secondary consumer is a carnivore that eats the primary consumer.
Tertiary consumer is a carnivore that eats the secondary consumer.
Decomposers are organism that decompose dead organism (animals or plants) and
change them into simple substances such as bacteria and fungi. These simple
substances can be used again by green plants as nutrient.
Normally we dont show the decomposers in a food chain or a food web. Otherwise, it
will become too complex.
Examples of food chains are given below:
a) Grass Rabbits Eagles
b) Green plants Goats Human Beings
c) Paddy plants Rats Snakes Eagles

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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.3.2 Food Web

A food web consists of several food chains that are interlinked
In a real ecosystem, feeding relationship among living organisms is complex.
Most living organisms eat more than one type of food. Therefore, food chains are
interconnected.
The food web helps to maintain a balanced ecosystem by controlling the number of living
organisms at each level of a food chain.

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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.3.3 Pyramid of numbers

A pyramid of numbers shows the relative number of organisms at each level of a food
chain

From the base to the peak:

Number of organisms decrease
Size of organisms increase
More energy is lost
Producers' number is the most and forms the base of the pyramid.
The number of producers is always greater than the number of primary consumers in
order to provide sufficient food to the primary consumers.
The number of primary producers is greater than the number of secondary producers.
Therefore, primary producers make up the second level of the pyramid, the level above
the producers.
Secondary producers make up the third level of the pyramid. Tertiary consumers make
up the fourth level of the pyramid and so on.
The final consumers are at the apex of the pyramid and are the least in number.
The animals at the higher levels tend to be larger in size.

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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.3.4 Energy flow

A food chain or food web shows the energy transfer from one living organism to another
The arrows in a food chain or a food web represent the feeding relationship as well as
the energy flow from one organism to another.
All energy in a food web comes from the Sun
During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy from the Sun into chemical energy
(stored as food)
When the consumers eat the plants, the chemical energy is transferred to them
Meanwhile, the consumers also lose energy in the form of heat through respiration,
growth, metabolism, excretion, defecation and other life processes.
Thus, not all of the energy is passes to the next level as some energy are used and lost.

4.3.5 Disturbances in the ecosystem

The numbers of organisms in an ecosystem must be maintained at equilibrium to
ensure that all organisms have sufficient food supply. This situation will ensure that the
balance of nature in an ecosystem is maintained.
However, a food web is not permanent in any community. Some animals and plants may
die. Some animals may leave the community while some may move into the community.
When one population of living organisms in a food web is missing or decreases in
number, it will affect the other living organisms. The food web becomes imbalanced.
If new living organisms are introduced into a food web, the food web will become
imbalanced too.
Disturbances at any level of a pyramid of numbers will cause the equilibrium in a food
chain to be disrupted. The number or organisms at each level of a pyramid of numbers
will not be balanced.
For example, if all the frogs in the area are captured.
(a) The number of snakes will decrease because of a shortage of food.
(b) The number of caterpillars will increase because of a shortage of predators.
(c) The number of leaves will decrease because of the increase in caterpillars.

The increase or decrease in the number of organisms will affect the equilibrium of the
ecosystem.
It would take a long time for the ecosystem to become balanced again.
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

4.4 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is a process by which the chlorophyll in green plants absorbs light
energy to make food from carbon dioxide and water.
Light comes from the Sun or other light source
Water is absorbed from the soil by the roots
Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata (small pores on the leaves)
Chlorophyll is the green pigment in the leaves that absorbs light energy.
Products of photosynthesis:
Glucose converted into starch and stored in other parts of the plant
Oxygen released into the air
The glucose produced is brought to other parts of the plant to be
(a) Oxidised through the process of respiration to provide energy.
(b) Stored as starch, if in excess.

Photosynthesis is important to maintain the equilibrium of an ecosystem

The importance and role of photosynthesis:
Enable green plant to make own food
Supply food to animals
Remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
Regulate and maintain carbon dioxide content in atmosphere
Increase oxygen content in atmosphere
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Natural Gas Cycle

Natural gas cycles maintain the content of gases in the air.
The carbon and oxygen cycles are two natural gas cycles.
The carbon cycle
The carbon cycle is the circulation of carbon dioxide on Earth. It involves the use and
return of carbon dioxide to the air. These processes take place continuously.
The carbon cycle maintains the content of carbon dioxide in the air.
The processes that release carbon dioxide into the air include :
(a) Respiration or breathing.
(b) Combustion.
(c) Decomposition.
Photosynthesis, which takes place in green plants, removes carbon dioxide from the air.
The oxygen cycle
The oxygen cycle is the circulation of oxygen on Earth. It involves the use and return of
oxygen to the air. These processes take place continuously.
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

The oxygen cycle maintains the content of oxygen in the air.

The processes that use oxygen include :
(a) Respiration or breathing
(b) Combustion
(c) Decomposition
(d) Rusting
Photosynthesis is the only process that release oxygen into the air.

Rusting uses up oxygen but does not release carbon dioxide

4.5 Importance of Conservation and Preservation of Living

Organisms
Conservation to use natural resources wisely with minimal disturbances to the living
organisms and the ecosystem
Preservation to maintain living organisms and the ecosystem in their original and
balanced state
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Form 2 Chapter 4: INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG LIVING ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Ways to conserve and preserve living things:

Control pollution to preserve habitats
Manage natural resources wisely to protect flora and fauna by setting up forest
reserves and marine park and establish wildlife sanctuaries centres
Avoiding excessive mining
Replanting after logging, and practising selective logging
Educate through the mass media to increase public awareness on the importance of
conservation and preservation of living organisms and their environment
Practise sustainable development
Practise 3R
Reuse
Recycle
Reduce
Manage forests properly to minimise deforestation and illegal logging and to prevent
the occurrence of forest fires
Introduce legislation on wildlife protection
To protect endangered species
To control commercial hunting
To prevent overfishing
The importance of conservation and preservation of living organisms are:
Maintaining the balance of the ecosystem :
The presence of animals and plants maintain the composition of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Trees help in the control of land erosions and floods by holding firmly the soil
particles.
The humidity in the forest helps to decompose dead organisms.
Economy
Forest products such as teak wood, orchid and rattan; as well as herbs can be
obtained.
Wildlife supplies such as leather, horns and meat can be obtained from the forest.
Some forest trees or wild animals are also used for scientific research.
Recreation
People can enjoy the beauty of the natural environment.
In the tropical forest, the air is fresh and unpolluted; therefore it is good for
relaxation.

4.6 Maintaining the Balance of Nature

Human beings have a very close relationship with the ecosystem.
Human beings are a part of the ecosystem that depends on living and non-living things
for survival.
Human beings interact with the ecosystem to obtain needs and to lead comfortable lives.
We obtain our needs in many ways. At the same time, we also disturb the balance of
nature.
Human activities bring about an imbalance and decline in the ecosystem.

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Activity
Deforestation

Effects
When trees are cut down and forest are cleared,
- the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase,
cause greenhouse effect and global warming
- natural habitats are destroyed causing animals and plants become
extinct
- soil erosion occurs
- depletion of water catchment areas causes flash flood
Agriculture
When farming is carried out intensively without practising
conservation,
- soil erosion and depletion of minerals in the soil can occur
- excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides cause water and soil
pollution
Overfishing &
- Extinction of animals
overhunting
- Decline in biological diversity
Industrialisation - Air pollution and acid rain due to releasing smoke, haze and acidic
gases into the atmosphere
- Water and soil pollution due to releasing of excessive toxic
chemicals into the environment
Poor waste
- Rivers and lakes are often used as rubbish dumpsites
management
- Decaying matter gives out bad smells and attract pests
- Causes soil, water and air pollution
If we continue to exploit and destroy nature, there will be no more fresh air, fresh water,
food and suitable place to live.
Therefore, human activities must not result in any permanent damage to wildlife, habitats
and natural resources.
We need a stable, productive and balanced ecosystem so that we
Get enough food and water for our daily needs
Live healthily and fight against diseases
Continue to conserve and preserve other living organisms and natural resources on
the Earth

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