SRI ESHWAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,COIMBATORE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

TWO MARK QUESTION WITH ANSWER
SUBJECT NAME: Antenna
SUBJECT CODE: EC6602

and Wave Propagation

YEAR/SEM

: III/VI

PREPARED
BY

: Ms.B.MENAKADEVI

AP/ECE

UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION
1. What is magnetic vector potential?
The magnetic vector potential is a quantity whose curl gives the
magnetic flux
densit B A
y.
Where A is the magnetic vector potential
2. What is retarded current?
Since current flowing through a short dipole is assumed to be constant
throughout its length, the effect of this current is not felt instantaneously at a
distant point P, but only after an interval equal to time required for the wave to
propagate over distance r. This current is called as retarded current. Retarded
j(t\r/c)
current {I} = I0 e
, where r/c = retardation time
3. Compare electric scalar potential and magnetic vector potential
S,No Electric scalar potential
Magnetic vector potential
1.
The source for producing The source for producing
electric potential is charge
magnetic potential is current
element
2.
Charge is having magnitude
Current element is having
only
both magnitude and direction
3.
E V where V is the B A where A is the
electric scalar potential
magnetic vector potential
2
4.
Unit is volt/metre
Unit is weber/m
4. Define retardation time.

It is the time required for the wave to propagate over the distance r. It is given
8

by r/c where c = 3 X 10 m/sec

5. Define Antenna.
Antenna is a structure associated with the region of transition between guided
wave and free space wave and vice versa
6. Define an Isotropic Antenna.
An Isotropic Antenna is the one which radiate energy uniformly in all directions.
7. Define Radiation pattern.
Antenna Radiation pattern is a 3 dimensional graph which shows the
variation in actual field strength of EMF at all points which are at equal distance
from the antenna.
8. Define Beam solid angle.
Beam area or Beam solid angle is the solid angle through which all of
the power radiated by the antenna would stream if P (,) maintained its
maximum value over and zero elsewhere.
9. What are the 2 types of radiation pattern?
The 2 types of radiation pattern are (a) Field pattern and (b) power
pattern Field pattern: If the radiation from the antenna is expressed in terms
of the field strength (either E or H), then the radiation pattern is called as
field pattern.
Power pattern: If the radiation pattern from the antenna is expressed in terms
of power per unit area, then the resultant pattern is called power pattern.
10.Define Radiation resistance of antenna.
Radiation resistance is defined as a Virtual resistance that does not
exist physically but is a quantity coupling the antenna to distant region s of
space via a transmission line.
11.Define Half power beam width.

Half power beam width is defined as the angular width measured in the
radiation pattern between points where the power is half of its maximum
value. It is also called -3 dB beam width.
12.Define Radiation intensity.
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called
radiation intensity (U). Its unit is watts per steradian and it is independent of
distance.

13.Can same antenna be used satisfactorily for transmission as well as for

reception?
Yes. According to Reciprocity principle, the same antenna can be used
or transmission and also for reception.
14.Define Directivity of Antenna.
Directivity is defined as the ratio of Radiation intensity of test antenna
in a given direction to radiation intensity of isotropic antenna. D = U/U0
Where U= Radiation intensity of test antenna
U0 = Radiation intensity of Isotropic antenna
It is also expressed
4U
D P
rad
as
15.What is front to back ratio?
Front to Back Ratio (FBR) is defined as the ratio of power radiated in
the desired direction to the power radiated in the opposite direction
ie. FBR = power radiated in desired direction/power radiated in
opposite direction
16.Define Antenna efficiency.
Antenna Efficiency is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total
input power applied to the antenna.
Antenna efficiency, k = Prad/Pin
( dimensionless) Where Prad = Radiated
power in watts
Pin= Input power in watts

17.Define Reciprocity principle.

Reciprocity principle is stated as follows, If an emf is applied to the
terminals of antenna no. 1 and the current measured at the terminals of
another antenna no. 2, then an equal current both in amplitude and phase will
be obtained at the terminals of antenna no. 1 if the same emf is applied to the
terminals of antenna no.2
18.What do you meant by Antenna aperture?
Antenna aperture or equivalent areas are those which are used to
describe the power capturing characteristics of the antenna when a wave
impinges on it.
19.Define Effective aperture.
Effective aperture is defined as the ratio of power received at the
antenna load terminal to the pointing vector (power density) of the incident
2
wave. Its unit is W/m .
20.What is the relationship between effective aperture and directivity?
The relationship between effective aperture and directivity is D= 4Ae/2
21.Write the antenna field zones with the boundaries of an antenna under test.
The space surrounding an antenna is divided into 3 regions. They are
Reactive near field
Radiation near field (Fresnel) and
Far field (Fraunhofer)
3
The outer boundary of Reactive near field is at a distance R< 0.62D /
The inner boundary of radiation near field (Fresne) is given by R>=
3
2
0.62D / and its outer boundary is R< 2D /
The inner boundary of far field is given by R>=
2

2D / Where, D= largest dimension of the

antenna
= wavelength in meter
22.What do you meant by effective length of the antenna?

The term effective length of an antenna represents the effectiveness

of an antenna as radiator or collector of electromagnetic wave energy. For
a receiving antenna, it is defined as the ratio of induced voltage at the
terminals of the receiving antenna under open circuit condition to the
incident electric field strength E.
Effective length, le or h = V/E (meter or wavelength)
23.Define Hertzian dipole.
Hertzian dipole is defined as a short linear conductor or short electric
dipole whose length is very short compared to wave length (L<<) and
current is assumed to be constant throughout its length l.
24.

What is the effective aperture and directivity of a

2
Hertzian dipole? Effective aperture = 0.119
Directivity = 1.5

25.What is half wave dipole or what is resonant length antenna?

Any linear antenna of /2 long is called as half wave dipole antenna or
resonant length antenna.
26.

What is the effective aperture and directivity of a Half wave

2
dipole antenna? Effective aperture = 0.13
Directivity = 1.63

27.Define induction field (near field).

The field which predominates at the points closer to the current element
where r is small is known as induction field. The near field is inversely
2
proportional to square of the distance (1/r ). It is of less importance.

28.What is radiation field?

The radiation field is far field and it varies inversely with distance (1/r). This field
contributes to the flow of energy away from the source. This radiation field or far field
is of great importance at large distance.
29.What is quarter wave monopole antenna?
The quarter wave monopole antenna is an antenna whose length is one half of a half
wave dipole antenna and is located on a conducting ground plane.
30.What is Yagi Uda Antenna?
It is an array of a driven element, a reflector and one or more directors.
31.What do you meant by parasitic elements?
The passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but
are electrically coupled are called as parasitic elements.
32.What do you meant by driven elements?
Driven element is a active element where the power from the transmission line is
fed or which feeds received power to the receiver.
33.What is the purpose of using more directors in yagi uda antenna?
To increase the gain, more directors are used.
34.Why folded dipole antenna is used in yagi uda antenna?
The folded dipole has high input impedance. If the distance between driven and
parasitic elements is decreased, it will load the driven element, so input impedance of
driven element reduces. But this will compensated ie. raised by the folded dipole.
35.What are the applications of yagi uda antenna?
Yagi uda arrays have been used in the HF, VHF, UHF, & microwave frequency
bands. In the HF band, the array is usually constructed using wires & at VHF& UHF
frequencies, hollow pipes are used for the construction of yagi uda arrays. At the
microwave frequencies the arrays reconstructed using either printed circuit board (PCB)
technology or machined out of a metal sheet.
36.What is the Special feature of folded dipole antennas?
Folded dipole has got a versatile quality of providing any desired input impedance by
increasing the number of elements and selecting suitable lengths of dipole.

37. What are the Advantages of folded dipole? AN.U.2003

The radiation pattern of a folded dipole and a conventional half wave is same but the input
impedance of the folded dipole is higher. It has low directivity and bandwidth than simple
dipole.
38. What is Application of folded dipole?
Folded dipole is used as a driven element in yagi-uda antenna. It has built in impedance
transforming properties, which makes it easier to match a transmission line that feeds the
antenna .
39.Define balun?.
A Balun is used to "balance" unbalanced systems - i.e. those where power flows from an
unbalanced line to a balanced line (hence, balun derives from balance to unbalanced).

UNIT II
APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
1. What is a slot antenna?
The slot antenna is an opening cut in a sheet of conductor which is energized via a
coaxial cable or waveguide.
2. Which antenna is complementary to the slot antenna?
The dipole antenna is complementary to the slot antenna. The metal and air
regions of the slot are interchanged for the dipole.
3. What is the relationship between the terminal impedances of slot and dipole
antennas?
2
ZsZd = 0 /4
Where
ZS = terminal impedance of slot antenna Zd =
Terminal impedance if dipole antenna
0 = Intrinsic impedance of free space = 377 ohms
4. What is the difference between slot antenna and its complementary antenna?
i. Polarization are different ie. The electric fields associated with the slot antenna
are identical with the magnetic field of the complementary dipole antenna.
ii. The electric field be vertically polarized for the slot and horizontally polarized
for the dipole.
iii.
Radiation from the back side of the conducting plane of the slot antenna has
opposite polarity from that of complementary antenna.
5. What are the methods of feeding slot antenna?
i)
Coaxial line feed
ii)
Waveguide feed
6. What are the different methods of feeding slot antennas?
Slot antenna can be
a. Waveguide fed slot
b. Boxed in slot
c. Coaxial transmission line
7. What do you meant by sectoral horn?
If flaring (or opened) out is done only in one direction, then it is called as
sectoral horn.

8. What do you meant by pyramidal horn antenna?

If flaring is done along both the walls (E &H), then it is called as pyramidal
antenna.
9. What are various feeds used in reflector?
a. Dipole antenna
b. Horn feed
c. End fire feed
d. Cassegrain feed
e.
10.What are the advantages of cassegrain feed antenna?
1. Reduction in spill over
2. Simple in construction
3. Quite inexpensive
4. Widely used in fixed point to point microwave communication
5. Satellite reception and tracking
6. Ability to place feed in a convenient location
11.What are the advantages of Microstrip patch antenna?
i. These antennas can be flush mounted to metal or other existing surfaces
ii. They only require space for the feed line which is normally placed behind the
ground plane.
12.What are the disadvantages of Microstrip patch antenna?
iii. Inefficiency
iv. Very narrow frequency bandwidth
13.What are the uses of horn antenna?
Horn antenna are extensively used at microwave frequencies under the
condition that power gain needed is moderate. For high power gain, since the horn
dimensions become large, so the other antennas like lens or parabolic reflector etc. are
preferred rather than horn.
14.What are Microstrip patch antennas?
Microstrip antennas are popular for low profile applications at frequencies
above 100 MHz. they usually consists of a rectangular metal patch on a dielectric
coated ground plane (circuit board). Hence, a microstrip patch antenna is also called
as printed antenna.
15.What are the methods of feeding microstrip antennas?

A microstrip patch can be fed either by a microstrip transmission line J or by a

coaxial transmission line. The microstrip line can be etched along with the patch in a
single process. In order to access the appropriate impedance point on the patch, a
recess is created in the patch.
The depth of the recess is adjusted to achieve the impedance matching. A
coaxial transmission line is attached right below the patch, with the inner conductor
soldered to the patch and the outer conductor of the coaxial line connected to the
ground plane. A patch antenna fed by either a microstrip or a coaxial transmission
line has about 2 to 4% input bandwidth.
16.What do you meant by biconical antenna?
A biconical antenna consists of 2 infinitely large (L ) cone arranged such
that there axes are in line and the vertices are an infinitesimal distance away from
each other.
The 2 cones are fed by a balanced transmission line connected to their vertices.
It can be shown that the transmission line formed by the 2 infinite cones. Has
characteristic impedance which is only a function of the cone angle but independent
of the radial distance from the feed point.
17.What is planar inverted F antenna?
It is seen that the electric field along the centre line of a rectangular half wavelength
long microstrip patch antenna is zero. Therefore, we can introduce a perfect electric
conductor along this line between the patch and the ground plane without disturbing
the fields of the patch, resulting in a quarter wavelength long antenna. This structure is
known as a planar inverted F antenna (PIFA).

UNIT III
ANTENNA ARRAYS
1. What are the types of array.?
a. Broad side array.
b. End fire array
c. Collinear array.
d. Parasitic array.
2. What is duality of antenna.?

It is defined as an antenna is a circuit device with a resistance and

temperature on the one hand and the space device on the other with radiation
patterns, beam angle ,directivity gain and aperture.
3. What is point source?

It is the waves originate at a fictitious volumeless emitter source at the

center O of the observation circle.
4. What is meant by array.?

An antenna is a system of similar antennas oriented similarly to get greater

directivity in a desired direction
5. What is collinear array.?

In this array the antenna elements are arranged coaxially by mounting the
elements end to end in straight line or stacking them one over the other with
radiation pattern circular symmetry. Eg. Omni directional antenna.
6. What is Parasitic array.?

In this array the elements are fed parasitically to reduce the problem of feed
line. The power is given to one element from that other elements get by electro
magnetic coupling. Eg. Yagi uda antenna.
7. What is the need for the Binomial array.?

The need for a binomial array is

i). In uniform linear array as the array length is increased to increase the
directivity, the secondary lobes also occurs.
ii)For certain applications, it is highly desirable that secondary lobes should be
eliminated completely or reduced to minimum desirable level compared to main
lobes.
8. Define power pattern.?

Graphical representation of the radial component of the pointing vector Sr at

a constant radius as a function of angle is called power density pattern or power
pattern.
9. What is meant by similar Point sources.?

Whenever the variation of the amplitude and the phase of the field with
respect to the absolute angle for any two sources are same then they are called
similar point sources. The maximum amplitudes of the individual sources may be
unequal.
10.Define antenna array.
A radiating system composed of several spaced and properly phased radiators is
called as an array.
11.Define linear array.
An antenna array is said to be linear if the individual antennas of the array are
equally spaced along a straight line.
12.Define uniform linear array.
An uniform linear array is one in which the elements are fed with a current of
equal magnitude with uniform phase shift along a line.
13.Define Broadside array.
Broadside array is defined as an arrangement in which the principal direction of
radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and also to the plane containing the array
element. The phase difference between adjacent elements is zero.
14.Define endfire array.
End fire array is defined as an arrangement in which the principal direction of
radiation coincides with array axis.

15.What is array factor?

The factor by which the array increases the field strength over that of a single
element radiation the same total power is array factor.
16.What is uniform amplitude distribution?
If the sources are in phase and all equal in amplitude, then it is called uniform
amplitude distribution.
17.What is adaptive array?
Adaptive array use signal processing algorithms to adapt to user movement,
changes in the radio-frequency environment and co-channel interference.
18. Define Phased Array Antenna
A phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating elements each with a phase
shifter. Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each radiating
element, to provide constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the beams in the
desired direction

UNIT IV
SPECIAL ANTENNAS
1. What are the uses of helical antenna?
i. Single or an array of helical antenna is used to receive or transmit the VHF
signals through Ionosphere. Helical antenna is, thus, frequently used for satellite
and space probe communications. It has particular applications in space
telemetry at the ground end of the telemetry link with ballistic missiles, satellites
etc. at HF and VHF bands. The circular polarization is useful in these
applications as polarization rotations of waves are produced by the Ionosphere
(Faraday Effect).
ii. The wide bandwidth, simplicity, highest directivity and circular polarization of
the helical beam antenna have made it indispensable for space communication
applications. For, it has been used in transmitting telemetry data from moon to
earth remains.
iii. The dimensions of the helix in Axial mode are not critical and thereby resulting
in greater bandwidth. This end fire axial mode is more practical as it can achieve
circular polarization over a wider bandwidth (normally 2:1) and it is more
efficient. Because of circular polarization, helical antenna is capable of receiving
signals of arbitrary polarization.
2. What is beam antenna?
If three elements array i.e. 1 reflector, 1 driven element and 1 director are used,
then such type of yagi uda antenna is called beam antenna.
3. What are the general characteristics of rhombic antenna?
i. If three elements array (i.e. one reflector, one driven and one director) is used,
then such type of yagi uda antenna is generally referred to as beam antenna.

ii.

It has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and
simplicity in feed system design.
iii. With spacing of 0.1 to 0.15 , a frequency bandwidth of the order of 2 % is
obtained.
iv. It provides gain of the order of 8 db or front to back ratio of about 20db.
v. If greater directivity is desired, further elements may be used. For example, 5 or
6 elements are used with case and arrays up to 40 can be constructed.
vi. It is essentially a fixed frequency device i.e. frequency sensitive and a bandwidth
of about 3% is obtainable. This much bandwidth is sufficient for TV reception.

4.What is frequency independent antenna?

An antenna in which the impedance, radiation pattern and directivity remain
constant as a function of frequency is called as frequency independent antenna. Eg.
Log periodic Antenna.
5.Why log periodic antenna is named so far?
The geometry of log periodic antenna is so chosen that electrical properties
must repeat periodically with logarithm of the frequency.
6.What is LPDA?
LPDA means Log Periodic Dipole Array. It is defined as an antenna whose
electrical properties repeat periodically with logarithm of the frequency.
7.What are the 3 different regions in log periodic antenna and how they are
differentiated?
vii. Inactive region L</2
viii. Active region L= /2
ix. Inactive reflective region L> /2 14.What
are the applications of log periodic antenna?
i.
HF Communication
ii. Television reception
iii. All round monitoring
8..Define Rhombic Antenna.
An antenna which consists of 4 straight wires, arranged in the shape of a
diamond, suspended horizontally above the surface of the earth is called Rhombic
antenna. It is otherwise called diamond antenna or traveling wave antenna.

b.

9. What are the 2 types of rhombic antenna design?

a.Alignment design
Maximum field intensity or maximum output design.
10.What are the advantages of Rhombic antenna?
a. It is a highly directional broad band antenna with greatest radiated or
received power along the main axis or longer diagonal.
b. It is very efficient.
c. It is widely employed antenna for radio communication where enough
space necessary for its installation is no problem.
d. It is simple and cheap to erect.
e.Its input impedance is twice to that obtainable from a single side radiator.

g.

f. Vertical angle of radiation is low and hence these are suitable for long
distance F layer propagation.
Short wave antennas of this kind require only a low height.
h. Rhombic antennas are untuned and are a useful wideband antenna
suitable for a rapid switching from one working frequency to another
frequency.
11.What are the limitations of rhombic antenna?
a. It needs large space for installation.
b. Due to minor lobes, transmission efficiency is low.
12.What are the applications of rhombic antenna?
i.
HF transmission and reception
ii. Point to point communication
13.What do you meant by self impedance?
Self impedance is defined as the ratio of voltage to current at a pair of
terminals.
Z11=R11+jX11
where, R11 = Radiation resistance, X11 = Self reactance
14.What is mutual impedance?
It is defined as the negative ratio of emf induced in one antenna to the current
flowing in the antenna.
Mutual Impedance, Z21=-V21/I1 (or) Z12=-V12/I2 2
15..What is the need for transposing the lines?
In log periodic antenna, it is necessary to introduce 180 phase reversal
between elements. This is accomplished by using a twisted transmission line
(transposed line). In order to get 180 phase reversal between dipoles, the
transmission .line is tranpositioned.
16.What is the effect of decreasing ?
The directivity of an antenna increases by means of decreasing the induced
angle .
17.What are the uses of LPDA?
i. Like Rhombic the uses of Log periodic antennas lie mainly in the field of HF
communication where multi band steerable (rotatable) and fixed antennas are

generally used. However it has advantage that no power is wasted in

terminating resistance.
ii. LPDA is also used for TV reception where only one log periodic design will
suffice for all the channels even up to UHF band.
iii. It is best suited for all round monitoring in which case a single log periodic
antenna will cover all the higher frequencies bands. If the cost in the
installation is no problem.
18.Define a traveling wave antenna.
Traveling wave or non resonant antennas are those antennas in which there is
no reflected wave ie. Only incident wave travel in the antenna.
19.What is the main advantage if traveling wave antenna?
Traveling wave antenna provides larger bandwidth.
20.What is the type of radiation pattern produced when a wave travels in a wire?
Unidirectional radiation pattern is produced when a wave travels in a wire.
21.What is beverage or wave antenna?
A single wire antenna terminated in its characteristic impedance may have
essentially a uniform traveling wave. This type of antenna is referred to as
beverage antenna.
22.What is biconical antenna?
The biconical antenna is a double cone antenna which is driven by potential,
charge or an alternating magnetic field at the vertex. In this antenna, both the cones
face in opposite direction.
23.How spherical wave are generated?
When a voltage V is applied at the input terminals of a biconical antenna, it
will produce outgoing spherical waves. The biconical antenna acts as a guide for the
spherical waves.
13.What is turnstile antenna?
It is an antenna composed of two dipole antennas perpendicular to each other. They
intersect at their mid points. The current on the 2 dipoles are equal & in phase
quadrature.

14.What are the salient features of Turnstile antenna?

a. Turnstile antenna consists of 2 half wave dipoles which are perpendicular to
0
each other. The dipoles are excited with a phase difference of 90 with equal
currents.
b. The excitation is provided by non-resonant lines of unequal length.
c. It produces almost an omni-directional pattern.
d. Directivity is improved by the array of turnstile antennas.
e. It is best suited to match 70 ohm dual coaxial line.
f. It is often used for TV & FM broadcasting in VHF&UHF bands
It produces horizontal polarization.
g. The polarization is disturbed due to loss of power. However, the purity of
polarization is improved by super turnstile antennas.
h. The super turnstile antenna can be made of 4 flat sheets
i. It is possible to obtain voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) of about 1.1 over
30% bandwidth.
j. It is used as a mast mounted TV transmitting antenna for frequencies about 50
MHz.
k. Bandwidth is improved by an array of super turnstile antennas with a spacing of
between the elements.
l. Array of super turnstile antennas produces more horizontal gain
15.What do you meant by spiral antenna?
Spiral is a geometrical shape found in nature. A spiral can be geometrically
described using polar coordinates. Let (r,) be a point in the polar coordinate
system.The equation
r
re
0

where, ro and a are positive constants, describes a curve known as a logarithmic

spiral or an equiangular spiral.
16.What are the various modes of operation in Helical antenna?
a) Normal mode
b) Axial mode
17.What are the important parameters to be considered for the design of an helical
antenna?
c) Beam width
d) Gain
e) Axial ratio
f) Impedance

18.List out the applications of helical antenna.

Helical antenna is used for
a) VHF transmission such as satellite communication
b) Space telemetry link with ballistic missiles,
satellites etc.
19.What are the advantages of helical antenna?
a) very simple
b) higher directivity
c) wideband operation is possible
d)circular polarization is obtained
20.Define Lens antenna.
An antenna which collimates the incident divergent energy to prevent it from
spreading in undesired direction is called as lens antenna.
21.What are the different types of lens antenna?
Lens antenna can be divided into 2 types.
a. Dielectric lens or H plane metal plate lens
b. E plane metal plate lens antenna.
c.
22.What is dielectric lens antenna?
Dielectric lens antennas are the antennas in which the traveling wave fronts
are delayed by lens media.
23.Name the materials used for dielectric lens construction.
Polystyrene and polyethylene are the important materials used for dielectric
lens construction.
24.

Define E plane metal plate lens antenna.

It is an antenna in which the traveling wave fronts are spaced by the lens
medium.

25.

Define refractive index of lens antenna.

It is defined as the ratio of velocity of wave in air to the velocity of wave in
lens medium.

26.

What are the advantages of stepped dielectric lens antenna?

a. It is mechanically strong
b. Reduced weight
c. Less power dissipation

27.Mention the uses of Lens Antenna.

a. Unstepped dielectric lens is a wideband antenna as its shape does not
depend on the wavelength and hence it can be used over a wide
frequency range. However this is nit true for dielectric lens antenna
which is frequency sensitive. Typical bandwidth for unstepped and
stepped lens antenna is 12% and 5% respectively.
b. Both reflectors and lens antennas are commonly used above 1000
MHz. Lens antenna is a microwave device. So it is preferred to be used
usually above 3 GHz and not below it.
28.What are the disadvantages of lens antenna?
Lenses are usually bulky and heavy and present complication in design.
ii. Costlier for the same gain and bandwidth in comparison with reflector.
29.What are the advantages of lens antenna?
i. In lens antenna, feed and feed support do not block the aperture as the rays
are transmitted away from the feed.
ii. It has greater design tolerance. Ie. Large amount of wrapping and twisting is
possible in lens antenna as waver enters one side and emerges at the other
side, maintaining the electrical path length.
It can be used to feed at off the optical axis and hence useful in applications where
beam is required to be move angularly with respect to axis.
30.List the different ranges of antenna measurements.
The following ranges are used for antenna parameter measurements.
1.TEM cell
2.GTEM cell
3.Outdoor range
4.Indoor range
5.Reflection range
6. Slant range
7. Elevated range
8. Compact range
9. Anechoic chamber
10. Near field range
11. Ground range
12. Radar cross section range

31.What is reflection range?

In an elevated range, the goal is to minimize the reflected signal from the
ground. In a reflection range, the signal reflected off the ground is used to create
constructive interference and hence a uniform wave front in the region of the
antenna under test. This can be achieved by careful design of the reflecting
surface. Hence the design of a reflection range is more complicated than that of an
elevated range. Ground reflection ranges are very useful in the VHF band of
frequencies for measuring moderately broad patterns.

32.

Define slant range.

In a slant range, the transmit antenna is kept very close to the ground and the test
antenna along with its positioner is mounted on a non-conducting tower

33.

What is anechoic chamber?

A closed chamber can be made reflection-free or echo-free by lining all the
surfaces of the chamber with absorbing material. Such a chamber is known as an
anechoic chamber.
34.What are the differences between indoor and outdoor range?
S.No. Indoor range
Outdoor range
1.
These are protected from These are susceptible to Emi
external Emi
2.
Space is limited
Space is unlimited
3.
Only small antennas can be Antennas of any size can be tested
tested
4.
Ground and other reflections are Ground and other reflections cannot be
controlled
controlled fully.
5.
They
have
controlled They have uncontrolled environment
environment
6.
They have all weather capability They do not have all weather capability.
35.What are the various factors in which the selection of various ranges depend on?
Frequency
Cost
Accuracy required
Size of the antenna and so on.

36.Mention the techniques for measuring gain of antenna?

a. Absolute gain measurement
b. Gain transfer method
37.What are secondary antennas? Give examples.
Antennas that are not radiators by themselves are called as secondary
antennas.
Eg.Cassegrain, Hyperbolic.

UNIT V
PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
1.What are the 3 modes of radio wave propagation?
1.
Ground wave or surface wave propagation (upto 2 MHz)
2. Sky wave or ionospheric wave propagation (Between 2 to 30 MHz)
3. Space wave propagation (Above 30MHz)
2.Define ground wave.
A wave that is guided along the surface of the earth is called as ground
wave or surface wave.
3.What are the factors that cause attenuation in ground wave?
Frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity, conductivity, diffraction
and tilt in the wave front are the various factors that cause attenuation in ground
wave.
4.What are the 2 components present in space wave?
i)
Direct wave It reaches directly from transmitting antenna to
receiving antenna.
ii)
Indirect wave It reaches receiving antenna after reflection from
ground.
5.Define Troposphere.
The portion of the atmosphere which extends up to 16 Km from the
earth surface is called Troposphere.
6.Define LOS distance.
Line Of Sight distance is a distance in which both the transmitting
and receiving antenna can usually see each other.
7.Define Ionosphere.
The upper part of the atmosphere where the ionization is possible is known
as Ionosphere.
8.What are the different layers in Ionosphere?
D layer, E layer, F1 layer and F2 layer are the layers in Ionosphere.

9.Define fading.
It is the fluctuation in the received signal strength at the receiver or a
random variation in the received signal.
10. How can we minimize fading?
The most common method to minimize fading is diversity reception. In this
method, some part of the signal is duplicated and even if one part experiences a deep
fade, the other may not.
11. What are the various types of diversity reception?
Time diversity reception
Frequency diversity reception
Space diversity reception
12. What do you meant by magneto Ionic splitting?
The earths magnetic field splits up the incident waves into 2 different
components. They are Ordinary wave and extra ordinary wave. This phenomenon of
splitting of wave into 2 different components is called as magneto ionic splitting.
13. Define Gyro frequency.
Gyro frequency fg is defined as the frequency whose period is equal to
the period of revolution of an electron in its circular orbit under the influence of
earths magnetic flux B.
Fg = Be/2m
14.Define critical frequency.
The critical frequency fc of an ionized layer is defined as the highest frequency
which can be reflected by a particular layer at vertical incidence. It is different for
different layer.
Fc = 9Nm MHz
Where Nm = Maximum electron density in the layer.
15.

What is virtual height?

Virtual height is defined as the height to which a short pulse of energy sent
vertically upward and traveling with the speed of light would reach taking the same 2
ways travel time as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer.

16.

Define MUF.
Maximum Usable Frequency MUF is defined as the frequency which can be
reflected back to earth for some specific angle of incidence.
Fmuf = fc sec i
where fc = critical frequency; i = angle of incidence
17.Define space wave.
Space wave is a wave that reaches the receiver either directly or after
reflection from ground in the earths tropospheric region.
Write down the expression for refractive index.

18.

Refractive Index, 1 81N

f

Where, N= Number of electrons per cubic meter

f = frequency in Hz

4.
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19.What are the factors that affect the propagation of radio waves?
The factors that affect the propagation of radio waves
are
Earths magnetic field
Frequency of the signal
Curvature of earth
Permittivity and conductivity