Main Trigonometric Functions

There are six main trigonometric functions:

Sine (sin)

Cosine (cos)

Tangent (tan)

Secant (sec)

Cosecant (csc)

Cotangent (cot)

These functions are used to relate the angles of a triangle with the sides of that triangle.
Trigonometric functions are important when studying triangles and modeling periodic
phenomena such as waves, sound, and light.
To define these functions for the angle theta, begin with a right triangle. Each function
relates the angle to two sides of a right triangle. First, let's define the sides of the triangle.

The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle. The hypotenuse is always the
longest side of a right triangle.

The opposite side is the side opposite to the angle we are interested in, theta.

The adjacent side is the side having both the angles of interest (angle theta and the
right angle).

The relationship between the trigonometric functions and the sides of the triangle are as
follows:

sine(theta) = opposite / hypotenuse

cosecant(theta) = hypotenuse / opposite

cosine(theta) = adjacent / hypotenuse

secant(theta) = hypotenuse / adjacent

tangent(theta) = opposite / adjacent

cotangent(theta) = adjacent / opposite

Arc Length
s = r
The unit circle

The definition of radian measure

An angle of 1 radian
Proof of the theorem

 IT IS CONVENTIONAL to let the letter s symbolize the

length of an arc, which is called arc length. We say
in geometry that an arc "subtends" an angle ;
literally, "stretches under."
Now the circumference of a circle is an arc length.
And the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is
the basis of radian measure. That ratio is
the definition of .

C
D

Since D = 2r, then

C
2r

or,
C
r

That ratio -- 2 -- of the circumference of

a circle to the radius, is called the radian measure of
1 revolution, which are four right angles at the center.
The circumference subtends those four right angles.

s
r
Thus the radian measure is based on ratios -- numbers
-- that are actually found in the circle. The radian
measure is a real number that indicates the ratio of a

Radian measure of =

curved line to a straight, of an arc to the radius. For,

the ratio of s to r does determine a unique central
angle .

Theorem.

In any circles the same ratio of arc

length to radius
determines a unique central angle that
the arcs subtend.

Proportionally,

if and only if

=.
1

Functions of 45

Look at this 45-45-90 triangle, which means

sides a and b are equal. By the Pythagorean theorem,

a + b = c
But a = b and c = 1; therefore
2a = 1
a = 1/2
a = 1/2 = (2)/2
Since a = sin 45,
sin 45 = (2)/2
Also, b = cos 45 and b = a; therefore
cos 45 = (2)/2
Use the definition of tan A, equation 3 or equation 4:
tan 45 = a/b = 1
(14)sin 45 = cos 45 = (2)/2
tan 45 = 1

Functions of 30 and 60

Now look at this diagram. Ive drawn two

30-60-90 triangles back to back, so that the two 30 angles are
next to each other. Since 230 = 60, the big triangle is a 60-6060 equilateral triangle. Each of the small triangles has hypotenuse
1, so the length 2b is also 1, which means that
b = 2s
But b also equals cos 60, and therefore
cos 60 =
You can find a, which is sin 60, by using the Pythagorean theorem:
() + a = c = 1
1/4 + a = 1
a = 3/4 a = (3)/2
Since a = sin 60, sin 60 = (3)/2.
Since you know the sine and cosine of 60, you can easily use the
cofunction identities (equation 2) to get the cosine and sine of 30:
cos 30 = sin(9030) = sin 60 = (3)/2

sin 30 = cos(9030) = cos 60 = 1/2

As before, use the definition of the tangent to find the tangents of
30 and 60 from the sines and cosines:
tan 30 = sin 30 / cos 30
tan 30 = (1/2) / ((3)/2)
tan 30 = 1 / 3 = (3)/3
and
tan 60 = sin 60 / cos 60
tan 60 = ((3)/2) / (1/2)
tan 60 = 3
The values of the trig functions of 30 and 60 can be summarized
like this:
(15)sin 30 = , sin 60 = (3)/2
cos 30 = (3)/2, cos 60 =
tan 30 = (3)/3, tan 60 = 3

Definition of Linear and Angular Velocity

Linear and angular velocities relate the speed of an object, dependent on the
perspective taken. Linear velocity applies to any object or particle that moves, while
angular velocity applies to those that turn (such as a wheel, the revolution of the
earth, or a spinning top). Angular velocity is an expression of angular displacement
over time, and can be expressed in degrees or radians (radians/hr, degrees/sec, and

so on). Angular velocity is found with the equation

. To determine linear

velocity (linear displacement over time) from angular velocity, apply the
formula

, where is expressed in radians/time and r is the radius of the

path taken (or the radius of the object, if it is spinning).

Timeline of Precolonial
Filipino Culture and
Society
admin / October 21, 2013

This precolonial Philippine timeline summarizes the development of Filipino culture

and society towards its elaborate formation of incomparable identity. The intention
to highlight only the important stages of precolonial culture and society is to make
the timeline concise and interesting. In this article I added pictures of artifacts I
found at Samar Archaeological Museum and Research Center during my research of
precolonial and contemporary Leyte Samar magico-religious practices. Some of its
artifacts, I believe, are not in the inventory of National Museum of the Philippines.
Paleolithic 14,500 BCE
The dawn of precolonial history in the Philippines started during the Tabon Man.
According to archaeologists, who found its remains inside the Tabon Cave in
Palawan, the Tabon Man coexisted with Homo Erectus in Europe, Java Man in
Indonesia, and Peking Man in China. However, physical anthropologists argued that
Tabon Man belonged to Homo Sapiens based on their examination of its skull cap.
Having a very simple stone tools common to Paleolithic period juxtaposed to its
globe-trotting characteristics the Tabon Man is believed to be the product of stone
bridge migration theorized by H. Otley Beyers wave of migrations. This theory,
however disputed, is relevant to the idea of Tabon Cave as a stone tools factory and
a temporary shelter; making the most activity of the Tabon Man outside the cave.
Since this is the place where stone tools were developed archaeologists found
artifacts that marked the indication of Neolithic age.
Neolithic 6,000 BCE 1,200 CE
Near the Tabon Cave advanced stone tools were found in Guri Cave and other cave
complexes in Palawans Lipoon Point. These tools were used to shape and form
advanced adzes and axes that were used to develop early boat technology and
agriculture.
Shell beads were also found in this cave and they were produced using advance
stone tool technology. Together with these finds are burial jars and pots such as the

famous Manunggul Jar. It is also important to take note in this period that the
idea of afterlife, ancestor worship and animist tradition was first
conceived.
According to archaeologists, Kalanay pots found in Masbate were similar to the
pots found in Sa-huyn, South Vietnam. Given this evidence it proves the
widespread journey and interrelation of precolonial Filipinos in other parts of
Southeast Asia and beyond marking the beginnings of Austronesian boat
building tradition.
Here are the photographs I took in Samar Archaeological Museum in Calbayog this
October. These are fragments of a pot that earmarked the Sa-huyn Kalanay
pottery complex found in Samar:

Broken pieces of Sa-huyn Kalanay pottery complex found in Samar island.

Rope technique is familiar to Sa-huyn Kalanay pottery design.

Metal Age 225 CE 1500 CE
Archaeologists believed that the development of iron tools in precolonial Philippines
started from the production of jade stone jewelries or the Lingling-O that were
found in Batangas. These finds were also similar to the earrings found in 1908 at Sahuyn, South Vietnam.
During the Metal Age, maritime culture and civilization is already
established that is why the flow and exchange of culture was very common. The
groundwork of this era is the gold tradition as an important trade and everyday
adornment of spiritual and cultural life of precolonial Filipinos.
Gold tradition did not only establish a complex societal relations evidenced
by Laguna Copperplate Inscription but it also installed complex trade relations
with Indians, Arabs, Japanese and Chinese that further enriched the cultural
development of precolonial Filipinos.
Besides gold is the amazing textile tradition and tattooing that usually
complement together with gold jewelries.
In this photos I took from the collection of artifacts from Samar Archaeological
Museum and Research Center are bladed weapons or Kampilan designed with
repeated patterns of rosettes and palmettes that were based on the more
advanced Sa-huyn and Kalanay pottery complex:

Metal arrow/spear heads and elaborately designed bladed weapon resembling its
pattern with the Naga serpent very widespread in Southeast Asia.

Repeated rosettes and palmettes pattern with crocodile head handle.

This timeline, however selected and brief, celebrates the long vibrant history of
Filipino culture and society before the colonizers came to plunder and coerced their

culture among the colonized during the early 16th century for three hundred more
years. This era, according to pessimists, is known as the beginning of the end but
postcolonial theorists argued that cultural evolution continued to expand amidst
unceasing strife to decolonize.

Stone Age (c. 50,000 - c. 500 BC)[edit]

The first evidence of the systematic use of Stone Age technology in the Philippines is
estimated to 50,000 BC,[1] and this phase in the development of proto-Philippine societies is
considered to end with the rise of metal tools in about 500 BC, albeit with stone tools still
used past that date.[2] Filipino anthropologist F. Landa Jocano refers to the earliest
noticeable stage in the development of proto-Philippine societies as the Formative Phase.
[3]

He also identified stone tools and ceramic manufacture as the two core industries that

defined the period's economic activity, and which shaped the means by which early Filipinos
adapted to their environment during this period. [1]
By about 30,000 BC, the Negritos, who became the ancestors of today's aboriginal Filipinos
(such as the Aeta), probably lived in the archipelago. No evidence has survived which
would indicate details of ancient Filipino life such as their crops, culture, and architecture.
Historian William Henry Scott noted any theory which describes such details for the period
must be pure hypothesis, and thus be honestly presented as such. [4]

Callao Man (c. 67,000 BC)[edit]

Main article: Callao Man
The earliest known human remains in the Philippines are the fossilised remains discovered
in 2007 in the Callao Caves in Cagayan. The 67,000-year-old find predates the 47,000year-old Tabon Man, which was until then the earliest known set of human remains in the
archipelago. The find consisted of a single 61 millimeter metatarsal which, when dated
using uranium series ablation, was found to be its current age. If definitively proven to be
remains of Homo sapiens, it would also be one of the oldest human remains in the AsiaPacific.[5][6][7][8]

Tabon Man (c. 24000 or 22,000 BC)[edit]

Main article: Tabon Man
Fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals had been discovered on
May 28, 1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of theNational Museum.
[9]

These fragments are collectively called "Tabon Man" after the place where they were

found on the west coast of Palawan. Tabon Cave appears to be a kind of a Stone
Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at
four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking
fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000, 20,000, and 22,000 BC.
[10]

(In Mindanao, the existence and importance of these prehistoric tools was noted by

famed Jos Rizal himself, because of his acquaintance with Spanish and German scientific
archaeologists in the 1880s, while in Europe. [citation needed])
Tabon Cave is named after the "Tabon bird" (Tabon scrubfowl, Megapodius cumingii), which
deposited thick hard layers of guano during the period when the cave was still uninhabited,
resulting to a cement-like floor made of bird dung where three succeeding groups of toolmakers settled. It is indicated that about half of the 3,000 specimens recovered from the
cave are discarded cores of a material which had to be transported from some distance.
The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from the third group of inhabitants who
inhabited the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BC. An earlier cave level lies so far below
the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper
Pleistocene dates from 45 or 50 thousand years ago.[10]
Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap have agreed that it
belonged to a modern man, homo sapiens, as distinguished from the midPleistocene Homo erectus species. This indicates that Tabon Man was PreMongoloid (Mongoloid being the term anthropologists apply to the racial stock which
entered Southeast Asia during the Holocene and absorbed earlier peoples to produce the
modern Malay, Indonesian, Filipino, and "Pacific" peoples). Two experts have given the
opinion that the mandible is "Australian" in physical type, and that the skullcap
measurements are most nearly like the Ainus or Tasmanians. Nothing can be concluded
about Tabon man's physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he
was not a Negrito.[11]

The custom of Jar Burial, which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos,
to Japan, also was practiced in the Tabon caves. A spectacular example of a secondary
burial jar is owned by the National Museum, a National Treasure, with a jar lid topped with
two figures, one the deceased, arms crossed, hands touching the shoulders, the other a
steersman, both seated in a proa, with only the mast missing from the piece. Secondary
burial was practiced across all the islands of the Philippines during this period, with the
bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels were recovered
from the Manunggul cave,Palawan, specifically for burial.