Domestic Electrical Installation PDF

Prepared and com piled by M ichael H am m erl
Training Module
on
Domestic Electrical
Installation
Table of Contents
1.
2.
Safety at the workplace ................................................................................................................ 1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 2
2.1
Electrical effects...................................................................................................................2
2.2
Heating effect .......................................................................................................................2
2.3
Lighting effect......................................................................................................................3
2.4
Magnetic effect ....................................................................................................................4
3. Electricity..................................................................................................................................... 5
4. Circuits and circuit diagrams ....................................................................................................... 6
4.1
Electromagnetic Force (E.m.f.) and Potential Difference (p.d) ...........................................6
4.2
Conductors and cables .........................................................................................................7
4.3
Loads ....................................................................................................................................8
4.4
Control .................................................................................................................................8
4.5
Protection .............................................................................................................................9
4.6
Resistors .............................................................................................................................10
4.7
Basic terms.........................................................................................................................10
5. Ohms Law................................................................................................................................. 11
6. Kirchhoffs Law......................................................................................................................... 12
7. Resistors in series and in parallel circuits .................................................................................. 15
8. Waveforms ................................................................................................................................. 18
8.1
Properties of waveforms ....................................................................................................19
8.2.1
Frequency..................................................................................................................19
8.2.2
Period ........................................................................................................................19
8.2.3
Amplitude...................................................................................................................19
8.2.4
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.) ........................................................................................20
9. Decimal Units ............................................................................................................................ 21
10. Measuring Technology .............................................................................................................. 22
10.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................22
10.2 Accuracy of the instrument ................................................................................................22
10.3 Accuracy of your measurement .........................................................................................22
11. Meters ........................................................................................................................................ 22
11.1 Analogue meters ................................................................................................................23
11.1.1
Moving-coil meters ...................................................................................................23
11.1.2
Moving-iron meters...................................................................................................24
11.2 Digital meters .....................................................................................................................25
11.3 Multimeters ........................................................................................................................25
11.4 Measuring current ..............................................................................................................28
11.5 Measuring voltage..............................................................................................................28
11.6 Measuring resistance..........................................................................................................29
11.7 Symbols used for measuring-equipment scales .................................................................30
12. Domestic installation ................................................................................................................. 31
14. Symbols used for domestic installation ..................................................................................... 32
14. Reading construction plans ........................................................................................................ 37
15. Reading architectural diagrams.................................................................................................. 41
16. Installation materials and components....................................................................................... 44
16.1 Solid cable and wires .........................................................................................................44
16.2 Current carrying capacity of wires.....................................................................................45
16.3 Colour codes for wires .......................................................................................................46
16.4 Terminating of wires ..........................................................................................................47
16.5 Connecting a cable to a plug ..............................................................................................51
16.6 Connecting cables to a branching box ...............................................................................52
16.7 Soldering of wires to a terminal.........................................................................................53

16.8 Forming eyelets to single strand wires...............................................................................54
16.9 Termination of coaxial cables ............................................................................................56
16.10
Installing cables and conduits ........................................................................................57
16.11
Portable electric drill utilisation.....................................................................................61
17. Domestic electrical installation.................................................................................................. 66
17.1 Types of circuit diagrams...................................................................................................67
17.1.1
Connection plan ........................................................................................................67
17.1.2
Schematic diagram ....................................................................................................67
17.1.3
Installation diagram...................................................................................................68
17.2 Mains connection ...............................................................................................................68
17.3 Protective conductor connection........................................................................................68
17.4 The plan for an installation ................................................................................................69
14.4.1
Perspective view .......................................................................................................69
17.4.2
The ground plan ........................................................................................................69
17.4.3
The installation plan..................................................................................................70
17.4.4
Fuses..........................................................................................................................70
18. Circuit diagrams......................................................................................................................... 71
18.1 One pole ON / Off circuit ..................................................................................................71
18.2 Two pole ON / Off circuit..................................................................................................72
18.3 Group switching.................................................................................................................73
18.4 Serial circuit .......................................................................................................................74
18.5 Change-over circuit............................................................................................................75
18.6 Intermediate circuit ............................................................................................................76
18.7 Impulse switching ..............................................................................................................77
18.8 Stairway illumination.........................................................................................................80
18.9 House siganl installation ....................................................................................................82
18.10
Fluorescent lamp ............................................................................................................85
18.11
Stroboscopic effect.........................................................................................................87
1.
Safety at the workplace

The workplace occupies a lot of your daily time, so that should be the reason to arrange it in
a way, that the work can be done relaxed and efficient.
The whole workplace with its tools, materials and equipment also has to be arranged in such
a way that accidents are impossible to happen
Damaged tools must not be used
Tools must only be used for the purpose they are made for
Do not give access to your workshop to persons who are not aware of electrical hazards
Keep your workplace always clean and in order
To avoid electrical hazards, the floor under your workplace has to be insulated
Chemicals, which can affect the health of human beings, or can cause any damage to tools,
material and equipment and installations, have to be stored in a locked compartment.
Good light is always essential to perform good fine mechanical work
It is strictly forbidden to work with any

electrical part while it is live!
Therefore are some laid down regulations to guarantee this.
These regulations are known as the five rules of safety
1. Switch off the voltage
2. Ensure that the voltage is not switched on while working
3. Ensure that there is no voltage
*****Confirm by measurement****
4. Earth and short circuit
5. Cover all neighbouring parts
Begin to work
Courage does not consist of knowingly and heedlessly exposing

oneself to danger by ignoring the rules of safety. Courage consists of
sticking to ones principles in the face of derision form ones
colleagues.
Page 1 of 87
2.
Introduction
We usually recognise electricity by the way it changes material and objects in the world around us.
Electricity is, after all, invisible and silent. Before you can begin study electronics you need to
know about electricity. And in studying electricity, we must begin by considering what it does to
other things.
2.1
Electrical effects
You can see, hear or even measure electricity directly, but it can be detected by the way it affects
matter. Electricity interacts in five important ways:
Produce heat
Produce light
Affect chemical reactions
Cause and be caused by magnetism
Have a mechanical effect
2.2
Heating effect
One of the most important physical effects caused by electric current is heat. The heating effect of
an electric current is used in many items of electrical equipment cookers, electric heaters and
lamps for example and it is something that must be considered when designing and electrical
apparatus. Without considering how it works at this stage, let us consider a source of electrical
energy. It might be a battery, or a special laboratory power supply. If this is connected to an electric
lamp, as shown in Figure 1, electrical current will flow through the lamp.
Figure 1: A simple circuit with circuit diagram
After a minute or so, carefully feel the envelope of the lamp. It will be warm, perhaps even hot. If is
not to bright, look closely at the filament inside the lamp. What makes it light up?
The answer is that the filament is glowing white-hot. The envelope of the lamp is filled with an
inert gas, usually argon, to prevent the filament from burning up in an instant. The lamp lights only
when both wires are connected to the power supply. Electric current must be able to flow from the
power supply, through the lamp, and back to the power supply. As the electric current flows round
in a circle, we call this an electrical circuit.
Page 2 of 87
Figure 2 shows a battery converting electricity into heat. Heat is dissipated by a component called a
resistor; see below for an explanation of this component.
A power supply capable of providing at least 0.5 amps should be used. The resistor will get too hot
to the touch after a short time.
Figure 2:A simple circuit like this will dissipate heat
2.3
Lighting effect
Electric current can be used to produce light. In the section above, we saw how a lamp filament can
be heated to such high temperature that it glows white-hot and gives off light. But this is not direct
conversion of electrical energy into light. Only recently has light without heat become reality. It
can be demonstrated very easily using a light emitting diode or LED.
Figure 3 shows a circuit with suitable values for the components. When the power supply is
connected the LED will light up (observe polarity of the LED prior to connection). The light
produced by the LED is a result of electrical energy being converted directly into light. Nothing has
to heat up to produce the light.
Figure 3: A light emitting diode (LED) in a simple circuit
Page 3 of 87
2.4
Magnetic effect
Perhaps the most widely exploited effect is the magnetic effect of an electric current. This is used in
all sorts of devices, electric motors to loud speakers. Whenever en electric current flows along a
conductor, such as a wire, it is accompanied by a magnetic field. The simple apparatus shown in
Figure 4 can demonstrate this. When the leads are connected to the battery a current flows through
the circuit. The bulb is included in the circuit for two reasons: first, to indicate that the current is
flowing; second, to limit the current to a safe level.
Figure 4: Magnetism: The magnetic effect of an electric current
Figure 5 shows a closer view of the compass.
Figure 5: A close-up view of the wire and compass alignment
Make sure that there are no large metal objects close to the compass. With the current off, the
compass needle should align itself along the north-south axis of the globe. Carefully placed the wire
so that it lies exactly along the line of the needle, electrical wires are made of non-magnetic metals,
so the needles position will not be affected. Now connect the wires to the battery. The lamp will
light, and the needle will be deflected. Without disturbing the compass or the wire placed across it,
reverses the battery connections (change polarity). How does the behaviour of the needle differ
from the way it behaved in the first demonstration?
It is clear from this simple demonstration that where
there is a flow of current, there is also magnetism.
Page 4 of 87
3.
Electricity
What is electricity? This seems to be a good question with which to begin. To answer this question,
we have to look at the composition of matter. All matter is, as we know made up of atoms, but it is
far from simple to describe an individual atom. From a study of physics, any student will know that
atoms are made up of nucleus, around which orbit electrons. But nobody really knows what an
atom looks like, as the largest atom is far too small to see even with the most powerful microscope.
So physicists design models of atoms to help them to explain atomic behaviour.
Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist, proposed one of the simplest and most straightforward models of
the atom in 1913. It is Bohrs model that we most often think of, with its tiny electrons in orbit
around the heavy nucleus. A Bohr atom model is illustrated in Figure 6
Figure 6: A model of an atom, according to Bohr's theory
The electrons are confined to orbits at fixed distances from the nucleus, each orbit corresponding to
a specific amount of energy possessed by the electrons in it. If an electron gains or loses the right
amount of energy, it can jump to the next orbit away from the nucleus, or towards it. Electrons in
the outmost orbits are held to the nucleus rather more weakly than those nearer the middle, and can
under certain circumstances be detached from the atom. Once detached, such electrons are called
free electrons.
It is important to realise that gain or loss of electrons does not in any way change the substance of
the atom. The nucleus is unchanged, with the same number and kind of particles in it, and so an
atom of say, copper can loss or gain electrons and still remain copper.
Each electron carries one unit of negative electric charge. In a normal atom, the charges on the
electrons are exactly balanced by the charge on the nucleus. An atom of copper normally has 29
electrons in orbit around the nucleus. Each electron has one unit of negative electric charge, and the
nucleus has a total of 29 units of positive charge. If a copper atom loses an electron, the nucleus will
be unchanged. But still it has a total of 29 units of positive charge, and there are only 28 electrons
and thus 28 units of negative charge, the atom has overall, one unit of positive charge that is not
balanced by a corresponding negative charge. Such an atom is called a positive ion or cation.
Similarly, atoms can gain extra electrons. If a free electron meets a neutral atom, the electron may
go into the outer orbit around the nucleus. In this case, there will be one more negative charge than
needed for neutrality. Such an atom is called a negative ion or anion.
What is an electrical charge? The real answer is that it is impossible to say in words just what
electric charge is. It can be described mathematically, but this is not the same as describing it
physically. At least we have a very clear and detailed idea of how electricity behaves, and this
enables us to use it in all sorts of clever ways without actually needing an underlying understanding
of the nature of electricity and electric charge. When looking at the physics of electricity, it is wise
to remember that we are looking at models rather than real thing.
Page 5 of 87
4.
Circuits and circuit diagrams
A good place to begin is to take a simple electrical circuit, and then look at its constituent parts.
Figure 7 shows a simple battery and lamp circuit in two forms. In figure 7(a) it is shown as a
picture, and in Figure 7(b) it is shown as a circuit diagram. Like most circuits, this circuit can be
divided into basic parts: a source of energy, conductor of electricity, a load, a control device and a
protection device.
Figure 7: A simple circuit shown (a) as a picture and (b) as a diagram
4.1
Electromagnetic Force (E.m.f.) and Potential Difference (p.d)
In this circuit the source of energy is a battery. Therefore the battery is the source of electric power.
We could also use other sources of energy like a generator or a solar cell. The important feature is
the fact that between the terminals of the battery there exists a potential difference (p.d.). Potential
difference is measured in volts (V), named after the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who made
the first practical battery. A p.d. is simply a difference in total electrical charge. Electrochemical
reactions in the battery cause one terminal to contain many positive ions, and the other to contain
many negative ions.
The battery is a source of electromagnetic force (E.m.f.). Like p.d. it is measured in volts. There is
a subtle distinction between the two. E.m.f. is the p.d. of a source of electrical energy, such as a
battery. P.d., however, measures the difference in electrical potential between two points regardless
of whether or not they are a source of energy; for example, it is possible to measure the p.d. across
the terminals of an electric lamp, but nobody would suggest that the lamp is a source of electrical
energy. The E.m.f. of the battery in Figure 2.10 is 12 volts.
Page 6 of 87
4.2
Conductors and cables
A conductor is a material that allows electric current to flow through very easily. All metals are
good conductors, as are some other materials such as carbon. Almost all plastics are very poor
conductors insulators, in fact. An insulator is simply a material that is a bad conductor of
electricity. One of the best insulators is glass. Most ceramics are insulators, along with rubber, oil or
wax.
A flow of electric current through a conductor consists of free electrons moving from atom to atom
through the material. In order for there to be a useful amount of current, a very large number of
electrons must flow. Accordingly, the basic unit of electric current flow is equivalent to around
6.28 x 1018 electrons per second moving past a given point in the conductor.
This unit of electric current is called ampere (A), and is named after Andre Marie Ampere, a
French physicist who did important work on electricity and electromagnetism.
Figure 8: A cross-section through two parts of cable
Figure 8 illustrates a cross-section through two different types of electrical wires. Look first a
Figure 8(a). The wire consists of a central conductor that is surrounded by a flexible plastic
insulation. The conductor is most likely to be made of tin-plated copper. Copper is one of the best
conductors of electricity, only silver is better, and is also fairly flexible and relatively cheap. It is
tin-plated to prevent the copper from oxidising; copper oxide is a poor conductor of electricity,
which could give trouble if you used the cable with screw-type terminals. An oxidised surface is
also difficult to solder.
The insulation surrounding the conductor is usually made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), a flexible
plastic with excellent insulation properties and an extremely long life in normal use.
Figure 8(b) shows a typical cable used in house wiring. This cable has three cores, or conductors. A
second layer of insulation, the sheath, covers the three cores. The sheath not only provides
insulation, but also gives mechanical protection to the insulated cores inside.
Page 7 of 87
4.3
Loads
The load in the circuit in Figure 7 is a lamp. In an electric circuit, a load is any device that uses
electric power and dissipates energy. The lamp converts electrical energy into heat (and some light);
this energy, which comes in the first place from the battery leaves the circuit entirely.
A load in an electrical circuit can be one of a large range of devices: everything from an electric
motor, lamp or bell to a house, which might be the load in a circuit of a large generator, or even a
whole city.
4.4
Control
Almost every electrical device that uses power needs some form of control. Usually this takes the
form of a switch or circuit breaker, to interrupt the flow of electric current in the circuit.
Switches can be almost any size, according to the work they have to do. The circuit in Figure 7
requires only a small switch, as the amounts of current and voltage involved are quite small. Circuit
breakers used at power generating stations have to interrupt very large currents and voltages and are
sometimes the size of a small house.
Figure 9: (a) A low-voltage change over switch; (b) a modern slow-break micro gap mains switch
Figure 9 shows the mechanism of two typical switches. Figure 9(a) illustrates a low voltage change
over switch, designed for use in low-voltage electrical equipment. Switches are rated according to
their working voltage and current. This type of switch could interrupt currents up to 1A at voltages
up to 100V; it is useful for battery operated appliances, but not for mains applications.
Figure 9(b) shows a typical switch used in a house for controlling the lights in a room. It is intended
for use at voltages up to 250V and currents up to 3A.
Page 8 of 87
4.5
Protection
A car battery is also a source of considerable energy. Although the voltage is low enough to avoid
the risk of shock, the amount of current that the battery can deliver is substantial. If you were to
connect the two terminals of a car battery together with a wire, the wire would immediately melt or
burn. If you used a very heavy wire, the battery would explode. Either way, you would be in danger
of serious injury.
In the circuit of Figure 7 it should not be possible for this to happen. But accidents can always
occur, so in any electrical system that has the potential for dangerous currents or voltages,
protections devices are used. The simplest protection device is a fuse. A fuse simply consists of a
thin wire, often sealed in a glass or ceramic tube. A typical cartridge fuse of this type is illustrated
in Figure 10.
Figure 10: A typical cartridge fuse
The wire in the fuse is designed to carry a specific current before it begins to get hot and burn. For
the fuse in Figure 7 the current rating is 1A. If current much higher than 1A is passed through the
fuse, the thin wire inside gets so hot that it melts, breaking the circuit and interrupting the flow of
electric current.
So if something goes wrong with the lamp holder, causing the two terminals of the lamp to become
connected together shorted together is the usual technical expression - the fuse will prevent
damage to the wiring or to the battery by interrupting the current. Without the fuse, the wiring
might melt or the battery might overheat, causing fire.
Fuses are available in a range of values, and the circuit designer uses one that has a current-carrying
capacity that is just a little more than the highest current that is likely to flow in the circuit when it
is working properly.
The lamp itself can be a protection device of sorts. A lamp used in the circuit in Figure 1 to limit the
current. Normally, the amount of current that can flow is not enough to light the lamp, but in the
event of short-circuit (if the anode and cathode touch) the maximum current that can flow is limited
by the lamp. The lamp also lights up, indicating that there is something wrong.
Page 9 of 87
A disadvantage of a fuse is that, once it has blown, it is useless and has to be replaced. If a circuit
is often subject to fault conditions, this is inconvenient and expensive. In such circuits and over
current circuit breaker could be used. This is a device that interrupts the flow of current by
opening a switch when current increases above a certain level. Once the fault is corrected, the
circuit breaker can be reset by simply pressing a button. An over current circuit breaker is illustrated
in Figure 11.
Figure 11: Over current circuit breaker
4.6
Resistors
A resistor is a device, which is opposing electric current to flow, or in other words it is limiting the
current flow in an electric circuit. Any load is acting as a resistor the circuit in Figure 7 has a lamp
installed, this lamp is acting as a resistor and is limiting the actual current flow in the circuit.
4.7
Basic terms
Before starting with a scientific consideration of the electric circuit we have to agree on some basic
terminologies, which are use by the technicians worldwide.
Item
Current
Electric
charges
Voltage
Resistance
Resistor
Description
Current means the transport of electric
charge inside a conducting material
Electric charges are the free electrons
in a conducting material
The voltage is the potential difference
(p.d.) between two points
The resistance is that effect, which
opposes the current
A resistor is an electric component
with a defined resistance
Symbol
Unit
A = Ampere
C = Ampere x Second
V = Volt
= Ohm
Page 10 of 87
5.
Ohms Law
Having described the main components of a typical electric circuit, we can now begin to look at the
way in which the parts interact with each other. The E.m.f., current and electrical resistance of the
load are related in a simple mathematical way, and in the next section we shall look at what is
meant by resistance, and at the relationship of these three factors.
The flow of electric current through a circuit depends on two factors: the E.m.f. and the resistance
of the circuit. To get a visual picture of resistance it is convenient to think of the electric circuit as a
plumbing system. Figure 12 shows such a comparison
Figure 10: Plumbing analogy of an electric circuit: voltage, current and resistance all have their equivalents in the
water system
If the current flow is equivalent to a flow of water through a system, then the E.m.f. of the battery
(in volts) is equivalent to the water pressure in the top tank (in kilograms per square meter).
The flow of current (in amperes) in the circuit is equivalent to the flow of water in the pipe (in
litres per minute).
There is a restriction in the pipe that limits the flow. The amount of water that can flow out of the
end of the pipe depends on the size of the restriction. If it is very thin, only a trickle of water will
escape. In the electrical system, the equivalent of the restriction is a component called a resistor
(because it resists the flow of electric current). The resistor has a greater resistance to the flow of
current than the wires, just as the narrow part of the pipe resists the flow of water more than the
rest of the pipe. Without the resistor, a much larger current would flow in the circuit, just as more
water would flow out of an unrestricted pipe. But notice that the amount of water would still not be
unlimited; the pipe itself puts a limitation on the flow. It is the same in the electrical circuit, for the
wires and even the battery exhibit a certain amount of resistance that would, in the absence of
anything else, limit the current to some extent.
It is clear that, if the analogy holds good, there will be a relationship between pressure (E.m.f.),
flow (current) and the size of the restriction (resistance). For example, if the water pressure where
increased, you would expect a greater flow through the same restricted pipe.
The German physicist George Simon Ohm first discovered the relationship between current, voltage
and resistance in 1827. It is called Ohms Law.
Page 11 of 87
Ohms Law states that the current (I) flowing through an element in a circuit is directly proportional
to the p.d. (V) across it. Ohms Law is usually written in the form.
U=IxR
In words, this says that the voltage (in volts) equals the current (in amperes) times the resistance (in
ohms). The unit of resistance, the ohm (), is of course, named in honour of Ohms discovery.
From the formula above we can see that a p.d. of 1 Volt causes a current of 1 Ampere to flow
through a circuit element having the resistance of 1 Ohm.
Given any two of the three factors, we can find the other one. The formula can be rearranged as
follows:
I=
U
R
R=
U
I
Practical electrical and electronics engineers probably use this simple formula more than any other
calculation. Given a voltage, it is possible to arrange for a specific current to flow through a circuit
by including a suitable resistor in the circuit.
6.
Kirchhoffs Law
In the 1850s, the German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff formulated two more laws relating to
electric circuits. These laws, named after him, enable us to write down equations to represent the
circuits mathematically.
st
Kirchhoffs Laws
1 Law:
The sum of the currents flowing into any

junction in a circuit is always equal to the sum
of currents flowing away from it.
2nd Law:
The sum of potential difference in any closed

loop of a circuit equals the sum of the E.m.f. in
the loop.
Page 12 of 87
Let us begin by considering the first of Kirchhoffs laws. Figure 13 shows four wires; all carrying
current and all are connected together. This is the sort of situation that occurs in almost any piece of
electrical equipment. In Figure 13, there are two wires through which current flows into the junction
and two through which current flows away from it. Adding together the currents flowing in, we
shall get exactly the same values as we shall get for current flowing out.
For Figure 13 this can be written as an equation.
I1 + I 2 = I 3 + I 4
Figure 11: The junction between four current carrying wires
Figure 14 shows a three-wire connection, in which one wire carries current into the junction and
two carry current away. The equation for this junction is.
I1 = I2 + I3
Figure 12: The junction between three current carrying wires
What Kirchhoff is saying is rather simple and obvious: current has to come form somewhere, and it
has to go somewhere, it cannot just disappear.
Page 13 of 87
Now for the second of Kirchhoffs laws. Figure 15 shows a simple circuit consisting of a source of
E.m.f. and two resistors. The source of E.m.f. is a 12V battery and the resistors have values of 47
and 56. We can use Ohms law to determine the total current flowing in the circuit.
Figure 13: A simple circuit containing two resistors
I=
U
R
I=
12V
47 + 56
I=
12V
103
I = 0.1165A
We can use Ohms Law again to calculate the p.d. across each resistor.
U1 = I R
U1 = 0.1165A 47
U1 = 5.476V
U2 = I R
U2 = 0.1165A 56
U2 = 6.524V
The sum of the p.d across the resistors is
Utot = U1 + U2
Utot = 5.476V + 6.524V
Utot = 12V
which is just what Kirchhoffs second law predicts.
Page 14 of 87
7.
Resistors in series and in parallel circuits
It is possible to connect more than one load to a source of E.m.f., as we have seen above. Figure 16
shows two ways in which two loads, in the shape of resistors, can be connected to a battery. These
resistors have a resistance of 10 and 5.
Figure 14: Resistors (a) in series and (b) in parallel
In Figure 16(a) where current is flowing through one load it also flows through the other, the loads
are said to be connected in series.
In Figure 16(b) current flows through each load independently. The loads are said to be connected
in parallel.
How can we calculate the combined value of resistance, as seen by the battery? For resistive
loads connected in series, the values are simply added together.
The combined resistance, Rtot of the loads connected in
series is given by the simple formula
Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + .
(the dots mean that you can add as many numbers as you
like)
In Figure 16(a), this is Rtot = 10 + 5, therefore Rtot = 15 which is about as simple as you can
get.
Page 15 of 87
The second case, illustrated in Figure 16(b), is less easy to calculate.

The formula for working out a combined parallel
resistance is
1
1
1
1
= +
+
+ ......
Rtot R1 R2 R3
In case only two resistors connected in parallel have to be
calculated the following formula can be applied.
Rtot =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
This means that the reciprocals of the values of the resistances, added together, give the reciprocal
of the answer. Working this out for Figure 16(b) we get.
1
1
1
=
+
Rtot 10 5
1
= 0.1 + 0.2
Rtot
1
= 0.3 Rtot = 3.33
Rtot
Utilizing the other formula should provide us with the same result
Rtot =
10 5
10 + 5
Rtot =
50
15
Rtot = 3.33
The combined resistance of the 10 resistor and 5 resistor, connected in parallel, is 3.3.
Page 16 of 87
Calculate the total resistance (Rtot) as it is seen by the source of E.m.f. for the circuits given
below.
Rtot =
Rtot =
Rtot =
Rtot =
Page 17 of 87
8.
Waveforms
So far the description of current has involved a flow of charge in one direction only. This is called
Direct Current (DC) and is the current, which is caused to flow when a battery is connected across
any device. A DC waveform, as shown in Figure 17 must have the same constant direction, even
though its value from one second to the next might vary.
Figure 15: A DC waveform
An Alternating Current (AC) is one that is continually changing its direction. The simplest AC
waveform is that of a sine wave, and as can be seen in Figure 18 both the magnitude of the current
and its direction changes repeatedly, going from zero to a maximum positive value, falling back to
zero again before going to a maximum negative value, and then returning to zero to complete the
cycle.
Like DC, the flow of AC is due to the presence of an E.m.f. or p.d. However, in this case it must be
an alternating E.m.f. or p.d. For all ohmic conductors, i.e. conductors obeying Ohms Law, an
alternating E.m.f. causes the flow of an alternating current with a waveform similar to the of the
e.m.f. as shown in Figure 18.
Figure 16: An AC current and voltage waveform
Page 18 of 87
8.1
Properties of waveforms
Properties of a waveform associated with all alternating waveforms ore the frequency, period and
amplitude or peak value.
Figure 17: Properties of a waveform
8.2.1
Frequency
This is the number of cycles of the waveform occurring each second. Frequency is measured in
hertz (Hz), one hertz being defined as one cycle per second. A thousand cycles per second is called
a kilohertz (kHz) and a million cycles per second, a megahertz (MHz). One thousand megahertz is
called gigahertz (GHz).
8.2.2
Period
This is the time for one cycle of the waveform, measured in units of a second (s), millisecond (ms),
or microsecond (s). The period is simply the inverse of the frequency.
Periode =
8.2.3
1
Frequency
Frequency =
1
Period
Amplitude
This is the peak value of the waveform. It measures from zero to the maximum positive to the
maximum negative value of the alternating voltage or current. The amplitude is therefore measured
in the same unit as the magnitude of the waveform. The peak-to peak value measures from the
positive maximum to the negative maximum and is therefore twice the amplitude.
Page 19 of 87
8.2.4
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.)
This is the average for an alternating voltage or current, defined as that steady D.C., which would
produce the same heating effect. For the sine wave shown in Figure 19, the r.m.s. value is given by
r.m.s. current =
peak current
2
= peak current 0.707
Similarly,
r.m.s. voltage =
peak voltage
2
= peak voltage 0.707
The mains supply is an alternating voltage of r.m.s. average of 240V, a peak value of 339V and a
frequency of 50 Hz. Thus the peak value of the mains is approximately 100V greater than the
average and as a result constitutes a serious safety hazard.
Figure 20 shows again the values of a sine wave with the r.m.s. indicated.
Figure 18: Values of a waveform
Page 20 of 87
9.
Decimal Units
For some applications in electrical engineering and for most applications in electronic engineering,
the ampere and volt are rather large units. The ohm, by contrast, is rather a small unit of resistance.
It is normal for these three units to be used in conjunction with the usual SI (System International
dUnites) prefixes to make multiplications and submultiples of the basic units. A chart of the units
is given below.
Prefix
Tera
Giga
Mega
Kilo
Milli
Micro
Nono
Pico
Femto
Symbol
T
G
M
k
m
n
P
f
Meaning
x 1012
x 109
x 106
x 103
x 10-3
x 10-6
x 10-9
x 10-12
x 10-15
When working out Ohms Law calculations, it is vital that you

remember to work in the right units. You cannot mix volt, kiloohm and milli amperes!!!!
Calculate the following equations:
R=
I=
10V
=
50mA
15V
=
3 k
U = 150M 500mA =
Page 21 of 87
10. Measuring Technology

10.1 Introduction
Electricity cannot be measured directly, but only its effects. The effects are manifold, and therefore
also the measuring techniques. All measuring techniques have in common, that they need some
energy (except mechanical measurements). This energy has to be delivered from the circuit where
the measurement takes place. Consequently, the energy, which is necessary to feed the measuring
instrument, has to be as small as possible. The measuring process should not have any influence on
the function of the circuit, which undergoes a measurement. High demand on accuracy and / or little
available energy requires often special measuring procedures and expensive measuring equipment.
All measuring equipment, no matter if it is a ruler, a calliper, a

multimeter or an oscilloscope, have to be handled carefully to retain
its accuracy
10.2 Accuracy of the instrument
No item of test equipment is 100 % accurate. A test meter may well have a basic accuracy of
10%. Meters that have a basic accuracy as good as 2% are likely to be very expensive.
Fortunately, practical electrical and electronic circuit seldom call for very accurate measurements.
10.3 Accuracy of your measurement
It is a basic law of physics that you cannot measure something without affecting it in some way. It
is worth remembering this. For example, if you put a meter designed to measure current into a
circuit, then the presence of the meter itself will affect the current flowing. Whether it affects the
measurement significantly depends on the design of the meter and on what you are trying to
measure with it.
11. Meters
Today, both analogue and digital meters are available, and both are in common use. The earliest
measuring instruments were analogue in nature, and we shall begin looking at this type.
An analogue meter uses a pointer, needle or other indicator to point to a scale that is calibrated in
volts, amps etc. The dictionary definition of the word analogue is the movement of the pointer of
an analogue meter moves in sympathy with the quantity being measured. The larger the quantity,
the further along the scale the pointer moves.
Page 22 of 87
11.1 Analogue meters

11.1.1
Moving-coil meters
Most analogue meters use movements (the movement is the mechanism that moves the pointer)
that are based on magnetism. Figure 21 shows the most common design, the moving-coil
movement.
The principle is simple. The coil and meter pointer are mounted on bearings (often jewelled, like a
watch) so that the coil can rotate. Two small hairsprings, like the balance of a clockwork watch,
resist the rotation and normally hold the coil in a fixed position, with the pointer at one end of the
scale. The coil is located in a strong and constant magnetic field, that of a permanent magnet.
Figure 19: A moving-coil meter
When a current is passed through the coil, a magnetic field is created by electromagnetism. The
orientation of the filed is such that it rotates the coil against the springs. The amount that it moves
depends upon the strength of the electromagnetic filed, which in turn depends upon the amount of
current flowing through the coil. It is convenient to use the hairsprings themselves to carry the
current to the coil.
Moving-coil meters are made in many shapes and sizes, according to the application. Electrically,
they are specified according to three main parameters: Coil resistance, sensitivity and accuracy.
The coil resistance is just what it sounds like: the electrical resistance of the moving coil, in ohms.
This can be any value form just a few ohms to several kilo ohms.
The sensitivity of a meter is often quoted as the full-scale deflection, or FSD for short. It is
measured in amps (or more often in milliamps or micro amps), and is the amount of current that has
to flow through the meter coil to make the pointer move to the far end of its scale.
Another useful measure of sensitivity which includes the resistance of the coil (FSD does not) is
given by
S=
RM
VFSD
Here RM is the resistance of the meter movement coil, and VFSD is the voltage required to produce
full-scale deflection. The sensitivity, S, is given in ohms per volt. This parameter may also be
quoted by the manufacturers.
The accuracy of the meter is given as a percentage tolerance, in just the same way that a
component such as a resistor has a tolerance value.
A meter with a sensitivity of 1 mA and an accuracy of 20 % is a meter that will give a full-scale
deflection of its pointer for a current ranging from about 800A to 1,2 mA. This does not mean that
the meter will vary by that amount from time to time, just that the meter may depart from its
specification by 20 %.
Page 23 of 87
The repeatability, a fourth parameter, of measurements will be much better than this, and is related
to the mechanical construction of the meter: the quality of the bearings, for example.
Moving-coil meters are not cheap and tend to be used only when there is no effective solid-state
substitute, such as indicator lights. A low-cost moving-coil meter might have an accuracy of 20%;
the best and most expensive models will have an accuracy of better than 1 %.
11.1.2
Moving-iron meters
An alternative to the moving-coil meter movement, cheaper to make but less accurate, is the
moving-iron meter movement. The basic construction of a moving-iron meter is shown in Figure
22. This shows more the common repulsion moving-iron meter, based on the fact that two pieces
of soft iron a repelled and move away form each other if they are magnetised so that they have the
same polarity (either north or south). There is another design; called an attraction moving-iron
meter, but most manufacturers use repulsion movements.
Figure 20: Repulsion-type moving-iron meter
When a current flows through the coil, a magnetic filed is created by the solenoid and both soft iron
rods become magnetised. Clearly, they will both be magnetised in the same direction, so they will
repel each other and move the pointer along the scale, against the controlling spring. The more
current flows through the coil, the more powerful will be the repulsion and the further along the
scale the pointer will move.
All moving-coil meter movements are effectively damped that is, prevented from swinging too
rapidly by magnetic effects. This damping is not present in moving-iron meters to the same
extent, so some kind of extra damping, usually a simple air brake, is needed. The air resistance of a
small vane in the air-damping chamber (Figure 22) prevents the pointer from moving to rapidly
along the scale, but does not introduce any long-term effects.
An important difference between the moving-coil meter and the moving-iron meter is that the
moving-coil meter involves a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and the moving-iron
meter does not. This means that the moving-iron meter can be designed for use with AC or DC
whereas moving-coil meters will work with DC only.
Page 24 of 87
11.2 Digital meters

Modern electronic has come up with an alternative to the analogue meter, in the form of the digital
meter. A digital meter is a complex piece of electronics, and it displays a value in the form of
numbers instead of having a pointer moving along a calibrated scale. Digital meters have many
advantages compared with analogue meters and a few disadvantages.
Advantages:
Easy to read: the output is in form of a number and it is not necessary to look carefully at a scale
to determine an exact value
More accurate: price for price, digital meters can be made more accurate than their analogue
counterparts.
Stronger: the digital meter has no meter movement that can be damaged by hard knocks
Smaller: the most accurate digital meter still only needs a few numbers for the display, whereas
an accurate analogue meter needs a large scale so that you can read fine divisions
Disadvantages
Suitable only for constant values. When a current or voltage is steadily changing an analogue
meter will track the changes. A digital display will be an unreadable blur of numbers
Require a power source: the electronics in a digital meter needs a power source, usually a
battery to function
Sometimes misleading: the display may show a value to three decimal places of a value, but the
meter may be far less accurate than it seems.
11.3 Multimeters
The multimeter is one of the most useful items of test equipment that an electrical or electronics
engineer can have. Basically, it is a sensitive meter movement, fitted with a whole array of shunts1
and series resistors that can be selected by means of one or more multipurpose switches.
The range and function controls are made as convenient as possible for ease of use. A good
multimeter might have the functions and ranges listed in the table bellow. Multimeters from
different manufactures will have rather different ranges, but the table gives a good idea of what is
average in a good-quality instrument
In general a synonym for parallel. A resistor, usually of a relatively low value, that is connected in parallel with a
measuring instrument. Only a friction of the current in the main circuit passes through the instrument so that the shunt
increases the range of the instrument.
Page 25 of 87
DC Voltage
0 0.1V
0 1V
0 - 10V
0 100V
0 1000V
DC Current
0 - 100A
0 1mA
0 10mA
0 100mA
0 500mA
0 10A
Resistance
0 - 100
0 1k
0 100k
0 10M
AC Voltage
0 0.1V
0 1V
0 - 10V
0 100V
0 1000V
AC Current
0 - 100A
0 1mA
0 10mA
0 100mA
0 500mA
0 10A
The input resistance is a factor that is independent of the ranges available, it is the measure of the
sensitivity of the meter. A sensitivity of 20 K per volt is typical for the best analogue instruments.
Clearly, all else being equal, a meter that loads any p.d. under measurement the least (by putting
across the highest possible resistance) is the best. A meter of high sensitivity will also present the
lowest resistance when measuring current.
The table includes a range for the measurement of resistance. This is a simple function of a
multimeter, using Ohms Law. The multimeter is fitted with a low-voltage source of e.m.f., usually
a small battery. To measure resistance, the source of e.m.f. is connected across the resistance to be
measured, and the resulting current can be read on the meter scale directly in ohms. The better the
meter are equipped with a means of stabilising the battery voltage, for accurate resistance reading.
Page 26 of 87
A selection of different Digital Multimeters
A selection of different Analogue Multimeters
Page 27 of 87
11.4 Measuring current
Current is measured using either an ammeter or a multimeter and is measured in amp, milli amps
or micro amps. The way in which current is the same, regardless of which meter is used.
The circuit is broken at the point where the current measurement is required and the meter is
connected in series with the other components of the circuit as shown in Figure 23. Note that
the positive terminal is connected to the positive side of the circuit and the negative terminal is
connected to the negative side.
Figure 21: Measuring current
11.5 Measuring voltage

In electronics most voltage measurement is in fact a measure of the difference in voltage between
two regions of a circuit. This is called the potential difference or p.d., as discussed earlier, and is
measured in volts. Potential is measured with the respect to zero, ground or the negative side of the
circuit.
To measure a voltage or a p.d. the voltmeter is connected across, in parallel with , the
component, as shown in Figure 24. Note that the negative side of the meter is connected to the
negative side of the component and the positive side of the meter to the positive of the component.
Figure 22: Measuring voltage
Page 28 of 87
11.6 Measuring resistance

Resistance is the opposition presented by the component to the flow of current. It is measured in
ohms and is usually measured using a multimeter.
To measure resistance, the meter is first switched to the highest ohm range. It is zeroed by touching
the two leads together and turning the zero adjusts of the meter until the pointer is on zero.
N.B. This only applies for analogue meters and not for digital meters
The component is connected between the leads and the position of the pointer noted. If the pointer
is not approximately in the middle of the scale then the range should be changed to bring the pointer
in to the middle. It is important to zero on the new range before reading the scale. The resistance is
the scale reading multiplied by the range setting.
A meter set to measure resistance should never be connected across a

component in which
which a current is flowing.
Page 29 of 87
11.7 Symbols used for measuring-equipment scales

Symbol
Description
Moving-coil measuring
mechanism
Moving-coil ratio meter
Moving-magnet measuring
mechanism
Moving-iron measuring
mechanism
Symbol
Description
Measuring mechanism with
magnetic screen
Measuring mechanism with
electrostatic screen
A static measuring mechanism
D.C. instrument
Electrodynamic measuring
mechanism
A.C. instrument
Iron-cored electrodynamic
mechanism
D.C and A.C. instrument
Electrcodynamic ratio
measuring mechanism
Iron-cored electrodynamic ratio
measuring mechanism
Induction measuring mechanism
Bimetallic measuring
mechanism
Electrostatic measuring
mechanism
Vibration measuring mechanism
Thermocouple, general
mechanism with thermocouple
Insulated thermocouple
Rectifier
mechanism with rectifier
Three-phase A.C. instrument

with 1 measuring mechanism
Vertical mounting position
Horizontal mounting position
Inclined mounting position, with
indication of angle of inclination
Zero resetting devices
Test-voltage symbol
The number in the star indicates the test voltage
in kV
(Star without figures: 500V test voltage
Warning (consult operating

instructions)
Instrument does not comply
with regulations with regard to
test voltage
Page 30 of 87
12. Domestic installation

Electrical energy is the most important modern form of energy, owing to its many advantages.
It is not environmentally harmful in use

It can be transmitted economically
It is readily convertible to other forms of energy
Large amount of energy can easily be controlled and regulated
It is clear, that electrical energy is also very convenient for domestic use. That is the reason, that
like in any other fields of technology, a standard of technical requirement has been developed.
Responsible for the distribution of electricity is the local supply authority. This responsibility
usually ends with the delivery of electricity to a terminal at the object to be supplied.
This however does not mean, that everyone is permitted to carry out electrical house installations.
The local supplier usually has the right to decide upon qualifications of an electrician.
Consumer installations are connected to a low-voltage network via buried cables or overhead lines,
depending on the local conditions. The so-called private connection commences at the point where
the supply line branches off from the main cables.
Low-voltage supply means the provision of a voltage of 220/380V. This voltage is widely used as a
standardized alternating voltage with a frequency of 50Hz.
It is, however a voltage high enough to be fatal for any living creature when handled or installed in
the wrong way. Electric safety standards and regulations therefore always have the top priority at
electric house installations.
When planning a house installation, the transmission capacity (current carrying capacity) of the
cable to an installation has to be calculated. The data of those cables are standardized and available
form the supplier.
The terminal of the mains cable from the supplier of the electricity is a box (or cabinet) inside the
consumers premises. This box carries the power consumption meter (which is sealed by the
supplier), the mains fuse (or circuit breaker) plus the branch fuses.
The following important regulations apply to the installation of private connection boxes.
They must be installed only in locations with no fire hazards
Special enclosures must be used in damp rooms or outdoor locations.
An arc-proof base has to be used for installation on wood
The box has to be placed under a protective cover if inflammable material may fall on it.
The planning of electrical installations in residential accommodations must provide a sufficient
number of sockets and wall outlets for the connection of appliances.
Conductor diameters must be selected in accordance with the anticipated loads and adequate
numbers of circuits must be provided
The planning has to meet the requirements and regulations for the selection and dimensioning of the
installation materials
Besides the technical requirements, finally also minimizing the cost of a sufficient installation has
to be taken in consideration.
Page 31 of 87
14. Symbols used for domestic installation

Like in other filed of technology, also for domestic installations special symbols are used for
drawing of electric circuit diagrams. These symbols are usually standardized in a country, but they
are recommended only. Different symbols therefore may be found when studying different
literature.
Despite the differences which may be found, the circuit diagram has to be clear and being able to be
read without any mistakes.
Think about, a mistake in reading a circuit diagram for a domestic installation may
lead to fatal results.
Page 32 of 87
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Page 36 of 87
The above shown symbols are only a selection of many symbols used.
Several symbols can be combined in one symbol
Other fields of technologies have their own symbols, and a symbol used for domestic installation
e.g. may have in the fluid technique another design.
14. Reading construction plans
An architect usually designs the shape and construction of a house. He prepares the construction
plans, which provide the technical information required to build the house.
Masons and carpenters build the walls, floors, ceilings, doors, windows and the roof of a house. The
sanitary installations such as the water pipes, the sanitary fixtures and the sewage pipes are installed
by a plumber and the electrical installation providing illumination and electrical power is installed
by a building electrician.
As the electrical installation of a house is designed to suit its shape and construction, a building
electrician must be able to read and interpret those construction plans, which are used to prepare the
electrical installation plan.
To show the layout of the rooms, walls, doors and windows of a house, the architect prepares the
LAYOUT PLAN. The illustration below shows the principle of the layout plan by cutting the
house into two pieces and remove the upper half.
Page 37 of 87
For practical reasons the layout plan is drawn as seen from above, giving us two of the dimensions
required for the construction work. The length and the width.
The layout plan shows also the place of each room in the house
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Bedroom
Bathroom
Kitchen
Dining and living room
Entrance
Toilet
Storeroom
Corridor
Page 38 of 87
The detailed measurement of the building and its rooms, walls, doors and windows are provided by
the MASUREMENT PLAN. Using the metric system, the measurement should be given in
centimetres (cm)
Page 39 of 87
These illustrations show in a pictorial way the

example of an electrical installation for a
single room. The main components of this
installation are:
One light fixture to provide lighting in the
room
Two installation switches to switch the
light on and off from two different
positions
Three socket outlets to provide electrical
energy to various electrical appliances
Connecting lines, joining the various parts
of the installation with each other
A branching box for the interconnection
of some of the cables
The arrow shows the electrical supply to
the installation
For practical reasons, the plan of an electrical

installation is drawn on the layout plan of the
respective construction. It is called the
ARCITECTURAL DIAGRAM. It shows
the electrical installation as seen from above.
To avoid any confusion when reading
architectural diagrams the doors have been
omitted from the layout plans
Page 40 of 87
15. Reading architectural diagrams

If you could lift out the complete electrical installations of a dwelling with eight rooms it would
look similar to the illustration below. The electrical installation of each of the rooms is similar to the
one shown earlier. Electricity is supplied to each room by supply lines. One end of each supply line
is connected to a distribution centre and the other end is connected to a branching box in the room.
In most electrical installations several rooms are connected to one supply line. In this particular case
three supply lines are used for eight rooms, each of them supplying electricity to two or three
rooms.
The electrical supply to the distribution centre is provided by a SERVICE CABEL, WHICH is
connected to the distribution centre via a HOUSE CONNECTION BOX and an ELECTRIC
METER.
As the incoming electrical supply and each of the outgoing supply lines are separately fused in the
distribution centre, they are called the INCOMING and OUGOING CIRUITS. The above
distribution centre has one incoming and three outgoing circuits.
Page 41 of 87
In the following architectural diagram of the electrical installation gives the following information:
It shows the layout of the installation
It shows the various circuits of the installation
It shows the position of each component and gives the required measurements
It shows the path to which the electrical lines have to be installed between the various
components
It shows the method in which the installation is installed. In this case the components and
connecting lines are installed on the surface of the walls and the ceilings. It is therefore called an
ON SURFACE INSTALLATION.
It shows the various components of the installation, e.g. switches, socket outlets, light fixtures
and specific
Page 42 of 87
In the following architectural diagram the components and the connecting lines are installed in the
surface or flush to the surface of the walls and ceilings. It is therefore called an IN-SUFACE or
FLUSH MOUNTED installations.
Can you identify all the symbols used in the diagram and can you spot the symbol denoting the
flush installation of the components and connection lines
In this illustration the door of the room is shown as well as

the direction in which the door opens, thus it is important to
install the switch at the right place to enable the dwellers of
the house to switch on the light when they enter the room.
Door
Page 43 of 87
16.
Installation materials and components
16.1 Solid cable and wires

This illustration shows a simple electrical
installation. An electric lamp is connected to a
switch via a branching box. These components
are interconnected with INSULATED WIRES.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lamp
Switch
Branching box
Insulated wires
The wires used in the above electrical installation consist of a CORE, which conducts electricity,
and of an INSULATION COVER, WHICH does not conduct electricity.
1. Core
2. Insulation
The core of an insulated wire for general electrical installation work is mostly made of cooper and
in some cases of aluminium. Both of these materials are GOOD ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTORS. The insulation is mostly made of plastic material such as PVC or rubber. These
materials are GOOD INSULATORS.
Page 44 of 87
There are also insulated wires with a core

consisting of a few strands of wire. This type of
wire is called multi-strand wire. It is also used
for stationary installations. However it is easier
to work with as it has a certain degree of
flexibility.
Multi-strand wires with a core consisting of

many fine strands of wires are very flexible.
They are used for such electrical installations
where the connecting lines are moved a lot.
Multi strand wire with many fine strands is also
used for the installation of control circuits in
machines and equipment.
Can you think of household appliances that are connected with a fine multi stand wires??
16.2 Current carrying capacity of wires
When you know the cross-sectional area of a wire core you can easily determine the current
carrying capacity of the wire from the table below.
Group I:
Group II:
Group II:
One or more single-core cables / wires in a conduit

Multi-core cables, e.g. plastic sheeted cables
Single-core cables laid free in the air or in a distribution box
Cross-sectional area
in square mm
0.75
1
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
Maximum current carrying capacity in Amperes

Group I
Group II
Group III
10
16
10
16
20
16
20
25
20
25
35
25
35
50
35
50
63
50
63
80
63
80
100
80
100
125
100
125
160
125
160
200
160
224
250
Page 45 of 87
16.3 Colour codes for wires

Various colour codes are widely used to identify insulated wires in electrical installations. The
colour code presently used in most countries is as follows:
As there are also other colour codes used in other countries, you must consult your instructor and
ask him to explain to you the colour code used in your country.
Generally it can be assumed that the colour code is as follows:
Three wire system: Phase / Live
Neutral
Ground
black
blue
green/yellow
Five wire system:
black\
brown
brown
blue
green / yellow
Phase L1 / R
Phase L2 / S
Phase L3 / T
Neutral
Ground
Page 46 of 87
16.4 Terminating of wires

In order to connect the ends of insulated wires to
the terminal of electrical components and
branching boxes, etc., or to lugs and sleeves, the
wires have to be stripped off at their ends to the
length required for the particular type and size of
the terminal connection.
To strip of the wire insulation use a wire stripper

pliers.
Page 47 of 87
Close the pliers, loosen the lock nut and by

turning the adjustment screw, adjust the
closing point of the jaws in such a way that
the jaws cut into the insulation but that
they do not touch the core. When properly
adjusted, the wire moves freely in the opening
of the jaws when the pliers are closed.
Jaw adjustment for thin cores
Jaw adjustment for thick cores.
Page 48 of 87
Single strand wire ends, which are damaged by

the jaws of wire stripping pliers, which have
been adjusted too tightly, can break off easily
and will cause breakdowns in electrical
installations.
The jaws of wire stripping pliers, which are too

tightly adjusted, can also damage multi-strand
wire ends. The strands will be cut off and
thereby weaken the wire and decrease the
current carrying capacity at the terminal point
resulting in heating up and finally start to burn
down.
Page 49 of 87
When you have properly adjusted the wire

stripping pliers, insert the wire end into the
opening between the jaws to a position where
the cutting edges of the jaws are in line with the
marking to which the insulation has to be
stripped
Close the pliers so that the jaws cut into the

insulation.
Turn the pliers a half turn in order to cut the

insulation all around the wire.
Pull the wire and the pliers away from each

other to remove the insulation
Check the wire end for dimensional accuracy
and make sure it has not been damaged
Page 50 of 87
16.5 Connecting a cable to a plug
Open the cover of the plug with a screw driver
Open the cable retention clamp and loosen the

terminal screws.
Trim the end of the cable to the shape and the

dimension required by the plug you are working
on. Use the illustration as a guide. Connect the
cable according to the colour code used in your
country.
Tighten the terminal screws and the cable

retention clamp and close the plug.
Page 51 of 87
16.6 Connecting cables to a branching box

In electrical installations the ends of wires and
cables are connected to each other in branching
boxes in accordance with the circuit diagram for
that particular electrical installation
Using PVC insulated cables and a normal onsurface branching box with a terminal
arrangement as show, the completed connection
of the wire ends would look like this
For proper insulation the ends of the cables
should extend with their sheath or outer
insulation into the branching box to the distance
D. The distance D depends on the type and
size of the branching box and ranges from
approximately 5 to 10mm.
To avoid sharp bend and prevent wire ends from

being under stress, they must be formed into
slight curves, thus leaving a certain amount of
slack wire for each wire end.
The following illustration shows again

how a good connection has to be done for
terminating a wire to a terminal.
Page 52 of 87
16.7 Soldering of wires to a terminal

Heat up your soldering iron and melt a thin layer
of solder over the face of its tip.
The solder should melt immediately to a shiny
surface, giving off a little white smoke. If the
flux of the solder should char, clean the tip again
with a linen pad.
Now press the flat surface of the soldering iron
bit on to the joint as shown. Heat up the wire
and the terminal.
Feed solder into the joint as shown. As the

solder melts, feed n more solder until the joint is
completely covered. Make sure that neither feed
is too much nor too little with solder.
Remove the tip of the soldering iron from the

joint. Do not move the work piece, e.g.
terminals or wire, until the joint has cooled
off and the solder is solidified.
Page 53 of 87
16.8 Forming eyelets to single strand wires
The eyelets are formed by using a pair of roundnose pliers.
Grip the very end of the wire between the jaws

of the pliers at a place where the diameter of the
conical shaped jaws corresponds approximately
to the inside diameter of the eyelet to be formed.
Turn the pliers in the direction of the arrow and

form a loop of the eyelet to the required size as
shown.
Check the inside diameter by using the terminal

screw.
Page 54 of 87
Having formed the loop to the correct inside

diameter and to the dimension, grip it between
the tips of the jaws of the pliers and slightly
bend it in the direction of the arrow until the Fasten the wire end with its eyelet to the
centre of the loop is in line with the axis of the terminal as shown above. Make sure that a flat
wire.
washer is used, and in certain cases also a lock
washer between the screw-head and the eyelet as
Check all dimensions and make sure that the shown.
wire has not been damaged by the jaws of the Eyelets are always fastened in a clockwise
pliers.
direction otherwise the eyelet will be opened
by the turn of the screw.
Page 55 of 87
16.9 Termination of coaxial cables
Coax cable must not be joint to another length

of coax by twisting or soldering the conductor
together and wrapping with insulation tape.
Where it is impossible to use one complete
length of coax cable then a TROUGH
COUPLER (or a back to back socket) has to be
used to make the join.
Page 56 of 87
16.10 Installing cables and conduits

Cables and conduits can be fixed to the surface of a wall or any other construction by the use of
clips or saddles
Clips are usually fastened with nails.

Normal nails are used of the clips are to be
fastened onto a wooden surface, but hardened
steel nails are required or masonry surfaces,
Saddles are fastened with wood screws and a

wall plug is fastened to a masonry surface and
with screw only if fastened to a wooden surface.
For better support of the cable, position the clips of horizontal runs of cables in such a way that their
nails are places underneath the cable as shown in the illustration.
Page 57 of 87
When using this type of clip, nail all the clips of

the run onto the installation surface at their
market position as shown here. Remember to
use hardened steel nails when fastening these
clips onto a hard masonry surface.
Proceed to install the cable run in the same

sequence as explained.
Fasten the cable to the surface by closing the

clips as shown here.
Page 58 of 87
For electrical installations in moist locations,

this kind of saddle is often used to fasten cables
or conduits to the installation surface
Remove the upper part of the saddles and with a

screwdriver fasten the lower parts of all saddles
for this cable run onto the installation surface.
Fasten the cable to the saddles by pressing the

upper parts of the saddles onto the lower parts.
Page 59 of 87
To install two cables parallel to each other, use

double clips or saddles which are available in
many different types and sizes. They are
installed as shown by these illustrations.
Page 60 of 87
16.11 Portable electric drill utilisation

In order to drill holes into a masonry surface such as stone or concrete you will have to use a
portable electric drill together with a masonry drill bit.
A portable electric drill consists of the following
parts
1. An electric motor which provides the rotary
power for the drill
2. A switch to switch the motor ON and OFF
3. A lock button which can keep the switch in
the ON position
4. A handle to hold the drill
5. A gear box which reduces the speed
provided by the motor
6. A chuck which holds and turns the rotary
cutting tools
7. A speed selector of the drill is build for two
speed operation
8. A speed adjustment of the drill is equipped
with an electronic speed control
9. A flexible cable with a plug to connect the
drill to the electrical supply.
Page 61 of 87
Some portable electric drills are

equipped with a PERCUSSION
ATTACHEMNT. This attachment
is used when drilling holes into
concrete or stone. In addition to the
rotary moment of the chuck it
provides a movement in the direction
of the axis of the drill, which is
similar to the pounding of a hammer.
The percussion attachment can be

engaged and disengaged by rotating
a selector wheel behind the chuck.
With most drills this attachment can
be engaged or disengaged when the
drill is on or off.
The position of the selector wheel

or switch for the percussion
attachment can be located also at a
different location on the portable
electric drill depending on the
manufacturer of the drill machine.
Page 62 of 87
In this illustration you can see a masonry

drill bit.
It has the shape of a normal twist drill but
its cutting edges are made from a very
hard metal called carbide. The shank of
the drill is mounted into the chuck of the
electric drill.
1. Shank
2. Carbide tipped cutting edge
Masonry drills are available in diameters

ranging from 3 to 25mm in steps of
0.5mm. The maximum shank diameter of
the drills is 10 to 12mm. The overall
length of these drills depends on their
diameter. They are usually 70 to 150mm
long but there are extra long versions
ranging from 150 up to 220mm for drilling
through walls.
Page 63 of 87
Before drilling the hole in a masonry surface

you have to choose the size of the drill bit
according to the wall plug used for your
installation as shown in the illustration
To drill the whole hold the drill as shown with

both hands and position id in such a way that the
tip of the drill touches the surface.
Keep the drill at a right angel to the surface in

order to produce a hole, which is also at right
angles to the surface.
Page 64 of 87
The depth of the hole should be 2 or 3mm more

than the length of the wall plug
When you have drilled and cleaned the hole,

insert the wall plug with your fingers.
Sometimes you may have to tap them in using a
light hammer
To mount the device which has to be installed

on the surface use a wood screw and attach the
device to the wall be screwing in the wood
screw and tight it firmly.
Page 65 of 87
17. Domestic electrical installation

Electrical energy is conveyed to the consumers by the supply authorities via a three-phase network
in form of a four-wire system consisting of the phases L1/R; L2/S; L3/T and the neutral conductor
N.
Modern systems, which provide a high standard of safety, providing additionally a protective earth
conductor PE.
Varieties of systems
Two-wire system:
The classical distribution system does not
provide a protective earth connector.
Three-wire system:
It is like the two wire system, also a one-phase
system, but provides additionally a protective
earth conductor.
Three-phase network:
It is a four-wire system and most commonly
used.
Five-wire system:
Modern installations provide a PE to be able to
protect sensitive installations by a special
protective measures.
Distribution networks are subdivided as required into three, four or five wire systems. The symbols
used are in accordance with IEC recommendations (IEC = International Electric Commission).
An earth wire, which also acts as a neutral conductor may be represented by the letters PEN
Page 66 of 87
17.1 Types of circuit diagrams

A circuit diagram is a comprehensive representation of a circuit, showing all its detail. Through a
clear representation of the individual current paths it illustrates the way an electric circuit works.
The circuit diagram should represent the electrical appliances and equipment in an installation and
their interaction with sufficient clarity to facilitate the reading of the circuit.
17.1.1
Connection plan
The assembled representation circuit diagram is also known as the CONNECTION PLAN. This
representation is an all-pole representation, which means that all conductors are drawn.
Junction box to
connect the wires
Lamp protection by a
circuit
protected
conductor PE
Hand driven
switch with a
notch
17.1.2
Schematic diagram
The detached representation of a circuit diagram is also known as a schematic diagram. This
representation provides a high degree of clarity. The PE connection is not shown.
Page 67 of 87
17.1.3
Installation diagram
The installation diagram is a single representation for lightning and power installations, which is as
a rule drawn in its proper position on the building plan. The PE conductor figure as an additional
conductor in the indication of the number of the conductors.
17.2 Mains connection

When an appliance is to be connected an electrical conducting connection must be produced
between the network and the appliance via a switch. In practice, the switch will be connected to the
phase L1 and the return conductor is connected un-switched to the neutral line. The reason for this
is that the general case is the off-position of the switch. For safety reasons as few parts of the
installation as possible should be live.
17.3 Protective conductor connection

A protective conductor is never to be switched
A protective conductor, if present, should be connected to those parts of the appliance, which are
capable of conducting electricity and being able to be touched.
The local electricity supply authority prescribes the safety rules and regulations.
The use of the neutral conductor N as a protective conductor is somewhat dangerous but it is
possible to use it. Nevertheless, if Phase and Neutral are exchanged in it position, Phase will be
connected to those parts of an appliance that should be protected.
Page 68 of 87
17.4 The plan for an installation

The installation plan is the plan for the layout of the electrical installation. It can be drawn in 3
different ways. After completing work the installation plan should remain at the place of the
installation.
14.4.1
Perspective view
17.4.2
The ground plan
Page 69 of 87
17.4.3
The installation plan
Most useful when comparing the 3 ways of drawing an installation plan, seems to be the ground
plan with the installations
As to be seen from the perspective view, the wiring has to be done only horizontally and vertical,
but never diagonal.
17.4.4
Fuses
When current flows through a conductor, heating occurs. The extend of heating depends on the
magnitude of the current flowing. When the current is impermissible strong and the heating
consequently also excessive the conductors and equipment will be destroyed and there is a risk of
fire.
To prevent this danger, electrical installations have to be disconnected at excessive high current. For
this reason particularly sensitive points (planned interruption points) are introduced into the wiring
system to break the circuit when the current is too high. These devices are called fuses.
Fuses or circuit breakers are produced in a wide range according to the required applications
If fuses are patched-up or bridged, there is no longer any planned interruption point. Patching-up or
bridging of fusses is prohibited.
Equipment or cables run the danger of being destroyed. There will also be the risk of fire.
Page 70 of 87
18. Circuit diagrams

18.1 One pole ON / Off circuit
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 71 of 87
18.2 Two pole ON / Off circuit
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 72 of 87
18.3 Group switching

Two devices or two groups of devices can be switched only separately (one way or the other)
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 73 of 87
18.4 Serial circuit

Two devices or two groups of devices can be switched on or off together or separately
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 74 of 87
18.5 Change-over circuit

It permits the ON / Off switching of a lamp from two different places at any time of the two
switches
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 75 of 87
18.6 Intermediate circuit

The lamp can be switched ON / OFF from several switches and at any position of the switches
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 76 of 87
18.7 Impulse switching

Instead of using a switch, which is manually operated, also an impulse switch can be applied. This
impulse switch is a relay with bi-stable positions. This relay remains in its switching position after
the first excitation. A reversal in its switching position follows after a second excitation.
Two basic circuits with an impulse switch
In this circuit with an impulse switch, the

control and the switching voltage are obtained
from the same system (source).
In this circuit with an impulse switch, the

control voltage and the switching voltage are
from different systems (source).
The advantage of an impulse switch is, that with a low voltage in the control circuit a high voltage
in another circuit can be switched. The excitation of the impulse switch requires only a very short
time. Usually this short excitation is obtained through a push-button.
Symbols used with impulse switching circuits
Impulse switch (symbol used in installation plans)
Push-button (symbol used in installation plans)

Impulse switch (symbol used in schematic diagram)
Push-button (symbol used in electric diagram)
Page 77 of 87
Symbol for a transformer with insulation

between input and output winding used in
installation plan
Symbol used for a transformer in electric circuit

diagram
Impulse switching using the control and switching voltage from the same source
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 78 of 87
Impulse switching using for control and for switching voltage different sources
Installation plan
Schematic diagram
Connecting plan
Page 79 of 87
18.8 Stairway illumination

The stairway usually should have an automatic lightning installation with two switching points and
three lightning points. The cellar steps are equipped with an impulse switch for three switching and
two lightning points.
The automatic lightning installation provides the feature as follows:
After the first excitation of the TIMER RELAY the light in the stairway will be on for the pre-set
time of the timer relay. After the time is elapsed the light will be off until the next excitation.
View of the installation works
Page 80 of 87
Schematic diagram
Connection plan
Page 81 of 87
18.9 House siganl installation

With a house signal installation a visitor at the entrance door can ring the bell in the desired
apartment by pushing a button on the door panel. From the same apartment the entrance door can be
opened by pushing the button for the operation of the door-opening magnet.
Page 82 of 87
Schematic diagram
Page 83 of 87
Connection plan
Page 84 of 87
18.10 Fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp is a gas filled glass-tube. The gas is mercury and some noble gas. Two heating
coils are placed at the ends of the glass-tube. The glass is coated inside with fluorescent material.
The fluorescent lamp itself can be operated only together with a starter and a ballast (choke).
Sometimes a compensation capacitor is connected in parallel to the lamp.
Function of the fluorescent lamp

The starter is a glow-lamp (also gas-discharge-lamp). It has high resistance in the state of not
glowing, but due to ionisation of the gas a low resistance when glowing. The glowing starts when
the voltage is applied. The glow heats up a bi-metal, which soon makes a connection, and a current
flows through the heating coils inside the glass-tube. The heating coils are heated up. The bi-metal
cools off and the current passing the starter will interrupt. This interruption of the current produces
a high induction voltage by the ballast (choke). This high voltage fires then the fluorescent lamp.
Once the lamp has fired, only the remaining voltage is needed. The ballast is limiting the current as
needed. The maintaining voltage on the fluorescent lamp is smaller than the firing voltage of the
starter. Some false starts are necessary to start the fluorescent lamp.
Page 85 of 87
After switching on a very small current is

flowing which creates a glow discharge in the
gas filled starter. This glow discharge heats up
the bi-metal strip of the starter.
The bi-metal is closing the starter. Now a

current 1,5 times of the actual lamp current is
flowing. This current induces a very high
magnetic flied in the choke (ballast). At the
same time the filaments start to glow.
The bi-metal is not longer heated and opens

again. The very high magnetic filed in the choke
is decreasing rapidly. This change of magnetic
filed in the choke results in a very high voltage
output of app. 800V. This voltage surge ignites
the gas in the lamp. After ignition the choke
reduces the lamp current. It acts as a dropping
resistor.
If two fluorescent lamps are connected in series it is called a TANDEM-CRICUIT. For this circuit
only one ballast (choke) is necessary. The ballast has to be made for the power of both fluorescent
lamps.
Page 86 of 87
18.11 Stroboscopic effect

In a workshop where rotating machines are used such as lathe or milling machines, it is important to
avoid the stroboscopic effect of fluorescent lamps. If this measure is not undertaken the risk of an
accident can increase due to the fact that the stroboscopic effect will give the impression to the
human eyes that the rotating part is stationary, not rotating, which is in fact not true. This effect is
used in the automotive filed where ignition point and dwell are being measured with a stroboscopic
lamp.
When the discharge takes place in the gaseous envelope, there is a movement of ions and electrons,
which reverses when the polarity of the supply changes, i.e. twice every cycle of the supply voltage.
On a 50 Hz supply, this means 100 times every second. When this reversal if movement coincides
with the speed of a revolving machine, the machine appears to be stationary, which presents an
obvious danger. The following methods are adopted to reduce this effect.
Where a three-phase-system supply is available, adjacent lamps are connected to different phases of
the supply.
The use of a twin-tube fitting where one tube has a capacitor connected in series with it to produce a
phase-shift of the current in that tube as shown in the illustration below.
Page 87 of 87

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Safety at the workplace ................................................................................................................ 1

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16.7 Soldering of wires to a terminal.........................................................................................53

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Safety at the workplace

It is strictly forbidden to work with any

Courage does not consist of knowingly and heedlessly exposing

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Figure 1: A simple circuit with circuit diagram

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Figure 2:A simple circuit like this will dissipate heat

Figure 3: A light emitting diode (LED) in a simple circuit

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Figure 4: Magnetism: The magnetic effect of an electric current

Figure 5 shows a closer view of the compass.

Figure 5: A close-up view of the wire and compass alignment

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Figure 6: A model of an atom, according to Bohr's theory

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Circuits and circuit diagrams

Figure 7: A simple circuit shown (a) as a picture and (b) as a diagram

Electromagnetic Force (E.m.f.) and Potential Difference (p.d)

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Conductors and cables

Figure 8: A cross-section through two parts of cable

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Figure 10: A typical cartridge fuse

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Figure 11: Over current circuit breaker

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The sum of the currents flowing into any

The sum of potential difference in any closed

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Figure 11: The junction between four current carrying wires

Figure 12: The junction between three current carrying wires

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Figure 13: A simple circuit containing two resistors

The sum of the p.d across the resistors is

Utot = 5.476V + 6.524V

which is just what Kirchhoffs second law predicts.

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Resistors in series and in parallel circuits

Figure 14: Resistors (a) in series and (b) in parallel

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The second case, illustrated in Figure 16(b), is less easy to calculate.

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Figure 15: A DC waveform

Figure 16: An AC current and voltage waveform

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Figure 17: Properties of a waveform

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= peak current 0.707

= peak voltage 0.707

Figure 18: Values of a waveform

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When working out Ohms Law calculations, it is vital that you

Calculate the following equations:

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