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Consumer
Taxes
Imports
Producer
Factors of Production
Government
spending
Exports
Investment
2) A rise in GDP also means a rise in output so more goods and services will be consumed leading to
increased living standards.
3) The data is easy to collect and so this will allow poorer countries to use this measure.
4) GDP is a common unit (as al values are in $) and so GDP values are easy to compare between
countries.
However, it is not a perfect measure of living standards because:
1) If GDP remained constant but the population increased, GDP per capita would fall GDP does not
measure this.
2) There are uneven distributions of wealth which GDP fails to take into account.
3) GDP does not take happiness into account.
4) Inflation is not taken into account.
5) Hidden economies are not included in the GDP value.
Human Development Index (HDI)
The HDI is an alternative measure of living standards. The HDI measures adult literacy, GDP and life
expectancy and a country is given a score out of 1. The greater the HDI value, the higher the living standards
in the country. The score of one country is then ranked against the scores from other countries.
Advantages of HDI:
The GDP rank of a country minus its HDI rank gives a ranking of life expectancy and adult literacy (a
rank of health and education).
Disadvantages of HDI:
No measure of poverty.
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GDP
Trend
3
4
Actual
Time
imports).
therefore high interest rates), employment and investment. Negative balance of payments, caused by high living
standards.
4) Recession: A recession occurs when there are 2 quarters of negative GDP growth. Inflation, GDP and
investment falling. Unemployment rising.
What causes the economic cycle?
During a boom or a period of growth, the rise in demand for goods and services causes inflation to
rise (see notes on inflation). In order to decrease inflation and meet one of the 4 main macroeconomic
objectives, the central bank (e.g. Bank of England) increase interest rates. This increases the
incentive for consumers to save their money, causing demand in the economy to fall and so GDP also
falls.
A rise in commodity prices means that more money is spent paying for necessity goods and services
(e.g. electricity bills rise). As a result, disposable incomes fall so less goods and services are bought.
Prior to an election, parties that are in power increase their spending in order to win votes and remain
in power, causing GDP to rise. However, this spending is not sustainable and so after elections,
government spending falls and so GDP also falls.
Wars and natural disasters (e.g. earthquakes) also cause GDP to fall.
If confidence in an economy is high, consumers will continue to spend and so the consumption of
goods and services will rise, causing GDP to rise. If confidence falls, consumers will not be willing to
spend their money and so GDP will fall.
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Output Gap
If the output gap is negative (when trend growth exceeds actual growth), GDP is falling.
If the output gap is positive (when actual growth exceeds trend growth), GDP is rising.
Economic Growth
Advantages of economic growth: Output of goods and services rises so consumption also rises,
meaning living standards increase. Increased provision of public goods e.g. education as tax revenues
rise. High interest rates are good for savers. Economy becomes more efficient and competitive so
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) rises. Employment also rises.
Disadvantages of economic growth: High interest rates are bad for consumers lending money. Nonrenewable resources are used and pollution increases. Life expectancy increases so increased
spending on the elderly.
Inflation
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Shoe leather costs: People are unaware of the new prices of goods and services so they have to shop
around. An opportunity cost is incurred as time has been wasted searching for new prices.
Menu costs: Inflation causes prices to change and so price lists e.g. menus have to be adjusted.
Someone must be employed to change the prices which is an additional cost to a firm.
Psychological cost: Knowing you could buy the same goods and services for much less in the past.
Re-distributional costs: Workers on fixed incomes suffer as the value of money is eroded; therefore
workers on fixed incomes effectively take a pay cut equal to inflation. In order to prevent this, wages
can be linked to inflation. The government must also increase their spending and taxation in line with
inflation.
Via demand-pull inflation: Increase interest rate which causes consumption and investment to fall.
Increasing the interest rate also appreciates the currency, causing exports to fall, resulting in a fall of
aggregate demand (explained later on). Increase taxes which causes consumption to fall. Decreases
government spending.
Via cost-push inflation: Subsidise industries (causing costs of production for firms to fall. Decrease tax
on firms (e.g. corporation tax).
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Deflation
Definition: A general decrease in price levels over time.
Measured by a fall in CPI.
There are 2 types of deflation:
1) Benign Deflation: Prices fall because of an increase in productivity, advancements in technology etc.
This means that more goods and services are produced from the same amount of inputs and so prices
fall. The increase in output causes consumption to rise and so living standards rise. As a result,
benign deflation is OK.
2) Malign deflation: Prices fall due to a lack of demand. The lack of demand means there is excess
supply and so prices must fall to clear the market. If demand falls, businesses close, causing workers
to become unemployed which causes even less demand (there is a negative multiplier effect). Malign
deflation is BAD.
Despite there being benefits from benign deflation, deflation can be very dangerous. If consumers see prices
are falling, they may wait till the price of a product falls further. This will then cause malign deflation and prices
will fall more. This can carry on causing a huge lack of demand.
Unemployment
Definition: A person who is wanting, willing and able to work and actively seeking work, but doesn't have a job.
Measuring unemployment:
People claiming job seeker's allowance: Unemployment can be determined by the number of claimants
of this allowance. However, not everyone who is unemployed claims. This is because some people do
not fit the criteria (they have too many savings, they haven't been unemployed for long enough, they
are less than 18 years of age etc) and some people are not willing to claim.
ILO Labour Force Survey: A survey conducted by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). The ILO
conduct an interview by phone of 60,000 households. Questions are then asked about employment
status etc. The survey is completed by people aged 16+ and so is more accurate than the claimant
count (above).
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Wage
E1
Unemployment
D1
Employment
Replacement ratio is the percentage of your current income that you could earn by not working. The higher
the ratio, the lower the incentive to work.
Policies to reduce unemployment:
To decrease frictional unemployment: Increase the notice period, increase the number of job centres.
To decrease structural unemployment: Subsidise firms (as firms can then afford to take on new
workers as their costs of production have fallen), reduce taxes (e.g. National Insurance contribution),
increase provision of training schemes such as the New Deal.
Other measures: Reduce benefits received by the unemployed and give the money to people in low
paid work, decrease National Minimum Wage.
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Wage
NMW
force.
Employment
Balance of Payments
A current account deficit causes GDP to fall as there is more money leaving the economy than there is
entering the economy. However, the deficit will only be a small fraction of the money that is in the
circular flow of income.
An economy is consuming more goods and services than it could have produced domestically so
higher living standards.
An increase in the number of exports means that jobs will be created to meet foreign demands.
Money injections into the circular flow of incomes creates economic activity.
The surplus will cause a rise in GDP and so tax revenues will rise. This will cause government
spending to rise, leading to an increased provision of public services such as education.
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Living standards are less than their potential as domestically produced goods and services are being
consumed abroad.
A current account surplus causes GDP to rise as more money is entering the economy (and the circular flow of
income) than there is leaving the economy.
Exchange Rates
Definition: The value of one currency in terms of another.
Currencies are traded on the FOREX (Foreign Exchange) market. Exchange rates are determined by supply
and demand.
If a currency appreciates, the value of the currency increases relative to another currency. For example, if 1 =
$1.50, it will have appreciated if 1 = $1.60 in the future. A currency can appreciate through an increase in
demand for the currency (e.g. an American firm converts dollars into sterling in order to purchase a good from
the UK) or through a decrease in supply of the currency. If a currency appreciates, exports fall as foreign
countries have to spend more money to buy the same good or service. Imports rise as more goods and
services can be bought from abroad for the same value of the currency (e.g. 1 buys more goods from abroad
than before). As a result, currency appreciation worsens the current account position of an economy.
If a currency depreciates, the value of the currency falls relative to another currency. For example, if 1 =
$1.50, it will have depreciated if 1 = $1.40 in the future. A currency can appreciate through a decrease in
demand for the currency (e.g. foreign countries no longer to buy goods and services made in the UK) or
through an increase in supply of the currency (e.g. UK consumers buy foreign products so put onto the
FOREX market in order to buy another currency). If a currency depreciates, exports rise as foreign countries
have to spend less money to buy the same good or service. Imports fall as less goods and services can be
bought from abroad for the same value of the currency (e.g. 1 buys less goods from abroad than before). As
a result, currency depreciation improves the current account position of an economy.
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Interest rates can be used to alter exchange rates; a high interest rate causes a large amount of financial
investment (as money will be saved in UK bank accounts), so the demand for a currency increases and it
appreciates. A low interest rate will depreciate a currency.
Aggregate Demand
AD =
Consumption
I
Investment
Government Spending
(x m)
Exports - Imports
Consumption
Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC): The percentage of additional income that will be spent. The poorer the
individual, the higher the MPC (it is highly likely that the last unit of money they have will be spent). MPC is a
value between 0 and 1.
Marginal Propensity to Save (MPS): The percentage of additional income that will be saved. The richer the
individual, the higher the MPS (it is highly likely that the last unit of money they have will be saved). MPS is a
value between 0 and 1.
Factors affecting consumption:
Income: Follows the economic cycle. High employment = high income = high consumption.
Interest rates: High interest rate = large incentive to save = lower consumption. Low interest
rate = large incentive to borrow = higher consumption.
Inflation: This erodes the value of money so high inflation = lower spending = lower
consumption.
Expectations: If people expect high inflation, they will save money in the previous periods so
consumption will fall.
Wealth: House prices are a major influence on wealth. Described below under 'The Wealth
Effect'.
The Wealth Effect: Your consumption is linked to your wealth. The wealthier you are, the more money you are
willing to spend. House prices are a major influence on wealth, so a rise in house prices will cause your MPC
to rise.
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Provide steady economic growth and inflation over time. This will give consumers positive
expectations of the future and so they will continue spending.
Make loans available for house deposits. This will cause the demand for houses to rise,
meaning house prices will rise and consumption will rise (by the wealth effect).
Investment
Definition: An addition to the capital stock.
There are two types of investment: fixed capital (machinery, buildings etc) and human capital (skills, training for
workers etc).
Investment contributes a small amount to aggregate supply and is a crucial determinant of aggregate supply.
The economy grows fast when there is investment as the supply-side can grow faster.
Investment is the most volatile component of aggregate demand.
The Marginal Efficiency of Capital:
Interest Rate, r
r1
r2
I2 Planned Investment, I
Capital Goods
Government Spending
Definition: Any spending by central government and/or local councils.
Governments fund their spending through taxation.
Advantages of government spending:
Taxation means people have less disposable income so their consumption decreases.
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Aggregate Supply
All goods and services are made from different combinations of the four factors of production: land, labour,
capital and enterprise.
In the short run, at least one factor is fixed in availability.
In the long run, all factors of production are variable.
Price Levels
SRAS
P1
Q1
National Output
Wages
their jobs due to the fall in derived demand will decrease their
W1
D
E1
D1
their wage rate to W1 as this is the new wage that people are
Employment
willing to work for. This process takes a short amount of time
and following these changes, there is no unemployment and
the market clears.
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Price Level
LRAS
LRAS1
P1
Y1
National Output
Wages
W1
E2
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E1
D1
Employment
Price Level
LRAS
2
Y
3
Y1
Y2
National Output
firms look to take on more workers, they demand higher wages, causing price levels to rise. At point 3, the
economy is at full employment (it is as its productive potential). Output is at its maximum and wage inflation is
very high (meaning price levels are also high).
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