1

SERVOMECHANISMS

A servomechanism (servo) is a type of control system whose output is the

position of a shaft. They may be controlled remotely when used in
conjunction with synchro devices. Synchros themselves transmit position
information but cannot amplify torque to move heavy loads. Used with
servomechanisms, an output to control such a load can be obtained to give a
desired result in relation to an input.
1.1 OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
In this system, an input is applied and an output obtained. Figure 1 shows an
example; assume an aircraft rudder controlled by an open loop system.

DEMAND
INPUT
TRANSDUCER

DEMAND
SIGNAL

AMP

RESPONSE

LOAD

MOTOR

Open Loop System

Figure 1
The demand, made by the pilot on the rudder bar, is picked up by the
transducer which converts it to an electrical signal; i.e. the demand signal.
This signal is amplified and fed to the motor, which responds by moving the
load; i.e. the rudder. There is no positional feedback and the pilot does not
know if the rudder has adopted the position requested.

1.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

In the closed loop system, the demand is made in the same way. In a basic
system, positional feedback would be given to the pilot who would make
adjustments accordingly but this is not practical with systems such as aircraft
flying controls. Figure 2 shows a closed loop automatic system.

ERROR
DETECTOR
INPUT
TRANSDUCER

AMP

SERVO
MOTOR

LOAD

ERROR
SIGNAL

POSITION
FEEDBACK

OUTPUT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER

Closed Loop System

Figure 2
An output position transducer has been added to the servomotor and this
feeds back any difference between input demand and output to an error
detector. The error detector outputs an error signal to the amplifier to make
any positional corrections necessary at the servo motor and thus the load (or
rudder) is positioned as demanded.
If for example the pilot wanted to move the rudder 5, a demand is made at
the rudder bar and this is converted to a voltage at the transducer, say +5
volts. The error detector immediately gives an output signal corresponding to
+5 volts input and this is amplified to drive the motor, moving the rudder. The
output position transducer converts the output position to an electrical signal,
which corresponds to the new position of the rudder. As this happens, this
signal, (feedback), is fed back to the error detector until the demanded
position is achieved and the input is negated. Now, there is no error signal
and no output. The feedback has reached -5 volts.

1.3 FOLLOW UP
If in our example the rudder were to be displaced from its demanded position,
or from the optimum speed at which the demanded position may be achieved,
an error signal occurs. In the way described, there is a feedback signal and
the system returns to its demanded position or speed. This process is called
'follow up'.
1.4 TYPES OF SERVO
There are two main classes of servomechanism - remote position control
(RPC) servos and velocity control servos (velodynes).
a)

RPC servos. These are used to control the angular, or linear position
of a load. A typical example of the use of a RPC servo is the control of
the direction in which a radar scanner is pointing.

b)

Velodynes. These are used to control the speed of a load. In this

case, the speed of the driving motor is made proportional to the input
demand (usually a voltage). A typical example of the use of a velodyne
is the control of a radar scanner, which is required to rotate with a
constant angular velocity. It may be necessary to change the velocity
of rotation from time to time and the velodyne must be capable of doing
this and maintaining the new velocity set by the input demand.

1.5 FEEDBACK
1.5.1 POSITIONAL FEEDBACK

Positional feedback is obtained from transducers positioned at the output. The

feedback element, or transducer, converts the output shaft angle into a signal
suitable for operating the error detector. In this case a voltage signal. The
simplest form of element is a R-pot, or a helical potentiometer similar to that
used as a control element. In practice, helical potentiometers are used since
they give 360 coverage, which a R-pot cannot provide. Figure 3 shows
positional feedback in a dc system.

CONTROL
ELEMENT

ERROR
DETECTOR

SERVO
MOTOR

LOAD

VELOCITY
FEEDBACK

POSITIONAL
FEEDBACK

Positional Feedback
Figure 3

TACHO
GEN

FEEDBACK
ELEMENT

Figure 4 shows a R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer

Ei

PROPORTIONAL
TO

R-POT

Ei
PROPORTIONAL
TO

HELICAL POTENTIOMETER

R-Pot & Helical Potentiometer

Figure 4
In ac systems, other components are used to provide positional feedback.
Synchros are employed in some servomechanisms. These will be discussed
later.

1.6 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT)

The RVDT is an inductance transmitter having a primary stator coil, an iron
rotor coil and two secondary stator coils. Figure 5 shows the operation of a
RVDT.

PRIMARY
COIL

L3

IRON CORE
CONNECTED TO
MECHANICAL
INPUT

L1

L2

RVDT Operation
Figure 5
The mechanical input changes the position of the iron core. The position of
the core changes the magnetic coupling between the primary and the
secondary stator coils. When the input rotates, one of the secondary coils
receives more magnetic flux and this induces a higher voltage in that coil.
The other secondary coil receives less magnetic flux, so a lower voltage is

induced. The difference between voltages induced in the secondary stator

coils is proportional to the rotated angle. This is an AC Ratio Signal.
Figure 5.1:

The position of the iron core is zero. The magnetic field induced
by primary coil L3 is equally divided between L1 and L2.
Therefore the voltage R-T is zero.

Figure 5.2:

The iron core is turned clockwise. Now there is more coupling

between L3 and L2, and less coupling between L3 and L1. The
voltage between T and S increases and the voltage between R
and S decreases.

Figure 5.3:

The iron core turned counter-clockwise. Now there is more

coupling between L3 and L1, and less coupling between L3 and
L2. The voltage between T and S decreases, while the voltage
between R and S increases.

The difference between figure 5.2 and 5.3 is that the output-voltage between
R and T is of opposite phase. The output measured between R and T is an
AC RATIO signal.
The Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) is also an inductance
transmitter with similar components and similar in operation but of course, the
movement detected is linear and not rotary.

1.7 CAPACITANCE TRANSMITTER

An example of a capacitance transmitter can be seen in a simple fuel gauging
system as in Figure 6.
TANK UNIT

EMPTY

IS

LOOP
A

IB

LOOP
B

REF C
FULL

2 - PHASE
MOTOR

DISCRIMINATION
STAGE
AMPLIFIER
STAGE

INDICATOR

REF
PHASE

AMPLIFIER UNIT

Capacitance Transmitter
Figure 6
This system depends upon the comparison of two capacitance values. One in
Loop A, which is the variable capacitance of a tank unit and the other in Loop
B, which is fixed. A current is developed in each loop; I S in loop A; IB in loop B.
The two loops form a bridge with resistor R across it. If the tank is full, then
current IS is the greater. With the tank empty, IS falls so that IB is the greater.
Note: The currents act in opposite directions so that a potential is developed
across resistor R of a polarity dependent on the direction of current flow and
of a magnitude dependent on the size of the current. This signal is
transmitted to an amplifier, which powers a 2-phase motor to drive an
indicator and a balance potentiometer.

When the balance potentiometer moves as a result of change in fuel level, it

adjusts IB, rebalancing the bridge formed by loop A and loop B. Now, no
current flows through resistor R, no signal is developed across R and the new
fuel level is displayed at the indicator.
1.8 VELOCITY FEEDBACK
The inherent friction of a basic servomechanism is very small and so the
device may be able to oscillate fairly freely. This means that the load may
oscillate about its final required position, an effect known as 'hunting'. The
time taken for the load to come to rest at the required new position is called
the 'response time' and ideally will be as short as possible. A process known
as 'damping' achieves the desired response time. Figure 7 shows graphs of
the results of different degrees of damping.

OUTPUT
UNDERDAMPED
RESPONSE o

REQUIRED
RESPONSE

INPUT
DEMAND i

&

OUTPUT o

o OVERDAMPED
SUDDEN CHANGE

RESPONSE

IN INPUT DEMAND i

TIME

Velocity Feedback
Figure 7
It can be seen from this that excessive oscillation takes place if the device is
underdamped, while overdamping results in too long a response time.
Viscous friction damping by using a mechanical brake or eddy current
damping are possible answers to the damping problem but are rarely used
due to their inefficiencies. Velocity feedback damping is a more effective
method and uses a signal proportional to the velocity, or rate of movement of
the output shaft, as a feedback signal to compensate for oscillation of the
load. Tacho-generators are used to obtain this feedback signal.

1.9 DC TACHO-GENERATOR
The dc tacho-generator is mounted on the output shaft of the
servomechanism so that it is rotating at the same speed as the load. The dc
tacho-generator is a normal small dc generator with a separately excited field.
It will, therefore, produce a dc voltage, which is directly proportional to the
speed at which it is driven and whose polarity depends upon the direction of
rotation.
1.10 AC TACHO-GENERATOR
The ac tacho-generator, used to provide velocity feedback damping in ac
servo systems, is mounted on the output shaft so that it rotates at the same
speed as the load. The ac tacho-generator is usually a drag-cup generator,
which produces an alternating voltage of the same frequency as the ac
supply. However, the amplitude of the voltage depends upon the speed of
rotation and the phase of the voltage leads or lags the ac supply, depending
upon the direction of rotation.
In an automatic RPC servo, there is no operator and the braking required is
produced by attaching a tacho-generator to the output shaft as shown in
Figure 8 below.

ERROR = i - O

i
O

CONTROLLER
&
AMPLIFIER

SERVO
MOTOR

LOAD

NEGATIVE TO
ERROR SIGNAL

TACHO
GENERATOR

POSITIONAL FEEDBACK

VELOCITY FEEDBACK

VOLTAGE PROPORTIONAL
TO SPEED OF OUTPUT
SHAFT

CONTROLS THE
AMOUNT OF
VELOCITY FEEDBACK

A.C. Tacho-Generator
Figure 8
The tacho-generator produces a voltage proportional to the angular velocity of
the output shaft. A suitable fraction of this voltage is fed back to the input of

the controller and amplifier in opposition to the error signal, which is produced
in the usual way. This is negative feedback, also known as velocity feedback.
1.11 SYNCHROS
1.11.1 INTRODUCTION

AC transmission systems are generally known as synchros because of their

synchronous action in reproducing the angular movement of a shaft. As
mentioned previously, they cannot transmit torque to any appreciable degree
but can be used in conjunction with servomechanisms.
1.12 TORQUE SYNCHRO
1.12.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The principle of a synchro is that of the transformer, where the primary

winding is wound onto a rotor and is rotated with respect to a fixed stator
winding. The size and phase of the output voltage is dependent on the
direction and angular displacement between the primary and secondary
windings.
The torque synchro comprises two electrically similar units: the transmitter
(TX) and the receiver (TR) which are interconnected by transmission lines.
The TX and TR have very similar construction. Each has a rotor carrying a
single winding concentrically mounted in a stator of three windings, the axes
of which are 120 apart. It should be noted that the TX and TR torque
synchros are not identical. The difference is that the TR synchro has an
oscillation damper added, so that when its rotor rotates to a given position, it
does not oscillate as it comes to rest.
The rotors of both TX and TR synchros are energized from the ac supply and
produce an alternating flux which links with their corresponding stators S 1, S2
and S3. This process is the normal transformer action, with the rotors
corresponding to the transformer primary winding and the stators to the
secondary windings.
Consider the case when the two rotors are not aligned. The three voltages
induced in each of the two sets of stator windings are different. Currents
therefore flow between the two stators and a torque is produced in each
synchro which is directed in such a way that the two rotors must align
themselves. Normally, the TX rotor position is controlled by the input shaft,
while the TR rotor is free to turn, so it is the one which aligns itself with the TX
rotor. In this way, any movement of the TX rotor due to movement of the input
shaft is repeated synchronously by movement of the receiver rotor.
Torque synchros are used for the transmission of angular position information
and flight instrument systems is a typical application. Figure 9 shows a
Torque Synchro and circuit symbol.

S1

S3

INPUT
SHAFT

S1

S2

S3

OUTPUT
SHAFT

S2

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

STATOR
FIELD
S1

ROTOR
FIELD

S2

R1
R2

S3

CURRENT
FLOW

Torque Synchro
Figure 9

Figure 10 shows the construction of a torque synchro.

SHAFT

BEARING

STATOR
WINDINGS

COILS

SHELL
CORE

SLIP
RINGS

LEADS TO
SLIP RINGS

STATOR

LOWER END
CAP

STATOR
LEADS

ROTOR

Torque Synchro Construction

Figure 10

COMPLETE
ASEMBLY

ROTOR
LEADS

1.13 CONTROL SYNCHRO

The basic control synchro system has two units; a synchro control transmitter
(CX) and a synchro control transformer (CT) connected as shown in Figure

S1

S1

CT

CX
A.C.
SUPPLY

S2

S3

S2

S3

A.C.
SUPPLY

INPUT
SHAFT

SERVO
MOTOR

11.
Control Synchro
Figure 11
1.13.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The CX synchro is similar to that used in the torque synchro system. The
control transformer has a stator, which in design and appearance resemble
the synchro units already discussed but with high impedance coils to limit the
alternating currents through the coils. Further differences in the CT are that
the rotor winding has its coils wound so that no torque is produced between it
and the stator magnetic fields and the rotor is not energized by the supply
voltage applied to the rotor of the control synchro.
The CT rotor acts as an inductive winding for determining the phase and
magnitude of error signal voltages. The signals, after amplification, are fed to
a two-phase motor, which is mechanically coupled to the CT rotor. A control
synchro system is at electrical zero when the rotor of the CT is at 90 with
respect to the CX rotor. This is the situation as shown in Figure 10 above.

If the input shaft is rotated and the CX rotor is disturbed, voltages are induced
in the CX stator and currents flow down the transmission lines to the stator
windings S1, S2 and S3 of the CT. A magnetic flux is produced, depending on
the amount of displacement of the CX rotor and the orientation of its
displacement. This flux links with the rotor of CT, inducing a voltage into it,
again depending on the amount, or rate of displacement, and its orientation.
The voltage, or error voltage, representing the electrical difference between
the rotors of CX and CT, is then amplified and passed to the control phase of
a two-phase motor. The ac reference phase supply is fixed. The motor now
rotates.
Its direction depends on the phase of the error signal, as can be seen from
Figure 12.

APPLIED VOLTAGE

ANTI-CLOCKWISE ROTATION
VOLTAGE OUT-OF-PHASE

CLOCKWISE ROTATION
VOLTAGE IN-PHASE

Phase Error Signal

Figure 12
As it rotates, the motor drives the rotor of CT in such a direction as to reduce the error voltage to zero
and the new position is reached. By using the error signal amplified by a servo amplifier, a servomotor
can be driven to move a control surface as in Figure 11.

1.14 DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO

There are two types of differential synchro system:
Torque.
Control.
In each, a special type of synchro is inserted between the synchros of the
basic torque or control systems. It is called a differential synchro and differs
from the basic synchros in that it has a three-phase stator and rotor. In a
torque differential system it is abbreviated to TDX and in a control differential
system, CDX. The inclusion of this synchro between a torque transmitter and
receiver or control transmitter and transformer permits an additional input to
be algebraically added to, or subtracted from, the system. The layout of a
differential synchro and its circuit symbol are shown at Figure 13.

STATOR
S1

S3

R1

R3

R2

ROTOR

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

S2

R1
R2
R3

Differential Synchro
Figure 13

S1
S2
S3

Figure 14 shows the construction of a differential synchro

STATOR
CONNECTIONS

STATOR
WINDINGS
ROTOR
ASSEMBLY
STATOR
ASSEMBLY
ROTOR
COILS
SKEW CUT TO
ENABLE SMOOTHER
RUNNING

Differential Synchro Construction

Figure 14

1.15 TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO

Figure 15 shows a differential synchro system set up for the SUBTRACTION
of two inputs.

60
15

TX

60

45

45

TR

TDX

INPUT
SHAFT 60

INPUT
SHAFT 15

OUTPUT
SHAFT
1 2

Torque Differential Synchro

Figure 15
Note that the rotors of the normal transmitter TX and receiver TR are supplied
in parallel with the single-phase ac supply. The stator windings of the TX are
connected to the stator windings of the TDX and its three rotor windings are
connected to the three-stator windings of the TR. The rotor of the TDX is not
energized by the ac supply.
The circuit is such that one input shaft turns the TX rotor and the second input
shaft drives the TDX rotor. The TDX receives an electrical signal
corresponding to a particular angular position of the TX rotor, which it modifies
by an amount corresponding to the angular position of its own rotor. This
modified signal appears at the TDX output and is transmitted to the receiver,
where it produces an angular flux, which is the difference of the rotor angles
of the two transmitters TX and TDX.
If the TDX rotor is locked in one position, the TX/TR chain acts as a normal
torque synchro system with a transformer placed between TX and TR.

1.16 CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO

Figure 16 illustrates a control differential synchro system.

CX

CDX

CT

ERROR
SIGNAL

INPUT
SHAFT1

INPUT
SHAFT2

OUTPUT
SHAFT
1 2

Control Differential Synchro

Figure 16
As with the straight control synchro system, the ac supply is only applied to
the transmitter rotor. The transformer rotor produces an error signal, which
after amplification is applied to a motor, causing the CT rotor to move. Apart
from these differences the action of the control differential transmitter is the
same as for the torque differential synchro system.
Torque differential synchros have been used to combine a direction finding
loop reading and a compass reading, in navigation systems, to give a true
bearing.
Control differential synchros, combined with servomotors, are used for moving
much heavier loads such as radar scanners where the subtraction or addition
of two inputs may be necessary.

1.17 RESOLVER SYNCHRO

This type of synchro is used to convert voltages, which represent the
CARTESIAN co-ordinates of a point, into POLAR co-ordinates and vice versa.
1.17.1 POLAR AND CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES
A vector, representing an alternating voltage, can be defined in terms of r and
the angle it makes with the X-axis: angle (). These are the polar co-ordinates of
the vector written as r/. Figure 17 shows the vector diagram for Polar and
Cartesian co-ordinates.

POLAR CO-ORDINATES = r/
CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES X = r COS
CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES Y = r SIN

Polar & Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 17

1.17.2 RESOLVER SYNCHRO OPERATION

The resolver synchro consists of a stator and rotor, each having two windings
arranged in phase quadrature as shown in Figure 18.

S1

R1
R3
S3

S4

R4
R2
ROTOR

INPUT SHAFT

S2

STATOR

R1

S1

R2

S2

R3

R4

S3

S4

b
Resolver Synchro
Figure 18
Figure 16b represents the resolver differently for ease of explanation. The
resolver has two coils, R1 R2 and R3 R4 at right angles to each other and
attached to an input shaft. The stator consists of two coils S 1 S2 and S3 S4,
also placed at right angles to each other.

1.17.3 CONVERSION FROM POLAR TO CARTESIAN CO-ORDINATES

For this purpose, one of the resolver coils is short-circuited, say R 3 R4, and the
other, R1 R2, has an alternating voltage applied to it. The magnitude of this
voltage (r) and the angle () through which both rotor coils are turned,
represent the polar co-ordinates r/. Figure 19 shows a resolver synchro to
carry out this function.

MAX
VOLTS

R
ROTOR

FLUX

STATOR

R1

S1

R2

S2

R COS

R3

R4

S3

S4

90

NO
VOLTS

180

360

270

R SIN

Polar to Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 19
Consider firstly that the rotor shaft position is such that the R 1 R2 coil magnetic
field links completely with the stator winding S1 S2, i.e. the coils are aligned.
The maximum voltage will therefore be induced in coil S 1 S2. Since the stator
coil S3 S4 is at right angle to stator coil S1 S2, there will be no voltage
developed across it due to R1 R2 coil's magnetic field. When the shaft is
rotated at constant speed through 90, the rotor coil R 1 R2 is now in phase
quadrature to stator S1 S2, which has zero volts induced in it. However, R1 R2
rotor coil is now aligned with stator coil S3 S4 and this now has maximum
voltage induced in it. As the shaft continues to rotate, a cosine voltage wave

is developed across S1 S2 stator and a sine voltage wave across S3 S4 stator

coil.
r cos and r sin summed together result from the input voltage at R 1 R2 and
rotor rotation r/. The result represents the cartesian co-ordinates.
1.17.4 CONVERSION FROM CARTESIAN TO POLAR CO-ORDINATES

In this arrangement, there are two voltage inputs and these represent the
cartesian co-ordinates. They are VX = r cos and VY = r sin (Refer Figure 15).
VX is input to S1 S2; VY is input to S3 S4. The two together develop an
alternating magnetic flux representing the cartesian co-ordinates in the stator.
R1 R2 is connected to an amplifier, which drives the output load and the rotor
in such a direction as to null the rotor and stop the motor. R 3 R4 has a voltage
induced in it dependent on the value of the alternating flux. Its value may be
calculated using Pythagoras' Theorum VY + VX . Figure 20 shows the

R1
S1

S2

SM

R2

VX = r COS
S3

S4

VY = r SIN

R3

R4

TO LOAD

VY 2 + VX2
S4

S2

S3

R3

S1

R1

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
R4 R2

layout for performing the above.

Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates
Figure 20

1.17.5 USE OF RESOLVER SYNCHROS

The ability to develop receiver signals at 90 is used, for example, in VOR

systems, ADF systems using a non-rotating loop, in autopilots and in flight
directors.
1.18 E AND I BAR TRANSMITTER
Figure 21a shows an E and I bar transmitter. These devices convert mechanical movements into
electrical signals (transducer) and are used in various systems as required. Figure 19a shows an E and
I bar as applied to a servo-altimeter.

A.C.
EXCITATION
SUPPLY

RESULTANT
WAVEFORM

b
E & I Bar Transmitter
Figure 21

The E-bar has a coil wound round the centre limb. This coil is supplied by an
ac excitation supply. A magnetic flux is set up within the E-bar and when the
I-bar is equidistant from the outer limbs of the E-bar, the waveforms
transmitted are equal and opposite (Figure 21b). No output results. If the Ibar is moved (in this case by capsules) one end of the I-bar is brought in

closer proximity to the opposite limb of the E-bar. The air gap here is
reduced, the magnetic field strengthens and the signal from the upper limb
coil is increased. (Figure 21b).
The opposite end of the I-Bar moves further away from its associated E-bar
limb, and the resultant signal is weaker. In the case of the servo-altimeter,
moving the E -bar back to the position nulls the signal so that no signal is
produced.