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LAB REPORT
EXPERIMENT 3
PHASE LOCKED LOOPS
Purpose:
The objectives of this laboratory are:
1. To introduce students to Phase Locked Loops (PLL) and their operation.
2. To predict and measure the PLL characteristics.
3. To set up practical circuits using the PLL.
Equipment List
1. PC with Matlab and Simulink
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with an input signal is defined as
the lock range of the system. The band of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock
with an incoming signal is called Capture range of the system and is never greater than the
lock range. Another means for describing the operation of the PLL is to observe that the phase
detector is in actuality a multiplier circuit that mixes the input signal with the VCO signal. This
mix produces sum and difference frequencies wi +- w0. When the loop is in lock, the VCO
duplicates the input frequency so that the difference frequency wi wo is zero, hence the output
of the phase comparator contains a dc component. The low pass filter removes the sum frequency
component wi + wo but passes the dc component, which is then amplified and fed back to the
VCO. Notice that when the loop is in lock, the difference frequency component is always dc, so
the lock range is independent of the band edge of the low pass filter.
Consider now the case where the loop is not yet in lock. The phase comparator again mixes the
input and VCO signals to produce sum and difference frequency components. If the difference
frequency is above the cut off frequency of the low pass filter, no signal is transmitted around the
loop and the VCO remains at its initial free-running frequency. As the input frequency approaches
that of the VCO, the frequency of the difference component decreases and approaches the band
edge of the low pass filter. Now some of the difference component is passed, which tends to drice
the VCO towards the frequency of the input signal. This, in turn decreases the frequency of the
difference component and allows more information to be transmitted through the low pass filter
to the VCO. This is essentially a positive feedback mechanism, which causes the VCO to snap
into lock with the input signal. With this mechanism in mind, the term, Capture range can again
be defined as the frequency range centered about the VCO initial free-running frequency over
which the loop can acquire lock with the input signal. The capture range is a measure of how
close the input signals frequency must be to that of the VCO to acquire lock. The capture range
can assume any value within the lock range and depends primarily upon the band edge of the low
pass filter together with the closed loop gain of the system. It is this signal-capturing phenomenon
which gives the loop its frequency selective properties.
Figure shows the typical frequency-to-voltage transfer characteristics of the PLL. The
input is assumed to be a sine wave whose frequency is swept slowly over a broad frequency
range. The vertical scale is the corresponding loop error voltage. The top figure shows the input
frequency being gradually increased. The loop doesnt respond to the signal until it a frequency
w1, corresponding to the lower edge of the capture range. Then, the loop suddenly licks on the
input and causes a negative jump of the loop error voltage. Next Vd varies with frequency with a
slope equal to the reciprocal of VCO gain (1/ Ko) and goes through zero as wi = wo. The loop
tracks the input until the input frequency reaches w2, corresponding to the upper edge of the lock
renge. The PLL then loses lock and the erro voltage drops to zero. If the input frequency is swept
slowly back now, the cycle repeats itself, but it is inverted, as shown in the lower fig. The loop
recaptures the signal at w3 and tracks it down to w4. The total capture and lock ranges of the
system are:
2wc = w3 w1 and 2wL = w2 w4
Note that the PLL system has an inherent selectivity about the center frequency set by the VCO
free-running frequency wo. It will respond only to the input signal frequencies that are separated
from w0 by less than wL or Wc, depending on whether the loop starts with or without an initial
lock condition. The linearity of the frequency-to-voltage conversion characteristics for the PLL is
determined solely by the VCO conversion gain. Therefore, in most PLL application, the VCIO is
required to have highly linear voltage-to-frequency characteristics.
Measuring Constants
We started our experiment on PLLs by first measuring the different parameters of each
functional block.
1. Multiplier Constant, Km
With a 1V p-p sinusoidal voltage at both inputs of the multiplier, the output was observed and
the multiplier constant was calculated to be 0.206.
2. Phase Detector Constant, Kd
The phase detector consists of an analog multiplier and a limiter to remove the amplitude
variations in the input signal.
Kd = peak output voltage of the limiter * peak voltage of the VCO * multiplier constant
Kd = (1.86 x 2) x (2.199 x 2) x 0.206
Kd = 1.72 volts
3. VCO Conversion Constant, Ko
An external voltage may control the output frequency of the VCO. The change in the output
frequency per change in the dc input voltage was measured.
Ko = f / v
Ko = 1 / 0.5 = 2 kHz/sec/volt
Ko = 4103 = 12566 rad/sec/volt
4. Total Loop Gain, KT
KT = Kd x Ko.
= 1.72 x 12566 = 21613.52
5. Low Pass Filter
Two first-order low pass filters are used. The cutoff frequencies for one of the low pass filters
is 100Hz and the other is 1kHz. This was verified by using the white noise as the signal
source and then checking the filter output spectrum on the spectrum analyzer. The power
spectral density for the white noise is uniform at input i.e., power of equal amplitude exists
approximately at all frequencies. In the output spectrum, the roll off occurred at
approximately 100 Hz and 1kHz respectively.
The spectrum analyzer was configured to act as the source of random white noise. To obtain
the maximum noise output, the attenuation level was set to 0 dB. This was fed to the low pass
filters and the output was observed on the spectrum analyzer.
The same procedure was repeated for the 4 th order low pass filter. In this case, the filter knob
was adjusted so that the 3 dB roll off occurred approximately at 2 kHz.
We rigged up a circuit for the AM / DSBSC transmitter. The carrier frequency was set for 5
kHz and modulated at 1 kHz. In the open loop condition, the VCO (used for the detection)
was set to approximately 5 kHz, which is close to the carrier frequency. The 2 nd LPF cut off
frequency was set to approximately 2 kHz. The loop was closed and the detector output was
observed.
The detector was able to receive the AM wave quite well at both 50% modulation and 100%
modulation.
Appendix I
Prelab
In
KD
Fs
Ko VCO
Lock Range:
2L = 2 KT
T(s) = KT F(s) / S
Total loop gain = Kd A Ko
2fL = KT /
Capture Range
= RC where = 1 / 2f3
2c = 2 sqrt(KT / )
2 (2 fc ) = 2sqrt(2fL / (1/ 2f3)) = 2 sqrt((2)2 fL f3)
2fc = 2sqrt(fL f3)
II
Lock Range:
2fL = KT /
Capture Range:
2fc = 2sqrt(fL f3)
Ka = 2V Ko = 2 kHz /v A = 1
f3 = 100Hz
KT = Kd A Ko = (2V) (2 x 103 Hz / V) (1) = 4kHz
Lock: = 2fL = KT / = 4kHz / = 1.273 k = 637 Hz
Capture: = 2fc = 2sqrt(fL f3) = 2sqrt(637x100) = 504.6 Hz --- fc = 252 Hz
III
VCO(t) = sin(wot + )
VIN(t) = 0.2 cos(wot)
e(t) = 0.2 sin(wot + ) cos(wot) ; Km = 1
Kd = 0.2 at max
KT = Kd A K0 = (0.2)(2x103 Hz / V) (1) = 400 Hz
Lock: = 2fL = KT / = 400 / fL = 6306 Hz
Capture: 2fc = 2sqrt(fLf3) = 2sqrt(6306x100) fc = 80 Hz
Limter O/p: 4.72 Vpp
VCO O/p : 3076 Vpp
Multipliers Constant: 0.408
Kd = (4.72 / 2) x (3.76 / 2) x 0.408 = 1.81 V
Avg. VCO Conversion: fo / Va = -2.08 kHz / V