Solutions, Chapter 3

E3.1 Prove that if f : A B and hCi : i Ii is a system of subsets of A, then

S
 S
f
iI Ci =
iI f [Ci ].
xf

"

Ci

iI

iff

x rng f

Ci

iI

iff

Ci [f (y) = x]

iI

iff
iff

i Iy Ci [f (y) = x]
i I[x rng(f Ci )]

iff

i I[x f [Ci ]]
[
x
f [Ci ].

iff

iI

E3.2 Prove that if f : A B and C, D A, then f [C D] f [C] f [D]. Give an

example showing that equality does not hold in general.
Take any x f [C D]. Choose y C D such that x = f (y). Since y C, we have
x f [C]. Similarly, x f [D]. So x f [C] f [D]. Since x is arbitrary, this shows that
f [C D] f [C] f [D].
For the required example, let dmn(f ) = {a, b} with a 6= b and with f (a) = a = f (b).
Let C = {a} and D = {b}. Then C D = , so f [C D] = , while f [C] = {a} = f [D]
and hence f [C] f [D] = {a} =
6 . So f [C D] 6= f [C] f [D].
E3.3 Given f : A B and C, D A, compare f [C\D] and f [C]\f [D]: prove the
inclusions (if any) which hold, and give counterexamples for the inclusions that fail to
hold.
We claim that f [C]\f [D] f [C\D]. For, suppose that x f [C]\f [D]. Choose c C
such that x = f (c). Since x
/ f [D], we have c
/ D. So c C\D and hence x f [C\D],
proving the claim.
The other inclusion does not hold. For, take the same f, C, D as for exercise E3.2.
Then C\D = {a} and so f [C\D] 6= . But f [C] = {a} = f [D], so f [C]\f [D] = .
E3.4 Prove that if f : A B and hCi : i Ii is a system of subsets of B, then
S
 S
f 1 iI Ci = iI f 1 [Ci ].
For any b B we have

b f 1

"

iI

Ci

iff

f (b)

Ci

iI

iff
iff
iff

i I[f (b) Ci ]
i I[b f 1 [Ci ]]
[
b
f 1 [Ci ].
iI

E3.5 Prove that if f : A B and hCi : i Ii is a system of subsets of B, then

T
 T
f 1 iI Ci = iI f 1 [Ci ].
For any a,

af

"

iI

Ci

iff

f (a)

Ci

iI

iff

i I[f (a) Ci ]

iff

i I[a f 1 [Ci ]]
\
a
f 1 [Ci ].

iff

iI

E3.6 Prove that if f : A B and C, D B, then f 1 [C\D] = f 1 [C]\f 1 [D].

For any a,
a f 1 [C\D]

iff

f (a) C\D

iff
iff
iff

f (a) C and f (a)

/D
1
a f [C] and a
/ f 1 [D]
a f 1 [C]\f 1 [D].

E3.7 Prove that if f : A B and C A, then

{b B : f 1 [{b}] C} = B\f [A\C].
First suppose that b is in the left side; but suppose also, aiming for a contradiction, that
b f [A\C]. Say b = f (a), with a A\C. Then a f 1 [{b}], so a C, contradiction.
Second, suppose that b is in the right side. Take any a f 1 [{b}]. Then f (a) = b,
and it follows that a C, as desired.
E3.8 For any sets A, B define AB = (A\B) (B\A); this is called the symmetric
difference of A and B. Prove that if A, B, C are given sets, then A(BC) = (AB)C.
Let D = A B C, A = D\A, B = D\B, and C = D\C. Then
AB = (A B ) (B A );
(AB) = ((A B ) (B A ))
= (A B ) (B A )
= (A B) (B A)
= (A B ) (A B).
These equations hold for any sets A, B. Now
A(BC) = (A (BC) ) ((BC) A
= (A ((B C ) (B C))) (((B C ) (C B )) A )
= (A B C ) (A B C) (A B C ) (A B C).
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This holds for any sets A, B, C. Hence

(AB)C = C(AB)
= (C A B ) (C A B) (C A B ) (C A B)
= A(BC).
E3.9 For any set A let
IdA = {hx, xi : x A}.
Justify this definition on the basis of the axioms.
IdA = {y A A : x A[y = hx, xi]}.
E3.10 Suppose that f : A B. Prove that f is surjective iff there is a g : B A such
that f g = IdB . Note: the axiom of choice might be needed.
: given b B, we have b = (f g)(b) = f (g(b)); so f is surjective.
: Assume that f is surjective. Let
A = {{(b, a) : a A, f (a) = b} : b B}.
Each member of A is nonempty; for let x A . Choose b B such that x = {(b, a) : a
A, f (a) = b}. Choose a A such that f (a) = b. So (b, a) x.
The members of A are pairwise disjoint: suppose x, y A with x 6= y. Choose b, c
so that x = {(b, a) : a A, f (a) = b} and y = {(b, a) : a A, f (a) = c}. If u x y, then
there exist a, a A such that u = (b, a), f (a) = b, and also (u = (c, a ), f (a ) = c. So by
Theorem 3.3, b = c. But then x = y, contradiction.
Now by the axiom of choice, let C have exactly one element in common with each
member of A . Then define
g = {(b, a) C : a A, f (a) = b}.
Now g is a function. For, suppose that (b, a), (b, a) g. Let x = {(b, a ) : a A, f (a ) =
b}. Then (b, a), (b, a) C x, so (b, a) = (b, a ). Hence a = a .
Clearly g B A. Next, dmn(g) = B, for suppose that b B. Choose x
C {(b, a ) : a A, f (a) = b}; say x = (b, a) with a A, f (a) = b. Then x g and so
b dmn(g).
Thus g : B A. Take any b B, and let g(b) = a. So (b, a) g and hence f (a) = b.
So f g = IdB .
E3.11 Let A be a nonempty set. Suppose that f : A B. Prove that f is injective iff
there is a g : B A such that g f = IdA .
First suppose that f is injective. Fix a A, and let
g = f 1 {(b, a) : b B\rng(f )}.
3

Then g is a function. In fact, suppose that (b, c), (b, d) g. If both are in f 1 , then
(c, b(, (d, b) f , so f (c) = b = f (d) and hence c = d since f is injective. If (b, c) f 1
and b B\rng(f ), the (c, b) f , so b rng(f ), contradiction. If (b, c), (b, d)
/ f 1 , then
c = d = a.
Clearly then g : B A. For any a A we have (a, f (a)) f , hence (f (a), a) f 1
g, and so g(f (a)) = a.
Second, suppose that g : B A and g f = IdA . Suppose that f (a) = f (a ). Then
a = (g f )(a) = g(f (a)) = g(f (a)) = (g f )(a ) = a .
E3.12 Suppose that f : A B. Prove that f is a bijection iff there is a g : B A such
that f g = IdB and g f = IdA . Prove this without using the axiom of choice.
: Assume that f is a bijection. By E3.11 there is a g : B A such that g f = IdA .
We claim that f g = IdB . Since f is a bijection, the relation f 1 is also a bijection. Now
for any b B,
(f g)(b) = f (g(b)) = f (g(f (f 1(b)))) = f ((g f )(f 1 (b))) = f (f 1 (b)) = b.
So f g = IdB , as desired.
: Assume that g is as indicated. Then f is injective, since f (a) = f (b) implies
that a = g(f (a)) = g(f (a )) = a . And f is surjective, since for a given b B we have
f (g(b)) = b.
E3.13 For any sets R, S define
R|S = {(x, z) : y((x, y) R (y, z) S)}.
Justify this definition on the basis of the axioms.
R|S = {(x, z) dmn(R) rng(S) : y((x, y) R (y, z) S)}.
E3.14 Suppose that f, g : A A. Prove that
(A A)\[((A A)\f )|((A A)\g)]
is a function.
Suppose that (x, y), (x, z) are in the indicated set, with y 6= z. By symmetry say f (x) 6= y.
Then (x, y) [(A A)\f ], so it follows that (y, z) g, as otherwise (x, z) [((A
A)\f )|((A A)\g)]. Hence (y, y)
/ g, so (x, y) [((A A)\f )|((A A)\g)], contradiction.
E3.15 Suppose that f : A B is a surjection, g : A C, and x, y A[f (x) = f (y)
g(x) = g(y)]. Prove that there is a function h : B C such that h f = g. Define h as a
set of ordered pairs.
Let h = {(f (a), g(a)) : a A}. Then h is a function, for suppose that (x, y), (x, z) h.
Choose a, a A so that x = f (a), y = g(a), x = f (a ), and y = g(a ). Thus f (a) = f (a ),
so g(a) = g(a ), as desired.
4

Since f is a surjection it is clear that dmn(h) = B. Clearly rng(h) C. So h : B C.

If a A, then (f (a), b(a)) h, hence h(f (a)) = g(a). This shows that h f = g.
E3.16 The statement
A A B B(A B) implies that

is slightly wrong. Fix it, and prove the result.

If A has a nonempty member and B is empty, the implication does not hold. Add the
hypothesis B 6= .
S
Suppose that a A and B B; we want to show that a B. Choose A A such
that a A. Since A B, we have a B.
S
S
E3.17 Suppose that A A B B(A B). Prove that A B.
S
Suppose that a A ; we want to show that a B. ChooseSA A such that a A.
Then choose B B such that A B. Then a B. Hence a B.
E3.18 The statement

A A B B(B A) implies that

A.

is slightly wrong. Fix it, and prove the result.

T
If A is empty and B is nonempty, the statement is false. Fix it by adding the hypothesis
that A is nonempty. T
Suppose that b B and A T
A ; we want to show that b A. Choose B B such
that B A. Now b B since b B, so b A.