Distribution System Handbook

CESC Distribution System
Handbook
DISTRIBUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE

HRD DEPARTMENT
CONTENTS
TOPIC
PAGE
1.
Basic Electricity
1 - 10
2.
Transformer
11 - 25
3.
Testing of Transformer
26 - 73
4.
Switchgear
74 - 88
5.
Testing of Switchgear
6.
Cable
101 - 120
7.
Cable Jointing & Termination
121 - 124
8.
Underground Cable Fault Location
125 - 140
9.
Power System Protection
141 - 173
10.
Metering Practices
174 - 196
11.
Billing System & Tariff Structure
197 - 203
12.
System Loss
204 - 205
13.
Distribution Management: SCADA & Communications
206 217
14.
MV & LV Installation Practices
218 249
15.
System Operations
250 - 263
16.
Grounding Practice in Substations
264 - 289
17.
System Earthing
290 296
18.
Substation Design & Layout
297 - 315
19.
MASD System
316 - 334
89 - 100
BASIC ELECTRICITY
Ohms Law
Current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference between two
ends of the conductor provided the temperature remains constant. Therefore I V or I = V/R where
I is the current flowing through the conductor, V is the potential difference across it and 1/R is the
constant of proportionality. R is known as resistance of the conductor and is expressed in ohms ().
Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of the currents that are entering a given node
must equal the sum of the currents that are leaving the node. i.e. the algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at a node is zero. i = 0
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the voltages drops around any
closed path and the algebraic sum of the emf in that closed path at any instant of time is zero. ie E
+ iR = 0
Resistors
The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to the resistivity of the material and the length
of the resistor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor. The resistance
R of a resistor is given by R= l /
Where is the resistivity ( cm), l is the length (cm), and A is the cross-sectional area (cm2) of
the conductor. Resistivity is an inherent property of materials.
All resistors dissipate power when a voltage is applied. The power dissipated by the resistor is
represented by P = V2 / R Watt. Resistors may be joined to form networks. If resistors are joined in
series, the effective resistance (R) is the sum of the individual resistances. If resistors are joined in
parallel, the effective resistance (R) is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocal of individual
resistances.
Temperature Coefficient of Electrical Resistance
The resistance of a conductor changes with temperature. The temperature coefficient of a conductor
is the change in electrical resistance of the conductor per unit change in temperature. The
temperature coefficient of resistance is measured in / C and may be either positive or negative.
Capacitors
Capacitance is the concept of energy storage in an electric field and is restricted to the area, shape,
and spacing of the capacitor plates and the property of the material separating them. Capacitance of
a parallel plate is expressed as C = A/d and its unit is in Farad.
When electrical current flows into a capacitor, a force is established between two parallel plates
separated by the dielectric. This energy is stored and remains even after the input is removed. The
value of energy stored in a capacitor is C V2
Dielectric Constant is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor with a given dielectric to that of the
same capacitor having a vacuum dielectric. The dielectric constant of vacuum is
0 = 8.854 X 10-12 Farad/meter. The dielectric constant of most materials is affected by both
temperature and frequency, except for quartz, Styrofoam, and Teflon, whose dielectric constants
remain essentially constant.
Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited
If Capacitors are joined in parallel, the effective Capacitance (C) is the sum of the individual C. If
Capacitors are joined in series, the effective Capacitance (C) is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocal of individual Capacitances.
In an ac circuit, the capacitive reactance, or the impedance, of the capacitor is Xc = 1/ 2fC
where XC = capacitive reactance, ; f = frequency, Hz; and C = capacitance, F. The current will
lead the voltage by 90 in a circuit with a pure capacitor.
When a dc voltage is connected across a capacitor, a time t is required to charge the capacitor to the
applied voltage. This is called a time constant and is calculated with the equation t = RC where t =
time(sec.); R = resistance(); and C = capacitance(F).
Quality factor is the ratio of the capacitors reactance to its resistance at a specified frequency and is
found by the equation Q = 1/ 2fCR.
Inductors
Inductance is the property which opposes any change in the existing current. Inductance is present
only when the current is changing. Inductance is used for the storage of magnetic energy. Magnetic
energy is stored as long as current keeps flowing through the inductor. In a perfect inductor, the
current of a sine wave lags the voltage by 90.
The impedance of an inductor to an ac signal, is given by XL = 2fL. where XL = inductive
reactance, ; f = frequency, Hz; and L = inductance in Henry.
If Inductors are joined in series, the effective Inductance (L) is the sum of the individual
Inductances. If Inductors are joined in parallel, the effective Inductance (L) is the reciprocal of the
sum of the reciprocal of individual Inductances. The energy stored in an inductor is equal to
L I2 where L is the Inductance of coil, I is the current flowing in it.
Mutual inductance is the property that exists between two current-carrying conductors when the
magnetic lines of force from one link with those from another.
Inductance of a coil is affected due to following:
Inductance is related to the turns in a coil as follows:
The inductance is proportional to the square of the turns.
The inductance increases as the length of the winding is increased.
A shorted turn decreases the inductance, affects the frequency response, and increases the
insertion loss.
The inductance increases as the permeability of the core material increases.
The inductance increases with an increase in the cross-sectional area of the core material.
Inductance is increased by inserting an iron core into the coil.
Introducing an air gap into a choke reduces the inductance.
When a dc voltage is applied to an RL circuit, a certain amount of time is required to change the
circuit. The time constant of the circuit is given by t = L/R where R = resistance ();
L = inductance (H); and T = time (sec).
Resonant Frequency
When an inductor and capacitor are connected in series or parallel, they form a resonant circuit. The
resonant frequency can be determined from the equation f = 1/2(LC)
Electrostatics
It is normally observed that crackling sound is produced when dry hair is combed with a comb or
while taking off terelene or nylon clothes. The above phenomena are due to the fact that synthetic
clothes and the comb are strongly electrified due to friction. When two bodies are rubbed together a
redistribution of electrons takes place. The body which loses electrons becomes positively charged,
while the body which receives electrons becomes negatively charged.
Coulombs Law of Electrostatics
The magnitude of force of attraction or repulsion between any two charged bodies:
Directly proportional to the products of their charges
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, and
Depends upon the nature of medium between the charges.
Thus electrostatic force between the two charges Q1 and Q2 placed at a distance r from each other is
given by F = k Q1Q2 / r2, where k is a constant of proportionality and depends upon the nature of
medium between the two charges and is called the specific inductive capacity or the dielectric
constant of the medium. The value of k = 1 / 40r
Electric Field Strength

Electric Field strength or electric intensity of an electrostatic field at a point is defined as the force
experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point in the field. It is usually denoted by E. It
is a vector quantity and its direction is that in which an isolated positive charge is forced to move.
The unit of electric intensity is Newton / Coulomb.
E = Q / 40rr2
Electric Flux
The total number of lines of force emanating from a certain charge is called electric flux. Thus
electric fields are represented by electric flux and electric flux paths are not closed loops. Electric
flux is measured in Coulombs. Electric flux density is the electric charge per unit area and is
expressed as D = E where E is the electric field strength and is the permittivity of the medium.
Electric Potential
Electrostatic potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point against the electric field.
The difference of potential between two points in an electric field is defined as the work done in
taking a unit positive charge from one point to the other against the electric field.
In SI system of units, the unit of potential is joule/coulomb.
Potential Gradient
Potential gradient is defined as the rate of change of potential with distance. It is generally denoted
by symbol g. the potential gradient g is given by g = dV / dx where dV is the change in potential
between the two points at distance dx apart. When dV is measured in volts and distance in meters,
the unit of g is volts/meter.
Electromagnetism
The bodies which exhibit the property of attracting iron are generally called magnets. Magnets are
of two types natural and artificial magnets. An iron ore called magnetite is natural magnet.
Artificial magnet can be prepared either by rubbing iron bar with a magnet or by passing an electric
current through a wire wound coil round the iron piece. This is called electromagnet. Magnet has
got two poles north & south and the line joining the two poles is called magnetic axis.
Magnetic Field
The area around a magnet or magnetic pole within which its influence is perceptible, is called its
magnetic field. Magnetic field normally termed as magnetic lines of force travel from one pole to
the other. These lines of forces form a closed loop.
Magnetic Flux
The total number of lines of force in magnetic field is called the magnetic flux. Its unit is Weber
(Wb). The lines of magnetic flux have no physical existence and it is purely imaginary. The
magnetic flux has following properties:
They form closed loops.
They always start from north pole and terminates to south pole and are continuous through
the body of magnet.
They never intersect each other.
Lines of force are like stretched elastic cords and tends to contract lengthwise.
Lines of magnetic flux are parallel and in the same direction thus repel one another.
Lines of force exert lateral pressure therefore tends to bulge outside.
Magnetic flux density is defined as magnetic flux per unit area of a surface at right angle to the
magnetic field. This is measured in Tesla or Wb/m2.
Permeability
A magnetic material when placed in a magnetic field acquires magnetism due to induction. The
measure of the degree to which the lines of force of the magnetizing field can penetrate or permeate
the medium is called the absolute permeability of the medium. The permeability of air is equal to
4 x 10-7 H/m. The absolute permeability of a magnetic medium is expressed as = 0 x r where
0 is the permeability of air and r is the relative permeability of medium.
Magnetic Field Strength
It is the force maintaining the magnetic flux and producing a particular flux density at any point in a
magnetic field. It is denoted by H and is equal to B/ where B is the flux density and is the
permeability of the medium.
Biot Savarts Law
The magnetic field at any point (x) due to an element of length dl carrying a current is directly
proportional to
Length of the element
Current carried by the element (i)
Sine of the angle between the line joining the point (x) with the length (dl)
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the element.
Therefore field strength dH = i dl sin / r2
Biot Savarts law is very helpful in calculating field strength of a conductor of any configuration
carrying a current.
Direction of Magnetic Field
The direction of the current flow and the direction of the magnetic field generated due to current
flowing are interrelated and can be determined through Cork Screw Rule or Right Hand Rule.
Force on Current Carrying Conductor

If a conductor carrying current i is placed in a uniform magnetic field having flux density B, it
experiences a mechanical force that depends upon the magnitude of the current, length of the
conductor, the flux density of the magnetic field and the sine of the angle between the conductor
and the magnetic field
F = B i l sin
The direction of the force is determined by Flemings Left Hand Rule.
Force between Two Parallel Linear Conductors

The two conductors are repelled, when they carry currents in opposite directions. If the currents in
the two conductors are in the same direction the two conductors would experience an attractive
force.
The magnetic flux density B at a radial distance R due to a current i carried by the conductor is
given by B = oi / 2R (Wb/m2)
Hysteresis
When a specimen of ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, the flux
density B within the ferro-magnetic material lags behind the magnetizing force H, This
phenomenon is known as Hysteresis. If the specimen is completely demagnetized and the
magnetizing force H is increased in steps from zero, the relationship between flux density B and H
is represented by the curve OC which is the normal magnetization curve. If the value of H is now
decreased, the trace of B is higher than OC and follows the curve CD until H is reduced to zero.
Thus when H reaches zero, there is a residual flux density referred to as remanant flux density
denoted by Br. In order to reduce B to zero, a negative field strength OE is necessary. The magnetic
field intensity OE required to wipe out the residual magnetism Br is called coercive force. As H is
further increased in the negative direction, the specimen becomes magnetized with the opposite
polarity as shown by the curve EF. If H is varied backwards from LO to OK, The flux density curve
follows a path FGC, which is similar to the curve CDEF. The closed loop CDEFGC thus traced out
is called the hysteresis loop of the specimen.
The term remanant flux density Br is also called retentivity and the term coercive force is often
called coercivity.
The shape of the hysteresis loop will depend upon the nature of magnetic material. Steel alloyed
with 4 % silicon has a very narrow hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis in magnetic materials results in dissipation of energy, which is proportional to the area
of the hysteresis loop. Hence the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Flux density B always lags with respect to the magnetizing force H.
2. An expenditure of energy is essential to carry the specimen through a complete cycle of
magnetization.
3. Energy loss is proportional to the area of hysteresis loop and depends upon the quality of the
magnetic material.
Magnetomotive Force (MMF)
Magnetomotive force can be produced when current flows in a coil of one or more turns. The
Magnitude of mmf is directly proportional to the current i and the number of turns of the coil N.
mmf = N i A. If magnetic circuit of a magnetic material is homogeneous and of uniform crosssectional area, the magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit is called magnetic field
strength(H).
Reluctance
As emf / current is called resistance in electrical circuits, similarly mmf / flux can be termed as
reluctance for magnetic circuits. Thus the reluctance is the property of the magnetic material which
opposes the flow of magnetic flux though it. The magnitude of reluctance is given by
Reluctance = L/ orA for magnetic materials
Reluctance = L/ o A for non-magnetic materials
Hence the reluctance offered by the magnetic circuit or a part of magnetic circuit depends upon
nature of magnetic material, i.e. or,
length of magnetic flux path in the part of magnetic circuit (L)
cross-sectional area of the material through which flux is passing,(A)
The reluctance is expressed in ampere/weber and is denoted by S.
The reciprocal of reluctance is termed as permeance.
Laws of Magnetic Circuits
All the laws applicable to electric circuits such as Ohms law, Kirchhoffs laws etc. can be applied
to magnetic circuits simply by replacing the electrical terms with the corresponding magnetic terms.
Flux in a magnetic circuit is analogous to the current flowing in an electrical circuit.
Magnetomotive force for magnetic circuit is analogous to electromotive force for electrical circuit.
With a similar analogy, different electrical terms can be replaced by similar magnetic term.
Ohms law for magnetic circuit will be,
mmf = flux reluctance
For magnetic circuits,
Reluctance = (1 / permeability) (length / area)
=1 / or l / a
If magnetic circuit are in series than the total reluctance of the complete magnetic circuit will be
equal to the sum of the reluctances of various portions, i.e.
S = S1+S2+S3+
The total mmf for the complete magnetic circuit consisting of a number of homogeneous parts is
given by F = H1l1+ H2 l2+ H3 l3+.
Or, total mmf F = (B1/1 L1 ) + (B2 / 2 L2 ) + (B3 / 3 L3 ) +..
Where l1, l2, l3, etc, are the magnetic flux path lengths in the various parts of the magnetic circuits
and 1, 2, 3,etc, are the absolute permeability of the corresponding parts of the magnetic circuit.
Comparison of the Electric and Magnetic Circuits

Similarities
Electric circuits
Current flows in the circuit
The path of current is called electric circuit
Current flows due to emf
Flow of current is restricted by resistance
the circuit
5. Current = EMF/Resistance
6. Resistance R = L/A
1.
2.
3.
4.
Magnetic circuits
Flux is assumed to flow
Path of flux is called magnetic circuit
Flux flows due to mmf
Flow of flux is restricted by of the of
reluctance of the circuit
Flux = MMF/Reluctance
Reluctance S = L/A
Dissimilarities
1.
Current actually flows in the circuit
2. Energy is needed till the current flows

3. Resistance of the circuit is independent
of the current
Flux does not flow, it is only assumed to

flow for finding out certain magnetic effects
Energy is needed only to create the magnetic
Flux
Reluctance of the circuit changes with the
magnetic flux
Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Faradays first law states that whenever the magnetic flux associated / linked with a closed circuit,
is changed, or alternatively, when a conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetic flux, an emf is induced
in the circuit resulting in an induced current. This emf is induced so long as the magnetic flux
changes.
Faradays second law states that the magnitude of the induced emf generated in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
The change of flux as discussed in the Faradays laws can be produced in two different ways: (i) by
the motion of the conductor or the coil in a magnetic field, i.e. the magnetic field is stationary and
the moving conductors cut across it. The emf generated in this way is normally called dynamically
induced emf; (ii) by changing the current (either increasing or decreasing) in a circuit, thereby
changing the flux linked with stationary conductors, i.e. the conductors or coils remain stationary
and the flux linking these conductors is changed. The emf is termed statically induced emf.
Statically induced emf can be further subdivided into (i) self-induced emf and (ii) mutually induced
emf.
Lenzs Law:
The direction of the induced emf is always such that it tends to set up a current opposing the
change of flux responsible for producing that emf. The direction of the induced emf can be
determined by utilizing Lenzs law.
Flemings Right hand rule:

The direction of dynamically induced emf is determined by the Flemings right hand rule as shown
below
Self-induced EMF
The property of the coil that enables to induce an emf due to a change in current is called selfinduction of the coil. Consider a coil of N turns carrying a current of I amperes and let be the
resulting flux linking the coil. The magnetic flux forms complete loops. The product N is
normally termed as flux linkages. The term N/, i.e. flux linkages/ampere is generally called the
self-inductance of the coil or the coefficient of self-induction and is denoted by a symbol L.
e = -L di /dt
where
L = N/ I henry
Mutually Induced EMF
The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by changing the current in a neighboring
circuit is called mutual induction. The unit of mutual inductance is also henry. It is denoted by M.
Let 1 be the flux in coil P due to current i flowing in it and 2 the flux induced in coil S due to flux
1 in coil P. Thus Mutual inductance can be expressed as the ratio of flux linkage of coil S due to
change of current in coil P.
Delta-Star and Star-Delta Transformation

Delta to Star Conversion
Ra = R1R3 / (R1+ R2 +R3)
Rb = R1R2 / (R1+ R2 +R3)
Rc = R2R3 / (R1+ R2 +R3)
Star to Delta Conversion

R1 = Ra+ Rb+ ( Ra Rb) / Rc
R2 = Rb+ Rc+ ( Rb Rc) / Ra
R3 = Rc+ Ra+ ( Ra Rc) / Rb
10
TRANSFORMERS
Introduction:
Electrical Energy is considered very useful because it can be very easily transmitted & distributed
and also converted to other form of energy. The wide application of electricity has necessitated
development of robust & reliable transmission & distribution network. For transmitting bulk power
over a distance, it is desirable to have high voltage, in order to decrease I2R losses in the conductor.
On the other hand a comparatively much lower voltage is required for distribution & utilisation of
the same power for reasons of safety & convenience. A transformer makes this change of voltage
levels possible- techno-commercially. For all practical purposes, the electrical energy is
transformed thrice or may be four times before being utilised at domestic level.
There are two related principles forming the foundation upon which are based all electromagnetic
machines:
a) Law of Induction:The essentials for production of an electromotive force are electric and magnetic circuits, mutually
interlinked. In a changing / pulsating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the electric circuit. The
emf will persist only for the duration the pulsation takes place. The magnitude of the emf is
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.
For engineering purposes the induction law may be represented in a simplified form as
e= - Tc(d/dt) volts
where Tc is the number of turns in the electric circuit, all of which are linked completely with all the
Weber of induction. The gross flux may be resolved into two components i) mutual or working
component, ii) leakage component.
b) Law of interaction:When a conductor of length l mts. Carrying a current of i amps., lies in & perpendicular to the
direction of a magnetic field of density B webers per sq. m, a mechanical force is developed on it.
The magnitude of the force is represented as
f = Bli newtons
The direction of force is perpendicular to both current and magnetic field.
Principle of Operation:
An electric circuit / conductor carrying electricity, generates a magnetic field in its neighbourhood.
If the current is pulsating / alternating, then the magnetic field at any point in the surrounding will
pulsate / alternate in tandem with the change in current with time.
If another circuit is in the vicinity of the first, it will link some of the magnetic flux produced by the
first. If the current in the first circuit is alternating, it will produce alternating magnetic field, which
in turn will link with the second circuit and induce an emf, which may be represented as
e2 = - (dN2 / dt) volts

If the second circuit is suitably shaped and favourably placed, relative to the first circuit, then
N2 T21
In general N2 will differ from the simple product of T2 & 1 as it is not possible to ensure that all
flux generated by the first circuit will link the second one.
The mutually induced emf produced in the second circuit may be shorted through a load, in which
case a current will flow through the load and dissipate energy. The energy will flow from the first
circuit, to which the entire operation is due. Thus the energy is being transferred from the first to
the second circuit by means of mutual magnetic field. The more closely the first & second circuits
are mutually linked, the more intense becomes the transfer of energy. If the two circuits are linked
by a common iron core, the effect becomes more prominent in the following aspects:
11
a) Considerable increase in the total flux by virtue of improved permeance of the iron core
magnetic circuit.
b) A comparatively low current in the first circuit will be required, since the increased flux
per ampere induces more emf.
c) A much greater proportion of mutual to leakage flux
d) Introduction of losses in the iron core
A transformer is required to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another, via the medium
of pulsating mutual magnetic field, as efficiently and economically as possible. Our knowledge of
magnetic materials advocates the use of iron or steel for conveyance of magnetic flux with much
greater ease than any other material. The circuits / coils are therefore made to embrace an iron core,
which serves as a good conducting path for the mutual magnetic flux, ensuring that the flux links
each coil completely.
An elementary transformer may be represented as follows:
With this elementary transformer circuit, the action of a transformer can be summarised as follows:
An alternating / pulsating voltage V1 is applied to a primary coil of T1 turns linking a suitable iron
core as shown in the figure. A magnetising current (reactive in nature) flows in the coil,
establishing a flux m in the iron part (called core). The magnitude of the flux will be such that it
induces in the coil an emf E1 due to self induction to counterbalance the applied voltage V1 and
establish an electrical equilibrium. If there is secondary coil of T2 turns, linking the same core, then
by mutual induction, an emf E2 is developed. Now if a load of finite value is connected across the
second coil, a current I2 will flow in the secondary circuit under the influence of E2. The secondary
current will, by Lenzs law, tend to reduce the pulsating flux m. This is however is prevented by
automatic adjustment of the primary current I1, thereby maintaining the flux m at the value
required to produce the emf E1. Any reduction of the flux would cause diminution of E1, leaving a
voltage difference between V1 & E1, which would be sufficient to increase the primary current and
thereby re-establish the flux. Thus any current which flows in the secondary, causes its counterpart
to flow in the primary. It is therefore evident that the electrical energy is conveyed from primary to
secondary via the magnetic flux.
The input to the transformer is V1I1 E1I1, neglecting the value of resistance.
Since the entire power input is transferred via the magnetic field, then neglecting the losses, we can
equate E1I1 = E2I2
Then E1/E2 = T1/T2 = I2/I1.
Transformer Construction:
The chief elements of a transformer are:
a) Magnetic Circuit: comprising of limbs, yoke and clamping structure
b) Electric circuit: comprising of the primary, secondary and tertiary windings, formers,
insulation and bracing devices
c) Terminals, tap switches, terminal insulators and leads
d) Tank, oil, cooling devices, conservators
e) Other ancillaries like temperature monitors, pressure relief device, Buchholz relay, oil level
indicator
12
Core / Magnetic Circuit construction:

The core is made of special alloy steel of high resistance and low hysteresis loss. The steel used in
core of transformers before 1960 had electrical properties much inferior to those exhibited by their
present counterparts. The first improvement was made when it was found that small quantities of
silicon added to steel of very low carbon content produced material with low hysteresis loss and
high permeability. Materials used in the past were made by hot rolling and did not exhibit uniform
magnetic properties, across & parallel to rolling direction.
Annealed silicon steel sheet consists of metal crystals or grains. The magnetic property of the sheet
steel is derived from the magnetic property of the individual grains and is a function of the direction
in which the crystals are aligned.
The ideal shape for a core section is a circle, since this would waste no space beyond that taken up
by the insulation between the laminations. A perfectly circular core section would however involve
making a variation in dimension for each successive lamination, which is possible but practically
uneconomical. In practice a compromise is effected by arranging the core section in such a way that
the net sectional area is a maximum for the number of steps employed and that the corners of the
step lie on a circle of a predetermined diameter. Typical core sections have three, five, seven etc.
The core material now in use is grain oriented cold rolled steel of thickness 0.3 to 0.33 mm, coated
on both sides with a thin layer of insulating material.
Core Section: Seven step (left)

Fourteen step (right)
In older days core was generally built up with E & I section laminations. This method of core
building generally gave way to higher losses and exciting current due to abrupt transfer of magnetic
flux at joints.
Three phase mitred core with top yoke
removed.
The Core is assembled on a horizontal surface. The laminations are built up to form the magnetic
circuit. The laminations are interleaved at joints between the limbs and yokes to allow smooth &
efficient flux transfer along the natural grain lines between the core legs & yoke. This is commonly
referred to as mitred core joint. Recent trend for large power transformers is step lap joint where
flux fringing at the joint is further reduced, thereby minimising core losses, exciting current & most
importantly noise level.
13
CRGO is available in various grades generally termed as M3, M4, M5 & M6 depending on
thickness & specific loss & maximum flux density. For example 27 P 100 M4 grade steel
lamination will have specific loss 1.00 W/ Kg at max flux density of 1.85 T whereas 27G 120 M4
shall exhibit somewhat inferior properties like specific loss of 1.2 W / Kg at 1.78 T.
Conventional CRGO laminations are used in cores for general application transformers. With the
advent of star rating of energy efficiency of transformers it has become very important to reduce
core loss. In the last decade manufacturers have come out with a special silicon steel known as HiB grade core, which exhibit very low specific loss ~ 0.85 W / Kg. Popular Hi-B materials are 23
MOH & 27 MOH.
Important Physical properties of CRGO are:
Density in gm/cc: 7.65
Silicon Content: 3.10 %
Resistivity in micro ohm-cm: 48.0
Stacking factor: M4 96 %
M5 96.5 %
M6 97.0 %
Electric Circuit :
There are primarily four types of coils used and they may be classified as:
a) Crossover Coils
b) Disc Coils
c) Helical Coils and
d) Spiral Coils
Crossover Coils: These type of coils are fabricated essentially out round section of conductors and
are suitable for maximum current upto 30 amperes. Crossover coils are largely used for hv
windings of distribution transformers. The complete winding consists of a number of such coils in
series.
Crossover Coil with round

section conductor
Disc Coils: These coils as their name implies, consist of a number of discs wound continuously
from a single wire or strips in parallel. Each coil consists of a number of turns wound radially over
one another, the conductor passing uninterruptedly from disc to disc. The conductor in this case has
to rectangular section, single or multiple in parallel. With multiple strip conductors, transpositions
are made at suitable intervals to ensure uniform current distribution. These windings are suitable for
current ranges from 40 to 60 amperes.
14
Disc Coil: Winding in progress wound

over a collapsible mandrel.
Helical Coils: These coils are suitable for windings carrying moderate current up to 70 to 100
amperes and invariably used for lv windings. The name suggests that the winding is wound in the
form of a helix and consists of a number of rectangular strips wound in parallel radially so that each
separate turn occupies the radial depth of the winding. Helical coils are used for current range ~100
amperes.
Spiral Coils: These coils are suitable for windings carrying large currents over 100 amperes. Spiral
coils consist of layers wound in continuous length from top to bottom and the composite conductor
consists of rectangular strips in parallel.
2-layer spiral winding with
2x3 rectangular section
conductor.
Transformer Oil:
Oil in a transformer serves the double purpose of cooling and insulation. For the oil to be used in
transformer, it has to satisfy certain criteria and carefully selected. The following parameters of oil
play important role:
a) Viscosity- affects cooling and varies with temperature
b) Flash Point- determines the maximum temperature the transformer can attain (1400C)
c) Pour point determines the minimum ambient temperature in which a transformer can be
run ( -60C)
d) Dielectric Strength determines the insulating property of the oil(30 / 50 KV)
e) Water Content expression of moisture present in the oil (50 during acceptance)
f) Acidity determines the maximum extent to which the deterioration of oil may be allowed
due to oxidation ( < 0.03 mg KOH / gm)
g) Resistivity (>35x1012 Ohm-cm at 900C)
h) Dielectric Dissipation Factor - 0.2 % ie 0.002 at 900C
i) Specific gravity has to be always less than 1. Value of around 0.89 acceptable.
All the above parameters play important roles in the functioning of the transformer. The oil in the
transformer undergoes deterioration during the service life of the transformer and it is essential to
carryout periodical inspection & testing of oil. The oil in service has to be purified whenever
necessary in order to maintain it in good condition.
The undesirable impurities, which cause deterioration of oil are:
15
1. Moisture
2. Gas particularly oxygen
3. Suspended impurities
4. Acids
Guiding standards are IS 335, IEC 296
Transformer oil by nature is inflammable. There are some locations where flammable nature of oil
prevents installation of oil filled transformers. In earlier years, Askarels a synthetic liquid based
on polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) have been used to meet such restrictions on the use of mineral oil.
However, due to environmental hazards of PCB productions, these liquid coolants have become
banned in many countries.
Transformer Tank and Cooling:
Tanks are fabricated from sheet steel, welded at joints. The top lid and radiators are of bolted
design with oil resistant sealing gaskets used at bolted joints. In older version transformers cooling
tubes were welded onto tank. In present day design, radiators are either tank mounted or header
mounted depending on transformer capacity.
The various methods of cooling are:
a) AN Air Natural
b) ON- Oil Natural
c) AF- Air Forced
d) OF- Oil Forced
All oil immersed transformers shall have cooling codification ONAN. A transformer having two or
more ratings shall have cooling code ONAN / ONAF / OFAF. By thumb rule these ratings change
in the ratio 1/ 1.5/ 2
The oil present in the transformer tank takes up heat from the coil & core through surface
conduction and rises upward. The cool oil from the bottom flows into space vacated by hot oil.
Thus a continuous circulation of oil is established. The flow of oil is completed by the hot oil
flowing to the tank sides, through the heat exchanger (or radiator), where cooling of oil takes place
and the cold oil flows downward to the bottom of the tank.
To dissipate the heat generated in a large transformer, a plain tank would have an excessively large
surface area and volume, for which a large quantity of oil will be required. Since both space & oil
are very expensive, artificial means for increasing the surface area without increasing the cubic
capacity of the tank have therefore been developed. Artificial cooling surfaces thus developed are in
the form of:
1. Plain Sheet Steel Tank
2. Fins welded to the tank wall
3. Corrugations on the tank surface
4. Round / elliptical section tubes
5. Radiators mounted on tanks or on header structure.
For large size transformers, radiators are employed for better cooling. To achieve even more
cooling with the same radiator format, it is desirable to blow air from the bottom of the radiator
banks by electric fans. For even higher capacity transformers, the best cooling solution is in the
form of an oil pump. The pump forces oil in the direction of natural flow of oil. If however the
cooling medium is water, care has to be taken to ensure that oil in the transformer has a higher
static head than the cooling water so that any leakage in water pipe line will not contaminate the oil
in the transformer.
Conservators are required to take up the expansion & contraction of the oil with changes of
temperature, without allowing the oil to come in contact with the air, from which it is liable to take
up moisture. The displacement of air due to change in oil volume takes place through a breather
containing silica gel crystals which extracts moisture from the air. Experience shows that it is not
16
practically possible to trap the entire moisture present in air by slica gel crystals. The minimal
quantity of moisture that goes into the conservator with air due to breathing action is instantly
absorbed by hot oil due its hygroscopic nature. Absorption of moisture by oil results in its
deterioration along with dissolved gasses particularly oxygen. To obviate this mechanism of oil
contamination by air due to breathing action, design of conservators has been modified to
accommodate an air cell of suitable size, inside. The air cell has to be leak proof and non-reactive to
hot transformer oil. The air cell serves the purpose of separating oil from air since air flows in &
out from inside of the cell while oil occupies area outside the cell.
Air Cell of 75 MVA 132/33 KV

Transformer at KRS.
Deflated Air Cell inside

conservator tank
Conservators are fitted with oil gauges, which indicate oil level in the conservator. Oil gauges are
generally of two types:
a) Prismatic oil
b) Magnetic Oil Gauge
Temperature Monitors:
17
Transformers are also fitted with indicating type instruments viz.

a) Oil Temperature Indicator positioned on the top of the main tank lead. It indicates the
maximum oil temperature
b) Winding Temperature Indicator it indicates average temperature of the winding. It is an
indirect method of winding temperature measurement.
Phase Displacement & Vector Group:
Polyphase transformers are allotted symbols showing the type of phase connection and the angle of
advance / retard of voltage passing from HV winding to lv winding. The angle is indicated by a
clock face hour figure, the HV vector being 12 o clock (zero) and the corresponding lv vector by
the hour hand. Thus a Yd11 represents a star connected primary, delta connected secondary and the
secondary vector at 11 o clock ie. + 30o advance.
There are basically four groups:
Group 1 Zero phase displacement ( Yy0, Dd0, Dz0)
Group 2 180o phase displacement ( Yy6, Dd6, Dz6)
Group 3 30o lag phase displacement ( Dy1, Yd1, Yz1)
Group 4 30o lead phase displacement ( Dy11, Yd11, Yz11)
The vector grouping of a three-phase transformer having delta connected primary, star connected
secondary and a phase displacement of +30O will be Dy11. If however the neutral is taken outside
through a bushing the vector representation will be Dyn11. Commonly used vector symbols are
given below.
18
19
20
21
Losses in a Transformer:
22
a) No-load loss: It comprises of loss in the core, which in turn may be broken into hysteresis &
eddy current loss, also no-load loss includes I2R loss in the HV winding.
b) Load Loss: It comprises I2R losses in both HV & LV windings as well as stray loss that take
place in tank wall and other sheet metal structures.
Impedance Volt:
It is the voltage required on the primary side, to circulate full rated current in the secondary winding
with the secondary winding terminals fully shorted. It is expressed as percentage of the primary
rated voltage and is popularly known as percent impedance.
Parallel Operation of Transformers:
Satisfactory parallel operation of transformers is dependent on 5 principal characteristics:
a) The phase angle difference shall be identical ie of same vector group
b) Same voltage ratio
c) Same polarity
d) Identical or near identical % impedance
e) Same phase sequence
Voltage Variation & Tap Changer:
The voltage of a power system is varied by adjusting tappings on the transformers. The variation in
voltage may be in carried out in pre-determined steps or by stepless control. The tappings on a
transformer are taken out from the HV winding because of low current.
Transformer tap changing equipment generally classified into two categories:
a) OFF circuit Tap Changing in which case the tap changing operation is carried out after
switching off the load & isolating the transformer from both sides. The drawback of this
arrangement is that it necessitates opening the handhole cover & lowering of oil. It is
however extremely simple & cheap.
3-phase 11 KV, 50 A, off-circuit
rotary tap switch
b) ON-Load Tap Changing in which case the tap change operation is carried without
interrupting the load.
All forms of on-load tap changer circuits possess two fundamental features:
An impedance is introduced to prevent direct shorting of two taps
A duplicate circuit is provided so that one circuit may carry the load current while
tap change operation is carried out in other.
The impedance can take the form of either a resistance or a centre-tapped reactor based on which
OLTCs are in general termed as reactor or resistance type. It is well accepted that resistance type
OLTCs demonstrate advantages due to longer contact life, due to relatively short arcing times
(because of upf switching). However in older version OLTCs reactor type switching was more
popular inspite of low contact life, because the reactors were designed to carry full load current
continuously. Whereas the transition resistances have finite time rating due to high power
dissipation when in circuit.
23
The switching or transition resistances are short time rated. With the introduction of nickel
chromium alloy in resistance material, the risk of resistance damage has been reduced to minimal as
the resistances are in the circuit for a few milli-second. The switching time is ~ 60 70 ms.
24
Resistance switching type OLTC schematics.

Autotransformer:
Autotransformers are used when input to output isolation is not mandatory and at the same time
transformation ratio is near unity (not more than 2). An autotransformer has windings common to
both primary & secondary so that input & output circuits are electrically connected as one
continuous winding.
Advantages gained in using an autotransformer over an ordinary transformer are as follows:
a) Considerable saving in conductor material since a portion of winding is common to both
primary & secondary,
b) A further saving in core material since all power from primary to secondary is not
transferred electromagnetically and thus the core has to handle less power.
c) Low losses in core & winding
The advantages accrued by using an autotransformer will be lost if the transformation ratio tend
towards more than 2.
Reference & Bibliography:
J&P Transformer Handbook
Performane & Design of AC Machines by M.G. Say.
IS:335 & IEC 296, Part-I for transformer oil
IS 2026 Part-I, II, III & IV.
25
TESTING OF TRANSFORMER
1.0
Tests on Transformer:
Unlike many items of power system electrical plant (e.g. switchgear, motors) most
transformers are still virtually handmade, little or no mass production is employed in
manufacture and each is produced very much as a one-off. Since transformer is important
and vital equipment, it is therefore, necessary to ensure its proper performance throughout
its service life.
When all manufacturing process has been completed, necessary type testing and / or routine
testing and special & additional tests are performed on transformer at the manufacturer's
works prior to dispatch.
Tests are also carried out on a transformer before commissioning after installation at site
and to detect fault in the transformer after failure in service.
1.1
Standards to be Referred:
The general requirements and details of the various categories of tests are in accordance
with IEC Publication 60076 and Indian Standard IS: 2026.
1.2
Routine Tests:
To check that the quality requirements have been met and that performance is within the
tolerances guaranteed, the following tests are generally performed on every unit
manufactured at works which may also form a part of the customer acceptance requirements.
a) Measurement of winding resistance (Ref. 2.0)
b) Measurement of voltage ratio, polarity and check of voltage vector relationship (Ref.3.0).
c) Measurement of no-load loss and excitation current (Ref.4.0).
d) Measurement of short-circuit impedance and load loss (Ref.5.0).
e) Measurement of insulation resistance & PI (Ref.6.0).
f) Tests on load-tap chargers where appropriate (Ref.7.0).
g) Dielectric tests (Ref.8.0).
(i) Switching impulse withstand voltage test, transformer winding Um > 170Kv
(ii) Lightning impulse withstand voltage test, transformer winding Um > 72.5Kv
(iii) Separate Source withstand voltage test.
(iv) Induced AC over voltage withstand voltage test.
1.3
Type Tests:
The following tests are carried out on a transformer which is the representative of other
transformer to prove that the transformer meets the customer specifications and design
expectations.
a) Dielectric type tests (Ref.8.0).
b) Temperature rise test (Ref.9.0).
26
1.4
Special Test:
In addition to the above tests , any or more of the following special tests other than routine &
type tests may also be performed by mutual agreement between the purchaser and the
supplier to obtain information useful to the user during operation or maintenance of the
transformer.
a) Lightning impulse test on neutral terminal (Ref.10.0).
b) Long-duration induced AC Voltage test (ACLD) for transformer winding
72.5 < Um = 120kV (Ref.8.0)
c) Short circuit Test (Ref.11.0)
d) Measurement of zero sequence impedance on three phase transformer (Ref.12.0)
e) Measurement of acoustic noise level (Ref.13.0)
f) Measurement of harmonics of the no-load current (Ref.14.0)
g) Measurement of the power taken by the fan and oil pump motors (Ref.23.0).
h) Test with lightning impulse chopped on the tail (Ref.15.0).
i) Determination of capacitance and dissipation factor between winding to earth and between
windings (Ref.16.0).
j) Determination of transient voltage transfer characteristics (Ref.17.0).
k) Measurement of Partial Discharge of windings (Ref.27.0)
1.5
Additional Test:
The tests carried out for customer specific requirements are referred as additional Tests.
Any or more of the following tests shall be arranged as additional test.
a) Magnetic circuit (Isolation) test (Ref.18.0)
b) Determination of capacitances and dissipation factor condenser bushing (Ref.16.0).
c) Magnetic balance test on three phase transformers (Ref.19.0)
d) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) of oil filled in the transformer before and after temperature
rise test above 72.5kV (Ref.20.0).
e) Frequency response analysis (FRA) test >170kV (recommended) (Ref.21.0).
f) Measurement of magnetization current at low voltage (Ref.22.0).
g) Functional test on auxiliary equipment (Ref.23.0)
h) Tests on oil filled in transformer (Ref.24.0)
i) Oil pressure test on completely assembled transformer (Ref.25.0)
j) Dew point measurement before dispatching (Ref.26.0)
l) Dielectric tests (Ref.8.0).
m) Measurement of Efficiency & Voltage Regulation (Ref.28.0).
27
1.6
Recommended Field Test:

During transportation, installation and service operation, the transformer may be exposed to
conditions, which can adversely affect its reliability and useful life. It is therefore necessary
to do following Field Tests such as pre-commissioning tests prior to energizing of
transformers to ensure good operating health of transformers.
Interpretation of test results is usually compared with data obtained previously on the same
unit under similar condition.
a) Dew point measurement for large transformer filled with dry air or nitrogen filled
(Ref.26.0).
b) Winding resistance measurement (Ref.2.0)
c) Verification of vector group and polarity (Ref.3.0)
d) Measurement of voltage ratio (Ref.3.0)
e) Measurement of magnetizing current (Ref.22.0)
f) Magnetic balance test on three phase transformer (Ref.19.0)
g) Magnetic circuit (Isolation) Test (Ref.18.0)
h) Measurement of short circuit impedance at low voltage (Ref.5.0)
i) Insulation resistance measurement (Ref.6.0)
j) Measurement of capacitance and dissipation factor on transformer above 72.5kV class.
(Ref.16.0)
k) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) on transformer above 50MVA. (Ref.20.0)
l) Test on oil filled in transformer as per IS 1866. (Ref.24.0)
The purpose interpretation, acceptance criteria and explanation for specific conditions of the tests
are briefly described here.
28
2.0
Measurement of Winding Resistance:
2.1
General:

Resistance measurement helps to determine the following:
a)
Calculation of the I2R losses.
b)
Calculation of winding temperature at the end of a temperature rise test.
c)
As a benchmark for assessing possible damage in the field

Determination of cold temperature:
The resistance is measured at ambient (cold) temperature and then converted to
resistance at 750C, for all practical purpose and comparison with specified design
values, previous results and diagnostics. Thus cold temperature of the winding shall
be determined as accurately as possible when measuring the cold resistance.

For the winding with tapping, the resistance shall be measured at all taps.
2.2
Resistance Measurement Methods:
2.2.1 Voltmeter Ammeter Method :

Method can be employed for the transformer winding with rated current of 1A or
more.
Measurement circuit connections are shown in Fig.1
2.2.2 Bridge Method:

Bridge (Wheat stone or Double Kelvin) Method or high accuracy digital
instrumentation is generally preferred.
The current rating of the measuring instrument should not be very low.
2.3
Precaution to Minimise Measurement Error and Observe Safety:

Charged battery of sufficient capacity at least 10AH shall be used.

To reduce the high inductive effect, it is advisable to use a sufficient high current to
saturate the core.

Polarity of core magnetisation shall be kept same during all resistance measurement
to avoid change in time constant.
The voltmeter should be disconnected before switching the current ON or OFF to

protect the voltmeter from off-scale deflection.
29
The direct current should be switched off by a suitably insulated switch to protect
the personnel from inductive kick

The applied direct current shall be 15% of rated current of winding under text to
avoid heating of the winding.

The measuring instruments shall have such ranges as will give reasonably large
deflection.

Readings shall be taken after the current voltage has reached steady state values.

The voltage leads shall be independent of the current leads and shall be connected as
closely as possible to the terminals of the winding to be measured.

Readings shall be taken with at least four values of current when
deflecting type
instruments are used.
Test results of a typical transformer
30
3.0
Measurement of Voltage Ratio, Polarity & Check of Voltage Vector Relationship:
3.1
Ratio Test
3.1.1 General:

The turn ratio of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns in the high voltage
winding to that in the low voltage winding.

When the transformer has taps the turn ratio shall be determined for all taps and for
the full winding.

The ratio test shall be made at rated or lower voltage.

The voltage shall be applied to the winding from source with higher voltage rating.

When each phase is accessible and independent single-phase supply can be used
although, when convenient, three-phase supply may be used.
3.1.2 Ratio Test Methods
3.1.2.1 Voltmeter Method :

Measuring circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2
The measuring instruments shall have such ranges as will give reasonably large
deflection.
3.1.2.2 Ratio Meter Method :

The diagram of connections for this test is shown in Fig. 3.

This method is most commonly adopted.
In this method the turn ratio on each tapping between pairs of winding shall be
measured by a direct reading ratio meter.
31
This method gives more accurate results using a ratio bridge that provides phase
angle correction, as compared to other methods.
3.1.3 Tolerances for Ratio:

0.5% of the declared ratio
or
A percentage of the declared ratio equal to one-tenth of the actual percentage
impedance voltage at rated current.
3.2
Polarity and Vector Group Verification :
3.2.1 General:

Polarity and phase relation tests are of interest primarily because of their bearing on
paralleling or banking two or more transformers.

Phase relation tests are made to determine angular displacements and relative phase
sequence.

Phase relation or vector group verification test is performed on a three-phase
transformer on a bank of three single-phase transformers.
3.2.2 Polarity Check
3.2.2.1 Polarity by Alternating Voltage Test :
32

The diagram of connection for the test is shown in Fig.4.

For single phase transformer having ratio of transformation <30 the polarity test
shall be done by this method.

Any convenient value of alternating voltage shall be applied to the full high-voltage

winding.
3.2.2.2
The Modern Ratio Bridge are also used to Test Polarity Phase Relation and Phase
Sequence
3.2.3 Vector Group Verification:

A ratio meter method may be adopted to check polarity and vector group
verification.

When ratio meter is not available, this is usually the case on site so that polarity must
be checked by voltmeter.
In this method primary and secondary winding are connected together at one point as
indicated in Fig.5. Low voltage three phase supply is then applied to the HV
terminals. Voltage measurements are then taken between various pairs of terminals
as indicated in the diagram and the readings should be the phasor sum of the separate
voltage of each winding under consideration.
33
34
3.2.3.1
Vector Group Verification of a Typical Dy11 Connected Transformer:

For correct vector group connection, relations of voltages measured should be as below.
A
c
C
VAB = VAn + VBn , VCb > VCc & VBb = VBc
35
4.0
4.1
4.2
Measurement of No-Load Loss and Excitation Current

General:

No load losses are those losses that are incident to the excitation of the transformer.

No-load losses include core losses, dielectric loss and conductor loss in the winding
due to excitation current.

This losses change with the change in excitation current.

Excitation current (no-load current) is the current that flows in any winding used to
excite the transformer when all other windings are open-circuited.

Excitation current is generally expressed in percent of the rated current of the
winding in which it is measured.
Measurement Method:

These two tests are carried out simultaneously and the connections are shown in Fig.
6.

The tests are carried out at 90%, 100% and 110% of rated voltage at rated frequency
and excitation voltage is applied generally to LV winding with HV winding open
circuited.

The frequency of test source should be within 0.5% of the rated frequency of the
transformer under test.

The no load loss determination shall be based on a sine-wave voltage. Two
voltmeter method is used to correct no-load losses to sine-wave basis, using equation
given below:
P=
Pm
P 1 + KP 2
For CRGO: P1 = P2 = 0.5 (assumed)

Where, P = No load losses corrected for sine-wave
Pm = Measurement losses
Pl = Ratio of hysteresis loss to total iron loss
P2 = Ratio of eddy current loss to total iron loss
v

K =
U r
U = Voltage measured by r.m.s. voltmeter
U r = Voltage measured by mean voltmeter
The above corrected is valid for the excitation voltage having 5% distortion. For
greater distortion the excitation voltage should be corrected.
If the test frequency is not equal to the rated frequency, the no-load losses measured
should be corrected to the rated frequency by multiplying correction factor (Kf) as
shown below:
Kf = 0.5 (Fr / Ft) + 0.5 (Fr / Ft) 2
Where Kf = No load loss correction factor to rated frequency
Fr = Rated frequency
Ft = Test frequency
The currents measured during test are excitation current. For three-phase transformer
the average value of three currents is considered for calculation.
36
4.3
Tolerance:

According to IEC 60075 tolerance on iron loss/no-load loss is +15%, but the
combined iron loss plus copper loss must not exceed + 10% of the declared value.

The tolerance of no-load current is + 30% of the declared value.
37
5.0 Measurement of Short Circuit Impedance and Load Loss

5.1 General :

These two measurements are carried out simultaneously.

The load losses of a transformer are those losses incident to a specified load carried by the
transformer.

Load loss include I2R loss in the windings due to load current and stray losses due to eddy
currents induced by leakage flux in the windings, core clamps, magnetic shield, tank walls
and other conducting parts. Stray losses may also be caused by circulating currents in
parallel windings or strands.

The impedance voltage of a transformer between a pair of windings is the voltage required
to circulate rated current through one of two specified windings when the other winding is
short circuited.

Impedance voltage is usually expressed in per unit or percent of the rated voltage of the
winding across which the voltage is applied or measured.
5.2 Test Condition:
To determine the load losses and impedance voltage with sufficient accuracy, the following
conditions shall be met.

The temperature of insulating liquid has stabilised and the difference between top and
bottom oil temperatures does not exceed 50C. The average temperature shall be taken as the
winding temperature for computation of losses.

The temperature of the windings shall be taken immediately either before or after the test.
Each measurements shall be performed quickly and the intervals between them shall be long
enough to ensure significant errors.

The conductors used to short circuit the low voltages, high current winding of a transformer
shall have a cross-section area equal to or greater than the corresponding transformer leads.

The test current shall be at least 50% of the rated current of the winding across which the
voltage is applied.

The impedance shall be measured at rated frequency by applying an approximately
sinusoidal supply to one winding with the terminal of other winding short circuited and with
possible other winding open circuited.

Tap position of tap chargers if any in various winding should not be changed during the
measurement.
5.3 Measurement Method
a)
Measurement with Wattmeter, Voltmeter and Ammeter:

The connection circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7.
38

b)

For three phase transformer three phase power measurement utilising two wattmeter
results in very large errors at low power factors encountered in the test.
For accurate measurement wattmeter should be connected in each phase for three phase
transformer.
Measurement with Power Analysers:
Now a days, digital power analysers or power meters are available for determination of
load losses.
The new generation of analysers are equipped with software for automatic calculation of
corrected losses based on the input data of voltage, current, power, frequency and
temperature.
The connection circuit diagram is shown in Fig.8.
Fig.8
5.4 Corrections:

Load loss measurements vary with temperature and in general must be corrected to a
reference temperature.

The copper loss and impedance are normally guaranteed at 750C but in fact both are
normally measured at test room temperature and the results obtained corrected to 750C
on the assumption that the direct load loss (I2R) varies with temperature as the variation
in resistance and the stray load loss varies with the temperature inversely as the
variation in resistance.
The formula for calculating load loss at reference temperature is
R r =R
235 + r
235 + t
t
Pa t = Pt I 2 Rt
P ar = P
235 + t
235 + r
at
Pr = I 2 R r + Pa r
where, I = Rated current of test winding
Rr = Winding resistance at reference temperature in ohm
39
Rt = Winding resistance at test temperature in ohm

Or = Reference temperature in 0C
Ot= Test temperature in 0C
Pat = Stray/additional loss at test temperature
Par = Stray/additional loss at reference temperature
Pt = Load loss at test temperature
Pr = Load loss at Reference temperature
Impedance voltage measurement to vary with frequency and the frequency
corrections should be applied to calculate the actual impedance at rated frequency as
following:
The formula for calculating the percentage impedance with current and frequency
correction is :
V
I
f
Z % = test x rated x r x100
ft
V rated I test
where, Vtest = Test Voltage
Vrated = Rated Voltage
Itest = Test Currents
Irated = Rated Current
ft = Test Frequency
fr = Rated Frequency
40
6.0 Measurement of Insulation Resistance

6.1 General:
Insulation Resistance Tests are carried out to determine insulation resistance from individual
winding to ground or between individual windings. The insulation resistance in such tests is
commonly measured in mega-ohms.
6.2 Instruments:
Insulation resistance may be measured using any of the following equipment:
A variable-voltage DC power supply with means to measure voltage and current (generally in
micro-amperes or milli-amperes). Insulation resistance may be calculated from the
measurements of voltage and current.
A Mega-ohm meters, commonly available with nominal voltages of 500V, 1000V, 2500V and
5000V DC or in multiples of 1000V upto 10,000V measure insulation resistance directly in
mega-ohm. The connection diagram is shown in Fig. 9
6.3 Voltage to be applied:
The DC voltage applied for measuring insulation resistance to ground shall not exceed a value
equal to half of the applied power frequency voltage of the winding or 5kv whichever is lower.
6.4 Test Procedure:
The oil / air temperatures shall be measured and recorded immediately prior to the test.
All external insulating parts of the transformer shall be cleaned thoroughly to remove dust.
Insulation resistance tests shall be carried out with all circuits of equal voltage above ground
connected together. Circuits or groups of circuits of different voltages above ground shall be
tested separately. The connection diagram of mega-ohm meter and DC power supply for the
tests are shown in diagram Fig.-10. For two winding transformer, insulation resistance tests
shall be carried out for high voltage to low voltage & ground and low voltage to high voltage &
ground.
During testing through variable-voltage DC power supply voltage should be increased in
increments of usually one kilovolt and held for one minute while the current is read. The test
should be disconnected immediately in the event of current begin to increase without
stabilizing.
After the test has been completed, all terminals to be grounded for a period of time sufficient to
allow any trapped charges to decay to a negligible value.
6.5 Polarization Index (PI):
Purpose of polarization index test is to determine if the equipment is suitable for operation or even
for an over-voltage test. The polarization index is a ratio of insulation resistance value at the end of
10 minutes test to that at the end of 1 minute test at a constant voltage.
The total current that is developed when applying a steady state DC voltage is composed of three
components:
Charging current due to the capacitance of the insulation being measured. This current falls off
from maximum to zero very rapidly.
Absorption current due to molecular charge shifting in the insulation. The transient current
decays to zero very slowly.
Leakage current which is the true conduction current of the insulation. It has a component due
to the surface leakage because of the surface contamination.
The advantage of PI is that all of the variables that can affect a single IR reading, such as
temperature & humidity, are essentially same for both the 1 min & 10 min readings. Since leakage
current increases at a faster rate with moisture present than does absorption current, the IR readings
will not increase as fast with insulation in poor condition as with insulation in good condition. After
41
10 min the leakage current becomes constant and effects of charging current and absorption current
die down.
6.6 Acceptance Criteria:
It is recommended that PI value for power transformer shall be better than 1.5
7.0 Tests on On-Load Tap-Changers

7.1 Operation Tests:
With the tap changer fully assembled on the transformer the following sequence of operations shall
be performed without failure
42
With the transformer de-energized, eight complete cycles of operations (a cycle of operation
goes from one end of the tapping range to the other, and back again)
With the transformer de-energized, and with the auxiliary voltage reduced to 85% of its rated
value, one complete cycle of operation.
With the transformer energized at rated voltage and frequency at no load, one complete cycle of
operation.
With one winding short circuited and, as far as practicable, rated current according to IEC
60076-1 in the two windings, 10 tap-change operations across the range of two steps on each
side from where a coarse of reversing change over selector operates, or otherwise from the
middle tapping.
7.2 Auxiliary Circuits Insulation Test:
After the tap-changer is assembled on the transformer, the wiring of auxiliary power & control
circuitry shall be subjected to a 1 min AC separate source test of 2 kV r.m.s. to earth according to
IEC 60076-3 unless otherwise specified.
7.3 Test Report of OLTC for a typical transformer is given below
43
8.0 Dielectric Test

General
The purpose of the dielectric test is to demonstrate that the transformer has been designed and
constructed to withstand the specified insulation levels.
For oil immersed transformers, the requirements apply to the internal insulation only.
The dielectric tests shall generally be made at the manufacturers works with the transformer
approximately at ambient temperature, but at least at 10 degree centigrade.
Dielectric tests for different categories of windings shall be performed according to the Table- 1
(Ref. IEC 60076-3) and in the sequence as given below.
Switching Impulse test (SI) for the line terminals
Lightning Impulse test (LI) for the line terminals
Lightning Impulse test (LI) for neutral terminals
Separate source AC withstand voltage test (Applied potential test)
Short duration induced AC withstand voltage test (ACSD)
Long duration induced AC withstand voltage test (ACLD)
Table:
Category
of
winding
Highest
voltage for
equipment
Um kV
Uniform
insulation
Um=<
72.5
72.5<Um=
Uniform
and non- <170
uniform
170<Um
insulation
=<300
Um>=300
Tests
Lightning
Impulse
(LI)
Switching
Impulse
test (SI)
Long
duration
AC
(ACLD)
Short
duration
AC
(ACSD)
Separate
source AC
Type
Not
applicable
Special
Routine
Routine
Routine
Not
applicable
Special
Routine
Routine
Routine
Routine*
Routine
Special*
Routine
Routine
Routine
Routine
Special
Routine
* If ACSD test is specified the SI test is not required

8.1 Separate Source AC withstand voltage test.
The objective of this test is to check the dielectric strength withstanding between the winding under
test and the ground.
The typical simplified connection diagram is shown in fig- below.
The separate source AC withstand voltage test shall be made with single phase alternating voltage
as nearly as possible on sine-wave form and not less than 80% of the rated frequency.
The peak value of voltage shall be measured. The peak value divided by 2 shall be equal to the
test value.
The full test voltage shall be applied for 60s between all terminals of the winding under test
connected together and all terminals of remaining windings, core, frame and tank or casing of the
transformer, connected together to earth.
The test shall commence at a voltage not greater than one-third of the specified test value, and the
voltage shall be increased to the test value in not more than 15s. After being held for the specified
time of 60 seconds, it should be reduced (in not more than 5s) to one-third or less of the maximum
value and the circuit opened.
The test is successful if no collapse of the test voltage occurs.
44
Table: Dielectric withstand test level according to IEC 60076-3 or IS 2026-3 for typical system
voltages.
System voltage (kV)
Applied voltage (kV)
220
395
132
275
36
70
11
28
20
0.4
Te s t Tra ns fo rm e r
T r a n s f o r m e r u n d e r te s t
CV D
C h a r g in g
c urrent
A m m e te r
F IG -
A
*
**
T y p ic a l C o n n e c t io n D ia g r a m fo r S e p a r a t e S o u r c e
V o lt a g e W ith s t a n d T e s t
45
8.2 Short duration induced AC withstand voltage test (ACSD)

8.2.1 Induced AC voltage withstand Test for Uniform insulation
Induced AC voltage short duration (ACSD) test is intended to verify the AC withstand strength of
each line terminal and its connected winding(s) to earth and other windings, the withstand strength
between phases and along the winding under test.
The typical simplified connection diagram is shown in figAn alternating voltage shall be applied to the terminals of one winding of the transformer.
The voltage shall be as nearly as possible sinusoidal and its frequency is sufficiently above the rated
frequency to avoid excessive magnetizing current during the test.
The test duration at full test voltage shall be 60s for test frequency up to and including twice the
rated frequency. For frequency above twice the rated frequency the time duration of test shall be:
120 X Rated frequency / Test frequency sec, but not less than 15 sec.
The phase to phase test voltage shall not exceed the power frequency AC withstand voltages
mentioned in Table: 1, also the test voltage across an untapped winding of the transformer shall be
as close as possible to twice the rated voltage.
The peak value of voltage shall be measured. The peak value divided by 2 shall be equal to the
test value.
The test shall commence at a voltage not greater than one-third of the specified test value, and the
voltage shall be increased to the test value in not more than 15s. After being held for the specified
time of 60 seconds, it should be reduced (in not more than 5s) to one-third or less of the maximum
value and the circuit opened.
In t e r m e d ia t e
Tra ns f orm e r
T r a n s f o r m e r u n d e r te s t
CT1
CT2
G
CT3
CV D
P.T .
V m k V / 2
D ig it a l P o w e r M e t e r
F IG -
In d u c e d V o lt a g e T e s t
8.2.2 Induced AC voltage withstand Test for Non-Uniform insulation

The test sequence for a three phase transformer consists of three single phase applications of test
voltage with different points of the winding connected to earth at each time. Recommended test
connections which avoid excessive over voltage between line terminals are shown below in fig. .
Test frequency selection and duration of test are similar to that for induced AC voltage withstand
test for uniform insulation.
Typical calculation of test voltage for 132/34.5kv transformer is given below
U1 = AC withstand voltage of 132kv Line side =275kv
U2 = 1/3 X U1 = 91.7KV
Voltage of HV winding at Tap 1 =143.55kv
Voltage of LV winding = 34.5kv
46
Ratio = 143.55/(34.5 x 3) = 2.402

Source voltage required for test = US = 91.7/2.402 = 38.2KV
Following simplified circuits are shown below for single phase induce voltage test connection.
For HV winding, it has two winding connected in parallel and series with one winding. These have
voltage distributed in the each as shown in fig. A
For LV winding, it has two winding connected in series and parallel with one winding. These have
voltage distributed in the each as shown in fig. B
For above mentioned connection the flux distribution in each core limb is as shown in Fig. C
V1
2 x 1 /3 V 1
V1
F ig - A
V 2= 2 x 1/3 V 1
Vs
A
C
Us
V a=2 x V s
F ig - B
Vs
F ig - C
8.3 Long duration induced AC withstand
voltage test (ACLD)
This test is not a design proving test, but a quality control test and is intended to cover temporary
over voltages and continuous service stress. I verifies PD free operation of the transformers under
operating condition.
47
ACLD test is always performed with the measurement of partial discharge during the whole
application of test.
Test arrangements and conditions are similar to that for ACSD test.
The time sequence for application of the test voltage, whether this is a test to earth or a test between
phases is as shown in fig.
The test voltages to earth shall be:
U1 = 1.7 Um / 3 kV
U2 = 1.5 Um / 3 kV
For networks where transformers are severely exposed over voltages, values for U1 & U2 can be
U1 = 1.8 Um / 3 kV & U2 = 1.6 Um / 3 kV
Time sequence for the application of test voltage with respect to earth
A = 5 min
B = 5 min
C = test time
D = 5 min
E = 5 min
48
8.4 Lightning Impulse Test for Line Terminals

8.4.1 General:
This test is intended to verify the impulse withstand strength of the transformer under test.
This test shall only be made on windings that have terminals brought out through the transformer
tank or cover.
Simplified connection diagram of test circuit is shown in Fig.
For oil immersed transformer, the test voltage is normally of negative polarity, because this reduces
the risk of erratic external flashovers in the test circuit.
Bushing spark gaps may be removed or their spacing increased to prevent spark over during the
test.
The test impulse shall be full standard lightning impulse: 1.2s +/-30% / 50s +/-20%
8.4.2 Test Sequence:
The test sequence shall consist of one impulse of a voltage between 50% and 75% of the full test
voltage (Table-2), and three subsequent impulses at full voltage. If, during any of these
applications, an external flashover in the circuit or across a bushing spark gap should occur, or if
the oscilloscope-graphic recording should fail on any of the specified measuring channels, that
application shall be disregarded and a further application made.
8.4.3 Test Connections:
The impulse test sequence is applied to each of the line terminals of the tested winding in
succession. In the case of a three phase transformer, the other line terminals of the winding shall be
earthed directly or through a low impedance, not exceeding the surge impedance of the connected
line.
If the winding has a neutral terminal, the neutral shall be earthed directly or through a low
impedance such as a current measuring shunt. The tank shall be earthed.
In the case of separate winding transformer, terminals of windings not under test are likewise
earthed directly or through impedances, so that in all circumstances, the voltage appearing at the
terminals is limited to not more than 75% of rated lightning impulse withstand voltage for star
connected windings and 50% for delta connected windings.
Table-2: Lightning Impulse withstand test level according to IEC 60076-3 or IS 2026-3 for typical
system voltages.
System voltage (kV)
Applied voltage (kVp)
220
950
132
650
36
170
11
75
60
The test is successful if no failure is detected after comparing wave shapes of different oscillograms
during the test.
49
Rectifier
Rod gap
Voltage Divider
CRO
Impulse
Generator
CRO
Test Object
Sphere gap
HV Transformer
FIG-
General Arrangement of Equipment for an

Impulse Test
8.5 Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage Test (Transformer Winding Um > 170Kv) :
This test is intended to verify the switching impulse withstand strength of the line terminals and its
connected windings to earth and other windings, the withstand strength between phases and along
the winding under test for surges generated by system switching.
The impulses are applied either directly from the impulse voltage source to a line terminal of the
winding under test, or to a lower voltage winding so that the test voltage is inductively transferred
to the winding under test.
For switching impulse withstand test the voltage impulse shall have a virtual front time of at least
100s, a time above 90% of the specified amplitude of at least 200s, and a total duration from the
virtual origin to the first zero passage of at least 500s but preferably 1000s.
The impulses are applied either directly from the impulse voltage source to a line terminal of the
winding under test, or to a lower voltage winding so that the test voltage is inductively transferred
to the winding under test.
According to IEC 60076-3 the test voltage for transformer winding with highest system voltage
245kv is 750kv.
The test is successful if there is no sudden collapse of voltage or discontinuity of the neutral current
indicated on the oscillographic or digital record.
9.0 Temperature Rise Test
9.1 General:
Temperature rise test is performed to prove that temperature rise comply to limits specified in
standards and to derive thermal characteristic of the transformer.
9.2 Test Conditions:
The test is carried out by supplying calculated total losses (sum of maximum copper loss or load
loss at reference temperature and iron loss or no-load loss at rated voltage previously obtained by
two separate determination of losses) for sufficient time to ensure that the temperature rise of the
winding and oil reach steady state value.
The transformer shall be assembled completely with its cooling equipment and conservator.
The top oil temperature is measured by a temperature sensor in a pocket (filled with oil) at the top
of the transformer tank, and this is used to verify that steady conditions have been reached.
Final winding temperatures cannot be measured directly. The average winding temperature is
determined via measurement of winding resistance.
50
The transformer shall be tested in the combination of connections and taps that give the highest
winding temperature rises. This will generally involve those connections and taps resulting in the
highest losses.
All temperature rise test shall be made under normal (or equivalent to normal) conditions of the
means of cooling.
The temperature-rise test shall be made in a room that is free from drafts as practicable and
equipped with its protective device.
Precautions should be taken to minimize variations of cooling air temperature specially when the
steady state is approached. Rapid variation of reading should be prevented by providing at least
three sensors, and average of their readings shall be used for evaluation. The sensors shall be
distributed around the tank 1m to 2m away from the tank or cooling surface and protected from
direct radiation. The sensors shall be placed at a level about half way up the cooling surface.
9.2 Purpose of This Test:
To establish the top oil temperature rise in steady state condition with dissipation of total losses.
To establish the average winding temperature rise at rated current and with the top oil
temperature rise as determined above.
9.3 Short Circuit Method of Temperature-rise Test:
Simplified connection diagram is shown with sample test report.
This is achieved b in two steps
a) Total Loss Injection
First the top oil and average oil temperature rises are established when the transformer is
subjected to a test voltage such that the measured power is equal to total losses or at least 80%
of the total losses of the transformer. The test current will be above the rated current to the
extent necessary for producing an additional amount of loss equal to the no-load losses, and
winding temperature rise will be correspondingly elevated.
The oil temperature and cooling medium temperature are monitored, and the test is continued
until a steady state temperature rise is established.
The test may be terminated when the rate of change of top oil temperature rise has fallen below
1deg cent per hour and has remained there for a period of 3 hour.
b) Rated Current Injection
When the top oil temperature rise has been established, the test shall immediately be continued
with a test current reduced to 50% the rated current for the winding combination connected.
This condition is maintained for 1 hour, with continuous observation of oil cooling medium
temperatures.
At the end of 1 hour, the resistances of windings are measured with a suitable method.
During the hour with rated current the oil temperature falls. The measured values of winding
temperature shall therefore be raised by the same amount as the average oil temperature rise has
fallen from the correct value. The corrected winding temperature value minus the cooling
medium temperature at the end of the total losses injection period is the average temperature
rise.
9.4 Determination of Average Winding Temperature Rise
The average winding temperature is determined via measurement of winding resistance. A
reference measurement (R1, 1) of all winding resistance is made with the transformer at ambient
temperature, in a steady state condition. When the resistance R2 at different temperature (2) is
measured this yields the temperature value
Copper: 2 = R2/R1( 235 + 1) 235
The external cooling medium temperature at the time of shutdown is a
51
The winding temperature rise is then, finally

w = 2 - a
Corrections
If the specified values of power and current have not been obtained during the test, the result shall
be corrected according to the following relation. They are valid within a range of +/-20% from
target value of power and +/-10% from target value of current.
The rise of oil temperature above ambient during the test is multiplied by
[Total losses/Test losses]
Where
X = 0.8 for distribution transformers
X = 0.9 for larger transformers with ON cooling
X = 0.8 for transformers with OF & OD cooling
The average winding temperature rise above average oil temperature during the test is multiplied
by:
[Rated current/Test current]
Where
X = 1.6 for ON & OF cooled transformer
X = 0.8 for OD cooled transformer
52
9.5 Test Reports of a typical Transformer:
53
54
10.0 Lightning Impulse Test on Neutral terminal

When the neutral terminal of a winding has a rated impulse withstand voltage, it may be verified by
a test as follows:
a) By indirect application:
Test impulses are applie4d to any one of the line terminals or to all three line terminals of a
three phase winding connected together. The neutral terminal is connected to earth through an
impedance or is left open, and the voltage amplitude developed across this impedance or to
earth, when a standard lightning impulse is applied to the terminal, shall be equal to the rated
withstand voltage of the neutral terminal. No prescriptions are given for the shape of the
resulting impulse across the impedance. The amplitude of the impulse applied to the line
terminal is not prescribed, but shall not exceed 75% of the rated lightning impulse withstand
voltage of the line terminal.
b) By direct application:
Test impulses corresponding to the rated withstand voltage of the neutral are applied
directly to the neutral with all line terminals earthed. In this case, however , a longer
duration of the front time is allowed, up to 13
s.
11.0 Short Circuit Test
11.1 General:
The test identifies the requirement for power transformer to withstand without damage the thermal
and dynamic effects of over-current originated by external short circuit.
External short circuits are not restricted to three phase short circuits; they include line-to-line,
double-earth and line-to-earth faults.
The test demonstrate the thermal ability and dynamic effects of power transformer to withstand
rated short circuit forces.
It is in relation to short circuit performance and the demonstration that a transformer has adequate
mechanical strength.
This is the third common cause of failure of the transformer.
However, for all but the smallest transformers, the performance of practical test is difficult due to
the enormous rating of the test plant that would be required.
The detail procedures describing the magnitude of test current, test duration, no. of tests and
evaluation criteria shall be as per IEC 60076-5.
11.2 Procedure:
In order to obtain a test current, the no-load voltage of the source may be higher than the rated
voltage of the winding supplied.
The short circuiting of the winding may either follow (post set short circuit) or precede (pre set
short circuit) the application of the voltage to the other winding of the transformer.
To obtain the initial peak value of current in the phase winding under test, the moment of
switching-on shall be adjusted by means of synchronous switch.
For star connected windings, the maximum asymmetry is obtained by switching on when the phase
voltage passes through zero.
For three phase test on delta connected windings, this condition is obtained by switching on when
the line-to-line voltage passes through zero.
Simplified diagram for three phase test arrangement is given below in fig.
55
Components
Zs Test system impedance
S Synchronous switch for post-set short circuit or a rigid connection bar for pre-set short circuit.
12.0 Measurement of Zero-phase sequence Impedance on 3-phase Transformer

The zero-phase-sequence impedance characteristics of three phase transformers depend upon the
winding connections and in some cases, upon the core construction.
Zero phase sequence impedance tests apply only to the transformers having one or more windings
with a physical neutral brought out for external connection.
In all tests, one such winding shall be excited at rated frequency between the neutral and three line
terminals connected together.
Zero-phase-sequence impedance in percentages shall be determined for the same winding pair
combinations considered for positive sequence impedance measurement during load loss test.
The current through neutral shall not exceed rated current.
The acceptance norms for %Z shall be either as per customer specification or mutually agreed
upon.
Zo is expressed in ohm/phase by equation Zo = 3V/I
Where V = Test voltage
I = Test current
56
Test report of a typical transformer
13.0 Measurement of Acoustic Sound

Audible sound from transformer originates principally in the transformer core and is transmitted,
either through the dielectric fluid or the structural support, to other solid surfaces from which it is
radiated as airborne sound.
The audible sound also contains the noise emitted by any dielectric fluid mechanical cooling
system.
Measurement should be made in an environment having an ambient sound pressure level at least 5
decibels bellow the combined sound pressure level of the Transformer and the ambient sound
pressure level.
Transformer shall be located so that no acoustically reflecting surface is within 3 meter of the
measuring microphone, other than the floor and ground.
The Transformer shall be connected and energized at rated voltage & the rated frequency, and shall
be at no load with the tap changer on principle tap. and fans shall be operated as appropriate for the
rating being tested.
Sound measurement shall begin after the transformer being tested is energized and steady state
sound level conditions are established. Measurement may be made immediately on the transformer
that have been in continuous operation.
The measurement shall be done with the microphone, which shall be calibrated as recommended by
the sound level meter manufacturer before and after measurement.
57
Measurement of the audible sound and microphone location for a typical transformer is given
below.
58
Analysis of Test Results:
59
14.0 Measurement of Harmonics of the No-load Current

The test voltage for the measurement of the harmonics shall be the rated rms voltage of the
winding.
The harmonics of the no load current in all the phases are measured by means of harmonic analyzer
and the magnitudes of the harmonic is expressed as a percentage of the fundamental component.
Test result of no load current and its harmonics analysis of a typical transformer is given below.
15.0 Test with Lightning Impulse Chopped on Tail

This test is a special test and should be used for special applications on line terminals of a winding.
When it has been agreed to make this test, it shall be combined with the full lightning impulse test
in the manner described below:
The peak value of the chopped impulse shall be 1.1 times the amplitude of full impulse.
Usually the same settings of the impulse generator and measuring equipment are used, and only the
chopping gap equipment is added.
60
The standard chopped lightning impulse shall have a time to chopping between 2s to 6s sec.
The recommended order of the different impulse application is
One reduced level full impulse.
One full level full impulse.
One or more reduced level chopped impulse.
Two full level chopped impulse.
Two full level full impulse.
The same types of measuring channels and oscillographic or digital records are specified as for the
full wave impulse test.
16.0 Determination of Capacitances and Dissipation Factor between winding to earth &
between windings and Bushings.
Capacitance and tan delta are usually determined for winding to earth & between windings by
bridge measuring technique such as Schering Bridge.
The test specimens have the following requirements:
All windings immersed in insulating material.
All windings short circuited.
All bushings are in place.
The applied voltage for measuring capacitance and tan delta shall not exceed half of the low
frequency test voltage, for any part of the winding or 10kV whichever is lower.
The above test shall be made from winding to ground and between winding as shown below.
61
Function
UST
GST
GSTg
Connection
Guard
Result
HV
LV
CHL
LV
HV
CLH
HV
LV
CHL+CH
LV
HV
CLH+CL
HV,LV
Tank
CH+CL
HV
LV
CH
LV
HV
CL
Accepta
nce
criteria:
At temp. 20oC
Winding
Tan Delta<= 0.3%
Bushing
Tan Delta<= 0.2%
Test Results for a typical transformer is given below.
17.0 Determination of Transient Voltage Transfer Characteristics:

When the low voltage winding can not be subjected to lightning over voltage from the low voltage
system, this winding may, by agreement between supplier and purchaser be impulse tested with
surges transferred from high voltage winding
This method is also used when the design is such that an impulse directly applied to the low voltage
winding could result in unrealistic stressing of higher voltage windings, particularly when there is a
large tapping winding physically adjacent to the low voltage winding.
During this test the line terminals of the low voltage winding is connected to earth through
resistance of such value that the amplitude of the transfer impulse voltage between line terminal and
earth, or between different line terminal or across a phase winding, will be as high as possible but
not exceeding the rated impulse withstand voltage.
The magnitude of the applied impulses shall not exceed the impulse level of the winding to which
the impulses are applied.
The details of the procedure shall be same as the lightning impulse test of line terminal of the HV
winding.
62
18.0 Magnetic Circuit (Isolation) / Core Insulation Test:

This test is done with the help of MEGGER or by AC supply.
During this test other terminals should be in open circuit position.
This test is done by applying AC voltage between the core lamination to the end frame, core
lamination to tank and between end frames to tank (if end frame is isolated from tank).
The value of test voltage shall be 2 kV unless otherwise specified.
The duration of the test voltage application is 60 seconds.
Alternatively the test is performed with the help of MEGGER. In which the value of insulating
resistance is measured between two terminals.
18.1 Acceptance criteria:
Test will be successful if the terminals withstand the require AC voltage for test duration.
The values of the insulation shall be at least one meg-ohm or as recommended by the manufacturer.
19.0 Magnetic Balance Test on 3-phase Transformers.
This test is conducted only in 3 phase transformers to check the imbalance in the magnetic circuit.
The test shall be performed before winding resistance measurement.
The test voltage shall be limited to maximum power supply voltage available at site.
19.1 Method:
Test results of a typical transformer are given below.
1N
1U
2U
1V
2V
1W
2W
The induced voltage is measured with 2 kV applied on HV winding on all the three limbs, one at a
time.
* Voltage applied
19.2 Evaluation criteria:
The voltage induced in the center phase is generally 15% to 90% o the applied voltage on the outer
phases. However when the center phase is exited then the voltage induced in the outer phases is
generally 30-70% o the applied voltage.
63
20.0 Dissolve Gas Analysis (DGA) of The Oil of the Transformer

20.1 General:
For many years the method of analysis gases dissolved in oil has been used as a tool in transformer
diagnostic in order to detect incipient fault, to supervise suspected transformers, to test a hypothesis
or explanation for the probable reason of failures or disturbances which has already occurred and to
ensure that new transformers are healthy.
The evaluation criteria in dissolve gas analysis is based on the fact that during its lifetime the
transformer generates decomposition gases-essential from the organic insulation under the
influence of various stresses- both normal and abnormal.
The gases that are of interest for the DGA are the following:
H2- Hydrogen
CH4- Methane
C2H4- Ethylene
C2H6- Ethane
C2H2- Acetylene
C3H6- Propene (not always measured)
C3H8- Propane (not always measured)
CO- Carbon Monoxide
CO2- Carbon dioxide
O2- Oxygen
N2- Nitrogen
TCG- Total combustible gas content (=H2+ CH4+ C2H4+ C2H6+ C2H2+CO)
All these gases except oxygen & nitrogen may be formed during the degradation of the insulation.
The amount and the relative distribution of these depend on the type and severity of the degradation
and stress.
20.2 Procedure:
The DGA procedure consist of essential four steps
Sampling of oil from the transformer.
Extraction of these gases from oil.
Analysis of the extracted gas mixture in gas chromatography, GC.
Interpretation of the analysis according to an evaluation scheme.
The well known DGA analysis techniques are ;
Identification of the key gas. The key gas identifies a particular problem, e.g., H2 indicates a
PD.
Determination of ratios between gases, normally between gas level.
Determination of rates of increase ( production rate) in ppm per day or ml gas per day.
The scheme used to understand the evaluation is based on ratios. For instance, the IEC method uses
three ratios: C2H2/ C2H4, CH4/ H2, C2H4/ C2H6.
CH4/H2 used to discriminate between a thermal fault and an electric fault.
C2H2/C2H4 indicates the presence of a strong discharge of very severe electric problem.
And C2H4/C2H6 is an indication of the oil temperature.
21.0 Frequency Response Analysis (FRA)
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) is conducted on transformers and reactors to determine the
frequency response of windings.
64
The reference frequency responses obtained during laboratory testing serve as fingerprints to
monitor the condition of the transformer or reactor during service.
The frequency response of an electrical winding is obtained by application of sweep frequency
(sinusoidal).
The response is uniquely determined by the winding arrangement involved and any winding
movement or other fault will modify the frequency response due to changes in inductances and
capacitances.
The sweep frequency voltage is applied through network analyzers.
The frequency response of the winding is determined between the frequency ranges of 10Hz to 2
MHz.
The FRA test is performed in one winding of the electrical equipment at a time.
The two end terminals of each winding shall be made available for measuring the frequency
response across the winding.
For star connected winding, the response shall be measure across the line terminal &
neutral.
For delta connected winding, the response shall be measure across two line terminals and in
case of open delta, across individual winding.
For auto connected winding , the response of series and common windings shall be measure
separately.
The frequency response of the winding is determined by plotting the ratio of the output of the
winding to the input in a frequency range of 10Hz to 2MHz.
The FRA results are analysed for :
Changes in response of the winding.
Significant difference between the FRA records of different phases of the same transformer.
Significant difference between same phase of identical transformers.
FRA test is primarily a condition assessment test and can be used in conjunction with other
diagnostic tests for detail analysis and interpretation of the transformer.
22.0 Measurement of Magnetization Current at Low Voltage
For three phase transformers , the test shall be conducted either with 415 volts 3phase (neutral
grounded) or 230 V single phase.
For 1-phase transformer the test shall be conducted with 230V.
The test is performed to locate defect in magnetic core structure, shifting of winding, failure in turn
insulation or problem in tap changers.
The acceptance criteria for the results of exiting current measurement should be based on the
comparison with the previous site test results or factory test results.
The general pattern is two similar high readings on the outer phases and one lower reading on the
center phase, in case of 3- phase transformer. And agreement to within 25% of measured exciting
current with the previous test is usually considered satisfactory.
If the measured exciting current value is 50% higher than the value measured during pre
commissioning test, then the winding needs further analysis.
65
Test Results of a typical transformer when primary winding is supplied from 400V 3-phase source
and secondary winding kept open circuited and vice versa are given below.
23.0 Functional Test on Auxiliary Equipment

23.1 OTI and WTI :
Check status of contact after setting alarm and trip by multi-meter.
Heating at the bulb of thermometer until a temperature up to alarm and trip setting.
Check status of contact again.
The accuracy of indication shall be +/- 1.5% full scale deflection.(FSD)
23.2 Buchholz relay:
Open a terminal cover & testing cover.
Check status alarm & trip contact by multi-meter.
Push / rotate test button and check status of the contact again.
23.3 Pressure Relief Device
Check status of contact by multi-meter.
Push a test button & check status of contact again.
Push a rest button & check status of contact again.
23.4 Oil Level Gauge:
Check Status of contact by multi-meter.
Take off oil level indicator from base.
Simulate magnetic indicator lower than of conservator tank and check status of contact
again.
Assemble oil level indicator to base.
23.5 Cooling Fan & Pump test
Insulation resistance test at voltages, 1000V DC, not less than 50Meg Ohm between
winding & ground.
66
Measurement of current & power consumption at rated voltage and frequency with pumps
and fans being operated as appropriate for the rating of the transformer under test.
23.6 High Voltage Test on Insulation of auxiliary winding
Unless otherwise specified the wiring or auxiliary power and control circuitry shall be subjected to
a 1 minute power frequency withstand test of 2 kV rms to earth.
Test report of auxiliary power consumption for a typical transformer is given below.
67
24.0 Tests on Oil Filled in Transformer

Following test on the oil filled in the transformer shall be necessarily performed before conducting
electrical test to ensure proper oil impregnation of the insulation system.
24.1 Dielectric strength:
The voltage at which at which the oil breaks down when subjected to an AC electric field with
continuously increasing voltage contained in the specified apparatus is called dielectric strength.
The voltage is expressed in kV.
Dielectric strength of oil is determined by two methods.
First method utilizes spherical capped electrode in the test cell, which is recommended primarily for
filter, degassed and dehydrated oil prior to and during filling of electrical power equipment rated
230kV & above.
The second method utilizes flat electrodes and recommended all other apparatus.
24.2 Water Content:
High water content in oil accelerates the chemical deterioration of the insulating paper and is
indicative of the undesirable operating conditions or maintenance requiring correction.
24.3 Dielectric dissipation factor (Tan delta at 90oC):
This test covers the determination of the power factor of new and service aged oil.
This test is used to indicate the dielectric losses in the oil when used in an alternating electric field
and of the energy dissipated as heat.
This test is satisfactorily performed in the field as well as in a laboratory environment.
The power factor limits given for oil are based upon the understanding that this is an indicator test
for contamination by excessive water or polar or ionic materials in the oil.
High level of dissipation factor (0.5% at 25 oC) is because of contaminants may collect in the areas
of high electrical stress and concentrate in the winding.
Very high dissipation factor (> 1%) in oil may be caused by the presence of free water which could
be hazardous to the operation of a transformer.
The recommended value of water content , BDV and tan delta are given in the table below:
System voltage of transformer BDV
(kV)
(kV)
Above
Upto
&
including
Water content Tan delta at

(ppm) max
90 oC
(%)
72.5
60
20
<0.05
72.5
245
65
15
<0.02
245
420
70
10
<0.01
420
800
75
10
<0.01
24.4 Resistivity:
This is numerically equal to the resistance between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of liquid.
Resistivity measurement are made at many different temperature but for acceptance test it is
generally done at a temperature of 90 oC, while for routine testing, it is usually made at room
temperature or at 90 oC.
The average electrical stress to which specimen is subjected to shall not be >200V/mm nor
<1200V/mm.
68
The upper limit is set with the purpose of avoiding possible ionization if higher stresses are
permitted.
25.0 Oil Pressure Test on Completely Assembled Transformer
25.1 General
This test is done after completion of all electrical and temperature rise test. Transformer with
cooling bank, bushing and other accessories shall be tested for any oil leakage at high pressure
(normal pressure plus 35kN per sq.m measure at the base of tank) and at room temperature as
specified by the customer.
25.2 Procedure
The procedure for conducting this test is as follows:
Conservator along with the Buchholtz relay shall be disconnected.
Calibrated pressure gauge shall be mounted at the bottom of the tank.
Bushings will remain mounted.
In welded cover type construction cooler bank, bushing shall be removed but all turrets &
cover pipe work shall remain.
Fill the oil, completely and release all trapped air.
The specified pressure shall be maintained for the specified test duration as specified in the
test schedule or quality plan.
The test duration should be at least one hour unless otherwise specified.]
25.3 Criteria for oil pressure test:
During the pressure test there shall not be any leakage.
If there is pressure drop during the test either because of some trapped air inside the transformer or
due to ambient temperature variation, the pressure shall be raised to the specified level.
The unit will be considered to pass the test only if there is no visual oil leakage.
Pressure drop shall be considered as failure of the unit of the test.
26.0 Dew-Point Measurement for Large Transformers Filled with Dry Air or Nitrogen
Large rating transformer are transported to site from manufacturing works, without oil and filled
with dry air or nitrogen due to weight limitations. Positive gas pressure is generally maintained at
0.175kg/sq.mm during transportation & storage.
After arrival of transformer at site it is necessary to check the gas pressure and if it is not positive
there is every possibility that moisture must have gone inside the transformer during transportation.
To ascertain this factor & to check the dryness of the insulation, dew point measurement is carried
out at site.
Dew point is the temperature at which the water vapors present in the gas filled in the transformer
begins to condense.
69
For transformer with a gas pressure of 0.3 PSI, the acceptable limits of dew point shall be as under:
70
27.0
PD Measurement of Winding :
71
27.1 Test report of a typical transformer is given below
72
2.0
MEASUREMENT OF EFFICIENCY & VOLTAGE REGULATION :

Test report of a typical transformer is given below
References:
IS 2026 & IEC 60076
73
SWITCHGEAR
"Switch" means a device that energizes or de-energizes an electrical equipment / circuit

from an electrical system.
"Gear" means a device that couples or decouples a mechanical load
"Switchgear" means a combination of equipment that couples or decouples electrical
load with power network.
Combination of equipment means Circuit Breaker, Isolating Contacts, CTs, PTs, Busbars,
Cable termination arrangement, Control equipment, Meters, etc.
Components of a Switchgear:
1. Circuit Breaker
Circuit Breaker is a part of Switchgear.
It essentially consist of a pair of fixed and moving contacts in each phase that closes / opens
as and when required.
The contacts are housed in a compartment (called interrupter) filled with an insulating
material to withstand the system voltage when the contacts open, and to quench the arc
when load / fault current is interrupted.
A Circuit Breaker must be able to carry normal load current continuously.
It must be capable of closing / opening on faults and it should carry the rated fault current
for some specified time.
CBs are connected to the bus in a drawout design, allowing to be withdrawn partially or
fully while the entire switchgear is powered on.
CBs have numerous components that can be inspected and replaced, eg. contacts, pole
assemblies, insulator components, mechanism parts, etc.
Switchgear is larger and requires front and rear access. In addition, the clearance in front
must take into account the space needed to drawout a breaker while still maintaining the
required clearances.
In a switchboard, consisting of several switchgear coupled with each other, all the
compartments for breakers are segregated. In the event of a short circuit on a breaker, the
resulting energy will be contained and isolated from other breakers and from bus and cable
compartment
2. Isolating Contacts & Isolators
This isolates the CB from the system.
This must be operated when the CB is off.
The isolators / isolating contacts are mostly air insulated except in GIS and in some old
switchgear eg. Metro-Vickers switchgear at NCGS.
These are capable of carrying load / fault current but are not capable of making / breaking
fault current.
3. Current Transformers
The current flowing in a network needs to be monitored for metering / protection. Since the
magnitude of current flowing in the primary circuit is large and difficult to monitor, CTs are
used to reduce the current down to a value suitable for metering / relaying. CT also provides
isolation between HV Primary circuit and LV protection / metering circuits.
CTs are housed inside the circuit chamber for switches upto 33 kV and are usually a separate
unit above this voltage.
74
4. Voltage Transformers :
Steps down the primary voltage to a value, usually 110V, for relaying, metering & other
miscellaneous purposes.
VTs are housed on the CB truck (Siemens, ABB etc.) upto 33kV but in 132 kV system and
above VTs are separate entity.
5. Operating mechanism :
This is a mechanical device which enables closing & tripping of the switchgear. The mechanism
can be hand operated or electrically operated or pneumatic/ hydraulic operated.
Solenoid closing
: Solenoid supplies the energy for closing operation. 6 kV BTH

breaker at Entally S/S, Simla S/S, 33kV Reyrolle OCBs at PRS,
TRS etc. are of solenoid closing system. Supply for the Solenoid
coil is given from station LT supply.
Spring closing
: Stored energy of spring is used for closing / tripping. Operation

of 6 kV EE & Reyrolle OCB, 6 & 33kV ABB & Siemens CB,
132 kV MOCB at TRS etc.
Manual closing
: DC CB at various D/S & Rectifier Stations. 6/11 kV OCBs at

Consumer premises, are closed manually.
Pneumatic closing/opening
: Uses air pressure for close / open operations. Example 132 kV

ABB Make SF6 CBs at Majerhat 132 kV S/S. (In these cases,
opening energy is supplied by an opening spring which is
automatically charged during closing operation.)
For low rupturing capacities hand operated mechanisms are used, otherwise in all HV and EHV
Breakers spring or solenoid mechanism are used except in 132 kV GIS Breakers.
6. Bus Bars :
A busbar in electrical power distribution refers to thick strips of copper or aluminum that
conduct electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation, or other electrical
apparatus.
Size of the busbar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that can be
safely carried.
Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes allow heat to dissipate
more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio.
Due to skin effect, hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A
hollow section has higher stiffness than a solid rod, which allows a greater span between
busbar supports in outdoor switchyards.
Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or clamp
connections. Often joints between high-current bus sections have matching surfaces that are
silver-plated to reduce the contact resistance.
75
Busbar Arrangements
Single Bus Bar (SBB) :
6 & 11 kV SBB: ABB SF6 switchboard & Siemens Vacuum switchboard at different stations,
Reyrolle board at Hare Street D/S (vertical isolation) 33 kV SBB: Siemens board at SRS, East Cal
S/S, Majerhat S/S.
Double Bus Bar (DBB) :
6 & 11 kV DBB: Reyrolle board at Sukchar D/S, Park Lane D/S, BIECCO board at Elgin Road
D/S, AEI board at Sinthia D/S, Voltas board at BBD Bag D/S, Southern D/S, Amherst Street D/S
etc. 33 kV DBB: Reyrolle board at TRS, PRS, Siemens board (horizontal isolation) at SRS etc.
Double Breaker Double Bus Bar (DBDBB) :
6 & 3.3 kV DBDBB: EE board at Bhatpara D/S. 33 kV DBDBB: Metropoliton-Vickers board at

Mulajore S/S.
Advantages of Double Busbar Arrangement
Security of supply
Loading flexibility of incomers
Two busbars can run from two systems (Generation / Import)
76
7. Circuit Chamber :
In this chamber power cables are terminated. Different types of termination arrangements are used
in our system - Single Cable per phase
- Two Cables per phase
- Three Cables per phase
- Doubling Arrangement
Types of Switchgear:
1. Basis : Location of installation
a. Outdoor
b. Indoor
2. Basis: Isolation capability:
a. Fixed Execution type (Non-withdrawable, cannot be isolated)
b. Withdrawable type (can be isolated)
Withdrawable CBs can again be of two types a) Horizontal Isolation & draw out type
b) Vertical Isolation & Horizontal draw out type
3. Basis: No. of Busbars
a. Single Busbar
b. Double Busbar
4. Basis: Interrupter type
a. ACB (Air Circuit Breakers)
b. BOCB (Bulk Oil Circuit Breakers)
c. MOCB (Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers)
d. VCB (Vacuum Circuit Breakers)
e. SF6 Circuit Breakers
Circuit Breaker Theory & Practice
Function of a Circuit Breaker :1. Carry the load current (Normal rating) upto maximum rating continuously without overheating.
2. Make and break the circuit under normal load conditions.
3. Must interrupt the fault current rapidly during short circuit to isolate the faulty part from the
system (kA rating).
4. Close onto a circuit in which a fault exists and immediately reopen.
5. In the off state the gap must withstand any abnormal voltage rise between the circuit and
busbar.
6. Should be able to carry short circuit currents till the fault is cleared by another breaker in the
downstream.
7. Ensure safety to the operating personnel.
The process of fault clearing has the following sequence:
1 - As the fault occurs, the fault impedance being low, the currents increase and the relay gets
actuated. The moving parts of the relay move because of the increase in the operating torque.
The relay takes some time to close its contacts.
77
2 - Relay contacts close the trip circuit of the Circuit Breaker closes and trip coil is energized.
3 - The operating mechanism starts operating for the opening operation. The Circuit Breaker
contacts separate.
4 - Arc is drawn between the breaker contacts. The arc is extinguished in the Circuit Breaker by
suitable techniques. The current reaches final zero as the arc is extinguished and does not
restrict again.
Function of an Interrupter:
In a Circuit breaker, on receipt of a trip command, the main contacts start separating and as a result
an arc is drawn across them. This arc is controlled and ultimately extinguished in the interrupter.
The interrupter therefore,
Elongates Arc length
Cools down Arc temperature
Safely & quickly interrupts Arc
Arc Quenching Process in Different CBs 1) BOCB In Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker oil serves a two-fold purpose, i.e., as means of extinguishing the arc
and also for providing insulation between the live parts and the metallic tank.
In its simplest form the process of separating the current carrying contacts was carried out under
oil with no special control over the resulting arc other than the increase in length caused by the
movement of contacts. As the power systems began to develop, resulting in higher voltages and
higher fault levels, plain break type breaker could no longer keep pace with the requirements.
Various methods of controlling the breaking process were investigated and developed.
This led to the development of controlled break oil Circuit Breaker. This employed pressure
chamber and is still widely used because it is relatively cheap to make and gives greatly
improved performance in terms of final extinction, gap length and arcing time, as against the
plain break oil Circuit Breaker. Various designs exist according to the preferences and
requirements of individual manufacturers and designations such as Cross Jet Type, Explosion
Pot and Baffle pot, etc.
Many oil Circuit Breakers feature special arc control devices most of which are based on the
simple pressure chamber principle but incorporate certain modifications aimed at improving the
breaking capacity.
Key Points
Interrupters of all 3 phases are enclosed in an oil filled tank (Dead tank)
Oil has two functions (1) to provide insulation, (2) to assist arc interruption.
Disadvantage - Fire Hazard & need for frequent maintenance.
2) MOCB As the system voltages and fault levels increased the Bulk Oil Breakers required huge quantities
of insulating oil and became unwieldy in size and weight. This added enormously to the cost of
a power system. Simultaneously improvements were made in the technique of ceramics. The
function of oil as insulating medium in the Bulk Oil Breakers was transferred to the porcelain
containers. Only a small quantity of oil was used to perform its functions as arc quenching
medium. This led to the development of minimum oil volume or low oil content breakers in the
continent of Europe.
78
Like the Bulk Oil Breakers these have also since then passed through many stages of
development with varying designs of the arcing chambers. Contrary to the operation of the
impulse type Circuit Breaker, such as air blast Circuit Breaker, in which arc extinction and
dielectric recovery are affected by means of an external quenching medium, the process of arc
extinction in the minimum oil volume Circuit Breaker is of internal thermodynamic origin.
During the tripping operation an arc strikes in oil between the moving contact and the fixed
contacts This arc is elongated vertically in the explosion pot until the distance travelled is
sufficient to withstand the voltage between contacts.
The increase in internal pressure due to splitting up and vaporization of oil by the arc creates a
rapid movement of the extinguishing medium round the arc. This self-quenching effect causes a
rapid cooling of the ionized column along its whole length due to partition of the explosion pot
and the dielectric recovery is sufficiently rapid to prevent the arc restricting after a natural
passage through zero. The electric arc itself has, therefore, supplied the necessary energy for its
own extinction.
One of the limitations put forward against this class of breakers is frequent maintenance, owing
to reduced quantity of oil and consequent liability to quick carbonization, on circuits susceptible
to frequent tripping because of too many faults.
Key Points
Each phase has separate Insulated tank (Live tank)
Oil has one function namely to assist arc interruption.
Disadvantage - Fire hazard exits but less than BOCB & frequent maintenance is required
3) VCB In case of a Vacuum Interrupter, when the contacts separate, the current to be interrupted
initiates a metal vapour arc discharge and flows through this plasma until the next current zero.
The arc is then extinguished and the conductive metal vapour condenses on the metal surfaces
within a matter of microseconds. As a result, the dielectric strength in the break builds up very
rapidly.
The self generated field causes the arc root to travel, thereby preventing local overheating when
large currents are being interrupted. Certain minimum current is necessary to maintain the metal
vapour arc discharge. Current of a lesser value is chopped prior to current zero, causing unduly
high voltages, as may happen during interruption of no load magnetizing currents of unloaded
transformers. The rapid build up of the dielectric strength in the break enables the arc to be
safely extinguished even if contact separation occurs immediately prior to current zero.
Further the arc voltage developed in vacuum interrupter is low (say between 20 to 200 V) due to
high conductivity of metal vapour plasma. For these reasons the arc energy developed in the
break is very small. High Switching life is claimed on this account.
Performance is claimed to be immune to pollution because of interrupters being hermetically
sealed.
Key Points
Each phase has separate vacuum interrupter (vacuum level 10-8 Torr, 1 Torr= 1 mm of Hg)
(Live tank)
No fire Hazard
Light mechanism & less wear & tear
However vacuum cannot be monitored on line.
Interrupters cannot be repaired
79
4) SF6 CB The first high-voltage SF6 circuit-breaker built in 1956 by Westinghouse, could interrupt 5 kA
under 115 kV, but it had 6 interrupting chambers in series per pole. In 1957, the puffer-type
technique was introduced for SF6 circuit breakers where the relative movement of a piston and a
cylinder linked to the moving part is used to generate the pressure rise necessary to blast the arc via
a nozzle made of insulating material. In this technique, the pressure rise is obtained mainly by gas
compression.
Several characteristics of SF6 circuit breakers can explain their success:
Simplicity of the interrupting chamber which does not need an auxiliary breaking chamber;
Autonomy provided by the puffer technique;
The possibility to obtain the highest performance, up to 63 kA, with a reduced number of
interrupting chambers;
Short break time of 2 to 2.5 cycles;
High electrical endurance, allowing at least 25 years of operation without reconditioning;
Possible compact solutions when used for GIS or hybrid switchgear;
Integrated closing resistors or synchronized operations to reduce switching over-voltages;
Reliability and availability;
Low noise levels.
The reduction in the number of interrupting chambers per pole has led to a considerable
simplification of circuit breakers as well as the number of parts and seals required.
80
New types of SF6 breaking chambers, which implement innovative interrupting principles, have
been developed over the past 15 years, with the objective of reducing the operating energy of the
circuit-breaker. One aim of this evolution was to further increase the reliability by reducing the
dynamic forces in the pole.
Puffer Technique In this technique, the reduction of operating energy was mainly achieved by the lowering energy
used for gas compression and by making increased use of arc energy to produce the pressure
necessary to quench the arc and obtain current interruption. Low current interruption, up to about
30% of rated short-circuit current, is obtained by a puffer blast.
AutoPuffer Technique Further development in the Puffer technique was made by the introduction of a valve between the
expansion and compression volumes. When interrupting low currents the valve opens under the
effect of the overpressure generated in the compression volume. The blow-out of the arc is made as
in a puffer circuit breaker thanks to the compression of the gas obtained by the piston action. In the
case of high currents interruption, the arc energy produces a high overpressure in the expansion
volume, which leads to the closure of the valve and thus isolating the expansion volume from the
compression volume. The overpressure necessary for breaking is obtained by the optimal use of the
thermal effect and of the nozzle clogging effect produced whenever the cross-section of the arc
significantly reduces the exhaust of gas in the nozzle. In order to avoid excessive energy
consumption by gas compression, a valve is fitted on the piston in order to limit the overpressure in
the compression to a value necessary for the interruption of low short circuit currents. This Auto
Puffer technique has now been used extensively for the development of many types of interrupting
chambers.
Key Points
Each phase has separate SF6 gas filled interrupter (Live tank)
No fire Hazard
Mechanism heavier & higher wear & tear than vacuum
SF6 gas pressure/ density can be monitored on line.
Interrupters can be repaired.
Possibility of gas leakage.
Standard Ratings of Circuit Breakers 1) Rated Voltage It is the highest System Voltage for which the CB is designed.
In our network the highest system voltage is taken as 10% above the nominal
voltage. This voltage also depends upon the altitude of the installation site.
Nominal
Voltage
Highest
System Volt
Altitude in
Feet
Voltage Correction
Factor
6.6 kV
7.2 kV
11 kV
12 kV
3300
1.00
33 kV
36 kV
4000
0.98
132 kV
145 kV
5000
0.95
220 kV
245 kV
10000
0.80
(Rated voltage to be multiplied by)
2) Rated Insulation Level It is the basic dielectric withstand capacity of the CB, which it must
withstand under specified test conditions. For impulse tested apparatus it is expressed by a peak
81
impulse voltage value and for nonimpulse tested apparatus it is expressed by a power frequency
r.m.s. voltage value.
Rated
Voltage
Rated Power Frequency

Withstand Voltage (1 min)
Rated Impulse Withstand

Voltage
7.2 kV
20 kV
60 kVp
12 kV
28 kV
75 kVp
36 kV
70 kV
170 kVp
145 kV
275 kV
650 kVp
245 kV
395 kV
950 kVp
Basic Insulation Level (B.I.L.) of a CB is denoted as Rated Voltage / Rated Power

Frequency withstand Voltage / Rated Impulse withstand Voltage
3) Rated Frequency It is the standard frequency of the system. In India the standard frequency is
50 Hz. In some other countries it is 60 Hz.
4) Rated Current It is the r.m.s. value of current which a CB can carry without exceeding the
permissible value of temperature rise. Standard current ratings are 400, 630, 800, 1250, 1600,
2000, 2500, 3150 and 4000 Amps.
5) Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current It is expressed by two values :
(b) r.m.s. value of the AC component
(c) the percentage DC component
A standard CB is guaranteed to break any short circuit current containing an AC component up
to the rated value associated with any percentage of DC component up to that specified. This is
guaranteed up to rated voltage only. Beyond the rated voltage no breaking current is guaranteed
except to the extent provided for rated out of phase breaking current.
For a Circuit Breaker
Breaking Capacity = 3 x Rated Voltage x Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current
6) Rated Short Circuit Making Current It is the peak value of the maximum current, including
the DC component, in any pole during the first cycle of current, when the CB is closed.
Theoretically at the instant of fault occurrence, the value of this making current can be as high
as twice the symmetrical value of the current. For any CB the rated making current should not
be less than the highest peak value of short circuit breaking current at the rated voltage.
Making Capacity = 3 x Rated Voltage x Rated Short Circuit Making Current
NB: Making capacity depends on the maximum fault current a CB can carry during closing of
breaker, ie. during closing a breaker on fault. The making capacity is always higher than
breaking capacity because it is expressed in peak value not r.m.s., and also because of the
maximum DC offset.
7) Rated Operating Sequence (Duty Cycle) It is specified as: O t CO t - CO
where:
O = Opening operation,
CO = Closing & Opening operation without any intentional delay,
t = 0.3 sec. (for CBs with auto-reclosing facility) & 3 min. (for CBs other than autoreclosing facility)
t = 3 minutes (for spring charging)
8) Rated Short Time Current It is the amount of current (at least equal to the rated short circuit
breaking current) which should be carried by a CB for a period of one second. If the duration of
short circuit is more than one second, then the time current relationship will be I2t = Constant
82
Terms Associated with Circuit Breakers In a reactive circuit when current is interrupted at zero point, a transient voltage appears across the
opened contacts, which after successful interruption, dies down to system voltage. When a pure
resistive circuit is interrupted, the supply voltage is zero at the time of interruption; therefore the
recovery voltage has no transient component.
Current and TRV waveforms during interruption of inductive current
Current and TRV waveforms during interruption of resistive current
1) Restriking Voltage It is the transient peak value of voltage that appears across the circuit
breaker terminals at or near current zero after extinction of arc.
2) Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (R.R.R.V.) It is the rate of voltage rise across the CB
terminals after current interruption. For a restriking voltage having a single frequency transient
component, the RRRV is obtained by dividing the maximum amplitude of the voltage by
duration of the first half cycle.
83
3) Transient Recovery Voltage - It is the voltage that appears across the terminals after current
interruption. It is a critical parameter for fault interruption by a high-voltage circuit breaker, its
characteristics (amplitude, rate of rise) can lead either to a successful current interruption or to a
failure (called reignition or restrike).
The TRV is dependent on the characteristics of the system connected on both terminals of the
circuit-breaker, and on the type of fault that this circuit breaker has to interrupt (single, double
or three-phase faults, grounded or ungrounded fault ..).
Characteristics of the system include:
Type of neutral (effectively grounded, ungrounded, solidly grounded)
Type of load (capacitive, inductive, resistive)
Type of connection: cable connected, line connected..
According to IEEE standard, the most severe oscillatory or exponential recovery voltages tend
to occur across the first pole to open of a circuit breaker interrupting a three-phase ungrounded
symmetrical fault at its terminal when the system voltage is at a maximum.
4) Recovery Voltage - The Power Frequency rms voltage, which appears across the breaker
contacts after the arc is finally extinguished and transient oscillations die out, is called Recovery
Voltage.
5) First Pole to Clear Factor A three pole CB will not trip all three phases simultaneously. The
first pole to clear the fault will experience the highest Transient Recovery Voltage and the
associated Power Frequency Recovery Voltage for this first phase will begin to appear after the
second pole has interrupted the current flow. The Pole Factor is the ratio between the Power
Frequency Recovery Voltage and the corresponding phase voltage after the current interruption.
In solidly earthed system the highest First Pole to Clear Factor occurs with three phase fault.
For rating purposes, two values of the First-Pole to Clear Factor (kpp) are defined for the threephase short-circuit condition. The choice between these two values is dependent on the system
grounding arrangement:
a) Systems with ungrounded neutral: Value for kpp of 1.5 is used;
b) For effectively grounded systems: Value for kpp used is 1.3.
A third condition does exist, this is where the fault is single-phase in an effectively grounded
system and the last-pole-to-clear is considered. For this kpp is taken as1.0.
Formula for the first-pole-to-clear factor
where X0 is the zero sequence & X1 the positive sequence reactance of the system.
If X0 >> X1, as in ungrounded systems then: kpp = 1.5
If X0 = 3.0 X1, as in effectively grounded neutral systems then: kpp = 1.3
Pole-to-clear factors (kpp) for each pole when clearing three-phase to ground faults
84
Main Basic Interlocks

Suitable interlocks are provided to prevent mal-operation or accident situations, These are :
1. A Breaker cannot be racked in or out when it is ON.
2. A Breaker can only be closed when it is either in "Service" or in "Test" Position and not in
any intermediate position.
3. A Breaker can only be closed electrically in service position when the secondary Plug-in
contacts (Jumper) are connected.
4. A Breaker can only be racked in or out when the door is closed (for modern gears only)
5. Built in Cable Earthing Switch of a Feeder Switch cannot be switched on unless the CB is
OFF & Isolated.
6. Built in Bus Earthing Switch of a section of Busbars cannot be switched on unless all the
CBs in the section of the Switchboard are OFF & Isolated.
7. A circuit breaker can only be isolated when it is OPEN.
8. A circuit breaker can be selected only at the positions determined by the locator mechanism.
9. Access to all high voltage parts is denied in the SERVICE position.
10. A circuit breaker cannot be closed in the SERVICE position unless the jumper contacts
connected.
Gas Insulated Switchgear (GIS)
Non-withdrawable (Fixed Execution), metal clad single or double busbar switchgear, in
which insulation at all locations is provided by SF6 gas and as a result the overall size gets
drastically reduced.
Panel width 600mm for 33kV & 1000mm for 132 kV
3 phase or 1 phase encapsulation
Upto 33kV - Vacuum Interrupter, above 33 kV - only SF6.
All chambers partitioned with Gas tight Epoxy Barrier Joints.
Why SF6 ?
SF6 is used in electrical equipment because of its dielectric strength, excellent
insulating properties and its arc-suppression capabilities.
It insulates 2.5 times better than air (N2), so it allows very compact design.
Its quenching properties are 100 times better than air (N2) and has better heat dissipation
than in air.
Construction (33kV GIS)
A panel comprises the following items
1. Cast aluminum chamber with cover.
2. Busbar (three phase segregated)
3. Breaker pole housing (three) with upper and lower bushings.
4. Vacuum circuit breaker.
5. Cubicle containing circuit breaker-operating mechanism.
6. Current and voltage transformers.
7. Auxiliary equipment.
8. Cable or bar terminations.
9. Three position switch.
10. Three position switch operating mechanism and interlock.
85
11. Support frame.

Advantages of GIS
1. Compact Construction
2. Less space requirement
3. Insensitivity to external environment (altitude, saline atmosphere, weather pollution etc)
4. High service reliability due to sealed environment.
33kV
86
Outdoor Switchyards
Components:
1. Outdoor Circuit Breakers
2. ACSR / Pipe Busbars
3. Outdoor Isolators
4. Outdoor CTs & PTs
5. Lightning Arrestors
6. Cable Termination / Overhead Jumpers
7. Transformers & Earthing Transformers
8. Yard Earthing
Secondary Components of Switchgear
The components are auxiliary switch, auxiliary plugging contacts, spring charge motor circuit,
closing, tripping, alarm, indication, metering, protection circuit, secondary wiring and accessories.
Isolators
Isolating Device to isolate
CBs from Busbars & Circuits
VTs from Circuits
Circuits / Cables from Busbars / CBs
Can interrupt negligible current & hence generally to be operated in off-load condition.
Interlocks are provided to ensure such operation.
Types:
On the basis of mounting
Horizontal (Upright)
Vertical
Underhung (Drop down)
On the basis of construction
Center Post Rotating (conventional and Turn Twist)
Center break
Pantograph
Vertical
On the basis of operation
Manual (hand operated)
Power operated (electrical usually, also pneumatic & stored spring operated)
Interlocks
Mainly two types ie. mechanical & electrical.
Isolators on both sides of a CB cannot he operated unless the CB is off (usually
mechanical with Castle Key).
Earthing Isolator cannot be closed unless the Main Isolator is open (usually mechanical &
built in with the mechanism, at times Castle Key)
Line Isolator can be closed when corresponding CB & Earth switches are open.
CB can be closed if Isolators on both sides are fully open or close.
In case of Line Isolators Incoming Circuits having CB at a remote station, the Isolator can
be opened when remote CB is OFF (usually Electrical Bolt Interlock).
87
Other Types Switchboard

33 kV JYOTI SPLITTER BOARD
It is a ring main isolator which can have (a) one incomer and two outgoing feeders, (b) two
incomers and an outgoing feeder / transformer feeder. It can have (a) one link truck and two
breakers or (b) two link trucks and one breaker. It is normally an air insulated board with MOCB
and provided with interlocking device.
33 kV PI / IVS BOARD
Functionally it is the same as that of a splitter board with the difference that it has got fault making
load breaking oil switches instead of MOCB in series with busbar-earth selector. The arrangement
for earthing and insertion of cable test bushings facility is provided.
33 kV RMI
This is simply a delta formed ringmain isolator with arrangements for isolating a feeder. It is only
provided with castle key interlock for operation on deenergised condition.
Monitoring of Switchgear:
Whether taking normal load.
Whether "Healthy Trip" lamp is glowing.
Whether heater ammeters (wherever provided) are taking normal load.
Whether there is any abnormal sound.
Whether there is any abnormal heating.
References :
A. Books 1) Switchgear Protection & Power Systems by Sunil S. Rao
2) Switchgear & Protection by J. B. Gupta
3) Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering by Colin Bayliss
4) Power System Protection and Switchgear by Badri Ram & Vishwakarma D.N.
5) The J&P Switchgear Book by R. T. Lythall
B. Papers 1) The Circuit Breaker A showcase of industrial product development by Fritz Pinnecamp
2) CESCs Perception & Experience on Field Performance of Switchgear vis--vis Expectation by
D. N. Majumder, D, Gangopadhyay & S. Kar Chowdhury
C. Web Sites 1) www.geocities.com
2) ieeexplore.ieee.org
D. Standards 1) IS 13118 & IS 3427
2) IEC 62271-100/102/200/203, IEC 60694
3) BS 116
88
TESTING OF SWITCHGEAR
Broadly a Switchgear comprises of the following electrical parts which undergo various rigorous
tests before it is actually commissioned in an utilitys Network:
Circuit Breaker
Busbars and associated Insulators.
Isolators/ Disconnectors
Instrument Transformers
Protective Relays and auxiliary circuits
Switchgear Testing
Switchgear testing can be broadly classified as :
A. Developmental Test
B. Type Test
C. Routine Test
D. Factory Inspection Test
E. Pre-Commissioning Test
A. Developmental Test
These tests are carried out on components, sub-assemblies and complete switchgear during and
after the development of switchgear. The R&D sections verify the effect of various parameters on
the behaviour of Circuit Breaker by conducting Developmental Tests.
After several R&D tests a proto-type switchgear is manufactured. These types of tests are not
covered in the standards.
B. Type Test
These tests are carried out for the purpose of proving characteristics of switchgear and control gear,
their operating devices and auxiliary equipment. The type tests are carried our on a maximum of
four test specimen unless otherwise specified in the relevant IEC standards. The details of type tests
are as follows:
Lightning Impulse Test
Switching Impulse Test
A1 Power Frequency Over Voltage Withstand Test
A2 Partial Discharge Test
A3 Artificial Pollution Test
Temperature Rise Test
A4 Resistance Measurement of the Main Circuit.
A5 Short Time Withstand Current Test, Peak Withstand Current Test
A6 Making Current and Breaking Current Test
A7 Mechanical Endurance Test
A1. Lightning Impulse Test
Purpose: The insulation of switchgear should be so designed that it can withstand the
occasional Lightning surges of high peak value, sharp rate of rise and short duration. The
lightning impulse voltage withstand level of the switchgear is proved by conducting this test.
The test is performed with voltages of both positive and negative polarity with respect to earth
using the standard Lightning Impulse 1.2/50s waveform (Fig 1).
The withstand voltage levels for different ratings of breakers are as under:
89
Rated Voltage
(KVrms)
Rated Lightning Impulse

Test Voltage (KVpeak)
3.6
40
7.2
60
12.0
75
36.0
170
145.0
650
245.0
1050
Brief test procedure

The standard test involves the application of 15 nos. of test voltages (1.2/50microsec lightning
impulse wave surge to simulate lightning stroke condition) between each phase and earth in turn
with CB closed & other phases earthed. In addition, test voltages are also applied across each set of
open CB contacts. The overall test is considered to be satisfactory if not more than 2 flashovers
occur during any series of 15 tests provided that these discharges only occur in self-restoring
insulation (i.e. air, oil or SF6 gas). A breakdown of solid insulation normally results in an inability
to recover and constitutes a test failure.
To produce the high unidirectional voltage required, a surge or impulse generator is used in which a
high voltage output is produced from a number of capacitors which are first charged in parallel and
then discharged in series by the sequential firing of inter-stage spark gap. The basic connections of
the circuit is shown in Fig.2 in which three stages are assumed but which can be any number
depending upon the required output voltage.
In practical form, additional resistors are included in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3. Resistors Rf is
responsible for controlling the rate of rise of voltage on the load while resistors Rt control the rate
of discharge of the whole current. Resistors Rf are thus designated wave-front resistors and Rt the
wave-tail resistors, noting that the later are only connected in parallel with the capacitors after the
spark gaps have fired.
90
Basic Circuit for Impulse Generator
A2. Switching Impulse Test

Purpose : The purpose of this test is to verify the ability of the insulation of switchgear to
withstand the occasional high frequency Switching surges occurred during opening & closing of
unloaded EHV AC lines, switching of small inductive or capacitive loads etc.
However as system voltages rise, the possible magnitude of switching over voltages becomes an
important factor, particularly those arising when energizing long overhead lines .That is why this
test is necessary for switchgear of rating 300 KV and above.
The switching surges are of comparatively longer duration(2500s), lower rate of rise and are
represented by standard switching impulse test wave of 250/2500 s.
The switching surges are simulated in test laboratories by a representative 250/2500 s switching
impulse wave obtained from an impulse generator.
The test procedure of switching impulse is same as that described in sec A1.
A3. Power Frequency OverVoltage Withstand Test
Purpose: The purpose of this test is to verify the ability of the insulation of switchgear to withstand
the temporary power frequency over voltages for a specified short duration.
The power frequency over voltages is the 50Hz over voltages of value more than the Highest
System Voltage. The temporary power frequency over voltages are of 50 Hz frequency, lesser peak,
lesser rate of rise and longer duration( seconds or even minutes) These over voltages of 50Hz
waveform are produced by sudden load-throw-off, faults, resonance, and poor voltage regulations
by OLTC of transformers etc.
Test procedure
Main Circuit
The switchgear is subjected to the withstand level of the power frequency high voltage for 1 min.
(with respect to earth and between poles) and no failure should occur in this time. The withstand
voltage levels for different ratings of breakers are:
91
Rated Voltage (KVr.m.s)
Rated Power Frequency

Test Voltage (KVrms)
3.6
10
7.2
20
12.0
28
36.0
70
145.0
275
245.0
530
The test voltage is obtained from a single ph ac generator driven by an induction motor. The
terminal voltage can be varied by changing the field current. The generator voltage is stepped up by
high voltage transformers to the required value and fed to the switchgear under test.
On Auxiliary & Control Circuits
Auxiliary and control circuits of switchgear shall be subjected to power frequency voltage
withstand test in accordance with IEC 61180-1. The test shall be performed between the auxiliary
and control circuits connected together as a whole and the frame of the switching device.
The test voltage is 2 KV with duration of 1 min. The auxiliary and control circuits of switchgear
shall be considered to have passed the tests if no disruptive discharge occurs during test.
A4. Partial Discharge Test
Purpose: The primary reason of this test is to check the healthiness of insulation of switchgear.
The applied power frequency voltage is raised to a pre-stress value which is identical to the power
frequency withstand voltage test and maintained at that value for 1 min. Partial discharge occurring
during this period shall be disregarded. Then the voltage is decreased to a specific value defined in
the table below depending upon the configuration of equipment and system neutral for partial
discharge measurement.
System Earthing Condition
Test Voltage for PD measurement (KV)

1.2 Ur/3 (ph. to earth)
Solidly earthed
1.2 Ur (ph to ph)
Without solidly earthed neutral
1.2 Ur
Ur is the rated voltage of the switch gear in KV.

The maximum permissible partial discharge level shall not exceed 5 pC. However some equipment
in sw. gear like Voltage Transformer has an acceptable level of PD greater than 5 pC. Any subassembly containing such components shall be considered acceptable if the discharge level does not
exceed 10 pc, but in that case these will be tested for PD separately.
A5. Artificial Pollution Test
Purpose: These tests are intended to provide information on the behavior of external insulations
under conditions representative of pollution in service.
No artificial pollution tests are necessary when the creepage distances of the insulators comply with
the relationship given below:
It = a x If x Ur x KD
Where, It = minimum nominal creepage distance in mm
92
a = application factor
If = minimum nominal specific creepage distance (mm/kV)
Ur = Rated voltage of switchgear in KV
KD= Correction factor due to diameter
Application to Insulation
Application factor
Between phase and earth
1.0
Between phases
Across open contact of a CB
1.0
If the creepage distances do not comply with the above relationship, artificial pollution tests should
be performed, using the rated voltage and the application factor as given in the above table.
A6. Temperature Rise Test
This test is to be made indoors in an environment substantially free from air currents. The
switchgear should obviously be in closed position with clean contacts. The test is done with the
normal rated sinusoidal current with the three poles connected in series. Temperature rise test is
carried out over a period of time sufficient for the temperature rise to reach a constant value. When
the steady temperature is reached the maximum temperature rise of each part should be less than
the permissible limits as per IS.
When a circuit breaker in closed condition carries normal current the heat is generated in current
carrying parts due to I2R loss. This heat is dissipated by conduction, convection and radiation. To
maintain the temperature rise within specified limits, the I2R losses should be reduced by increasing
conductor cross-section using suitable low resistivity material, improving convection, conduction
and radiation of heat.
A7. Resistance Measurement of Main Circuit and Auxiliary Circuit

(i) Main Circuit
Measurement of resistance of Main Circuit is made for comparison between Sw. Gear type tested
for temperature rise and sw. gears of the same type.
The resistance is measured by milli-volt Drop Test Method. In this method the voltage drop across
the breaker pole is measured for different values of DC currents. The voltage drop gives a measure
of resistance of current carrying parts and contacts. The DC current should be more than 50A and
less than rated current of circuit breaker. The resistance should be measured at ambient air
temperature. The resistance is measured before and after temperature rise test and the readings in
these two conditions should not differ by more than 20%.
(ii) Auxilliary Circuit
This test is intended to verify the contact performance under extremely low voltage condition due to
the reason that on auxiliary contact materials, oxidation may occur which results in an increased
contact resistance or even no conduction at very low voltage.
One sample of each type of auxiliary contacts is inserted into a resistive load circuit through which
flows a current of 10 mA when energized by a source having an open circuit voltage of 6 V DC
with a relative tolerance of 0-15% and the resistance is measured according to IEC 60512-2.
93
A8. Short Time Withstand Current Test, Peak Withstand Current Test
Purpose : Main circuits and where applicable, the earthing circuits of the switch gear are subjected
to a test to prove their ability to carry the rated short time withstand current and rated peak
withstand current due to short circuits in power system.
The ac component of test current is, in principle, equal to the ac component of the rated short-time
withstand current (Ik) of the switchgear. The peak current under test is not less than the rated peak
withstand current (Ip) and shall not exceed it by more than 5%. The test current It is in principle be
applied for a time tt equal to the rated duration tk of short circuit. The value of It2tt on test should not
be less than the value of Ik2tk calculated and should not be greater than 10% of this value.
The short circuits produce a severe stress on switch gear and it should be capable of withstanding
the stresses. When short circuit current is passed through current carrying parts of the switch gear,
the contacts and current carrying parts are subjected to thermal stresses. The insulation in the
vicinity of conductors is severely stressed. The poles and terminals experience electro-dynamic
forces.
A9. Rated Short Circuit Making Current and Breaking Current Test
The Making Current tests
Purpose: These tests verify the ability of the current carrying parts of switchgear to close on short
circuit.
As the CB closes on existing short circuit, the current reaches a high value during the peak of the
first current loop. The electro-dynamic forces between contacts and between poles reach a high
value. The circuit breaker should be capable to withstand the high mechanical forces during such
closures. This capability is proved by carrying out the making current test. The rated short circuit
making current of a CB is the peak value of first current loop of short circuit current which the
breaker is capable of making at its rated voltage.
The rated short circuit making current should be at least 2.5 times the r.m.s value of AC component
of rated breaking current.
The breaking Current tests
Purpose: These tests verify the ability of the circuit breaker to clear short circuits under specified
conditions of Transient Recovery Voltage and power frequency voltage.
The transient recovery voltage is that transient voltage which appears across the CB pole at the
instant of contact separation immediately after the arc interruption. The rated values of TRV are
specified for various rated voltages of CBs. For specified conditions of rated TRV and rated power
frequency recovery voltage, a circuit breaker has a certain limit of breaking current. This limit is
determined by conducting short circuit type tests on switch gear. During the breaking operation, the
operating mechanism is subjected to mechanical stresses. The contacts and the current carrying
parts are subjected to thermal stresses. These stresses depend on the magnitude of the fault current
and the design of the circuit breaker.
A10. Mechanical Endurance test
The mechanical operational test shall be made at ambient temperature. The mechanical operational
tests consist of 2000 operating cycles. No adjustments or replacement of parts is permitted during
the test. After the test, the contacts, linkages and all other parts should be in good condition and
should not show any permanent deformation or distortion. Successful performances in mechanical
operational tests prove the adequacy of design and also good quality of materials.
94
C. Routine Test
These tests confirm the proper functioning of the switchgear. These tests are for the purpose of
revealing faults in material or construction. These tests are carried out on each apparatus
manufactured.
Routine tests are conducted on each circuit breaker before dispatch.
Routine tests reveal the defects in the materials and construction of the circuit breakers. The results
of the tests confirm the quality of the circuit breaker:
Routine tests include the following:
Tightness test
The purpose of tightness tests is to demonstrate that the absolute leakage rate does not
exceed the specified value of the permissible leakage rate. The test shall be performed at
normal ambient air temperature with the assembly filled at the the pressure ( or density)
corresponding to manufacturers test practice.
Measurement of resistance of main circuit of each pole

This test is already discussed in type test no. A7.
Power frequency voltage withstand test on main circuit and auxiliary circuits
This test is already discussed in type test no. A3
Mechanical operating test
Mechanical operational tests are performed on switchgear at the following points:
(a) at specified max. supply voltages and gas pressure(if applicable)

1. five closing operations
2. five opening operations
(b) at specified min. supply voltages and gas pressure(if applicable)
(c) at specified rated supply voltages and gas pressure(if applicable)
Design and visual checks

The switchgear and control gear shall be checked to verify its compliance with the purchase
specification.
Tests on auxiliary and control circuits

The test includes:
Inspection of auxiliary and control circuits
The nature of the materials, the quality of assembly, the finish etc. shall be checked. The
components for auxiliary circuits inside enclosures shall be checked for proper mounting.
Functional tests
This test is necessary to verify proper functioning of auxiliary and control circuits in
conjunction with other parts of switchgear. Operational tests on closing circuits should be
done satisfactorily within the range of 85%-110% of normal rated voltage. Operational tests
on Tripping circuits should be done satisfactorily within the range of 70%-110% of normal
rated voltage. Measurement of operating times of the switchgear (Closing, Tripping and
close-open operation time) is also done in functional tests.
95
D. Factory Inspection Test by Client

During inspection at the manufacturing works, sample tests are witnessed by client . The normal
routine tests are conducted on sample switchgear. Additionally, client may ask for other tests also
as per their requirement or they can ask for repeat test on same switchgear.
E. Pre Commissioning Test:
Following delivery of Switch Gear at site, Physical inspection is absolutely necessary. This will
reveal any damage caused in transit. Any item short supplied or wrongly supplied should be listed
out.
Following tests/ checks are normally carried out at site as per standard practice.
1) High voltage withstand test (HVAC)
Normally 75% of the voltage at which the switchgear was tested at factory is applied to the
switchgear to test their insulation healthiness after transportation.
2) Resistance measurement test
This test is done either by voltage drop method or by direct measurement method. Value
obtained should be equal amongst the three phases and also should be equal to the values
obtained during routine test at factory.
3) Measurement of insulation resistance of the auxiliary and control circuit
This measurement is done with 1000V megger.
4) Current Transformers test:
The tests of CT at commissioning site include:
Winding resistance measurement

The measurement of the CT secondary winding resistance is done using low resistance
measuring Meter.
IR measurement
Insulation resistance of the CT secondary is measured with the help of 1000V
Megger (Insulation Tester) with respect to Earth & in between different cores.
Ratio Checking
The usual method is to apply test current to the primary winding of CT close to rated
primary current and measure the magnitudes of primary and secondary currents with a low
value of secondary burden.
96
Polarity Test
If at any instant, current is entering the primary from P1 the current should leave secondary
from terminal marked S1. A set up shown in the figure, tests whether the polarity markings
with respect to the secondary are correct or not. (S1 should correspond to P1)
Magnetizing Characteristic Tests

Magnetizing current is measured for several secondary emfs. This is accomplished by
applying appropriate voltage to the secondary winding, and measuring the current taken by
secondary winding under test. During the test the primary and other windings are kept open
circuited. The RMS value of the sinusoidal voltage of rated frequency applied to the
secondary winding which, when increased by 10%, causes the secondary magnetizing
current to increase by 50% is called Knee Point Voltage (Vk).
97
5) Voltage Transformers test:

The test of VTs at commissioning site includes:
Measurement of secondary Winding Resistance
Secondary winding resistance of VT is measured as per the circuit diagram given below.
Where, LR is a low resistance-measuring instrument.
Measurement of primary Winding Resistance

The primary winding resistance of VT is measured with AVO meter as per the circuit
diagram given below.
98
Polarity Test
The test details are identical to that carried out for Current Transformers.
Measurement of IR of VT
Measurement is done with a 1000V Megger to ascertain the insulation resistance of primary
winding w.r.t earth isolating the intentional earthing, insulation resistance of secondary
windings w.r.t earth and insulation resistance in between primary and secondary winding.
Magnetizing Characteristics & Over Voltage Withstand Test

Magnetizing characteristic gives a clear picture of amount of magnetizing current drawn by
secondary core and the secondary e.m.f up to which the core exhibits its magnetic
properties. The varying voltage is applied in the secondary of VT keeping the primary
winding open and is raised up to 120% of the normal rated voltage (i.e. 120% of 63.5 V) to
ascertain that VT can withstand this overvoltage without any failure. The magnetizing
current drawn by the VT secondary core is also noted for different applied voltages.
Caution: Care should be taken so that the magnetizing current do not exceed the value
corresponding to rated secondary VA of the VT during the test which otherwise can damage
the winding (such situation is encountered particularly in high ratio VT).
Ratio Test
The ratio of VT is checked by applying variable AC voltage to the secondary winding and
measuring its voltage reflection in the primary.
99
Ratio Test (Back to Back connection of two VTs)
6) Measurement of closing & tripping times

These are done with the help of a suitable timer. This test is necessary as this will reveal
whether the circuit breaker is sluggish or smooth. Typical tripping time: 35-40ms and
typical closing time: 45 to 50ms
7) Checking of closing & tripping at reduced voltage
This test is carried out by applying a reduced DC voltage to the control circuit and checking
whether closing and tripping operation will remain normal even when the station battery
voltage has gone down below its normal value of either 220V or 110V DC as applicable.
Specified minimum value for tripping: 70% of rated auxiliary voltage
Specified minimum value for closing: 85% of rated auxiliary voltage
8) Checking the auxiliary and control schemes
This is done with application of control voltage to verify the correctness of operations as per
the different logics of approved drawings.
9) Testing of protective relays and checking of protection tripping
At site, relay testing is done on a particular setting at which it will be selected normally.
Tripping of CB in case of operation of protective relay is checked thoroughly to simulate
CB operation in actual fault condition.
100
CABLES
Introduction
Cables form the artery system for the transmission and distribution of Electrical energy. The
residential and industrial loads today have a trend towards their growing density. This requires
rugged construction, greater service reliability, increased safety and better appearance. The
interferences from external disturbances like storms, lighting, ice, trees etc. should be reduced to
minimum. These difficulties are easily overcome by the use of underground cables and a troublefree service is achieved under a variety of environmental condition.
Earlier underground cables were mainly used in or near densely populated areas and were operated
at low or medium voltages only, but the present day requirements seek to use them even at extra
high voltages for longer distances. The underground system although more costly as compared with
the overhead system for the same voltage, is more acceptable to public from the point of view of its
merits mentioned above.
Comparison in costs of Underground cable and Overhead line
Voltage in KV
Ratio =
Cost of Underground cable

Cost of Overhead Line
400
18
275
13
132
66
33
11
0.42
2 or less
Underground cables are to be laid in areas where it is almost impracticable to use overhead lines,
for example in case of transmission lines through sea, cross-over or terminal connections in
substation or air field crossings. The cross-channel link between France and England and the
submarine link from Swedish mainland to the island of Got land are the examples of High voltage
Power cables.
Increased working voltages of the overhead lines require the cables to be insulated for such voltages
in order to meet the requirements of the overhead lines. The design of Power cables is, therefore,
governed by the requirements of the overhead line.
The possibility of supply interruption due to lightning or other external influences is lesser with
underground cables, but if a fault occurs due to any reason it is not easily located. For long distance
transmission, cables cannot be used due to their large charging currents.
Components and Construction of Power Cables
Many types of modern electrical cables have been in use for underground distribution and
transmission of power. They vary greatly in their design and constructional techniques. However,
all power cables consist of three essential components.
1.
The metallic conductor which provides an electrical conducting path.
2.
The insulation of a cable, often called dielectric or insulant , which prevents direct
contact and dangerous proximity between energized conductor and other objects.
A conductor with its insulation but without mechanical protection is known as the core of the
cable.
101
3.
The external protection preventing the ingress of moisture, mechanical damage, chemical or
electrochemical attack, fire or any other harmful influences which are detrimental to the
cable itself.
All power cables can be divided into two distinct groups, namely:
a) Solid-type cables in which the pressure within their insulation is not boosted above
atmospheric, and may even fall below it locally, e.g. in voids of the insulation.
Solid-type cables, in turn, can be sub divided into two categories. One is Taped insulated
cable, sometimes known as lapped insulated cables. Other one is cables with extruded
synthetic dielectric which for simplicity are often just called extruded cables.
b) Pressurized cables in which pressure is always maintained above atmospheric, either by oil
in oil-filled cables or by gas in gas-pressurized cables, during all conditions of their
operation, thus inhibiting the formation of voids in the insulation.
Conductor
Copper was the traditional metal for cable conductors. But the escalated price of copper had
resulted in forcing a change in practice based on introduction of Aluminium.
Aluminium is the fourth metal in the scale of electrical conductivity, just behind silver, copper and
gold with two-third the conductivity of copper but density of only 30.4 % of that of copper. An
aluminium conductor made of metal with a high degree of purity will carry twice the power carried
by copper conductor of equal weight.
Stranded conductors of copper and aluminium are normally employed in order to increase the
flexibility of cables. Stranded conductors having more than one layer of wires are made such that
the directions of lay of wires in adjacent layers are opposite to each other. The strands follow a
helical path and, therefore, the individual strands are greater in length as compared to the length of
the cable. Stranding thus increases the resistance of the cable.
M = 1 + 3n (n+1)
M is the number of wires (strands) forming a Stranded conductor
n is the number of layers of wires (strands )
Insulation
All the materials for the insulation of modern power cables can be broadly divided as follows.
a) Impregnated paper
b) Synthetic dielectrics
c) Compressed gases
In general, the main characteristics which the cable insulating material should have are
1. High Dielectric strength
2. High Insulation resistance
3. Great durability and long life
4. Sufficiently low Thermal resistivity
5. Reasonably low Relative permittivity and Dielectric loss angle when used for a.c. cables.
6. Good mechanical properties.
7. Low power factor
8. Preferably non-hygroscopic, but if hygroscopic it is essential that they should be in a watertight sheathing or covering.
9. Immunity to chemical attacks over a fairly wide range of temperature.
10. Easy handling from the point of view of manufacture and installation.
11. Lowest possible cost consistent with the above requirements.
102
Impregnated Paper
Paper has been the most commonly used insulating material for cables since the early days of
power distribution and transmission.
Paper is essentially composed of cellulose fibres felted to form a strong sheet. Most insulating
paper is made from wood-pulp (pine or spruce) but originally was produced from manila fibres. A
special water-washing process helps to eliminate water-soluble salts in the paper, resulting in
significant improvements in the power factor at high temperature.
There are four most important physical characteristics of cable paper.
a) The thickness, which usually varies from 0.075 to 0.200 mm
b) The density, which varies from 1250 to 950 kg per meter cube
c) The air impermeability, which is reciprocal of its porosity. The higher the impermeability of
the paper the more difficult it will be to dry and subsequently impregnate it with insulating
oils and compounds.
d) The mechanical strength of the paper tapes to avoid breakage or tearing during lapping or
bending of cable. The tensile strength of the paper in the longitudinal direction with respect
to its fibres is 77 MN per sqmt and crosswise is 35 MN per sqmt.
Paper is a hygroscopic fibrous material and, as such, must be thoroughly dried under vacuum and
there upon impregnated with a suitable oil or compound. The power frequency breakdown stress of
dry paper is about 6-8 MV per mt but that of impregnated paper is approximately 50 MV per mt.
Common types of insulating oils are
1. Viscous mineral oils, which contain refined resin , the refined gum of pine trees
2. Microcrystalline petroleum waxes
3. Low-viscosity oil with some additives.
4. Refined Synthetic oils
The drainage of oil from the mass impregnated cables has been overcome by the introduction of
special microcrystalline wax impregnant which is nearly solid at the usual operating temperature
but is sufficiently fluid at impregnating temperatures. Cables of this type, which are manufactured
for all voltages up to and including 33 KV are known as mass-impregnated non-draining (MIND)
cables.
Synthetic Dielectrics
The introduction of synthetic dielectrics instead of impregnated paper gained popularity mainly due
to the following reasons.
1. The elimination of expensive and rather heavy metallic sheaths due to the non-hygroscopic
nature of the synthetic insulants.
2. The simplification of Cable jointing and termination as well as repair work coupled with a
saving in the cost of labour.
3. Complete freedom from compound drainage troubles, especially in cable terminations.
In the recent years, many synthetic or plastic insulants were employed in power cable manufacture,
of which the following four dielectrics are most common.
1. Polyvinyl Chloride ( PVC )
2. Polyethylene ( PE ) or Polythene
3. Cross linked Polyethylene ( XLPE )
4. Ethylene Propylene Rubber ( EPR )
103
Comparison in respect of Operating Temp (Max) ( 0 C )

Cable Dielectric
(Max) ( 0 C )
Continuous Operation
(Max) ( 0 C )
Short circuit Operation
Impregnated paper
65-80
160-250
PVC
70
150-160
Low Density PE
70
120
High Density PE
80
160
XLPE
90
250
EPR
90
250
Comparison in respect of Properties

Insulant
PVC
PE
XLPE
EPR
Impregnated
Paper
Density ( Kg / m 3 )
1400
900
900
1200
1250
Thermal resistivity
( 0Cm/W)
3.5
5.5
Relative permittivity
2.3
2.5
3.3
3.5
Tangent of Dielectric Loss

angle
0.01
0.0004
0.0004
0.004
0.002
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC as a polymer had been developed in Germany before the Second World War but only on an
experimental basis. PVC polymer is obtained by adding chlorinated hydrogen or chlorine to
ethylene or acetylene.
The basic unit, which is repeated in the PVC chain, is
-- CH 2 CH -I
Cl
In cable manufacturing, PVC is used in form of compound, which are obtained by combining PVC
polymer with certain solvents called as plasticizers at high temperature.
In addition to the plasticizer, PVC compound contain other components such as stabilizer, a
lubricant for assisting the compound during extrusion. They also contain some pigments for
providing wide range of durable colours.
Because of the thermoplastic nature (molecules held together by physical bonds and not by
chemical bonds and hence melts at high temp. and solidifies at low temp) of the PVC insulation,
which requires a controlled current loading of cables with close protection by fuses against current
overloads, this comparatively inexpensive dielectric for LV and HV cables has mostly been used in
Industrial Supply network.
104
Polyethylene (PE)
Polyethylene or polythene was discovered in early 1930s in Britain by Imperial Chemical Industries
using ethylene gas obtained from coal.
H H H H H
I I
I
I
I
The chemical structure of PE is H C C C -- C C -- ..
I
I I
I I
H H H
H H
LDPE : Low density PE is manufactured by a high-pressure polymerization process has density of
916-930 kg / m3
HDPE : High density PE is manufactured by a high-pressure polymerization process has density of
945-960 kg / m3 . Because of the less branched molecular structure compared to LDPE, they are
stiffer, harder and more brittle than LDPE.
Advantages:
1. Readily available in sufficiently pure and uniform state
2. Its dielectric strength is in excess of 800 MV per mt at room temperature
3. Its dielectric loss factor is about 20 % of that of oil impregnated paper insulation
4. Its relative permittivity is low, being about two-thirds of that for impregnated paper
5. Its thermal resistivity is much lower than that of the impregnated paper insulation
6. Good resistance to wide variety of chemicals
Disadvantages:
1. PE is not fully impervious to moisture
2. Poor flame retarding property
3. Moderately resistant to oils
4. Operating temperature is limited to 70 0 C as it melts at 110 0 C
Cross-linked Polyethylene ( XLPE )
The main advantage of XLPE dielectric is that it has a thermal performance at least equivalent and
possibly superior to impregnated paper insulation, and also retains good electrical and some of the
thermal properties of the extruded PE.
This dielectric is manufactured by cross-linking the polymer. The most common method of crosslinking is by the incorporation of peroxides into the polymer followed, after extrusion, by heating
under pressure to activate the peroxides. The most popular peroxide used in this process is Dicumyl
peroxide.
If steam is used for heating, the pressure is correspondingly high (18-20 bar) so as to achieve a
temperature of the order of 210 0 C.
If an electrically heated tube with Nitrogen gas is used, the gas pressure needs to be around 5-10 bar
to prevent formation of voids due to peroxide decomposition products.
The entire cross-linking and extrusion process is usually carried out by two methods. They are CCV
(Continuous catenary vulcanization) and VCV (Vertical catenary vulcanization) process.
XLPE dielectric, being a thermosetting material (molecules held together by chemical bonds) does
not suffer from deformation at elevated temperature and therefore may be operated continuously at
temperatures up to 90 0 C. It will sustain much higher temperatures (250 0 C) for emergency period
or under short-circuit conditions.
105
Ethylene-propylene rubber ( EPR )

EPR is a copolymer of ethylene and propylene with the addition of reinforcing fillers, vulcanizing
agents and coloring ingredients. It is a very complex thermosetting insulant formed from a
combination of about 14 constituents but without carbon double bonds. Therefore, it may be crosslinked by peroxides as with polyethylene. It is extrusion processed in the same way as XLPE and
for lower voltage application has almost the same advantages. Despite considerably better
resistance to partial discharge i.e. internal corona, EPR has a much grater tangent of the dielectric
loss angle than that of oil-impregnated paper.
In higher voltage ranges, EPR insulation is at present being developed as an alternative to PE.
Short comings of Synthetic Dielectric
The first and most serious problem with extruded synthetic dielectric materials is their relatively
low resistance to partial discharge, that is, internal corona, which, results in degradation of
polymeric cable insulation due to the formation of the so called trees, often leading to premature
cable failure.
The second problem stems from the fact that that, at present, no synthetic material is fully
impervious to moisture. Moisture vapour can diffuse through all synthetic materials and unless
some kind of sheath is provided, some moisture will find its way into the insulation of polymeric
cables directly buried in ground.
Compressed Gas Dielectric
The following gases are used in the Compressed Gas insulated underground power lines.
1. Sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 )
2. Freon ( CCl 2F3 )
3. Nitrogen ( N2 )
SF6 is an excellent high voltage cable insulant because it possesses high dielectric strength and good
heat-transfer characteristics. It remains, as a gas over a wide range of temperature variations as well
as it is non-inflammable and non-toxic. It contains no carbon, which rules out possibility of
subsequent tracking or insulation breakdown. It has a dielectric strength more than twice that of air
at atmospheric pressure. Its dielectric strength increases rapidly with pressure and at 300 Kpa
absolute is equivalent to that of high-grade insulating mineral oil. SF6 is one of the best
electronegative gases known and is exceptionally stable and inert. It can be heated up to 500 0 C
without decomposing.
However it is a very expensive gas and has to be filtered and re-used.
Freon also has a high dielectric strength at relatively low pressure and a good heat-transfer
coefficient. It is much less costlier than SF6.
Freon has an inherent fault of possible carbon dissociation, yielding a certain amount of extricated
carbon, when exposed to an electric-arc discharge. A similar phenomenon may occur with faint
discharges such as corona pulses.
Nitrogen, an inert gas, is normally used in EHV gas pressurized cable systems to suppress the
effects of ionization. It can also be used in Compressed gas insulated lines as an insulating gas. It
costs much lesser than the other two gases.
106
Sheath and Protective Covering

Sheath
Metal sheathing is required to provide an impervious layer to protect the cable from moisture,
which would affect the insulation.
Cable sheaths were made of lead in the beginning. Later lead alloys were used and they are also
being used now. These new alloys can withstand the internal pressure of the pressurized cables.
Later on Alumunium is also being used as a material for cable sheath. The main advantages of
Alumunium sheathed cables are
1. Some 30-60 % saving in weight compared with similar lead-sheathed cables, which
facilitates their installation.
2. Greater tensile strength and creep resistance with better ability to withstand vibration
without undue cracking and fatigue.
3. Improved mechanical properties usually eliminating the need for armouring.
4. Considerable saving in cost.
Corrugated seamless alumunium (CSA) sheath is finding favour these days. It has better bending
properties, reduced thickness and lesser weight.
The lead or alumunium sheath provides an earthed metallic screen ( shield ) and therefore must be
capable of carrying the fault current at the particular specified fault rating.
Armouring
The armour protects power cables against mechanical damage or stresses.
The majority of multi-core power cables are mechanically protected by their armour, which consists
of one of the following.
Two steel tapes applied in an open helix over a bedding in such a way that the second tape covers
the gap left by the first. The direction of lay of the two layers is opposite to each other. This reduces
the torsion effect and gives extra mechanical strength.
Galvanised steel wires applied over the bedding of the cable in one or two layers
Alumunium wires and strips used on synthetic insulated cables where there is no need to provide
low resistance paths for earth-fault current
Alumunium has been used recently as an armour material due to its non-magnetic properties, high
conductivity and mechanical strength. It is particularly useful for single core cables working on AC.
Alumunium or alumunium-alloy wires are used for armouring.
The presence of magnetic material within the alternating magnetic field of a single-core cable
produces excessive losses. For this reason single core cables are either left unarmoured or if
necessary, they are armoured with non-magnetic materials like Alumunium , tin-bronze or siliconbrinze tape or wires.
Serving
Protective cable coverings in the form of external wrappings known as serving are applied over
sheath to protect it against corrosion, mechanical damage and electrolytic action when laid directly
in the ground. In the past, serving of lead-sheathed cables consisted of a suitable combination of
paper, cotton and Hessian tapes well saturated with bituminous compounds. Recently, a PVC layer
over a sheath has provided a better type of serving.
Belted Cable
Each of the three conductors is wrapped with oil-impregnated paper. The cores are then assembled
with a filler material. The assembly is enclosed by a paper-insulating belt. A sheath is provided
above the belt.
107
(Cross-section of 11 KV Paper Insulated Belted cable)

The electrostatic field of a 3-core belted type cable is not uniform along the radial direction but it is
distorted. Due to this, a component of voltage acts in a direction tangential to the layers of the core
insulation. The dielectric strength of impregnated paper along its laminations is about 6 % of the
strength along the radial direction, and consequently a small tangential stress in the paper layers can
cause breakdown of insulation.
Moreover the loose fillers between the cores situated in the electric fields are electrically weak.
With the variation of the load the cores expand and contract. This forms the voids in the fillers
particularly in the space between cores. The voids become the positions of discharges. If the
discharges are sufficiently severe there may be local heating and charring of the paper with the
result that there may be a breakdown of the cable insulation.
Hence, belted cables are suitable up to and including 22 KV as they give satisfactory performance.
Beyond this voltage a breakdown may occur due to non-radial dielectric stresses associated with
them and the formation of voids.
Screened Cable
The defects of the Belted cable have been overcome in the Screened cable. Each core here is
insulated in the usual manner and is provided with a metallic screen. The screen consists of a
metallised paper or a metal tape applied over each completed core insulation. The three screens are
connected with the earthed metallic sheath and hence are in earth potential. They eliminate the
undesirable tangential stress and make the stress purely radial. The screened cable is also called as
H-type (after Hochstadter) cable.
108
Electric Stress
Metallised Paper
or Tape
Screened cables have greater breakdown strength; better heat dissipating properties and reduced
risk of core-to-core faults. The current rating of screened cable is more than that of belted cable.
Screening of High voltage insulated cables consists of conductor Screening and insulation
screening.
Conductor Screening
The stranding of conductor can increase the maximum electrical stress by about 20 %. To alleviate
this effect all paper insulated cables at higher voltages are manufactured with conductor screens in
the form of semi conducting carbon paper tape lapped over the stranding conductor.
For power cables with synthetic or polymeric insulation of same rating, conductor screens are
employed to preclude excessive electrical stress in voids between the conductor and the insulation.
This conductor screen is in the form of extruded semi-conducting compound. To be effective they
must adhere to and remain in intimate contact with the conductor and the insulation under all
conditions.
Insulation Screening
An insulation screen has a number of functions to perform, each of which is of equal importance for
either paper or synthetic-insulated cables of multi-core or single-core construction. These are
1. To confine the electric field within the cable.
2. To obtain strictly symmetrical radial distribution of electrical stress with the dielectric,
thereby minimizing the possibility of surface discharges by precluding tangential and
longitudinal stresses.
3. To reduce the hazard of shock, achieved by the screen being well earthed.
4. To protect the cable connected to overhead lines from being subjected to induced potential.
5. To limit Radio interference.
The insulation screen for paper-insulated cables consists of metallised paper.
The insulation screen for synthetic or polymeric insulated cables consists of extruded layer of semi
conducting material, which must be applied and vulcanized in a triple extrusion process including
the conductor screen and the insulation. To avoid discharge the screen should adhere well to the
insulation and move with it during expansion and contraction due to load cycles or bending.
However, at the same time it must be easily removable during Jointing.
109
( Cross-section of 11 KV XLPE insulated screened cable )
110
Electric Stress within Insulation of a Cable

dx
Insulation
Screen / Sheath
Conductor
Single Core Cable
Let r = radius of conductor or inner radius of insulation
R = internal radius of sheath or outer radius of insulation
0 = the permittivity of free space
r = the relative permittivity of the dielectric
q = charge on the conductor per unit length in coulombs
V = operating phase to neutral voltage in volts
Flux passing through a cylinder of radius x and length one metre surrounding the core is q.
The electric flux density at a distance x from the centre is
Dx = q / (2x. 1) C/m2and the dielectric stress is given by
gx = Dx / ( 0 . r ) = q / (2 0. rx ) V/m ........(1)
The potential difference between the conductor and the sheath is equal to the work done to move a
unit charge from the conductor to the sheath.
Thus, V = rR gx dx
= rR q / (2 0. rx) dx
= {q / (2 0. r )}. ln (R/r) Volts ...............(2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we get
gx = V/ {x. ln (R/r)}
Volts/metre
111
Now, the maximum stress will occur at the smallest radius, i.e., for x = r. The maximum stress is
given by
gmax = V/ {r. ln (R/r)}
Volts/metre
When x = R, the stress will be a minimum which indicates that stress has a maximum value at the
sheath. The minimum value is given by
gmin = V/ {R. ln (R/r)}
Volts/metre
Also, gmax / gmin = R/r .
Current Rating of Cables
The current rating of power cables is very important. It decides the upper limit of the power transfer
by a cable.
The cable rating is classified under three headings.
1. Normal maximum continuous current rating
2. Over-current rating
3. Short circuit current rating
Normal or safe Current carrying capacity
The normal or safe current carrying capacity depends upon a number of factors.
1. Temperature: Primarily it is the temperature rise which is important but this is governed by
the base ambient temperature for the given cable location and the maximum temperature
applicable to the insulation and cable construction.
2. Cable design: Apart from the temperature limit, the other effect of cable design is the ability
to transfer heat from the conductors to the outer surface. This varies with the materials used
and the number of layers in the construction.
3. Condition of Installation: On the whole, a cable in air can dissipate heat better than a cable
in the ground but in this respect the cable diameter, or more particularly the surface area, is
important. Up to a certain size of cables in air have a lower rating than buried cables and
when cables are buried the rating decreases with depth of burial. The rating also depends on
the thermal resistivity of the soil.
4. Effect of neighbuoring cables: Any other heat input from hot pipes or other cables in the
vicinity has to be taken into account.
112
Current Ratings of HV UG (PILC) Cables

Continuous Current Ratings
Maximum allowable conductor temperature = 650C
Size of cables
Burried Under ground ( Amp )
Laid in air ( Amp )
50 sqmm Al
105
100
150 sqmm Al
190
200
225 sqmm Al
240
260
300 sqmm Al
280
310
Current Ratings of HV UG (XLPE) Cables

Continuous Current Ratings
Maximum allowable conductor temperature = 900C
Size of cables
Burried Under ground ( Amp )
Laid in air ( Amp )
50 sqmm Al
126
137
150 sqmm Al
233
268
240 sqmm Al
307
364
300 sqmm Al
344
414
Rating Factors for XLPE Cables

The continuous current ratings of XLPE Cables are generally based on the following assumptions
and calculated in accordance with the recommendations of IEC 287
Basic Assumptions
Maximum conductor temperature at continuous load = 90 0C
Ambient Air Temperature = 40 0C
Ground Temperature = 30 0C
Thermal resistivity of soil = 150 0C cm / W
Thermal resistivity of XLPE Insulation = 350 0C cm / W
Thermal resistivity of PVC Sheath = 700 0C cm / W
Depth of Laying in Ground
1.1 KV Cables = 750 mm
3.3, 6.6, 11 KV Cables = 900 mm
22 KV Cables = 1050 mm
33 KV Cables = 1050 mm
Method of Installation
1)
Multicore cables are installed singly
2)
Single core cables : a) in trifoil touching
b) 3 cables laid flat touching
113
Rating Factors for Variation in Ambient Air Temperature

Air temperature ( 0C )
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Rating factor
1.18
1.14
1.1
1.05
0.95
0.89
0.84
Rating Factors for Variation in Ground Temperature

(For Cables Laid Direct in Ground)
Ground temperature ( 0C )
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Rating factor
1.12
1.08
1.04
1.0
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.82
Rating Factors for Variation in Thermal Resistivity of Soil

Thermal Resitivity of Soil ( 0C cm / W )
Voltage Grade
100
120
150
200
250
300
1.1 & 3.3 KV
1.18
1.08
1.00
0.88
0.81
0.74
6.6, 11, 22 KV
1.16
1.08
1.00
0.90
0.83
0.76
33 KV
1.12
1.07
1.00
0.90
0.83
0.78
Rating Factors for Depth of Laying

(For cables laid direct in ground)
Depth of laying
( mm )
1.1 KV Cables
500 750
1.00
750 -- 900
0.98
1.00
900 -- 1050
0.96
0.99
1.00
1050 1200
0.94
0.98
0.99
1200 1500
0.92
0.96
0.98
1500 -- 1800
0.90
0.95
0.96
3.3,6.6,11 KV Cables
22, 33 KV Cables
Group Rating Factors for Multicore Cables or Groups of Single Core Cables in Horizontal
Formation Laid Direct in Ground
Number of Cables or
Groups of single core
cables in same trench
Touching
0.79
0.69
0.63
0.58
0.55
70 mm
0.85
0.75
0.67
0.64
0.6
250 mm
0.87
0.79
0.75
0.72
0.69
Spacing between cables

or groups
114
Over Current Rating

The rise in the core temperature and the time of overcurrent should be known to calculate the
overcurrent rating. The overcurrent rating depends upon the thermal conditions of the cable.
Short-Circuit Rating
Under Short-circuit conditions the current flowing in the cable is many times the full load value of
current. The heat produced in the conductor is proportional to the square of the current. The
duration of Short-circuit is very small. The temperature attained under Short-circuit conditions is
grater than the maximum permissible temperature for continuous rating.
The Short-circuit rating is not affected by the conditions of installation of cable, but depends on the
maximum temperature attained by the cable under short-circuit conditions.
Short-circuit ratings can be calculated using either the adiabatic method, which assumes that all of
the heat generated remains trapped within the current carrying component, or non-adiabatic
methods, which allow for heat absorption by adjacent materials.
The adiabatic method may be used when the ratio of short-circuit duration to conductor crosssectional area is less than 0.1 s / sqmm. On smaller conductors such as screen wires, as the shortcircuit duration increases the loss of heat from the conductor becomes more significant. In such
cases the non-adiabatic method can be used to provide a significant increase in permissible shortcircuit current.
Adiabatic method:
By ignoring heat loss an equation can be derived which equates heat input ( I2 RT) to heat absorbed
into the current carrying component ( product of mass, specific heat and temperature rise.) The
adiabatic temperature rise formula given in IEC 724 is
I2
K2 S2
A1 + B
= ------------ log e ---------------T
A0 + B
where,
I = Short circuit current ( r m s over duration ) in Amp
T = Duration of Short-circuit ( second )
K = Constant for the material of the conductor
S = Area of the conductor ( sq mm )
A1 = Final Temperature ( 0C )
A2 = Initial Temperature ( 0C )
B = Reciprocal of the temperature co-efficient of resistance of the conductor
(per degree Celcius at 0 0C )
Material
Copper
226
234.5
Aluminium
148
228
Lead
42
230
Steel
78
202
115
Maximum Permissible Short Circuit Current Ratings for XLPE Cable

Nominal area of conductor
Short circuit current rating for one second duration

Copper
Alumunium
sqmm
Amp
Amp
16
2280
1510
25
3570
2360
35
5000
3300
50
7150
4720
70
10000
6600
95
13580
8960
120
17160
11320
150
21450
14160
185
26450
17460
240
34320
22650
300
42900
28320
400
57200
37760
500
71500
47200
630
90000
59400
800
75520
1000
94400
Initial and Final temperatures are 90 0C and 250 0C respectively

For duration other than one second, the short-circuit current may be calculated from the formula
I sc = I / ( t ) 1/2
Where, I sc = Short-circuit current during time t , amperes
I = Short-circuit current in one second ( above table )
t = Short - circuit current duration , second
116
Cable Laying Practices

Site Inspection and Trial Holes
During the visit to site, decisions will be made on such matters as the method of installation, the
special equipment required, e.g. pulling winches, any duct position for road crossing etc and the
general items of equipment necessary, including road signs and illumination.
It is then often necessary to dig trail holes to establish the trench route in detail. The trial holes will
indicate the position of the other services so that smooth bends can be provided to reduce the
pulling loads when long lengths of cables are being installed. The trial holes also provides
information on the nature of the ground for excavating and shuttering purposes and on whether
there is any chemical activity, which would necessitate a special anti-corrosion finish for the cable.
Any unusual soil characteristics, which might affect the thermal resitivity, and hence cable rating,
would also be noted. Reference is made later to special precautions necessary if possible ground
subsidence is suspected.
Cable Route
For the progression of a cable route in built up areas it is most suitable to use a paved pedestrian
area or in overland routes to follow a footpath. The depth of trench is dependent on the number of
cables to be laid above one another in the same trench. Furthermore, in urban area and on industrial
sites it also depends on any gas or water pipes, which exist or may be laid in future.
The cables are normally covered with layer of sand or stone-free (sieved) soil 10 cm thick and then,
to protect against surface damage during subsequent earth working, are covered with bricks or
concrete slabs.
Where high-voltage and low-voltage cables are laid in same trench, it is the practice to lay the highvoltage cable in the lowest position. the high-voltage cable are then embedded in sand / soil and
covered by the protective slabs. Above this on additional layer of soil/sand the low-voltage cables
are laid. In such a cable arrangement the current load capacity, because of the mutual heating effect
is reduced.
If control cables and high-voltage cables run on parallel routes for any great distance the magnitude
of interference must be investigated. The same applies where the route is in close proximity to or
crosses railway installations or communication networks of Telephones and other utilities.
Crossing of Roads
When the route crosses a roadway the cables must be drawn into pipes, which extend beyond and
under the pavement.
It is advisable always to provide reserve space in pipe to avoid the necessity to re-excavate when
adding cable at a later date. Pipe cavities, which are not occupied immediately, should be sealed
off.
Drum Handling
Very often drums of cable have to be transported from a centralized location to an installation site.
Drums of cable should normally be lifted by crane or forklift equipment. Dropping of cable drum
on the ground from a lorry can cause damage to both the cable and the drum. The drum should be
mounted at the most convenient position for cable pulling and for manual installation. This is
normally at the start of a reasonably straight section, preferably near the commencement of the
trench work.
117
It is important that any rolling of the drum to this position should be in accordance with the arrow
on the drum wing as loose turns will develop, by unwinding, if the opposite direction is used. The
distance of rolling should be kept to a minimum.
Drums are normally mounted so that the cable is pulled from the top of the drum and for very heavy
cables it may be necessary to use a ramp to support the cable during passage into the trench.
Another factor, which may affect the drum position, is the presence of any services or obstructions
at the trench entry, which could cause abrasion damage to the cable entry.
For mounting a drum a pair of screw jacks is adequate for relatively light drums but fabricated Aframes containing hydraulic jacks are necessary for heavier drum.
Excavation
Depth of laying
The desired minimum depth of laying from ground surface to top of the cable as per IS: 1255
1983 are as follows:
LV, MV and Control cable
750 mm
3.3 KV to 11 KV
900 mm
22 KV to 33 KV
1050 mm
Timbering / Shuttering
As the excavation depth for most distribution cables is about 1 mts or less, there is seldom any
requirement of full close boarder timbering. However, skeleton timbering may frequently be
necessary to prevent deterioration of trench sides due to traffic vibration and to protect building
foundations, street lamps etc. At a depth of 1 mts the use of close timbering is dependent on ground
conditions and for safety it is essential at depths below 1.3 mts.
However, the key factor is overall safety for personnel and property. Safeguards may be necessary
for a shallow trench next to an old building to avoid danger from possible collapse of walls etc.
Preparation of the Trench
Preparation comprises the installation, as necessary, of skid plates, rollers etc and paying out the
winch if using power assistance. Cable rollers are necessary to prevent the cable from touching the
ground and should be spaced a maximum of 2 mts apart for normal size cable. With heavy cables
this spacing may need to be reduced to 1.2 mts. Correct positioning is important to keep the friction
load component to a minimum.
Cable Laying
Preparation for the cable
The cable should, wherever, be decoiled from the top of the drum. For this the drum must be
positioned such that the arrow on the drum points opposite to the direction of rotation for decoiling.
The drum is lifted on its axle by the aid of winches such that the plank used for braking cannot
become wedged beneath.
The cable must be inspected for external damage, which e.g. may have been incurred by incorrect
rolling of drum. Since the laying of cable sis often carried out by unskilled labour it is necessary to
emphasize that the cable is a high-value commodity and is very sensitive to damage and must be
handled with the necessary care.
In order to avoid damage to the corrosion protection and the insulation, the cables must not be
dragged over sharp objects and must not be bent too sharply.
The minimum permissible bending radii is 30 x D where D is the outer diameter of the cable.
118
It must be possible to brake the drum at any time in order to avoid, in the event of sudden stoppage,
continuation of decoiling which would result in sharp bending of the cable. Avoidance of kinking is
especially critical under all circumstances.
To avoid ingress of moisture it must be observed that the end capping of the cable is not damaged.
Cut points of cables must be immediately capped.
Cable Laying Methods
The following methods may be employed for laying cables
1)
Paying out from a cable trailer
2)
Laying by hand
3)
Laying by motor driven rollers
4)
Pulling off by winches
5)
Ploughing in
Paying out from a Cable trailer
Providing there are no obstructions in the trench or its vicinity, cable may be paid out direct from
the cable trailer. However, it must be ensured that during the paying out the drum is manually
rotated and braked in accordance with the laying speed to avoid high-tensile force or sharp bending
of the cable.
Laying by Hand
Cable rollers placed at distances between 2-3 mts will make laying easier. Corner rollers or similar
devices should be provided at any bend in the route, always maintaining minimum bending radii of
the cable.
If the cable is not guided by the rollers it must be guided by hand. The men supporting the cable
should be spaced at between 4-6 mts along the cable.
Laying by Motor Driven rollers
Motorized rollers are used to pull the cable off the jacked up drum. It is advantageous to use rollers
driven by electric motors installed in the cable trench at distances of 20-30 mts. When sharp bends
occur it may be necessary to place such a roller at both the commencement and at the end of the
bend.
Pulling off by winches
Pulling off by winch is possible only if there are few bends or other obstructions in the route.
After releasing the cable end from the drum a pilling stocking is placed over the end and tied in
position. A rope is secured to the eye of the pulling stocking.
When laying unarmoured cables or steel-tape armoured cables with the aid of the winch, the rope
can be secured to the cable via a pulling head, which grips directly on to the conductors.
All cables, in particular single-core cables should not be straightened after laying, but left slightly
meandering, to allow for longitudinal expansion and contraction during thermal cycling (change in
current loading).
Plough laying of Cables
In open terrain the cables may be plough-laid directly into the ground where circumstances permit,
no obstructions e.g. pipe runs which cross the route and where protection of the cable with plastic
119
plates or similar is not acceptable. This type of cable laying is particularly cost effective. Cables
with PE sheath are particularly suitable for this form of laying.
Final Spacing
Prior to disconnecting the pulling rope, the cable is laid-off i.e. staring at one end it is carefully
lifted from the rollers and deposited on the bottom of the trench. About 10 mts of cable should be
lifted at one time, any slack being carried forward. This exercise is simple if only one cable is being
installed but needs careful control if the rollers are to be reused for further cables in the trench. The
cables cannot be positioned until the last one has been pulled.
The end position of the cable may require double handling because it is not possible to draw cable
straight into a sub-station or any building. In this case the cable is over pulled and then manhandled
around the duct entry and fed into the required position. At all times the loops should be kept as
large as possible so that the bending radius is always above the minimum permitted. Similarly, at
the drum position, the necessary length of cable may be unwound from the drum and laid out, if
necessary, in a figure eight if space is limited, prior to cutting to length and placing in position.
Immediately after cutting the cable must be suitably sealed to prevent ingress of moisture. In this
respect it is important to examine the pulling end seal to ensure that it has not been damaged during
laying.
Backfilling
Prior to backfilling, it is necessary to carry out a visual inspection and some items, which required
to be checked, are as follows.
a) The cables have proper bedding
b) The spacing is correct if there is more than one cable in the trench
c) Cables at duct mouths are suitably supported and ducts are sealed to prevent ingress of
moisture.
d) Pulling equipment is removed. In the case of skid plates etc this may need to be combined
with backfilling to prevent collapse of the trench wall.
e) The cable is free from the obvious damage caused by the installation. A very high
proportion (possibly 90 %) of cable failures in service are due to such damage.
The cables should be first surrounded and covered with appropriate bedding materials, using sand
or riddled soil as necessary, to give a compacted cover of 75 mm thickness over the cable. The
concrete covers / tiles may then be placed centrally over the cable.
120
Cable Jointing and Termination

Joints and Terminations are an integral part of a Power cable distribution system and must perform
the same basic functions as the cable on which they are installed. In addition to providing conductor
connections suitable for full current rating of the cable and adequate insulation, they must also
provide stress control for screened cables, mechanical protection for joints, and environmental
protection for terminations.
Cable Jointing is a very precise craft in which usually a considerable degree of skill required,
particularly when working on high-voltage cables.
Although a cable is manufactured under carefully controlled conditions, the Joints and
Terminations must sometimes be made under very adverse circumstances. Nevertheless, when
completed they should be as reliable as the rest of the cable to obviate any risk of interruption of
supply at a later date.
In general, cable Joints for Low voltage and Medium voltage systems are of three fundamental
types.
a) Straight through Joints used to connect together two or more cables into one continuous
length
b) Branch or Tee-joints used to connect a branch cable to a main cable
c) Terminations used for jointing the cable to an overhead line or to switchgear and
transformers.
Cable Joints for High voltage systems are also of three fundamental types.
a) Straight-through Joints for connecting lengths of cables
b) Trifurcating joints for connecting a 3-core cable to three single core cables
c) Outdoor sealing ends for terminating cable outdoors.
Fundamental requirements
The main requirement of any joint or termination is that it must not introduce any weakness into the
cable system and should be constructed that:
a) The conductivity of the cable is maintained in the Joint or Termination and must be equal to
or greater than that of an equivalent length of unjointed conductor. It is normal practice to
use proven materials, ferrules, lugs, clamps etc, which have been tested under adverse
conditions to ensure the current carrying capacity of the connection and permissible
temperature rise. All connections must be properly soldered, compressed or clamped
mechanically to meet this requirement.
b) The insulation of the joint must be as effective as that of the cable cores. In multi-core
cables the possibility of increasing the spacing between cores at Terminations and Joints
assists greatly in maintaining the level of insulation.
c) The Joint is properly enclosed to prevent mechanical damage or the ingress of moisture.
d) The joint and termination should withstand any thermo-mechanical stress imposed by shortcircuit conditions of thermal effects of normal and fault currents. The importance of
providing adequate binding of the metallic sheath and armour for all joints and terminations
cannot be overemphasized.
Conductor Connection
A number of different methods of conductor connection are available. They vary in the level of skill
required and the equipment needed to install them.
Soldered connectors
The traditional method of jointing paper-insulated cables is to use soldering. The individual strands
of the conductor are tinned using the appropriate flux for the conductor metal; the ferrule is placed
121
around the aligned conductors and filled up by basting with molten solder. Grade M solder is used
for copper conductors and Alca P for stranded alumunium. The ferrule or lug is then wiped and
rubbed down to give a smooth outer surface.
For joints the weak-back ferrule is the most popular, so-called because its design allows it to be
opened to fit the stranded conductors and permit the introduction of solder. The same technique is
used for fitting lugs, where the hot metal is poured in at the end.
The fitting of lugs and ferrules is a highly skilled operation, which relies on the jointers expertise
to produce a solid ferrule and lug with no cavities or badly, tinned conductor strands. These defects
will result in high resistance connection, which could lead to premature failure of the Joints and
terminations.
Soldered ferrules are limited to a maximum temperature under short-circuit conditions of 1600 C.
They are therefore unsuitable for cable systems taking full advantage of the 2500 C short-circuit
rating offered by polymeric cables such as XLPE.
Compression connectors
This system utilizes an installation tool equipped with specially designed dies to deform a metallic
tube on to the conductor, producing a low resistance electrical contact with good mechanical grip.
The tools are either hydraulic or electro-hydraulic in operation and the dies impart an indent,
hexagonal or circumferential form on the connector depending on the conductor and customer
preference.
The connectors themselves are either made from copper or alumunium tube, which is machined to
produce ferrules or flattened to produce lugs.
The use of compression tooling provides a more reproducible connection that requires a lower level
of operator skill than for soldered connections, which is particularly beneficial for connection to
alumunium conductors.
Mechanical Connectors
Now a days the mechanical connectors are becoming exceedingly popular through out the world.
For stranded low voltage conductors and all medium voltage applications the torque applied is
controlled by the screws, which have a tapered portion which shears off at a predetermined torque.
Like compression connectors, mechanical connectors provide a consistent connection when
installed by unskilled operators. They also have the advantage that they do not require installation
tooling. Because the manufacturing processes for mechanical connectors are more difficult they are
therefore more expensive than compression connectors.
Stress Control at Dielectric Screen Termination
In the preparation of cable prior to jointing, the termination of the dielectric core screen produces an
increase in the potential gradient along the interface between the dielectric and the surrounding
space.
The stress in the dielectric will be much higher than the design stress of the cable, increasing the
probability that premature failure will occur. If the medium surrounding the termination is air, or if
there is an air gap between the dielectric and the filling compound, then the stress may cause the air
to discharge at working voltage. Polymeric materials are less resistant to discharges than paper
insulation; hence discharges in the termination region will erode polymeric dielectrics, leading to
premature failure.
A number of techniques are used for stress control. They are
1)
Capacitive Stress control
2)
High permittivity Stress control
122
3)
Non-linear resistive stress control
Capacitive Stress Control

The construction of a stress cone, a traditional method of stress control, provides a means of
controlling the capacitance in the area of the screen termination. This reduces the stress in the
dielectric until, at the actual screen termination; the stress is at an acceptable level. The stress cone
is continued beyond the screen termination to reduce the potential gradient at the surface of the
dielectric to a level where discharges will not occur.
High Permittivity Stress control
The use of materials with relative permittivities significantly higher than the dielectric is an
extremely common method of stress control in polymeric cable accessories.
When materials of dissimilar permittivity are subjected to a potential gradient across the combined
thickness, the material, which has lower permittivity, will experience the higher stress. By using a
material having a higher permittivity the lines of equipotential are spread further apart and emerge
more gradually from the dielectric.
Non-linear resistive Stress Control
Another popular method of Stress Control is to utilize materials with non-linear current vs. voltage
characteristics. When applied to the screen termination, the material allows small currents to flow
through the cable dielectrics and then along the layer to the earthed screen. As the current in the
layer increases, the resistance of the material drops, resulting in a smooth linear voltage gradient
along the layer.
Stress Control at the Connector Position
The stress control at the connectors is increasingly important at the higher voltages such as 12/20
KV and 19/33 KV. This is also becoming increasingly important at 6.35/11 KV when bulky fittings
such as mechanical connectors are used. The most common method is to incorporate a semiconducting layer into the accessory, which is brought into contact with the connector. This can be
applied in tape form or be part of the accessory, and has the effect of creating a large diameter
smooth electrode which rises to working voltage. This encloses the sharp edges of connectors and
reduces the stresses on external layer.
An alternative technique is to use a high permittivity layer at the connector position. This works in
the same manner as described above by placing higher stresses on the layer with low relative
permittivity.
Modern Jointing Techniques
Heat-shrink
The use of heat-shrink polymeric materials has firmly established this technique for low and
medium voltage terminations and increasingly for 11 KV and 33 KV joints.
The heat shrinkable property is imparted by extruding or moulding the polymeric material into the
required shape and then cross linking by either irradiation or chemical means. The components are
then warmed and expanded and allowed to cool in this expanded state. On the application of the
heat the memory imparted by cross-linking causes it to return to the shape in which it was crosslinked.
Low voltage terminations consist of a breakout where cores are splayed out together with tubing to
protect the cores themselves. Mastics and hot melt adhesives are used to line the components to
ensure watertight seals.
123
Medium voltage terminations use track resistant weatherproof materials for both tubings and
breakout together with heat shrinkable rain sheds, also in the same material, for outdoor
terminations. Stress control is by means of either a high permittivity or non-linear resistive tube or
coating, whilst for 11 KV belted paper cables this breakout is made of semicondiucting materials,
effectively converting the cable into a screened design. Heat shrinkable terminations can be used in
boxes designed for compound clearances by the addition of a heat shrink shroud or boot.
Early version of Joints for medium voltage cables consisted of a number of tubes to provide stress
control, insulation, screening and overall protection. More modern designs combine these layers by
method of co-extrusion, thereby making the installation somewhat easier.
Premoulded Joints and Terminations
These products are made from either EPR or silicon rubber or are only suitable for polymeric
cables. Premoulded products, being factory made and tested, are of consistent quality and can be
installed very quickly. They are designed to form an interference fit on the cable. They will
accommodate small variations in diameters so it is very important to know the dimensions of the
cable to be jointed or terminated.
Indoor terminations designed for air clearances consist of stress cone and the conductor connector:
these are converted to outdoor terminations by adding interlocking rains sheds together with a cap
seal onto the conductor connector.
Joints are also available which use the Stress Cone in the form of a cable reducer. The inner bore of
the cable reducer is sized to suit the cable diameter and the outer diameter forms an interference fit
with a housing. This has an inner semi-conducting portion to control stresses at the connector
position, a middle insulating layer and an outer semi-conducting layer.
Cold Shrink
Over the last few years the use of elastomeric materials, which shrink onto the cable, are now
rivaling heat shrink as a method of terminating medium voltage cables. Like heat shrink they can
accommodate a wide range of cable diameters, but they offer a number of advantages. Equipment
such as Gas cylinder and torches is unnecessary and installation is less dependent upon the skill of
the operator. Cold shrink is capable of following any subsequent movement such as resetting cores
etc.
.
124
UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT LOCATION

CESC is a power utility engaged in Generation, Transmission and Distribution of electricity in and
around the metropolitan city of Calcutta and its twin industrial town Howrah on the Western bank
of the river Hooghly. CESC is serving the consumers of these two grand old cities for more than
100 years. Its present licensed area is 567 Sq. Km.
Being an urban utility, majority of CESCs transmission and distribution network is built with
underground-buried cables consisting of 132kV, 33kV, 20kV, 11kV, 6.6kV, 3.3kV, 400V ac and 450V
dc cables covering length of 9450 circuits Km.
A properly designed and manufactured underground cable system including associated joints and
terminations installed meticulously following stipulated conditions & norms and operated within
permissible limits of designed parameters is highly reliable and fault free.
But faults / failures do occur in the cable system due to various reasons. It can be broadly classified as
below:
a) Accidental damage: Damages occurring due to excavation process adjacent to the cable
and often results in minor damages which develops into faults with
time.
b) Insulation wear and aging.
c) Stress of insulation due to system over voltages.
d) Overloading of cables.
e) Subsidence of earth.
Unlike in overhead lines, finding the exact location of failure in an underground cable is tedious, time
consuming, require a little more skill and experience in handling cable fault locating equipment and
analyzing the test results. Selection and adopting proper fault locating equipment and method can reduce
the down time considerably in restoration of service to the customers.
Steps for Cable Fault Location
1. Obtaining data of the faulty cable section.
Subsequent to isolation of the faulty network from rest of the healthy system through the operation
of associated protective gears during occurrence of a fault, the primary task of an operating
engineer is to restore service to the affected customers, who in the process identify the faulty
element of the isolated network. When this faulty element is an underground cable, its fault location
is called for.
The first task is to obtain the cable data of the faulty cable section comprising of total length of the
cable, cross section, dielectric, length & cross section and position of all the section of cables
separately if admixer of cables are used, position of the joints and route details. CESC maintains
and regularly updates these data in computer and from where a hard copy of the required faulty
cables data is obtained. A typical cable Route Card showing the above data is shown in the
attached Annexure. It is a vital pre-requisite before proceeding for actual cable fault location tests
and accuracy of fault location greatly depends upon how accurate the cable data is available.
2. Safety Requirements for carrying out fault location tests
Before carrying out fault location tests in an underground cable, it should be completely isolated
from the healthy network. Cable conductors at both ends of the cable should be shorted together,
earthed and a safe clearance from any live part of the network should be maintained. Normally a
centralized authority ensures all the above safety requirements and issues a Permit to Work order
to the engineer carrying out fault location tests.
125
3. Diagnosing condition or nature of the fault in the cable.

Determination of proper condition or nature of the fault in the cable, guide in the selection of
appropriate cable fault locating equipment and method or technique to be used for cable fault
location.
In a broad and simple sense from cable fault location angle, a cable is a conductor with an integral
insulation over it. Therefore a fault in the cable could be in its conducting medium or insulating
medium or in both the medium. Basically there are two types of cable faults Series fault and
Shunt fault.
Series fault in a cable occur in the form of discontinuity or development of high resistance in its
conducting medium while a Shunt fault constitutes break down of insulation to ground or with
other phase for a three phase cable depending upon type of construction of the cable. Shunt faults
are further classified as Low / High Resistance, Flashing / Intermittent Type depending upon the
value of shunt resistance.
Equivalent circuits of faulty cables can be represented as below:
Rf
Conductor
Conductor
Spark Gap
Rf
Conductor/Sheath
Shunt Fault
Cf
Spark Gap
Conductor/Sheath
Series Fault
Equivalent Circuits of Faulty Cables

Where Rf is the fault resistance and Cf is the fault capacitance. The fault is represented by a
spark gap, which breaks down with application of voltage. The values of all the elements in the
equivalent circuit can vary widely and completely independent of each other. The different types of
fault can be defined, depending on the value of Rf and the nature of the spark gap, as under.
Fault type
Value of Rf
Spark gap
High
Breakdown under impulse or DC.
1. Series
2. Shunt:
a) Low resistance
< 10 Zo
Breakdown under impulse if Rf is
not too low.
b) High resistance
> 10 Zo
Breakdown under impulse.
c) Flashing
High
Breakdown under impulse or DC.
d) Intermittent
High
Breakdown under prolonged or
repeated application of DC.
Where Zo is the Surge Impedance of the cable (30 100 ohms.).
The diagnosis of the condition or nature of the fault actually constitutes determination of the
equivalent circuit for the fault, which help in selecting the fault locating equipment and technique.
Again, a low voltage ohmmeter, not an insulation tester, should be used to check the continuity of
126
the cable and readings of the resistance value must be noted. Any imbalances indicate presence of a
series fault with some resistance.
r
Checking of
Continuity
y
b
Earth
Earth
Measurement of continuity and insulation resistance of all the cores (in three phase cables ) with
respect to ground and in between from both ends of the faulty cable give the equivalent circuit
picture of the faults nature. Although it may be apparent that checking of continuity and insulation
resistance from one end is sufficient to establish fault condition, some typical cases as the one
shown below suggest that it is better to check the cable condition from both ends in order to prevent
erroneous conclusion about the nature of the fault.
r
y
b
A Single end Continuity and Insulation resistance check would yield erroneous results
Some of the common and typical types of cable faults as represented through different equivalent
circuits are given below.
Different Types of Equivalent Ckt. Representation
Best suitable method: Murray Loop bridge Method
Best suitable method: Murray Warren Bridge Method

127
Best suitable method: Pulse Echo

The basic types of cable fault locating methods now days used are:
1) Bridge method: Applicable for shunt faults up to 1 Megohm fault resistance.
2) Time domain reflection method:
i) Based on voltage wave propagation method.
ii) Based on current wave propagation method.
Resistance Bridge Method of Fault Location
Bridge method of cable fault location is considered by many to be old fashioned but can be as
effective today as they were many years ago. It is one of the classical methods and most accurate
method of cable fault location applicable for shunt type faults only. This method is preferred and
very often used on medium & high resistance faults when neither TDR nor transient methods can
be effectively used. The measurement being made by balancing two internal resistance arms of the
bridge against the two external arms represented by the length of the cable conductor up to the
fault.
In order to create the external loop a zero ohm shorting is made at other end between a healthy core
and a faulty one as shown. This configuration is called the Murray loop Test. Continuity of the
faulty conductor and availability of at least one sound conductor (phase) of the cable is therefore an
essential condition to carry out the test by this method.
Murray Loop Test

At balance, the ratio of the internal resistance arms is the same as the ratio of the external resistance arms
formed by the cable conductors (Wheatstone Bridge principle):
a x
a
x
=
=
(a + b ) (x + y )
b y
and, taking into consideration the resistance per unit length of the cable conductor to be constant, x and y
can be considered as lengths. The location of the fault as a fraction of loop length (2L) is given by,
X =
a (x + y )
(a + b )
a
x=
* (2 L )
(a + b )
128
With potentiometer type bridge arms, the dial reading is given as percentage of the loop length 2L.
Although readings from a single end are sufficient for fault location, it is better to have readings
from both ends for cross-checking purposes. If a and b are the percentage readings of the
potentiometer as shown above and a and b are the percentage readings with the bridge connected
at the other end, then results obtained should be cross-checked as follows:
a + b = 100%
a+ b = 100%
a + a = 50%
b + b = 150%
As the location of a fault depends on the linearity of resistance per unit length along the cable cores,
this brings into focus that the cross-sections & materials of the cores, and the positions of any
points of change of cross-section must be known. For feeders having cables of different crosssection & materials (Cu/Al) , it is necessary to convert the total length to a common section (
equivalent length ) and reconvert the equivalent fault distance to actual distance. The main
advantage of Murray loop test is its accuracy. Accuracy of around 0.1 percent is achievable if there
are no other sources of error, e.g. poor cable length and cross-section data, parallax or human error
in null point detection during bridge balancing, formation of local resistance at joints of test leads
connecting the bridge with the cable or at the shorting loop at the other end. This emphasizes that
the connection and loop shorting must be very short, heavy and bolted connection of zero ohms.
Two factors influence sensitivity of the bridge:
The sensitivity of the galvanometer itself. Now a days highly sensitive amplifier assisted
galvanometer is used.
The current driven through the fault resistance. In practice a fine balance is easy to achieve with
about ten milli amperes flowing.
Another bridge configuration is sometimes also used viz. Murray Warren Loop for some specific shunt
fault conditions as shown in the following figure.
In this case, the cable condition is such that all the three phases are continuous but all have developed
low Insulation Resistance with respect to earth/sheath. However in order to perform this test, it is
necessary that the Insulation Resistance of at least two of the three cable cores, although may be
comparable are not equal. In this bridge method, taking readings from both ends are essential for the
determining the fault location.
END A
END B
129
Murray Warren Loop Test

If a and b are the potentiometric readings with the bridge connected at End A while a and b are
the potentiometric readings with the bridge connected at End B, then applying Kennelys Star-Delta
conversion, we find that the fault distance from End A is given by:
x=
a b
x L ,where L is the Route Length of the Cable
a b + a- b
TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry ) or Pulse Echo Fault Locator

i) Voltage wave propagation method Pulse Echo fault location.
This type of instrument provides visual display of the fault position in the cable on its CRT
monitor. The principle of operation is that when a voltage pulse is injected into a cable, it travels
with a velocity determined by the dielectric of the insulating medium of the cable, and is reflected
by impedance mismatches caused by discontinuities or pull out in the series path (e.g. an open
circuit or high resistance) of the conducting medium or by the shunt impedance (a short circuit
fault) with respect to the insulating medium at the fault point in the cable. If we know the Velocity
of Propagation v of the pulse and time t taken by the incident pulse to return from the point of
impedance mismatch at the fault point, then the distance Fd of the fault from the point of injection
of pulse is given by,
Fd = v. t / 2
In pulse echo type instrument both the transmitted and reflected pulse is displayed on its CRT and
the time interval between the two pulses are measured. Then it computes the distance internally
with the set velocity of propagation and directly displays the distance in the desired unit in numeral
form on its screen.
For setting velocity propagation factor, one must have knowledge of the dielectric constant for the
cable insulation under test. Velocity of an electro-magnetic pulse in free space is equal to that of
light c which is constant. Velocity of the pulse in the cable is reduced due to the insulating
medium as under:
c
V = , where is the Dielectric Constant of the insulating medium.
Since velocity of light is constant, velocity of propagation of pulse in the cable is proportional to
the reciprocal of the square root of the dielectric constant, and is called as Velocity Propagation
Factor or v.p.f which is being set by the operator in the instrument. However it is impractical to
have the knowledge of exact value of dielectric constant for every type in the network. Generally
for most of the paper or XLPE cables the v.p.f lie between 0.52 0.58
If the faulty cable has at least one sound conductor (phase) and the length of the cable is known,
exact v.p.f of the cable can be determined by connecting the healthy phase and calibrating by
varying v.pf setting against the available known length. Subsequently the fault distance can be
measured at same v.p.f by connecting to the faulty phase.
When sound phase is not available, the factor of velocity propagation is eliminated from the
calculation by measuring the apparent distance to fault from both ends of the faulty phase with
same v.p.f setting, say 0.56 or any and calculating through ratio as under:
130
d1
Fd1 =
(d1 + d2)
Where d1 & d2 are apparent fault distance from end 1&2
respectively,
L is the route length of the faulty cable and
Fd1 is the fault distance from end 1.
Normally v.p.f setting of 0.56 give close reading to exact length for most of the power cables.
Typical nature of display obtained for some common types of series and low resistance shunt faults
are given below.
PE/TDR Trace for Series Fault
PE/TDR Trace for Shunt Fault

Current versions of pulse echo type instruments are equipped with enhanced features where
displays for healthy and faulty conductors can be available on the screen simultaneously for easy
comparison by addition / subtraction of display patterns to eliminate analytical error, displays can
be stored / printed for future reference etc.
To get an idea of the magnitudes of trace features for various faults knowledge about the relation
between the Fault Resistance (Rf) and Surge Impedance (Zo) is useful in trace analysis.
Values of surge impedance for power cables vary between 15 and 80 ohms and for
telecommunications cables between 100 and 1500 ohms. Common average values used are 40 and
600 ohms respectively.
The Reflection factor, r, ratio of reflected pulse to the injected pulse is a function of the fault
resistance Rf and the characteristic or surge impedance Zo of the cable.
For shunt faults it is:
r = - Zo / (2Rf + Zo )
and for series faults

131
r = Rf / (2Zo + Rf )
Following tables give Reflection factor (%) in a power cable of Zo = 40 ohms for different values
of Rf for shunt and series faults.
Fault resistance in ohms Reflection factor (%), shunt fault Reflection factor (%), series fault
1
- 95
1.2
10
-67
11
40
-33
33
100
-17
55
400
-4.8
83
1000
Negligible
93
100K
Negligible
Approx. 100
Curve: Reflection Amplitude Vs Fault Resistance

Thus it can be seen from the above table and graph that for shunt faults approximate limiting values
of fault resistance is 400 ohms or in other words shunt faults with resistance greater than 10 times
Zo are unlikely to produce recognizable trace features. Similarly a very low value series fault would
also produce a trace difficult to recognize. It should be noted that shunt faults produce negative
trace features and series faults positive ones.
132
PE /TDR is inherently less accurate than bridge method due to

i)
The difficulty often experienced in choosing the exact point to measure on the trace.
ii)
Minor variations in velocity of propagation over the route length when different
cables are joined together, and
iii)
Velocity of propagation changing with varying frequency content of the pulse,
which is distorted as it, travels along the cable. This effect is more noticed in
transient tests than in PE /TDR.
It is there fore essential to choose a trust worthy value of velocity of propagation, employ a
proportional method based on correct length and confirm velocity of propagation if possible from
similar healthy cable / past records etc. All measurements are made to the start of the trace feature
i.e. to the exact point where trace leaves the x axis.
A very useful approach is the comparison of traces from healthy and faulty cores. Memory facility
in modern PE /TDR enables storing of trace of one core in memory while another is viewed in real
time. The two can be superimposed, mutually displaced, added or subtracted. In fact difference play
is most indicative.
ii) Voltage wave/Current wave propagation Transient wave analysis method.
Not very long ago, a little earlier than twenty years cable fault location of very high resistance,
flashing or intermittent type faults were extremely difficult to locate. The normal way was to
change the condition of a fault by burning it down to a state where either Bridge or PE / TDR could
be applied. But the process very often used to take several hours to condition the fault, the fault
resistance again going high while the connections being changed for Bridge or TDR reconnection.
High voltage surge generators were employed for the purpose. Some degree of expertise and
experience is required in the use of burn down equipment. A fault that can be difficult or
impossible to burn down is the one that lies inside a joint with a fluid dielectric which constantly
flows in to re-seal it.
A method became available in late seventies that made possible the pre-location of high resistance
and flashing faults, which had been very difficult to find. This was concerned with the display and
analysis of a voltage transient set up in the cable when a high voltage charged capacitor was
discharged into a fault. The high voltage surge wave travels along the cable until it reaches the
fault. After a certain time lapse the fault ionizes and arcs over and two voltage transients are set up
which travel from the site of the fault in both the directions, one towards the far end and one
towards the source end. This latter is the transient being displayed on the oscilloscope. When it
arrives at the source end, it is reflected with no change in polarity by the impedance mismatch at the
surge generator output. On arriving back at the fault point, it is again reflected back, this time with a
changed polarity, by the fault arc itself which appears as permanent short circuit because the
duration of the arc is very long in comparison with the micro-seconds in the time of flight of the
transient wave. This reflection and re-reflection continues until the energy in the transient has been
dissipated due to losses in the cable. By measuring the time of interval between two successive
reflections, the distance to fault can be found if the velocity of propagation is known.
In transient method the effect of the ionization delay must be fully understood. It should be
noted that until the arc strikes, the breakdown or explosion at the fault does not occur and the
transients required for the analysis are not generated. It takes a few milli-seconds to ionize and
break down, when the surge wave is still travelling along the cable. The arc may strike when the
surge wave has just passed the fault or has travelled to the end, been reflected and is on its way
back. It often happens that the surge wave breaks the fault on the return journey because its voltage
has been doubled due to positive reflection co-efficient at the open circuit end. That is why in
transient method the distance range setting should be kept higher and not simply to use a range
some what greater than the cable length as may be done with PE/TDR. Otherwise the operator may
be viewing and trying to analyze the meaning less stretch of trace that occurs before the features
133
related to the fault break down. A wrong pre-location can often waste hours of valuable time, and,
can reduce operators faith in the equipment.
In late seventies Dr. P. F. Gale revolutionized the power cable fault location by developing
equipment that analyzes the current transient associated with the voltage transient on the basis of
above approach. This simplified the equipment and gave safer approach by deriving the current
transient from a simple linear coupler connected in the earth return lead of the HV surge generator.
The process is called impulse current method. When considering current transients as opposed to
voltage transients one has to take different view of the trace features produced. A positive voltage
transient produces a negative current transient and the co-efficient of reflection are of opposite
sense, as shown below.
Features of Voltage and Transients Current
Transient
Feature
Co Eff. Of Reflection
Voltage
Open circuit
+ 1, Same polarity on reflection,

voltage doubling occurs
Current
Open circuit
- 1, Inverts on reflection
Voltage
Short circuit
- 1, Inverts on reflection
Current
Short circuit
+ 1, Same polarity on reflection,

current doubling occurs
Practical Procedure:
When performing a pre location by impulse current method it is usually helpful to carry out few
diagnostic checks using the ICE (Impulse Current Equipment). With SG (Surge Generator)
connected on the healthy core or faulty core, a low voltage of 2 3 Kv is set, ICE is also set and a
single surge is applied to produce a trace as shown. At this low voltage no break down occurs.
Trace produced is of PE/TDR type.
The portion AB represents the total cable length and the corresponding time in microseconds
(proportional to the cable length) is measured. Thus we get velocity propagation constant for the
cable under test as say, X metres / microsecond. Sometime similar check is also done with other
end shorted to earth with a trace as shown and super imposing the traces under open and short
circuit
condition as above to accurately measure the propagation constant shown below.

PE/TDR Type trace showing other end shorted to earth.
PE/TDR Type trace showing other end open.
134
Superimposing one trace upon another to accurately measure the cable length.
Next the voltage at which the faulty core is flashing or breaking down is determined with the SG in
its continuous mode. Then the SG is selected in surge mode and set at least 1.5 times the flashing
voltage and with the ICE connected, surge is applied to monitor the trace. Surge voltage may be
increased in steps for a better quality of trace. A few samples of traces under different conditions of
break down is shown as under.
Traces from a high resistance fault

(a) Sensitivity setting correct, (b) Sensitivity setting too low & (C) Sensitivity setting too
high.
135
Long ionisation delay; fault features of the end off the screen.
Trace produced when fault breakdown occurs after the surge has passed
the fault position and has been reflected from the other end i.e end B.
The exact point to which the measurement to be made on the trace for fault is very critical. It is
taken to the start of a small positive bump occurring just before the negative going front of the
feature at point A on the trace which is the arrival of the first reflection of the break down pulse at
the test end. This bump is the result of the time delay introduced by of the inductive mismatch
offered at the surge generator and this can produce errors of measurement if not recognized. On a
long cable length this error will be several hundred metres.
To eliminate the error due to improper identification of this notch on the trace a method known as
LOOP IN / LOOP OUT is applied. A healthy & a faulty core is looped at SG end of the cable
and a trace is obtained for the break down. The trace is stored in the memory of ICE. Next the two
cores are also looped at far end that is cables healthy & faulty cores are looped at both near end of
the SG and far end. Trace is again obtained keeping the settings of ICE unaltered from the previous
trace. Two types of traces thus obtained are compared by superimposing one on the other aligning
at the break down point of the two traces. The point of separation of the two traces in two different
directions from the alignment point gives the distance to fault from other end of the cable as
illustrated below.
136
ICE
Circuit diagram for loop-in and loop-out method.
Trace with far end Loop-on.
Trace with far end Loop-off.
The above two traces are superimposed and the breakdown features carefully coincided.
137
Secondary Impulse Method (SIM)

Secondary Impulse Current Equipment is basically a similar equipment as the ICE but with an
improved feature incorporated in it. When a fault breaks down on application of high D.C or a surge
voltage, the fault point remains in ionized i.e. short circuit state during the arcing period. At this moment
a low voltage secondary pulse is injected which brings along with it the trace of a short circuited cable
like that of a PE /TDR. This short circuit trace along with the trace before occurrence of break down are
displayed together on the monitor screen. It is very convenient to distinguish the point of break down and
measure distance to fault by the operator. The circuit connection and trace taken during secondary
impulse method are given below.
Circuit or Connection Diagram For SIM
Trace Showing the Fault Point and Other End of the Cable with SIM
138
Pin Pointing Fault Location

Fault locations given by Bridge method and PE, as experienced by us, seldom require pin pointing,
if the available cable data on the basis of which the distance to fault location have been calculated,
are correct. However, pin pointing is required for high resistance or flashing faults, as they are
difficult to visible identification on cable after soil excavation. Pin pointing is also required if the
location fall on restricted area or where excavation is a difficult process. Majority of pin pointing is
made by acoustic method where a SG is employed to give a thump to create noise and vibration at
the fault site. The energy suddenly released at the fault site on the arrival of each surge wave
produces a frequency thump as the shock wave through the ground over to the surface. A ground
micro-phone and an amplifier is used to detect this acoustic signal intensity and its frequency.
Some other methods have been also used e.g. MAGPIE Magnetic potential indicating method and
POPIE Pool of potential indicating method which are other variations of detection using the
magnetic field or pool of electric potential generated at the fault point when a high voltage DC is
injected to cause break down at the fault site.
It is therefore clear that, to find cable faults quickly and efficiently, we must not only have a good
knowledge of the required techniques and methods, but also a thorough grasp of many other factors
involved, such as the knowledge of cables, cable data, routes, joint positions, etc. Hope that above
discussion will be of some help in understanding under ground cable fault location to an operator.
139
140
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

Introduction
An engineering method that
- Senses abnormality in the network
- Detects that part of the network which is the cause of abnormality and
- To maintain stability, isolates only the faulty part from rest of the healthy system.
Power system protection thus deals not only with relays but with the following in totality.
- Sensing devices
- Measuring, comparing & logic devices
- Location, circuitry & logics for selectivity
- Operating devices
- Control supply & Communication and not the least rather the first & foremost one
i.e.
- Power system fault level determination at protection application point in network.
These aspects power system protection along with the practice followed in CESC are described in
brief in the following steps.
a)
Sequence Network and derivation of fault currents for different types of fault.
b)
Time lag Back-up O/C, E/F Protection for 6kV/11kV/33kV/132kV system
c)
Primary (instantaneous) Protection for 132/33/11/6kV Plant/equipment
d)
Bus bar-zone protection
e)
Relays used in CESC system and protection logic.
Sequence Network and Derivation of Fault Currents
Faults in Power System:
Electrical power system is normally treated as a balanced three-phase network.
Faults in power system may be of two types symmetrical & unsymmetrical.
Symmetrical fault involves all three phases at the same location. Unsymmetrical faults may be
single line to ground fault or line to line fault or double line to ground fault.
In case of occurrence of a symmetrical fault, the symmetry of balanced phases remains
undisturbed. But in case of an unsymmetrical fault the symmetry gets upset, resulting in
unbalanced currents and voltages appearing in the network.
Analysis of these fault conditions has been made possible by the use of the theory of
symmetrical components and by employing the concept of replacing the normal system sources by
a source at the point of fault.
Why calculation & analysis of fault current is required?
The design of machines, bus bars, isolators, circuit breakers etc. is based on the knowledge
of normal current and fault currents in the system.
The selection of protective relays and discrimination (with the relaying scheme) is
dependent on the knowledge of distribution of current & voltage in different parts of the
system due to the fault.
Faults cause drop in voltage, unbalance and loss of stability. Hence another purpose of fault
calculations is to determine the change in voltages and the transient performance of the
networks under various fault conditions.
141
Theory of Symmetrical Components:

Dr. C. L. Fortescue introduced the method of symmetrical components to the solution of polyphase networks.
According to Fortescue, an unbalanced system of n related phases can be resolved into a
system of n balanced phasors called the symmetrical components of the original phasors.
Here we shall consider only unbalanced three phase system.
Symmetrical components of 3-phase systems:
According to the theorem, unbalanced system of three vectors (Ia, Ib, Ic or Va, Vb, Vc) can be
resolved into three balanced systems of vectors, which are:
1. Positive Sequence Components consisting of three phasors (Va1, Vb1, Vc1 or Ia1, Ib1, Ic1),
equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the same phase
sequence as the original phasors.
2. Negative Sequence Components consisting of three phasors (Va2, Vb2, Vc2 or Ia2, Ib2, Ic2)
equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 1200 in phase and having the phase
sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
3. Zero Sequence Components consisting of three phasors (Va0, Vb0, Vc0 or Ia0, Ib0, Ic0), equal
in magnitude and having zero relative phase displacements i.e. having same phase.
Ia1
Ia2
1200
Ic1
1200
Positive Sequence components
1200
Ib2
1200
Ic2
Negative Sequence components
Ib1
Ic0 Ib0 Ia0

Zero Sequence
Components
Ia
Ia0
Ia2
Ia1
Ic1
Ic2
Ib
Ic
Ib0
Ib1
Ib2
Ic0
Addition of the components to obtain three unbalanced phases

Fig.1
142
Thus :
Ia=Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
Ib = Ib0 + Ib1 + Ib2
Ic = Ic0 + Ic1 + Ic2
- Eqn.1
Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Vb= Vb0 + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc = Vc0 + Vc1 + Vc1
- Eqn.2
Operator a :
The letter a is an operator that causes a rotation of 1200 on a phasor in the counter clockwise
direction. It is a complex number of unit magnitude with an angle of 1200 and is defined as
a = 1<1200 = - 0.5 + j 0.866
If the operator a is applied to a vector twice in succession, the phase is rotated through 2400.
Thus,
a2 = 1 <2400 = -0.5 - j0.866.
From Balanced Vector to Symmetrical Components:
Referring to Fig.1 we obtain as follows:
Positive Sequence Components are:
Ia1
Ib1 = a2 Ia1
Ic1=a Ia1
Negative Sequence Components are:
Ia2
Ib2 = a Ia2
Ic2 = a2 Ia2
Zero Sequence Components are:
Ia0
Ib0 = Ia0
Ic0 = Ia0
From equation 1
Ia = Ia0 + Ia1 + Ia2
Ib = Ia0 + a2Ia1 + aIa2
Ic = Ia0 + aIa1 + a2Ia2
- Eqn.3
In matrix from
Ia
Ib
Ic
1
1
1
Lel
A=
Then
A-1
1
a2
a
1
a
a2
Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
1
1
1
1
a2
a
1
a
a2
1
1
1
1
a
a2
1
a2
a
Eqn.4
143
Multiplying both sides of Eqn.(4) by A-1, we get

Ia0
1
1
1
Ia1
= 1
a
a2
1
a2
a
Ia2
Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
=
=
=
(Ia + Ib + Ic)
(Ia + aIb + a2Ic)
(Ia + a2Ib + aIc)
Ia
Ib
Ic
- Eqn.5
Similarly from Eqn. 2 we can derive

=
(Va + Vb +Vc)
Va0
Va1
=
(Va + aVb + a2Vc)
- Eqn.6
2
Va2
=
(Va + a Vb + aVc)
From these equations we can derive symmetrical components of unbalanced system of vectors.
Zero Sequence Currents:
In three phase systems, when there is a neutral return path for currents,
In = Ia + Ib + Ic
= 3 (Ia0)
Ia0 = In
3
In delta connected load, the line currents do not find return neutral path. Hence line currents do not
have zero sequence components.
In star connected system without neutral path or neutral grounding In is zero. Hence zero
sequence currents are zero.
Sequence Impedances
The impedance of any section of a balanced network to current of one sequence may be different
from impedance to current of another sequence.
The impedance offered by a circuit to the positive sequence component of current is called positive
Sequence Impedance of that circuit. Likewise the negative sequence impedance and zero
sequence impedance are defined.
Sequence Networks
The single phase equivalent circuit composed of the impedances to current of any one sequence
only is called the Sequence Network for that particular sequence.
The sequence network consists of any generated emf of like sequence. Sequence networks carrying
the currents Ia1, Ia2 and Ia0 are interconnected to represent various unbalanced fault conditions.
Sequence Networks of an Unloaded Generator:
Circuit diagram of an unloaded generator grounded through a reactance is shown :
144
Ia
a
+
Ea
-
Zn
- Eb
+
Ec
Ib
Sequence Network :
a
+
Z1
+
Ea -
Ia1
Va1
Z2
Ia2
Va2
Zg0
Ia0
Va0
3Zn
Positive Sequence
Negative Sequence
Zero Sequence
Fig. 2. Sequence Network of an Unloaded Alternator

1)
2)
3)
Positive Sequence Network :

The Positive Sequence Network consists of an emf source Ea in series with positive
sequence impedance Z1.
Ea is the induced emf of one phase. Z1 is replaced by X1 if the resistance is
neglected. X1 is positive sequence reactance of generator. It is same as direct axis
reactance. It may be sub-transient, transient or steady state reactance depending upon
the problem to be solved.
Va1=Ea - Ia1 Z1 = Ea - jIa1 X1
The generator emfs are balanced voltages and therefore, considered to be positive
sequence emfs. Generator does not induce negative or zero sequence emfs.
Negative Sequence Network :
It simply consists of negative sequence impedance, Z2 (jX2).
Va2 = - Ia2 Z2 = - j Ia2 X2
Zero Sequence Network :
It consists of zero sequence impedance of the generator per phase, Zg0
(jXg0) plus three times the impedance in neutral to ground circuit, Zn (jXn).
145
Z0 = Zg0 + 3Zn, voltage drop

Va0 = - Ia0 Z0
= - Ia0 (Zg0 + 3Zn)
= - jIa0 (Xg0 + 3Xn)
Unsymmetrical Faults on unloaded generator
1.
Single line to ground fault
a
Ia
Fault
Ia=In
Ea
-
Zn
- Eb
+
Ec
Ib
Fig.3. Circuit Diagram
The conditions at the fault are expressed by the following equations:

Ib = 0
Ic = 0
Va = 0, neglecting drop in Zn
The symmetrical components of current are given by
Ia0
1
1
Ia1
= 1
a
Ia2
1
a2
Ia0 = Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia
1
a2
a
Ia
Ib
Ic
= Ia
Considering voltage equations :

Va1 = Ea Ia1 Z1
Va2 = - Ia2 Z2
Va0 = - Ia0 Z0
Since Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0, Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 = Ea Ia1 (Z1 + Z2 + Z0) = 0
Ia1 = ___Ea
.
Z0 + Z1 + Z2
146
The connection of sequence networks of unloaded generator for a single line-to-ground fault
on phase a at the terminal of the generator will be as follows:
_
Ea
Z1
Va=0
Va1
Ia1
+
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0
Z2
Ia2=Ia1
Va2
+
-
3Zn
Z0
Zg0
2.
Va0
Ia0=Ia1
Line to Line fault :

Ia
a
In=0
Ea
-
Zn
- Eb
+
+
C
Ec
b
Ib
IC
Fig.4. Circuit diagram for line-to-line fault between phases b and c

Vb = Vc, Ia =0, In=0, Ib = -Ic
147
Thus, the symmetrical components of current are given by :

Ia0
Ia1
Ia2
1
= 1
1
1
a
a2
1
a2
a
0
-Ic
Ic
1
a
a2
1
a2
a
Va
0
0
Ia0 = 0
and Ia2 = - Ia1
1
= 1
1
Va0
Va1
Va2
Va1 = Va2
And since Ia0 = 0, Va0 = 0
The connection of sequence networks will be as follows:
Ea
+
Va1
Z2
Va2
Z1
+
Ia1
+
Ia2
Ia1 = - Ia2
We derive, Ea-Ia1Z1 Ia2 Z2 = O
Ea
Ia1 =
= I a 2, I a = O
Z 1+ Z 2
Va1 = Ea Ia1Z1 = Va2, Va = 0
From the sequence components we can derive currents and voltages
148
3.
Double Line to Ground fault :

a
Ia
+
In
Ea
-
- Eb
Zn
+
+
Ec
b
Ib+Ic=In
Ib
IC
Fig.4. Circuit diagram for line-to-line fault between phases b and c

Vb = Vc = 0, Ia = 0
Thus, the symmetrical components of voltage are given by,
Va0
Va1
Va2
1
= 1
1
1
a
a2
1
a2
a
Va
0
0
Va0 = Va1 = Va2 = 1/3Va

Further, Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia0= 0
Hence the connection of sequence networks will be as follows:
Ea
3Zn
+
Va1
Z2
Va2
Z0
Va0
Zg0
Z1
+
Ia1
Ia2
Ia0
From the figure, for double line to ground fault we get:
149
Ea
I a1=
1
1
z
2 z0
Z +1
1
Ea
=
Z 1+
z2z0
z 2+z0
Va1 = Ea Ia1 Z1
Va1 = Va2 = Va0
Ia2 =
V a1
Z2
Ia0 =
V a1
Z0
From these symmetrical components the currents and voltages can be determined.
Sequence Impedances of Different Elements of Power System :
The positive and negative sequence impedances of linear, symmetrical, static circuits are identical
because impedance of such circuits is independent of phase sequence provided the applied voltages
are balanced.
The impedance of a transmission line to zero sequence currents differs from the
impedance to positive and negative sequence currents.
The impedance of rotating machines to currents of the three sequences will generally
be different for each sequence.
A transformer in a three-phase circuit may consist of three individual single-phase
units, or it may be a three-phase transformer. The zero sequence series impedances of
three-phase units may differ slightly from the positive and negative sequence values, but
for all practical purposes, series impedances of all sequences may be assumed equal.
The zero-sequence impedance of balanced Y and - connected loads equals the
positive and negative sequence impedance.
Zero Sequence Current in case of Star or Delta connection:
Zero sequence currents flow only if return path is available through which circuit is completed.
Zero sequence equivalent circuits of three phase transformers banks for different connection
diagrams are discussed below:
Case I :
Y-Y Bank, one neutral grounded
A
Symbol
Reference Bus
Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuit
If either one of the neutrals of Y-Y bank is ungrounded, zero sequence current cannot flow in either
winding.
150
Case II :
Y-Y Bank, both neutrals grounded

A
Z0
Reference Bus
Symbol
Zero Sequence equivalent circuit
Where both neutrals of Y-Y Bank are grounded, a path through the transformer exists for
zero sequence currents in both the windings.
Case III
Y- Bank, Grounded Y
A
Symbol
Z0
Zero Sequence equivalent circuit
If the neutral of a Y- bank is grounded, zero Sequence currents have a path to the ground through
the Y because corresponding induced currents can circulate in the .
The zero sequence current circulating in the to balance the zero sequence current in the Y cannot
flow in the lines connected to the .
Case IV :
Y- Bank, Ungrounded Y
A
Z0
Reference Bus
Symbol
Zero sequence equivalent circuit
In this case also, zero sequence current cannot flow in the transformer winding.
Case V :
- Bank
A
Symbol
Z0
Reference bus
Circuit provides no return path for zero sequence current, no zero sequence current can flow in a
- Bank, although it can circulate in the winding.
151
Unsymmetrical faults on power system :

1)
Single line to ground fault
a__________________________
Ia
Earth Fault
b_________________________
Ib
c___________________________
Ic
The following relations exist at the fault:

Ib= 0, Ic = 0, Va = 0
The three equations are the same as those which apply to a line-to-ground fault on an unloaded
generator.
These equations and the relations of symmetrical components must have the same solutions as are
found for unloaded generator, except that Vf replaces Ea.
Thus, for a single line to ground fault
Ia1 = Ia2 =Ia0
And I a1=
Z 1+ Z 2+ Z 0
_______________ 1
_______________ 2
The above equations indicate that the three sequence networks should be connected in series
through the fault point in order to circulate a single line-to-ground fault.
2)
Line-to-line fault
a__________________________
Ia
b__________________________
Ib
c___________________________
Ic
3
The following relations exist at the fault

Vb=Vc, Ia = 0, Ib= - Ic
(Similar to those which apply to a lineto-line fault on an unloaded generator)
Thus, we obtain Va1 = Va2
I a1=
Z 1+ Z 2
The above equations indicate that the positive and negative sequence networks should be
connected in parallel at fault point in order to simulate a line-to-line fault.
3)
Double line to ground fault
The following relations exist at the fault :
Vb = Vc = 0
Ia = 0
Thus we obtain, Va1 = Va2 = Va0

and I a1=
Vf
Z Z
Z 1+ 2 0
Z 2+ Z 0
a___________________________
Ia
b__________________________
Ib
c__________________________
IC
5
6
In Earth Fault
The above equation indicate that three sequence networks should be connected in parallel
at the fault point in order to simulate a double line-to-ground fault.
152
4)
Three phase Symmetrical fault (a-b-c or a-b-c-e)

The following relations exist at the fault
Ib + Ib + Ic = 0
Va =Vb = Vc
It follows that, Va0= Va
Va1 = 0
Va2 = 0
a___________________________
Ia
b__________________________
Ib
c__________________________
IC
Earth Fault
and
Ia0 = 0
Ia2 = 0
V f = I a 1 Z1 or Ia1 = Vf / Z1
For three phase symmetrical fault only the positive sequence network exists.
Power System Protection:
Basic need of a power system:
1.
To provide uninterrupted quality power
2.
Prevention of failure power system elements
3.
Mitigation of the effects of failure in power system elements
Protection philosophy is based on mitigating the effects of failure in power system.
Protection is a diagnosis, not prevention or cure.
It is a watchdog, not a police
The purpose of protection is to provide
Reliable Service.
Stability of the System.
Protective Gear:
This is a collective term which covers all the elements used in detecting, locating and initiating the
removal of a faulty part of the power system network from rest of the healthy system.
Elements for promptly disconnecting the faulty element:
1.
Protective relaying.
2.
Circuit breakers with sufficient rupturing capacity.
3.
Fuses.
Characteristics of protective relaying:
Reliability.
Speed.
Selectivity.
Sensitivity.
Stability.
Reliability
Repeated performance of correct operation even after long period of inactivity. A Silent
sentinel.
It is essential that protective relaying equipment must be reliable. Incorrect operation can be
attributed to the following reasons:
153
Speed
Incorrect design
Incorrect installation
Deterioration of protection system component elements
The purpose of protection is to isolate faults from the power system in a very short time to
minimize (i) extent of damage and (ii) risk of instability of the system than could be
achieved manually.
Selectivity
Selection of only unhealthy part of network.
When a fault occurs in a system the protection is required to select and trip only the
concerned circuit breakers to isolate the faulty part only. The property of selective tripping
is also called discrimination and is achieved by the following methods:
Unit System
Time Graded System and
Directional System.
Sensitivity
Detection of unhealthiness at its lowest level.
A protective system is said to be sensitive if the primary operating current is low.
Stability
Ability to operate only for those conditions that calls for its operation.
If refers to the ability of the system to remain inert to all load conditions and through faults.
It is a term applicable to Unit Systems; the term discrimination is the equivalent expression
applicable to non-unit systems.
The above requirements / features of protection are achieved through:
i)
Proper Selection of CTs &VT, Sensor
ii)
Proper Type of relay and relaying schemes/ logic
iii)
Proper Co-ordination of relay settings,
iv)
Proper selection of Trip Supply etc.
Primary and Back up Protection:
Primary or main protections are basically unit protections and are instantaneous, i.e. operate
and reset with no intentional delay.
Several factors may cause protection failure and there is also a possibility of circuit breaker failure
itself. For this reason, it is usual to supplement Primary Protection with Back up Protection
and to minimise the possibilities of failure to clear a fault from the system.
Back up protection is inherently slower than the main protection and depending on the power
system configuration, may be less discriminative.
The extent and type of back up protection will be related to failure risks and relative economic
importance of the system. For distribution systems where fault clearance time are less critical in
comparison, time delayed remote back up protection is adequate but for EHV systems, where
stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, two main or primary protection with local
breaker failure backup are normally chosen.
Different classes of protective relays:
Depending on the measurement of actuating quantities (voltage and current) which are present at
the relaying point, protective relays can be grouped as follows:
154
a) Magnitude Relays
Measures magnitude such as over-current, undercurrent, over voltage, under-voltage relays,
frequency relays etc.
These relays respond to their input quantities and operate to trip whenever the magnitude exceeds a
certain value which is settable.
IDMT Over-current Relay
The operating principle of an over-current relay can be defined as,
fault current magnitude, [If] > Relay Pick up current, [Ip] trip
[If] < [Ip]
block
The simplest form of over-current relay is not versatile. Another parameter needs to be incorporated
the time it takes to operate after [If] exceeds [Ip]. The above conditions can be supplemented by
if [If] > [Ip]
T= ([If]-[Ip])
Where T is the relay operating time and is a function which describes its dependence on the fault
current level.
The traditional method of representing the characteristics of a time over-current relay is as shown.
Op. Time
(in secs.)
2
1
TMS SETTING
PSM (Ratio [If]/[Ip])

The pick up setting [Ip] of a relay is adjustable through the taps on its input windings. The
function is such that it decreases as some inverse power of the current magnitude for [If] > [Ip].
The ratio of [If]/ [Ip]) is called the Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) of the relay. The inverse time
characteristic can be shifted up or down by an adjustment known as the Time Multiplier Setting
(TMS). Such relay is called universal time delay relay.
An inverse time relay having an operating time that tends towards a minimum value with increasing
value of current is called an Inverse Time relay with Definite Minimum Time (IDMT).
By IDMT relays discrimination can be achieved by time gradation or current gradation or by a
combination of both.
High Set instantaneous Over-current Relay:
For long transmission lines or transformer feeders, where the source impedance is small in
comparison with the protected circuit impedance, a high set instantaneous element is used in
conjunction with IDMT over-current element. This makes possible a reduction in tripping time at
high fault levels, and improves the overall system grading.
b) Product measuring Relays
These relays measure product VI Cos such as Directional Over-current & Earth fault relays,
Power relays etc. It depends for its operation upon the angle () of the current with respect to the
voltage. That way the relay can be set to operate for fault in a particular direction with reference to
the relay location.
The operating principle can be described by
155
min > op > max

min < op < max
trip
block
c) Ratio relays
These relays measure the ratio of V / I. For example, distance relay which operates for faults within
a certain distance of its location. It measures the ratio of the voltage and current at the relay
location, which is proportional to the distance.
Z=V/I
The relay performance can be described by
[Z] < [Zr]
trip
[Z] > [Zr]
block
The relay is called an impedance relay.
In complex plane, the locus of constant [Zr] is a circle.
X
[Zr]
.
Z
Trip
R
Block
This type of impedance relay has characteristic non-directional, a fault either to left or right of
relay location having [Z] < [Zr] will lead to a trip decision.
By a simple modification in the relay, the circle which is centered at the origin can be offset by an
amount Z1 producing the characteristic of the offset impedance relay. The performance of this type
of relay can be described by
[Z-Z1] < [Zr] trip
[Z-Z1] > [Zr] block
Z1 Zr r
.Z
By selecting Z1=Zr, the relay characteristic can be made to pass through the origin. The
characteristic is called Mho relay characteristic. A Mho relay is inherently directional.
d) Differential Relays.
These relays compare between two quantities / two vectors. It employs the principle of Kirchoffs
current law. Two CTs having the same turns ratios are placed at the boundaries of the zone of
156
protection and they are connected in such a way that the vector difference of secondary currents (I1I2) passes through the relay coil.
The operating principle can be defined by
[I1-I2] > Ip trip
[I1-I2]< Ip block
Often the CT errors increase with increasing values of I1 and I2. For such cases, it is possible to
make the value Ip dependent upon the av. of I1 and I2. A relay can designed in the fashion that the
op. principle becomes.
[I1-I2] > k [I1+I2]/2 trip
[I1-I2] < k [I1+ I2]/2 block
The factor k decides the bias slope of the relay characteristic.
When the entire zone of protection of relay occupies a relatively small physical space near the
relay, like in case of a transformer, a generator or a bus, it is possible to apply this simple
relaying scheme.
When transmission lines are to be protected by a differential relay, their terminals may be long
distance apart and it becomes impractical to connect the signals from the ends of the transmission
line to the relay. Pilot relaying provides a technique of communicating information from a remote
zone boundary to the relay at each terminal.
The physical medium used for pilot channels could be conductors for a telephone circuit, powerline carrier, optical fire and microwave channels.
Transformer Protection
Type of faults in a Transformer Electrical.
Non- Electrical.
Electrical Faults I) Phase to phase.
II) Phase to earth fault at terminals.
III) Phase to phase at winding.
IV) Inter turn short circuit
Non Electrical Faults Core fault due to breakdown of insulation between core lamination.
Decomposition of oil due to ageing.
Failure of cooling system.
Protection in Transformer
Small Transformers I) HRC Fuse, CFS Unit
II) No detection of non-electrical faults.
Medium Size TransformersI) IDMTL O/C & E/F relays.
II) Instantaneous low transient over-reach type high-set O/C & E/F relays.
III) Buchholz device, OTI / WTI / Low oil level alarms.
Large & Very Large Transformers I) Differential Protection.
II) REF Protection.
157
III) Backup IDMTL O/C & E/F Protection.

IV) Over-fluxing protection.
V) Buchholz, OTI/WTI Alarm & Trip, PRV Trip and Low oil level Alarms.
132kV - TURRET CT
POST MOUNTED CT
Protection Scheme of a 132 / 33 kV Ynd1 Transformer:
33kV- SWITCH CT
75 MVA
132/34.5KV
158
Transformer Differential Protection

This protection operates according to the principle of current comparison. They utilize the fact
that the current leaving a healthy object is the same as that which entered it. Any measured
current difference is certain indication of a fault somewhere within the protected zone.
The CTs on the HV & LV sides of the transformers are connected such that the currents are
matched
both magnitude & phase wise.
The protection will operate only if fault is within the Transformer winding.
Connection Diagram of Differential Protection for a Two-winding Transformer:
Features of Transformer Protection Differential Protection :

1. Differential Protection (Minimum Operating) :
This protection is required to operate for a set minimum amount of differential current.
2. Differential Protection (High Set):
This is intended for heavy faults currents.
3. Through fault bias:
To take care of spill current due to CT ratio mismatch.
To take care of spill current due to tap change.
To take care of CT saturation.
4. 2nd Harmonic Restraint:
As differential currents can be caused not only by internal transformer faults but also by the inrush
current during switching on, paralleling of transformers, or an over excitation of the transformer,
they are examined as to their harmonic content.
To take care of magnetizing inrushes during transformer switching, 2nd harmonic restraints are
provided.
The inrush current can amount to a certain multiple of the rated current and is characterized by a
considerable 2 nd harmonic content ( double rated frequency ) which is practically absent in case of
a short-circuit. If the 2nd harmonic content exceeds a selectable threshold, trip is blocked.
5. 5th Harmonic Restraint/Bypass:
During over excited conditions of transformers, 5th harmonic is predominant.
Modern Numerical/digital Transformer differential relays has choice of any other nth harmonic
restraint.
159
Transformer Differential Protection Relays normally used in our system are:

1. DTH31/32 - Static Relay - AREVA make
2. MBCH12/13 - Static Relay - AREVA make
3. KBCH120/130 - Numerical Relay - AREVA make
4. 4C21 - Static Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
5. Duo BiasM - Numerical Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
6. RADSB - Static Relay - ABB make
7. 7UT512/513 - Numerical Relay - Siemens make.
8. MIB202 Easun Reyrolle make.
Restricted E/F Protection:
Earth faults are most common.
Differential protection is unable to sense earth fault close to transformer neutral in resistance
earthed system.
Restricted Earth Fault protection covers 80%-90% of winding from line terminal.
Restricted Earth fault is provided both for HV & LV winding of a transformer.
In case of star connected winding with grounded neutral, Transformer Line side CT and
Neutral CT are connected so that they match ratio wise. Also they are connected in such
polarity that in case of through fault the relay remains stable.
In case of Delta connected winding three line CTs are connected residually with the Restricted
Earth fault relay.
The protection will operate in case of earth fault in the transformer winding only.
Transformer REF Relays normally used are:
1. CAG14 / 34 - Electromechanical Relay - AREVA make
2. RADHD - Static Relay - ABB make
3. 4B3 - Electromechanical Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
Transformer Back up O/C & E/F Protection :
The basic idea is to provide back up in case of failure of main protection during fault.
This is time delayed. Normally IDMTL (Inverse Definite Minimum Time Lag) Relays are used.
IDMTL Relay is a relay in which the time lag of operation varies inversely with the operating
current but becomes more or less independent for large values of the current.
The selectivity is achieved based on the time of operation of the relays. The time of operation of
the relays at various locations is so adjusted that the relay farthest from the source will have
minimum time of operation and as it is approached towards the source the operating time increases.
Connection of O/C & E/F Relays
Three phase O/C & E/F protection.
Earth fault may be residually connected or as standby connected from the transformer neutral.
Residually connected three O/C & 1 E/F is shown in the diagram.
Diagram showing residual connection of three O/C & one E/F relay
160
Standby Earth Fault Protection :

When a transformer neutral point is earthed either solidly or through a grounding resistor, an E/F
relay is connected operated off a CT at the neutral.
This acts as back-up protection for all un-cleared earth faults in the connected system.
As grounding resistors are short time rated, the SB E/F relay protects it also from damage in cases
of persistent earth faults.
Back Up Over Current & Earth Fault Protection :
Relays normally used are as under :
1. CDG11/31- Electromechanical Relay - AREVA make
2. KCEG/KCGG 140- Numerical Relay - AREVA make
3. RACID - Numerical Relay - ABB make
4. TJM10 - Electromechanical Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
5. MIT 104- Numerical Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
6. MJT314 - Numerical Relay - Easun Reyrolle make
7. 7SJ 531- Numerical Relay - Siemens make
8. PBO - Electromechanical Relay - Metropolitan Vickers make.
Protection against Non Electrical Faults
Over-fluxing Protection
Over-fluxing is proportional to V/f.
(E = 4.44 m f T or = K E/f)
Cause of over-fluxing I) Large load throw off.
II) Ferranti effect.
III) Grid disturbance.
Buchholz Protection
Buchholz device relies on the fact that an electrical fault inside the transformer tank will be
accompanied by generation of gas.
If the severity of the fault is high enough then there will be a surge of oil from the tank towards the
conservator through the device.
161
Buchholz Protection operates for the following conditions.

- Hot spots on the core due to shorted terminations.
- Core bolt insulation failure.
- Faulty joints.
- Inter-turn faults with low power feed.
- Loss of oil due to leakage.
PRV / OTI / WTI /MOG
Other devices to monitor non-electrical nature of faults in Transformer.
SLD for 33 / 6 KV Dyn11 Transformer Protection
Trip Logic for 33/6 kV Transformer and 33 kV Transformer Feeder Protection
162
Feeder / Transmission Line Protection

Main Protection:
Instantaneous type.
Main protection can be of two basic types:-Unit differential (Also called Translay Protection).
-Distance.
Backup protection: Time delayed IDMTL protection.
CESC Protection Philosophy:
1) For 132 kV Feeders:
i) Two main protections operated off two different principles.
ii) Back-up Protection: 3 Over-current (O/C) & 1 Earth Fault (E/F).
2) For 33 kV Feeders:
i) One main protection.
ii) Back-up Protection: 3 O/C & 1 E/F.
3) For 11 kV / 6 kV Feeders:
Back Up protection: 2 O/C & 1 E/F (In old Distribution stations) or 3 O/C & 1 E/F.
Unit Differential
Compares current at the two ends.
Difficult to provide for long lines.
Normally used for Inter connector Feeders.
May be either pilot wire based or optical fibre based (U/G or OPGW).
May be circulating current system or voltage balance system.
Circulating Current System:
In this arrangement the CTs at the two ends have the same nominal ratio and are connected
through pilot wire in such polarity that under normal load current flowing or through fault
condition current will be circulating in the pilot wire without causing any current to flow
through the relay.
The relay is connected across the pilot wire in this type of arrangement.
Voltage Balance System:
In this arrangement the CTs at the two ends are connected through pilot wire in such polarity
that the secondary emfs produced by the CTs are opposed, and the relays are connected in series
with pilot wire. Hence under normal load current flowing or through fault condition no current
flows through the relays.
Principle of Operation:
163
The principle is that whatever current is fed from Station A is taken out from Station B, then the
system is healthy and the relay do not operate
If there is a fault in the feeder then the currents at Stns. A & B are reversed & the relays operate.
33 kV Transformer Feeders :
1. Unit protection is one type of protection.
2. There is another method for providing instantaneous main protection. Instantaneous Over current
& Earth fault relay is used as shown the diagram.
Line Differential Relays used:

1. SDPD/SDPS - AREVA make
2. DS5/DS7 - AREVA make
3. MBCI - AREVA make
4. HO4 - AREVA make
5. HORM4 - AREVA make
6. LFCB - AREVA make
7. 7SD511/512 - Siemens make.
164
Distance Protection:
It is a non unit system of protection but by zone and time setting unit and discrimination is
achieved.
A single relay can provide primary as well as backup protection.
It can easily be modified into unit system by combining it with a signaling channel.
It measures impedance, which is proportional to the line length.
The relay takes input both from CT & VT in order to calculate impedance.
Zones of Protection
Zone 1 typically covers 80% of the line & is instantaneous in operation.
Zone 2 typically is set to cover 120% of the line or 50% of the shortest adjacent line, whichever is
greater. A time delay is given for Zone2 operation to allow discrimination.
Zone3 is further time delayed & covers the entire second line section or more.
Zone 4 is actually the Starter.
Distance Protection Relays used:
1. PYTC - English Electric make.
2. RAZOA - ABB make
3. 7SA - Siemens make.
165
Bus bar Protection

Protection Scheme
High Impedance Circulating current differential relaying scheme is used.
Dedicated current transformers on each incomer, outgoing feeders / interconnectors & either
side of the bus-section & buscoupler (in case of double busbar arrangement) are used.
Busbar protection CTs from different feeders on the same busbar have the same nominal ratio
and are interconnected in such a way that, for load current or for through fault current, no
current should flow through the relay coil.
Providing CTs on either side of the bussection / bus-coupler helps in discrimination of the faulty
zone of the busbar.An overlap is maintained to ensure that no portion remains unprotected.
A check zone protection is also provided (Bus-section/ Bus-coupler CTs are not utilised)
through a separate check zone CT. This is provided in 33 kV & above voltage level.
Main Zone & Check Zone protections are duplicated in 33 kV and above voltage level.
A simple Buszone protection scheme has been shown below.
Trip decisions are taken when both main and check buszones operate simultaneously.
M1 Section
M2 Section
X
X
M1
M2
CH
CT switching schemes are employed in providing protection to double busbar arrangement.

Busbar Protection with CT Switching Scheme
CT switching not provided for Check Zone CT.
It is connected to Main Zone CT only.
CT switching is required for Zone segregation.
166
Diagram showing Busbar Protection with CT Switching Scheme (with two feeders):
Bus-zone Bus-wire Supervision:

Bus wire supervision relays are used in conjunction with the current differential relays in order
to supervise any high resistance or open circuit in the bus wire.
These relays are connected across the bus zone relay bus wire. If the supervision relay operates
the bus wire gets shorted through the contacts of the relay, thereby making the main bus zone
relay inoperative.
Bus-zone Protection In / Out Selection
In bus zone protection scheme zone In / Out selector switch is used so that the protection can be
kept out of service as and when required.
With Out selection the bus zone relay bus wire gets shorted. Also the DC tripping scheme is
rendered out of commission.
Relays Used in Bus-zone Protection
High impedance relays are used for main & check zone protections.
Bus bar Zone Protection Relays used:
1. CAG 34 - AREVA make
2. 4B3 - Easun Reyrolle make
3. RADHA - ABB make
Bus bar Bus wire Supervision Relays used:
1. VTX - AREVA make.
2. RXIG28 - ABB make
167
Trip Logic Diagram for Bus-bar Protection:
Standard Device Numbers as per ANSI

Device No.
Device Name
Time Delay Relay
21
Distance Relay
25
Synchronizing or Synchronism Check Device
27
Under-voltage Relay
29
Isolating Contactor
30
Annunciator Relay
32
Directional Power Relay
37
Undercurrent or Under-power Relay
40
Field Relay
46
Reverse-Phase or Phase-Balance Relay
49
Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay
50
Instantaneous Over-current Relay
51
AC Time Over-current Relay
52
AC Circuit Breaker
55
Power Factor Relay
59
Over-voltage Relay
60
Voltage or Current Balance Relay
64
Ground Detector Relay

168
67
AC Directional Over-current Relay
74
Alarm Relay
78
Phase-Angle Measuring or Out-of-Step Protective Relay
79
AC-Reclosing Relay
81
Frequency Relay
85
Carrier or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay
86.
Lockout Relay
87
Differential Protective Relay
94
Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
Note: A suffix letter may be used with the device number; for example, suffix N is used if the
device is connected to a Neutral wire (example: 59N in Siemens Relay is used for protection
against Neutral Displacement); and suffixes X, Y, Z are used for auxiliary devices. Similarly, the
G suffix denotes a ground, hence a 51G being a time over-current ground relay.
169
170
171
172
173
METERING PRACTICES
Voltage /
Current
Basic terminologies related to Tariff Metering

Commonly used Electrical Parameters
Voltage is the Electrical pressure which initiates the flow of Electricity. Unit of Voltage is Volts.
1kV means 1000Volts.
Current is the rate of flow of Electricity and depends upon the connected load. Unit of Current is
Ampere.
AC system is where magnitude and direction of voltage and current alternates in regular intervals of
time. Voltage and Currents obtained from Generators are generally alternating and sinusoidal in
nature (AC).
Time
Frequency is the no of cycles per second and is expressed in Hz. Our system frequency is 50 Hz.
Power is the Electrical capacity of the equipment and is expressed in Watts. Electrical Power is
computed by multiplying Voltage, Current and Power factor in case of AC and only Voltage and
Current in case of DC. (1kW=1000Watts and 1MW=1000kWatts)
Energy is quantum of Power absorbed by a load during a time period. It is computed by
multiplying Power and time and is expressed in Watt-hour / kWatt-hour (1000Watt-hour).
Electrical Unit: Electrical energy consumption is also expressed in Unit.
1 Unit = 1kWh (1000Wh), 1MU = 10 lakh Units
Power Factor is the ratio of actual power consumed by a load to Volt-Amps supplied in it. It is a
ratio and can never be greater than unity. Power factor depends upon consumers load. Power
Utility looses in supplying low Power factor loads and hence imposes a surcharge for low Power
factor (<0.85) and allows rebate for Power factor >0.90 to encourage consumers for drawing energy
at high Power factor. The Power factor surcharge and rebate is applicable for HT consumers. In
case of DC supply Power factor is misnomer since it is always unity.
Connected Load indicates the summation of rated power of all each individual appliances /
equipment lying installed in a premises. It is expressed in kW.
Maximum Demand means the highest average loads in kW drawn over a period (30 minutes)
during a billing month by consumer.
Load Factor means the ratio of the average load to the maximum load during the month. It is
expressed in %.
Demand Factor means the ratio of the maximum demand to the connected load.
Diversity Factor: The ratio of sum of the individual maximum demands of all the consumers
supplied by it to the maximum demand of the power station is called the diversity factor
Average Demand = Maximum Demand X Load Factor
Maximum Demand = Connected Load X Demand Factor
174
Principles of Energy Meters

Measurement of 1-ph energy
Average torque, Tav sh Ise cos - se Ish

cos (180o - )
sh Ise cos + se Ish cos
( sh Ise + se Ish ) cos
Since sh V ; se I ; Ise I and Ish V
sh Ise VI = K1VI
and se Ish IV = K2VI
Substituting above values in the expression of average torque we get
T (K1VI + K2VI) cos
or T VI cos
or T True power of circuit
Total power at any instant in 3-ph circuit
= VR . IR + VY . IY + VB . IB
= VR . IR + VB . IB VY (IR + IB)
= IR (VR VY) + IB (VB - VY)
= IR . VR Y + IB . VB Y
Total Energy of a 3-ph circuit
=
( IR . VR Y + IB . VB Y ) . dt
175
Measurement of Active Power

3 ph 4 -Wire
Connection diagram of LTCT operated Static Meter
3 ph 3 - Wire
176
Measurement of Reactive Power
177
Electro-Mechanical Energy Meters

Energy Meters are employed to record the quantum of energy consumed by the consumer over a
certain period of time.
In AC system energy meters are also called kWh meter, which records actual kWh consumed.
Broadly it is of 3 types Electromagnetic, Electronic & Static meter.
Old EM Meter
Superior Quality Meter
Poly phase Superior

quality EM Meter
178
Single Phase AC Meter with Components
Registration
Counter
Iron Frame
Gear
Mechanism
Voltage /
Pressure Coil
Aluminium
Disc
Current
Coil
Spindle
Brake
Magnet
Potential
Link
3 Phase AC Meter with Components
Registration
Counter
Voltage Coil
Adjustment
Screws
Brake Magnet
Magnetic
Suspension
Aluminium Disc
Current Coil
179
Meter Registration Display
Cyclo Dial
Electronic
Display
Pointer Dial
Terminal Blocks
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ph In Neutral Neutral Ph Out
In
Out
Single Phase AC Meter
1.
2.
R ph In R ph
Out
3.
B ph
In
4.
B ph
Out
5.
Y ph
In
6.
7. 8.
Y ph Neutral In
Out
& Out
Three Phase AC Meter
Meter Name Plate

Manufacturer's Serial No. and Utilities Serial No.: Every energy meters are provided with
manufacturer's serial no. and Utilities (CESC's) serial no.
Utilities serial no. are recorded and referred for billing and other activities, while manufacturer's
serial no. is referred if any communication is required between Meter suppliers and Utilities.
180
Meter Constant
(revs/kWh)
Meter Accuracy Class
CESCs Serial No.
Meter Name Plate
Voltage and Current Electro-magnet
Voltage electro-magnet consists of a voltage coil and a laminated "E" core. Meter phase to neutral
voltage is applied across this coil and it generates magnetic field proportional to supply voltage for
developing torque after interaction with magnetic field of current coil.
Voltage coils are essentially made of very small cross sectional wires with high no. of turns.
Current electro-magnet consists of a current coil and a "C" shaped laminated core. The coil
continuously takes the load current and therefore made of thick wires with very small no. of turns.
Current Coil
Voltage / Potential Coil

Aluminium Disc: All meters are essentially provided with Aluminium disc, because it is nonmagnetic, good electrical conductor conducting and light in weight.
Aluminium Disc
181
Disc Spindle and Supporting Arrangement: Spindle is an integral part of the disc, used for
supporting the disc vertically across the top pivot and bottom jewel. The modern energy meters
(Superior quality) are provided with magnetic suspension bearing which has eliminated stopping
the meter due to failure of jewel bearing. Starting current of the modern energy meters are also very
low (less than 0.5%) due to introduction of magnetic suspension bearing and hence they are
too sensitive to record very low amount of energy.
Magnetic Suspension
Brake Magnet: It is used for slow fast adjustment of the meter disc whenever necessary. Brake
magnet is essentially a permanent magnet and covers a portion of the disc. It generates reverse
torque on the meter disc due to eddy current principle when the disc is in motion.
Brake Magnet
Low Load Adjustment
Low load adjustment is made at 5% of the rated current with the help of the low load plate. Moving
the metal plate assembly across the poles of the potential electro-magnet by turning the micrometric
screw provided for this purpose, produces a small torque to compensate for friction of the moving
parts
182
Low Load Adjustment
Inductive Load Adjustment
Over adjustment of Low Load resulting in creeping tendency of meter

Inductive Load Adjustment
This adjustment is done be adjusting the position of the short circuiting bridge on the resistance
slide wire arrangement. The resistance wire forms part of the phase compensation circuit which is
inductively coupled to and housed on the limbs of the current electro-magnet the adjustment in
position.
Creeping
Slow but continuous movement of meter disc in no load condition is known as Meter Creeping. A
meter may creep in forward / backward (if reverse running stop mechanism is not provided). For a
meter having creeping problem, it should complete one full revolution. Creeping may happen due
to following:
Over Voltage
Ageing
Over compensation of low load adjuster

This is guarded against by two holes in the armature disc. These holes cause a slight attractive
effect when they pass under the pole pieces of the shunt electro magnet.
Anti-Creep Holes
183
Static Energy Meters
Inductive Coupling
Unit with Battery
Optical Port &

Cover
Forward Scrolling
PB
Metal Screen inside

this cover to prevent
CT Saturation under
influence of external
magnet
Backward Scrolling
PB
Short Transparent
Terminal Cover
SPRINT (WHOLE
CURRENT 10 60 A)
Ultra-sonically
Welded Cap on
meter body-cover
fixing screw
Ultra-sonic Welding
Manufacturers
Plastic Seal
SPRINT (WHOLE
CURRENT 10 60 A)
184
Low Power Radio

Frequency Module
Universal MD Reset
PB
Scrolling PB
Meter Screen inside this

cover to prevent CT
Saturation under influence of
external magnet
LT CT OPERATED STATIC
METER
RS232
Communication
Module
LCD Display
Universal MD Reset
PB
Scrolling PB
HT STATIC METER
185
RS-232
Communication
Port
Sealing
arrangement of
communication
port
HT STATIC METER
SMART 2000 - Static Meter Reading Software (SEMS)
186
Current Transformers (CT)

Some Important terms :1. Burden : The value of load connected across the secondary of CT , expressed in VA (voltamps) or ohms at rated secondary current.
2. Errors :
(i) Ratio Error : The percentage error in the magnitude of the secondary.
K Is - Ip
= ------------ X 100
Ip
K = Rated transformation ratio
Is = Secondary current
Ip = Primary current
(ii) Phase Angle Error: The phase angle between primary current vector and reversed
secondary current vector.
3. Composite Error : The rms value of the difference (KIs - Ip) integrated over one cycle under
steady conditions.
4. Accuracy limit factor : The highest value of primary current assigned, upto which the limits
of composite errors are complied with.
5. Instrument Safety Factor : The ratio of the value of current at which the CT saturates to the
rated
current.
6. Magnetising / Exciting current : The current taken by the secondary winding of the CT when
sinusoidal voltage of 50HZ is applied , keeping the primary open circuited. This current is
utilised in magnetising the core.
7. Saturation : It is that state of a CT when it stops reproducing the current in the secondary,
faithfully. At this level the magnetic core stops behaving linearly. Actually the core gets
saturated. In this state the total primary current is utilised in magnetising the core.
Definition of Knee Point :
It is that point on the magnetising curve where a 10% increase in the voltage results in 50% rise
in the exciting current drawn.
Knee point is an important factor in determining the performance of the CT.
187
Requirement of Metering CT
The metering CT should be accurate in the entire operating range upto the rated current and even
beyond, upto a certain limit.
A typical specification :
300/5 A
Cl : 1.0 , Burden : 15 VA
ISF 2
This CT must maintain its error within 1% of rated current upto 300 A , definitely & also upto
600A ( rated current X ISF I.e. 300 X 2 ) beyond which it must saturate. The whole idea is faithful
reproduction of current upto a certain level & saving the connected meters from over current
beyond that level.
Main types of CTs (Construction wise)
1. Ring type or window type or Bar primary type
In this case no. of turn in primary winding = 1
2. Wound primary type
3. Post type (Outdoor)
Current Transformer
Acceptance / Routine Tests

1.
Winding resistance measurement
2.
IR measurement
3.
Ratio checking
4.
Polarity test
5.
Magnetising characteristic tests
6.
HV tests (whenever applicable)
7.
Tan Delta Test (in case of 132 KV outdoor CTs)
8.
Measurements of errors (in lab, where needed)
188
List of instrument required for CT Test :

1.
Multimeter (2nos. 1 for current & 1 for Voltage)
2.
Low resistance measuring instrument (inductive)
3.
1-ph Variac
4.
Battery
5.
Primary Injection Set with Primary current measuring CT
6.
C & tan Delta set (for 132kV & above)
7.
Ratio & Phase angle error measuring inst. (for Lab.use)
8.
HV DC Test set (for HV test)
9.
1 kV Megger
189
Voltage Transformers (VT)

VTs are used whenever a feedback of primary voltage is required.
It may be for
(i) Metering & Indication
(ii) Protection , like Directional / Distance
(iii) Synchronising
VTs may be single phase or three phases.
A typical specification :
Ratio : 33 kV/ 110 V - 110 V
3
3
3
Class : 1 /3P -5P
Burden : 200 VA - 50 VA
Voltage factor : 1.2 Cont. / 1.9 for 8 hours
Suitable for Non-effectively earthed system.
Insulation : 36/70/170 KVP
The ratio indicates that it is a single phase VT.
There are two secondary windings. One is dual purpose , I.e. both for
(i) metering
&
(ii) protection
Class 1/3P indicates that it is suitable for both purposes.
Class 1 is for metering purposes.
Error will be within 1% of rated voltage within a range of 80% to 120% of rated voltage and 25%
to 100% of rated burden.
Class 3P is for protection purposes.
Error will be within 3% within a range of 5% to 190% (Voltage factor) of rated voltage and 25%
to 100% of rated burden.
VTs are normally Star-Star connected.
For some protection purposes the secondaries are connected in open delta (residual connection).
e.g. Directional E/F protection.
In this case the primary must be star connected with earthed neutral.
5 Limbed VTs
The core of such VTs are of a special type. It has two limbs (outer) which have no windings. These
two unwound limbs provide path for zero sequence flux. The primary winding neutral must be
earthed. Such type of 3 Phase VTs are used when one of the secondary winding is connected in
open delta for E/F protection.
Type of VTs (Construction wise)
1. Electromagnetic VT
- Oil filled
- epoxy resin encapsulated
2. Capacitor VT (CVT)
The CVT is more economical than an electromagnetic VT for system voltage greater than 66 KV.
The performance of CVT is inferior compared to electromagnetic types. Its performance is
affected by frequency, switching transients , burden etc.
190
Testing of VTs
1.
Error measurements ( In Lab)
2.
Insulation tests
3.
Induced voltage test
4.
Polarity test
5.
HV test.
List of instrument required for VT Test :
1.
Multimeter (2nos. 1 for current & 1 for Voltage)
2.
Low resistance measuring instrument (inductive)
3.
1-ph Variac
4.
Battery
5.
Ratio & Phase angle error measuring inst. (for Lab.use)
6.
HV AC Test set (for Ratio check)
7.
1 kV Megger
Indian Standard :
Current Transformers are covered by IS:2705, 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002).
Voltage Transformers are covered by IS:3156, 1992 (Reaffirmed 2002).
191
A note on summation metering system

Conventionally a single meter is connected on a feeder for a consumer with single load connection
point. The tariff requirement decides the parameters to be measured by the meter. In case the tariff
has two part depending on the active energy consumption and apparent demand, the meter stores
half hourly average of the demand values and computes the monthly highest average as the
maximum demand for that particular month.
When the consumer has to be fed over multiple feeders off line summation of the apparent values
over each feeder will not result in actual demand value as power factor may vary on each feeder.
Hence the demand measurement in this case will be concurrent apparent demand instead of the off
line sum of the maximum demand of each feeder.
The situation can be visualized from the following illustration. Consider a system of two feeders.
Apparent load on feeder 1 may be as shown in graph - I with maximum demand corresponding to
the period 150 minute.
192
193
For the second feeder let the demand be as shown in the second graph with the maximum demand
corresponding to time = 90 min, value of the demand is 190 KVA.
If on each instance the demands are added we get the maximum demand at time period
corresponding to 75 minute. Demand value is 320 KV A
If the two maximum demands for the feeder 1 and 2 are simply added what we get is 190 + 190 =
380 kV A, which is considerably higher than the concurrent maximum demand in this particular
case the difference, is about 18.75 percent, which is not acceptable.
This situation arises because of the difference in occurrence of maximum demand on the two
feeders. The example clearly indicates that there has to be a method to determine concurrent
maximum demand for the combined feeder.
Net summation Metering Scheme
Summation on the feeder meters can be done in following two different metering schemes. The
simple summation metering scheme which adds the successive values of the active and reactive
energy and calculates the apparent energy. When replacing a summation current transformer on a
multiple feeder metering system it is essential to calculate the net values of active energy import or
export and the net value of the reactive energy import or export. The net apparent value should be
calculated after calculating the net active and net reactive values. This will give the net apparent
demand values. Using the net apparent import! export maximum demand for shall be calculated.
The Quadrant Definition
The following definition shall apply for all references to quadrants as applicable to metering for
tariff purpose.
The voltage vector is assumed in the vertically upward direction and the quadrants have been
defined based on position of the current vector in the tie line.
Tariff components in each quadrant:
The electricity meter is expected to register the energy components that contribute to tariff. While,
active energy transferred (import or export) is the fundamental tariff register; reactive and apparent
energy registers are also used for tariff purposes either directly or indirectly. The fundamental
purpose of this component is to account for the "Capacity" expenses of the transmissions and
distribution system. There is a lack of standardisation in this regard, and while some parts of the
world impose an active only tariff, others use reactive energy as well. Yet another set of utilities use
apparent energy (lag + lead or lag only) as a component for computing tariff. The objective of this
section is to identify the incorrectness of the apparent energy based tariff.
194
Quadrant I: In the QI, both active and reactive power is being imported (as seen from the load side
of the metering system). The active power is in import mode, as the VICos<l> is positive. The load
is inductive (lagging power factor), and reactive power is said to be imported.
The brown arrow indicates the direction of the CT and hence as seen from the meter, the grid is
importing active as well as reactive power from the generator. In other words, the inductive current
that the generator has to supply to the grid uses up its current carrying capacity.
Put in a different way, if capacitors were installed in the grid system, the reactive power would have
been supplied by the capacitors and the generator could have used its current carrying capacity to
provide for higher active power transfer. Thus, the generator is entitled to a compensation for this
loss of capacity. Tariff in this quadrant can therefore be based on both the active energy and
apparent energy (kVAh = (kWh2 + kVArh2 ) computations. However, any tariff structure based on
active and reactive energies would have been equally beneficial, if not more.
Quadrant II: In the QII, active power is being imported and reactive power is being exported. (As
seen from the load side of the metering system). The active power is in import mode, as the
VICos<l> is positive. The load is capacitive (leading power factor), and reactive power is said to be
exported.
In general the grid is always assumed to be hungry of lagging power factor. Hence a leading current
flowing from the generator to the grid may be conceived, as reactive export from the grid to the
generator (see blue arrow). This sort of situation is very common to find in wind power generators,
who may be at times supplying some active power, but drawing huge amount of reactive power
from the grid.
It is in this quadrant now that a kVA tariff becomes difficult to interpret. The system "capacity" is
now partially being used by the active power (for which the grid pays the generator), and partially
by the reactive power (for which the generator should pay the grid). However, any definition of kVA
for use of capacity tariff is illogical and incorrect, as in itself it does not carry the "sense" of
payment (who pays whom). Thus, while the grid is entitled to a compensation for its loss of
capacity, it should be computed upon the reactive energy export.
Quadrant III: In the QIII, both active and reactive power is being exported (as seen from the load
side of the metering system). The active power is in export mode, as the VICos is negative. The
load is inductive (lagging power factor), and reactive power is said to be imported.
195
The brown arrow indicates the direction of the CT and hence as seen from the meter, the grid is
exporting active as well as reactive power to the generator. In 'other words, the inductive current
that the grid has to supply to the generator uses up its current carrying capacity.
This situation is exactly opposite to the situation in quadrant I and the generator is entitled to a
compensation for this loss of capacity. Tariff in this quadrant may be based on both the active
energy and apparent energy (kVA = ...J(kW2 + kVAr ) computations.
Again, needless to mention that any tariff structure based on active and reactive energies would
have been equally beneficial, if not more.
Quadrant IV: In the QIV, active power is being exported and reactive power is being imported.
(As seen from the load side of the metering system). The active power is in export mode, as the
VICos is negative. The load is inductive and reactive power is said to be imported into the grid.
As in Q II, in this quadrant as well, a kVA tariff becomes difficult to interpret. The system
"capacity" is now partially being used by the active power (for which the generator pays the grid),
and partially by the reactive power (for which the grid should pay the generator). Once again, any
definition of kVA for use of capacity tariff is illogical and incorrect, as in itself it does not carry the
"sense" of payment (who pays whom). Thus, while the grid is entitled to a compensationfor its loss
of capacity, it should be computed upon the reactive energy export.
Conclusion
In the light of above the kVA metering is done as follows:
Q1 Active Import Reactive Import
kVA Register = (active2 + reactive2)
Q2 Active Import Reactive Export
kVA Register = kW
Q3 Active Export Reactive Export
kVA Register = (active2 + reactive2)
Q4 Active Export Reactive Import
kVA Register = kW
196
IS 13010 : 2002 For ac Watthour Meters, Class 0.5, 1 & 2

IS 13779 : 1999 For ac Static Watthour Meters, Class 1 & 2
IS 14697 : 1999 For ac Static Transformer Operated Watthour & VAR-Hour Meters, Class
0.5S, 1S & 2S
IEC 62052-11 for Electricity metering equipment (AC), General requirements, tests and test
conditions
IEC 62053-11 for Electricity metering equipment (AC), Particular requirements, part 11,
Electromechanical meters for active energy, classes 0.5,1 & 2
Static meters for active energy, classes 1 & 2
Static meters for active energy, classes 0.2S & 0.5S
CBIP Technical Report No. 304- Specifications for AC Static Electrical Energy meters
Reference: Electrical Measurements and measuring Instruments

B W Golding
& f c widdis
197
BILLING SYSTEM & TARIFF STRUCTURE

Our company is one of the pioneers in effective Computerisation of its Electricity Billing and
Revenue Collection System. Starting from the age of Unit Record Machines, way back in 1977,
CESC is continuously upgrading the technology, keeping pace with the ever changing IT world and
aligning with its business requirements.
The Billing and Revenue Collection System has been developed in-house, based on our enriched
domain knowledge in the industry. This caters to the monthly billing of our ~23 lacs LT Consumers
& 1.65 thousand HT Consumers, having more than 24 lacs Meters, within our licensed business
area covering 567 Sq. Km. The Billing activity of our Company is controlled by the Commercial
Department with the back-end support from IT Department.
Hardware & Software Environment
Presently the Billing and all the front-end activity of the Commercial Department related to
Consumer Service are supported by the powerful Servers installed at our Computer House. For
serving day-to-day activity at the Regional Offices for Commercial and Mains Departments and
also for other Departments at remote locations like Legal, Medical etc, two SUN V890 Servers
have been installed back-to-back with Failover Cluster configuration, designated as Regional
Servers. For centralised billing functions and running allied sub-Systems, we have installed a very
powerful Server SUN E2900, called as Production Server. There is also a SUN V880 Server,
installed as the Back-up Server of the Production Server. We have got a fifth Server installed at
Computer House, SUN E4500, which is used as the Development Server.
Our main billing System runs on the ORACLE platform. The Regional Service Support System of
Commercial Department are Browser-based and that of our Mains Department have been designed
(not yet operational) on the basis of Client-Server Architecture, both of which run on the ORACLE
platform.
Billing System
CESC has its comprehensive Billing System, developed and maintained in-house by the
Information Technology Department. For processing the Electricity Consumption Bills of our
Consumers, we would require different types of input data, of which the major inputs are (1) Data
for New Supply: from Mains Department, (2) Meter Reading data: from Commercial Department &
(3) Payment Information: from Treasury Department.
New Supply
Our Mains Department maintains a comprehensive computerised System called MASD System, for
processing the Applications of new-supplies of our prospective Consumers. This System is capable
to track such Application through-out its life-cycle, in stages, till the Meter is installed and the
Consumer enters in the Billing System.
198
Simple Block Diagram for processing New Supply

Application
For
New Supply
Inspection
Central Server
Outstanding
checking &
recovery
Bill for New

Connection and
Security Deposit
Payment of
Bill & required
Compliances
Installation of
New Supply
Consumer, Meter
& SD Details
New Consumers to
Billing System
Meter Reading
A fleet of around 600 Meter Inspectors are engaged for noting / capturing the Meter Reading of ~24
lacs Meters every month, from the premises of our Consumers (where the Meters are installed) in
and around the city of Kolkata and Howrah. Besides the Electro-mechanical Meters, we also have
installed Electronic Static Meters for our High-Tension and high-end Low-Tension Consumers.
Every month, our Meter Inspectors note the Meter Reading from the Electro-mechanical Meters in
their Meter Books and subsequently data from these Books are captured through the Off-line Data
Entry System (with necessary validation check) at our six Regional Offices. However, from Static
Meters we down-load Meter Reading and related data directly (through Optical cable) into the
Palm-Top Microprocessor based instruments called MRI and in turn, download the same into the
Computers at our Regional Offices. CESC is presently in the process of installing Electronic Static
Meters attaching GSM Modems, for capturing Meter-Reading and other related data from remote
locations (CESC House and Testing Department). This process is called Automated Meter Reading
(AMR). Presently we are using AMR for HT and Street Lighting (LT) supplies. All the said Meter
Reading Data are subsequently sent to Computer House through our Network (BILL NET) for
processing through our Billing System.
199
Electronic
Meter
Down-load
In Computer
Reading thru
MRI
Electronic
Meter
Reading thru
GSM Modem
Down-load
In Computer
Electro
Mechanical
Meter
Manual
Reading
Off-line
Data Entry
Meter
Reading Data
to Billing
System
WAN
(Bill Net)
Payment Data
CESC has thirty eight fully automated payment receiving centers (Cash Offices), scattered all over
its licensed area. Since most of our Computer generated bills are Bar-Coded, we can capture
accurate information from the bills, paid at our Cash Offices, with the help of our intelligent cashregister machines (POS), capable of scanning Bar-Codes. Subsequently, after reconciliation at
Treasury Department end, these data are transferred to our Central Computer System through our
own Wide Area Network, called CASH-NET, for processing through our Billing System.
1. Block Diagram of Payment Data Capture at Cash Offices
38 Cash Offices
Capture of
Bar-Coded
Payment data
thru POS
Machines
38 Cash Office
Down-load in
Computer from
POS Machines
WAN
(Cash Net)
CESC House
Scrutiny of
data at
Treasury
Dept.
Park Lane
Scrutiny of
data at
Treasury
Dept.
Payment
information to
Billing System
WAN
(Cash Net)
2. Block Diagram of Off-line Payment data Capture

1. Manual Bills.
2. Amended bills
3. Bills, where
BarCode not
readable.
CESC House
CESC House
Off-Line Data
Entry
Reconciliation of
Payment data
Payment
information to
Billing System
WAN
(Cash Net)
200
CORE BILLING SYSTEM (LT)

As we have already discussed, the three major inputs of our Billing System are (1) Meter Reading
Data, (2) Payment Information of earlier Bills and (3) Information related to Consumers and Meters
for new supplies. All these data are accepted by the Billing System after rigorous self validation and
also cross-validation with the Consumer Master information file.
While processing the data, the System checks the consumption pattern against historical data,
taking into consideration the Seasonal effect and flags the exceptions. It also takes into account the
dynamic information (transaction) of individual Consumer / Meter, if any, forwarded from
Commercial Department and Testing (Metering) Department. Our bill processing logic operates
strictly within the boundary of (1) our business requirements and dynamic decisions and (2) the
Tariff structure and Regulations made by the State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC).
Though, the major product of this System is the Electricity Bill (Regular and Notice Bills), the
System keeps track of the (1) Outstanding Dues, (2) Disconnection activity of defaulting
Consumers, (3) Account of the disconnected Supply, (4) Account of Security Deposit (held with us)
of the Consumers, (5) Exchange of defective Meters, (6) MIS Reports for Commercial, Corporate
Services (Regulatory Affairs) and Finance Division, (7) Processed data for posting in the
Companys Books of Accounts (GL entry through ERP), etc.
Block Diagram for processing of bills
Meter
Reading
A/c of
Disconnected
Supplies
Electricity
Bills & MIS
Reports
Payment of
Bills
Core Billing
System
Outstanding
Follow-up &
C/Off jobs
New Supply
Security
Deposit
Processed data
to Finance
(ERP) & other
Departments
The front-end Consumer Service Systems at our Regional Offices are basically the sub-Systems of
the Core Billing System. The said sub-Systems helps us for (1) Redressal of Consumer complaints,
(2) On-line enquiry related to Consumer and Meter, (3) Generation of duplicate Electricity Bills, (4)
Preparation of bills related to Security Deposit and Re-connection of Supply, (5) Follow-up and
recovery of outstanding dues, (6) Dynamic allocation of jobs for the Meter Inspectors and keeping
track of the same, (7) Several Statistical Reports for focused and efficient operation, (8) Correction
of bills and (9) Accounting of dishonored cheques.
The entire gamut of the Billing System successfully traverses the total life cycle of Consumer in a
seamless manner, without much human intervention and hindrance.
Outstanding Follow-up
The Core Billing System helps in close monitoring of the outstanding dues of defaulting consumers.
Disconnection Notices are generated by the Billing System for the Consumers, who have not paid
any of their previous electricity consumption bills. The System also generates advices for
201
disconnection of Supplies for the defaulting Consumers, depending on the variable parameters,
matching with our business requirements and operational convenience. The System also produces
jobs for inspection and further follow-up of outstanding dues of the already disconnected
Consumers, where the outstanding dues have not been settled for a considerable time. Such
efficient automated monitoring System helps us to keep the outstanding dues under control, over
the years.
Security Deposit
The accounting of the Security Deposit of all individual Consumers is also a sub-system of our
Billing System. (1) Keeping the details of the Security Deposit made by the Consumers, (2)
Determining the maintainable Security Deposit for each of the Consumers, as per the SERC
guideline, (3) Calculation and keeping accounts of the yearly accrued interest, (4) Income Tax
deduction at source on the interest thereon, wherever required and (5) Refund of Security Deposit
for disconnected supplies etc. are the main Application areas of this sub-system.
MIS Reports
Different cluster of MIS Reports generated by the System, helps us in Job planning, Manpower
planning, Smooth Operation, Decision making, Setting business priority, Close monitoring of
Consumers, Budgeting and Accounting, Assessment of financial and sales position etc.
Tariff Structure
The schedule of Tariff for the LT and HT Consumers are reviewed every year and awarded to
CESC by the State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC). In addition to the Tariff, the
structure of Govt. Duty on electricity charges are also modified from time-to-time by the State
Power Department and CESC arrange for collection of the same through the electricity
consumption bills.
While determining the Tariff Structure, SERC takes the following parameters as the main guiding
factors;
a) Cost of Power Generation, which includes cost of fuel, operational cost, proportional cost
for construction of Power Plants, etc.
b) Distribution cost, which includes cost of materials including the cost of Transformers,
Cables, etc.
c) Establishment cost, which includes salary of employees, cost for running different
establishments, cost of capital items like Computers, Furniture, etc.
d) Operational cost like maintenance charges of different assets and equipment, transport cost
etc.
e) Recovery of debts and re-payment of loans.
f) Amount of cross-subsidy to be allowed, from high-end to low-end Consumers, as a policy
matter and guide-line provided by the Central / State Govt.
g) Amount of subsidised electricity to Govt. (State & Central) establishments, Public Bodies,
Municipalities, Charitable Organisations, public & private Educational Institutions and
Hospitals etc.
h) Tariff of electricity to be imposed on Govt. and Public Body Offices, separately for the
establishments located within Municipal and Non-Municipal areas, depending on the
financial ability for making payment of the electricity bills.
i) Demand side management, through introduction of TOD Tariff for different Categories of
LT Consumers.
j) Demand side management, through introduction of Seasonal Tariff for HT Consumers.
k) Introduction of Pre-payment Meters for reducing the outstanding dues / debts of the Power
Distribution Companies.
202
Category of Consumers
In the Tariff Structure, Consumers are classified in the following Categories depending on the
usage of electricity.
Sl.
No.
Category of Consumers (Depending on Usage)
Tariff Defined on
the Type of Supply
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Life line Consumers (Domestic)

Domestic
Commercial
Commercial (Production Unit not run by electricity as motive power)
Commercial (Poultry, Horticulture, Floriculture, Food processing etc.)
Industrial
Industrial [Separate tariff for 33 KV & below 33 KV]
Public Water Works / Sewerage Pumping Station
Govt. Hospital & Educational Institution
Non Govt. Hospital & Educational Institution
Govt. and Public Body Offices in Municipal area
Govt. and Public Body Offices in non-Municipal area
LT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT
LT
LT
HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Street Lighting
Short term Supply [for religious festivals, fairs, social functions etc.]
Emergency Supply
Power supply for Construction purposes
Single point bulk Supply to Co-operative Housing Societies
Common Supply to Industrial Estates
Sports Complex / Auditorium under Local Bodies
Metro Rail & Kolkata Tramways
Cold Storage
LT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
LT & HT
HT
HT
HT
Time of The Day Tariff

We are using TOD Meters for our HT Consumers, since long. However, from 2006-2007, SERC
have introduced Tariff for TOD Meters for most of the category of LT Consumers.
The TOD Meters can record consumption separately for different Time-Zones, in a day. These
time zones are classified as Normal, Peak and Off-peak hours. In our tariff structure, there are two
groups of Consumers (for both LT & HT) having dissimilar time zones under the said
classifications, as evident from the following table. However, each category of Consumer bear
separate tariff for separate time zones.
a) TOD Metering for LT Consumers
Type of Consumer
Time Zone
Classification
Commercial, Industrial, Single Point

Supply to Co-operative Housing
Society, Short term Supply, Emergency
Supply
06:00 hrs to 17:00 hrs
Normal
17:00 hrs to 23:00 hrs
Peak
23:00 hrs to 06:00 hrs

06:00 hrs to 17:00 hrs &
20:00 hrs to 23:00 hrs
Off-peak
17:00 hrs to 20:00 hrs
Peak
23:00 hrs to 06:00 hrs
Off-peak
Public and Private Educational

Institutions & Hospitals, Public Bodies,
Public Water Works, Construction
Supply, Common Services to Industrial
Estate.
Normal
203
b) TOD Metering for HT Consumers

Type of Consumer
Time Zone
Classification
Commercial, Industrial, Cold Storage,

Emergency Supply, Short-term Supply,
Private Educational Institutions,
Cooperative Group Housing Society.
06:00 hrs to 17:00 hrs
Normal
17:00 hrs to 23:00 hrs
Peak
23:00 hrs to 06:00 hrs
Off-peak
06:00 hrs to 17:00 hrs &

20:00 hrs to 23:00 hrs
Normal
17:00 hrs to 20:00 hrs
Peak
23:00 hrs to 06:00 hrs
Off-peak
Public Utility, Public Water Works,

Construction Power Supply, Common
Services of Industrial Estate.
Tariff for PrePaid Meter

To popularise these category of Meters, SERC allowed additional rebate on electricity charges for
the consumption made through these Meters. Here, the payment made by the Consumers is
basically advance in nature. Therefore, the Security Deposit is not required against these
Supplies.
FIXED Charge
The present Tariff structure is designated as Two Part Tariff, having a variable component and a
fixed component. The Fixed Charge does not depend on the consumption of electricity. However,
for the Consumers having connected load 30KVA or more, the Fixed Charge is replaced by the
Demand Charge (in the tariff), which depends on the maximum demand in a billing month. The
maximum demand is recorded in the Static (electronic) Meters, which are required to be reset
after meter reading, every month.
Rebate & DPS
As per the Regulations of SERC, our Consumers get 2% Rebate on the billed amount (excluding
Govt. Duty), if the bills are paid within the stipulated Due Date. The billed amount including the
Rebate is called the Net bill value. For pre-paid Meters, the Consumers always get 2.75% Rebate,
as an additional benefit.
The Consumers (having post-paid Metes) who do not make payment of the bills within the due
date, can not avail of the benefit of the Rebate amount. The billed amount without Rebate is called
the Gross bill value. Moreover, as per the Regulations, Delayed Payment Surcharge (DPS) is
levied on the gross bill value, for the period from the due date upto the date of payment.
As specified by the SERC, presently DPS is calculated at the rate of (1) 1.25% per day upto 3
months, (2) 1.50% per day for 3 months to 6 months and (3) 2.00% per day for 6 months and
above.
204
SYSTEM LOSS
A.
Component :
To any power utility, keeping down the system loss and / or containment of the same is a major
challenge.
In normal parlance, we call it T&D Loss, but as per the present guidelines, the utility needs to
measure the AT&C Loss also. For the purpose of arriving at AT&C Loss figures, the revenue
collection efficiency is given a weightage over T&D Loss.
T&D Loss comprises of Technical and Non-Technical Losses. While Technical Loss is primarily
due to improper load management, long LT lines, haphazard growth, inadequate investment on
T&D network etc., the Non-Technical Loss is the outcome of metering errors, billing errors and
pilferage of electricity. The pilferage (theft) of electricity is done by way of tampering the metering
arrangement(s) and / or by means of hooking / tapping from O/H and U/G network respectively.
B.
Methods Employed for Reduction of T&D Loss :
In order to bring down technical loss, our Company has made huge investments to revamp the
network adequately. Similarly, state of the art intelligent electronic meters have been introduced in
a phased manner starting from high-end consumers. Our age old Billing Software is continuously
upgraded as per requirement of Commercial Department and other allied departments to minimize
billing errors. In order to curb theft and pilferage of electricity, our Company embarked upon site
inspections on a war footing starting from 2000-2001 when the T&D Loss rose to an alarming
figure of 23%. Selected Engineers / Officers from almost all the divisions across the company were
either transferred or seconded to Loss Control Cell in 2001 to revamp the same. An Executive
Director was exclusively given the charge of taking tough measures in order to constrict theft of
electricity. Simultaneously, supervisory and non-supervisory staff were also transferred to the Loss
Control Cell and the onerous journey to bring down the T&D Loss figure started. This entire group
was also backed by Executives from Legal Department and recruitment of retired yet efficient
Police Officers as Security Consultants.
Initially, all our energy was directed towards removal of illegal hookings and tappings and
inspection / disconnection of tampered meters. Since CESC was using proprietary sealing system
on each and every energy meter for long, the above assorted group of Engineers / Officers were
sent to our Testing Department to hone the skill of identifying the seals which are not genuine but
tampered. Area-wise survey was undertaken based on the nature of establishment, be it industrial
or commercial or domestic. Such areas were identified with the knowledge backed by our
Engineers in distribution system who had to visit such places for the purpose of maintaining
supplies. Our billing database was also a good pointer to identify such areas based on consumption
patterns. The data from our Testing Department as to how many times meters of a particular
consumer are getting exchanged and for what reason, was another indicator.
This all out effort of ours started giving result from 2001-2002 onwards, but we felt the need of
knowing the process involved in each type of industry, viz., rubber, plastic, wire drawing, rolling
mills, heat treatment plants, tanneries, jute etc. We also deputed our engineers to know the
geography and topography of an area, market analysis of products, detection of multiple services /
meters etc.
C.
Course Correction Of Initiatives:
Enactment of the Electricity Act, 2003 gave the necessary impetus in curbing theft of electricity.
From end 2003, certain initiatives were taken to bring about radical changes in operation of Loss
Control Cell. This included blocking of service cutout, installation of cutout less service, seizure of
meters / appliances / motors etc., upon detection of unauthorised use of electricity, arresting the
205
pilferers of electricity and continuous follow up with Police Authority for instituting cases at
Special Court. Apart from increasing our surveillance in order to disconnecting the tampered
meters or removal of hookings, Power Loss Audit Cell (PLAC) took up the challenging job of
auditing the street lighting supplies in order to garner lost revenue.
IT based surveillance was made order of the day. And for this purpose, the SLIM Software
developed in 2001-02 for monitoring cases disconnected by LCC was enhanced to capture various
facets of loss control activities while parallely many customized data banks were developed for
different types of industries. Usage of data from billing database kept at IT Department, CIS
database, metering database and MASD System were increased manifold so as to exploit the huge
data available with us more judiciously and productively.
D.
Auditing of DTRs in Pilfer Prone Areas:
Armed with the geographical and topographical knowledge of our licensed area about 30 odd pilfer
prone areas were identified. Out of these, 17 areas were earmarked to be the most pilfer prone
zones. Loss Control Cell took the decision of auditing the energy fed through the Distribution
Transformers located in these areas. Initially, 564 such DTRs representing about 10% of total no.
of DTRs installed in our system were selected and the cluster of consumers fed through these DTRs
were identified in a phased manner. While such clustered data were sent to our IT Department to
keep us informed about the summated billed units every month for these consumers, we started
collecting the monthly energy input to these DTRs remotely by way of putting energy meters at
these DTRs and taking help of GSM Modems. Other technical details from these Intelligent
Energy Meters were also made available through modems at our base stations. The results obtained
monthly, guided us to embark upon different strategies to combat theft of electricity.
As a direct fall out of the above energy audit exercise, many technical data of these DTRs are now
available which can be used by Mains, Planning and Sub-Station Departments in order to take
action for a more reliable distribution system.
Analysis of DTR-wise monthly loss figures backed by our experience at site in combating abuse of
distribution system revealed that in some areas meters need to be taken out of consumers premises
to road side kiosks (Meter Pillar Boxes) so that our meters and the LT Network going through the
lanes and by-lanes of the area do not easily fall prey to the pilferers of electricity. Obviously, the
socio economic condition of an area also helps in strategizing our moves. However, in a typical
O/H area, we felt the need of extending HVDS as a means to curb theft of electricity. The idea is to
eliminate hooking from O/H lines and giving supplies through MPBs from small DTRs put in
HVDS network.
The results of such auditing exercise not only vindicated our identification of pilfer prone zones /
areas, but also gave us a pointer that in order to combat the subtle changes in distribution
management, our focus has to be group-audit of a cluster of DTRs so that we may zero-in to the
deliverables more technically and tactically.
E.
Micro Audit
In all our Loss Control Cell Units, we have started micro audit exercise on large meter boards
catering to the energy requirement of commercial & high-end domestic consumers in affluent areas.
This exercise is carried out for a limited period of 15 days, unlike energy audit in DTRs where such
auditing is done month after month. This way, we have been able to extend our surveillance on the
affluent strata of our society in order to detect theft, replacement of faulty meters, as also
renovation of meter boards.
While the war against pilferage of electricity is continuing unabated, active participation of our
colleagues from other departments has given us the necessary strength to take this menace head-on.
It is indeed a matter of great satisfaction that T&D loss in 2007-08 has been reported to be less than
14% and we have taken a vow to reduce it further.
206
DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT: SCADA & COMMUNICATIONS

Background:
Reforms in Power sector have offered further challenge to the Utilities by ensuring more choice and
flexibility to the Consumers. To achieve business excellence in this competitive environment, we
have to take a call of enhanced Customer satisfaction by maintaining a sustained growth. The only
way to achieve profit is by proactive Cost Control and reduction/control of Distribution Loss.
Since Distribution is the interface between the Utility and the Consumers, an efficient Distribution
Management is the solution.
Distribution Management:
Distribution Management in Power utilities is essentially an integration of the following process
Automation of Power Distribution Network (SCADA/EMS)
Control of Distribution Loss
Customer Relationship Management
A reliable, modern Communication infrastructure for flow and exchange of information among
the above three process.
Power System Monitoring and Control Through SCADA / EMS
The basic requirements of automation presently practised in our system are
Monitoring and control of 33 kV /11 kV/6 kV substations and switchgears.
Control and monitoring of 11kV/6kV network ( overhead and underground )
Control and monitoring of 11/6 kV / 400 V distribution transformers, capacitor banks.
Control and monitoring of HV consumers.
Study of load growth and its trend.
Control of reactive loading.
There are two different types of SCADA systems presently deployed in our system as detailed
below
A. Point to Multipoint SCADA (Siemens make) for Central Load dispatch centre
For efficient power system management automation of power network using Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) has become essential for every power utility. On line
monitoring of electrical parameters are absolutely essential to meet the load-generation balance and
to provide reliable and quality power to customers. To meet the above requirement, CESC has
deployed a SCADA system for the Transmission network.
1.0. Introduction
For monitoring and control of 132 / 33 kV power network, a state-of-the-art Siemens make SCADA
system is in service since 1996. All EHV Substations, Receiving Stations & Generating Stations are
covered by a point to multi point SCADA System. This SCADA system comprises of one Master
Control Centre located at CESC House and multiple Remote Terminal Units (RTU) interconnected
over suitable communication mediums.
At present 18 RTUs are operational in CESC out of which 17 RTUs are installed at different EHV
Sub stations, Receiving stations & Generating stations and 1 RTU is installed at CESC House for
sending data to Eastern Regional Load Dispatch Centre (ERLDC).
1.0. Components of SCADA System
The three main components of SCADA System are:
207
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU): This is the main hardware responsible for interfacing process
signals (input / output).
Communication Media: The media over which the SCADA data are transported between
RTUs and Master Control Centre.
Master Control Centre: Station MIMICs along with network interconnections are displayed at
Master Control Centre. From Master Control Centre, commands can be generated to operate
circuit breakers at different stations selectively. Many management information service (MIS)
related reports can be obtained from Master Control Centre Servers.
1.1. Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)
1.1.1. RTU Functions:
A. Data Acquisition: Power system signals at different stations are acquired from the field
and fed to the RTU hardware. These signals are broadly classified into two categories.
i) Digital Indication: Circuit breaker status, Isolator status, Protective Relay status,
Metered pulse from energy meters etc. are considered as Digital indications. Signals of
digital indication have two states (0 and 1). Suitable interposing relays are used. The
potential free contacts of the interposing relays are connected to RTU for processing.
The interposing relays are installed inside respective relay control panel. Different types
of digital indications are described below :
Single Indication : Only 1 input channel is utilized. e.g. : isolator status.
Double Indication: 2 input channels are utilized. Failure of any channel input will
indicate error in RTU. Faulty state can be suppressed during change of state. e.g. :
circuit breaker status.
Fleeting Indication: The contacts which are of fleeting nature can also be sensed by
RTU. Example: protective relay output contact.
Metered Value: Pulse inputs from energy meters can be counted by the RTU, which
facilitates energy / demand monitoring.
ii) Analogue Measurands: Power system parameters like Active power, Reactive power,
Current, Voltage, and Frequency are categorized as Analogue measurands. Suitable
Transducers operated of current transformer and potential transformers are used for
converting the power system parameter to milliAmps. Transducers with uni-polar /
bipolar and with several range of outputs (e.g. -2.5 - 0 - 2.5 mA, 0 5 mA, 4 - 20 mA)
are available. The Transducer output is fed to RTU for processing. These transducers are
installed inside respective relay control panel.
B. Supervisory Control: Remote operation of circuit breaker is possible through HMI
terminals located at Master Control Centre and also from local operator console at RTU site.
On receiving command from operator, RTU operate the selected circuit breaker via
interposing relay. This feature is available but not regularly used in CESC.
All the signals between relay control panel & RTU are fed via MDF ( Marshalling
Distribution Frame ) for operational convenience.
1.1.2. RTU Hardware:
Input / output interface modules
Central Processing Unit
Telecontrol Unit
208
DIGITAL
INPUT
MODULE
DIGITAL
OUTPUT
MODULE
SYSTEM BUS
PROCESS
ANALOG
INPUT
MODULE
Central
Processing
To
Master
Control
Centre
Tele Control
Unit
Process Interface via

Input / output interface modules
Diagram 1 : Functional Blocks of RTU
A. Input /Output interface modules:
Digital Input Module: These modules accept potential free contact from field interface. Contact
debounce, intermediate state suppression are some of the important features available in the
digital input modules of existing RTUs. Several input channels are available in one module and
each channel is individually configurable.
Analog Input Module: Transducer outputs are connected to this module. Only milliamps or
voltage inputs are accepted by input channels. Analog signal at input channel is converted into
digital bits through Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) inside the module. Resolution of ADC
is 12 bit + sign bit. Frequently occurring small changes in analog values are suppressed by
threshold value processing technique. Zero point suppression is used for suppressing inaccuracy
of analog signal near zero.
Digital Output Module: These modules are normally used for circuit breaker close / trip
operation. Output voltage from each channel is configured to check the continuity / short circuit
condition of output electrical circuit. This feature is called switch current check. Considering
the importance, output is available only if the check feature ensures correct selection of feeder.
Outputs are either continuous or pulse which are configurable.
All the above modules are galvanically isolated from field wiring to ensure reliability.
B. Central Processing Unit: CPU module coordinates with all other modules. Station wise
configuration data are stored at EEPROM inside this module. CPU also maintains a central clock of
the RTU and provides time stamped information for each input / output data. This provides
important information in terms of SOE (sequence of events) for analyzing cascaded feeder tripping.
Accuracy in RTU clock is achieved by synchronizing information received from Master Control
Centre which is in turn synchronized by GPS clock installed thereat.
C. Tele-control Unit: Data communication between RTU and Master Control Centre is done by
exchanging data packets called Telegrams. Tele-control unit takes care of this communication. The
following protocols are supported in different RTUs operational in CESC.
SINAUT 8 FW protocol (Proprietary to Siemens) over Serial port
IEC 60870-5-101 protocol over Serial port
At Master Control Centre, a peer unit called TCI (Tele Control Interface) decodes the telegrams and
rebuilds the information.
The communication speeds are 1200 bps for old RTUs and 19200 bps for new RTUs.
209
The different modes of transmitting telegrams are given below:

Cyclic Mode: Telegrams are transmitted to Master Control Centre at periodic interval. Analog
values are normally transmitted cyclically. Transmission priority is lowest in this mode.
Spontaneous Mode or Event driven Mode: Telegrams are transmitted only when process
signal changes. Digital status is transmitted spontaneously. Transmission priority is highest in
this mode. Analog signals are also transmitted spontaneously in the event of threshold value
crossing.
Polled or Scanned Mode: Telegrams are transmitted on request from Master Control Centre.
Requests are generated by Master Control Centre upon restart of RTU or in the event of
information missing at Master Control Centre. RTU data can also be polled by manual
intervention from Master Control Centre.
1.1.3. Local Operator Console:
Local operator consoles are installed at RTU sites for viewing station MIMIC. Periodic logging of
station parameters can be done by operating personnel thereat. It also acts as a maintenance tool for
RTU engineers.
1.1.4. Parameterization & Diagnosis:
Station specific data are to be parameterized for each RTU. The parameterized data is loaded on
RTU through Laptop. Software tools for RTU fault diagnosis are also available. All these software
tools are mostly product specific.
1.2 Communication Media:
Two to three communication channels are used for providing 24X7 service availability of the
SCADA System. Suitable scheme has been provided at RTU & Master Control Centre end to
achieve bump less transfer of SCADA data from faulty to healthy communication channel. Three
types of communication media, operational in CESC, are as given below:
Optical fibre
Microwave
Pilot wire (CESC uses both BSNL and CESC owned pilot wire)
1.3 Master Control Centre:
Master Control Centre is connected to all RTUs via Tele-control Interface hardware. Processing
functions are distributed among several servers. Central GPS clock provides unique time reference
to all RTUs. Three sets of MMI and a Giant video wall provide complete view of the network.
Additional one set of MMI is present for maintenance and training purpose. The pictorial
presentation of SCADA system is as per diagram no. 2.
210
MMI 2
TCS 1
MMI 4
RTC 1
ADM 1
RTC 2
ADM SP
TCS 1
MMI 3
MMI 1
TCR 1
GPS
CLOCK
TCS 1
TCS 2
T
C
B
T
C
B
T
C
B
T
C
B
TCR 2
T
C
B
T
C
B
T
C
B
T
C
B
Communication Media
RTU 1
Legend
RTU 2
MMI : Man Machine Interface

RTC : Real Time Communicator
ADM : Admin Server
RTU 18
TCS : Tele Control Server

TCR : Tele Control Rack
TCB : Tele Control Board
Diagram 2 : Position of RTUs in CESC SCADA System

1.4
Path forward
Old RTUs will be replaced by new RTUs. The new RTUs will support the following features /
facilities in addition to existing features:
Integration of IED (e.g. numerical relay, static energy meters etc.)
PLC functionality
Remote parameterization / Downloading of station data
Remote Diagnosis
Multiple Communication ports (IEC 60870-5-101 & others)
LAN based interface (IEC60870-5-104 compatible)
The above features / facilities will minimize downtime of SCADA system, minimize manpower
requirement for maintenance of RTUs and enhance usage of SCADA system.
The proposed configuration is as per diagram no. 3
211
To Master
Control Station
RTU - 1
3 Serial Interfaces to
Master control
station
To Master
Control Station
RTU - 2
SAT 230
To Master
Control Station
RTU - 4
RTU - 3
5 port Ethernet Switch
To
Master
Control
Station
RTU - 5
To
Master
Control
Station
RTU - 6
LAN
RTU TEST CENTRE
(Auckland Sq. CCC)
Parameterization & Diagnosis
Diagram 3 : Proposed configuration

Central Station :
The major components of the Central Station are
(i)
Tele Control Interface (TCI)- This is the interface to all RTUs. All RTU Channels are
terminated here.
(ii)
Tele Control Servers - A group of SUN( SOLARIS) Servers running the proprietary
application software ( SINAUT SPECTRUM )for processing of data from the TCI.
(iii) Man Machine Interface : These are basically SUN (SOLARIS) servers running the
Graphics User Interface for the Control System Operators.
(iv)
Tele control LAN : This is basically a Ethernet network for interconnection among
TCI, Tele Control servers, MMIs and other MIS Servers.
(v)
BARCO SCREEN : A Giant wall screen displaying the entire Power Network.
B. Point to Point SCADA for unmanned Substations (11 kV / 6 kV)
Though all our earlier Distribution Stations were manned, those being added for the last few years
are essentially unmanned because of cost control requirements. The Point to Point SCADA system
was developed in-house for monitoring and controlling 11 kV / 6 kV unmanned Distribution
Stations from a nearby manned Substation. Presently 27 such systems are operational. Over the
years the above systems have also undergone changes in design to accommodate additional
features, improved reliability and reduced cost.
Evolution of the in-house design:
1. Primary Design: The first few systems were centralized rack-based, i.e. they used PLC-type
CPU and I/O interface cards at both manned & unmanned stations with a hard-wired Mimic
Panel at the manned end.
212
UNMANNED STATION
RACK
MANNED STATION
PC XT
MODEM
MODEM
2-Wire Copper Line

( Pilot Cable )
INTERFACE
RACK
MIMIC PANEL
FIELD
F1
F2
F3
F4
F1
F2
F3
F4
Original Design : Rack To Rack Version
2. Intermediate Design : The Rack and the Mimic panel at the manned end were replaced by a
PC with appropriate software for Man-Machine-Interface.
UNMANNED STATION
RACK
MANNED STATION
MODEM
MODEM
MONITOR
2-Wire Copper Line

( Pilot Cable )
INTERFACE
FIELD
F1
F2
F3
P
C
A
T
F F F F
1 2 3 4
F4
Intermediate Design : PC To Rack Version
213
3. Existing Design : The Centralized Rack based Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) was replaced with
a distributed architecture using low cost Intelligent Electronic Devices (IED)
UNMANNED STATION
MANNED STATION
PC AT
MODEM
DISTRIBUTED
ADAM
MODULE
485 TO 232
CONVERTER
MODULE
RS 485 BUS
MODEM
2-Wire Copper Line

( Pilot Cable )
OR
O.F. Link
MONITOR
P
C
A
T
F F F F
1 2 3 4
FIELD
F1
F2
F3
F4
OPERATORS KEYBOARD
Current Design : Field Bus Version
C. Communication Infrastructure
Modern distribution system practice demands rapid and reliable information exchange among
Substations, Load Dispatch Centre, Engineering offices, Regional Commercial offices and Loss
Control Cells. A modern state of the art Communication network is therefore absolutely essential to
provide pipe lines for transfer of information (both voice and data) related to various automation
processes e.g. SCADA/EMS, LOSS CONTROL & CRM. Towards this end, CESC Limited has
developed a large Telecommunication and Networking infrastructure of its own which has been
commissioned and is being maintained round the clock by a group of well trained professionals.
With the induction of various latest technologies, the following different types of Communication
systems are available
There are two different types of Transmission Network to transport the traffic of this Voice
Network.
Point to Multipoint TDM/TDMA Microwave Communication system
With the growing demand for increasing & reliable telephone & data communication the process of
migration from old analog systems via copper media to modern digital state of the art
communication system started in the early nineties. In the first phase a point to multipoint Digital
Microwave Radio system based on TDM/TDMA technology in 2 GHz. band of radio frequency
spectrum was installed.
The system was procured from SR Telecom, CANADA and is in operation since 1996. The system
consists of
(i)
1 No. Central Station including Radio Equipment, Control Modules and Voice/Data Traffic
Channel modules.
(ii)
26 Nos. Outstation equipment with Radio equipment, Control Module and Voice/data
Traffic Channel module.
214
(iii)
(iv)
1 No. Omni directional Antenna at the Roof Top of Central Station, i.e. CESC House.
Grid Parabolic reflector Antenna of different sizes at different outstations located at
different offices, Generating Stations, Substations & Distribution Stations.
The entire network is managed, configured & monitored from a Network management System
(NMS).
The system contains the following traffic
(i)
200 nos. Telephone line
(ii)
16 Nos. EPABX Tie line
(iii) 10 Nos. Data Switching equipment
Optical Fiber Communication Network

Essence of Optical fiber Communication was felt in our organization during the early nineties
because of the following reasons
(i)
High Bandwidth required for transportation of increasing volume of voice traffic
(ii)
Development of Corporate Data Network
(iii) Reliability of Communication
Around 415 km length of Optical Fiber Cable (G.652) has been laid/strung connecting 120 nodes
including almost all of our important Offices, all Generating Stations, Substations and some of the
Distribution stations. Major portion of the O.F. cable are Underground directly buried type and in
cases Over Head Cables are also in use. Laying, Splicing and termination of Optical Fiber Cables
are carried our by our own group of skilled, trained personnel using our own set-up and equipment.
The major hardware equipment used to set-up this Optical Fiber Communication Network are
(i)
Optical Line Terminal equipment (OLTE - Single Mode,1310 nm wavelength)
(ii)
Digital Higher Order Multiplexer (up to E3 level- 34.338 Mbps)
(iii) Primary Multiplexer (E1 level- 2.048 Mbps)
(iv)
IP based Data Switching equipment e.g. Layer-3 and Layer-2 Switches.
Equipment of different types & makes are installed. They are integrated to meet our traffic
requirement. For each system, there are NMS for monitoring, configuration and testing of various
Network components from the Communication Control Centre. A schematic presentation of a
sample O.F. communication Link is shown below.
STATION : A
1
STATION : B
PATCH
CORD
30
CH
16
PCM
MUX
30
FDF
FDF
PIGTAIL
ATTN.
TJB
34
T Mbps
E
CH
H
L
TJB
30
PCM
MUX
16
SJC
O.F CABLE
16
16
30
Optical Line Terminal Equipment (OLTE) - It converts the 34 Mbps Electrical signal to Optical
signal.
215
Higher Order Multiplexer (HOM) - Digitally multiplex 16 nos. E1 (2.048 Mbps) PCM input
signals from E1 Multiplexer and the output is 34.368 Mbps (E3) electrical signal.
30 Channel PCM MUX - Primary level digital multiplexer which multiplexes a total 30 nos. of
Voice and/or Data channels and the output is E1 (2.048 Mbps) digital signal.
Straight Joint Closure - Underground Joint Closure for straight jointing of O.F. cable in the run.
Terminal Joint Box (TJB) - Joint Box for termination of O.F. cable at a terminal station.
Fiber Distribution Frame (FDF) - Distribution frame mounted with suitable adaptor for
interconnection between equipment and fiber. At one end of the adaptor, pigtails (with connector at
one end and bare fiber in the other end) from TJB are connected and at the other end Patch cords
(with connectors at both ends) from equipment are connected.
The Microwave & Optical fiber based transmission systems enable the transportation of the
following infrastructures.
1. Corporate Telephone Network:
The heart of the Corporate Voice network is a high capacity Switch (EPABX) from Avaya Global
Connect Limited located at CESC House which is the Corporate Head office as well as the Central
Load Dispatch Centre. Around 250 extension lines of this Switch are distributed all around starting
from Engineering and Commercial offices to Substations, Distribution Stations, and Regional
Depots. EPABX systems of other locations are integrated to these central EPABX over E1 and
E&M to form an integrated omnipresent Corporate Voice network which is schematically shown
below.
Station - A
Station - B
M
W
Station D
TRANSMISSI
ON
CENTRA
O.F.
L
EPABX
AT
MEDI
A
EPABX
EPABX
Direct Extension
line
Tie lines between

EPABX
Station C
EPABX
EPABX
2.
Data Network for SCADA
(a) For Point to Multipoint SCADA system, to improve reliability, three different media (1 active +
2 stand-by), namely Microwave, Optical Fibre and copper Cable are available to transport data
from a RTU to the Central Station. The Data is serial (RS 232C) and having a format of
1200(baud), Odd (Parity), 8 (bits) and 1 (stop bit) & 19200(baud), Even (Parity), 8(bits) and
1(stop bit).
216
(b) For Point to Point SCADA, two options namely copper Cable or Optical Fibre are used for
transportation of data. The format of the serial (RS 232C) Data is 9600(baud), none (Parity), 8
(bits) and 1 (stop bit).
3.
Corporate Data Network
With the induction of latest Information Technology applications in various business processes and
to keep pace with sustained growth & modernisation, flow of information between various units of
the organisation is absolutely essential. A Corporate data network has been developed in this
respect which has deployed the latest technological advances in networking in different phases.
Migration from low speed copper cable based data links to a Packet Switched Data network (X.25
protocol based) started from early nineties. The network is schematically shown below.
CESC DATA NETWORK TOPOLOGY -- STAR
PAD
PAD
PSE
PAD
PAD
X.25 PACKET - SWITCH NETWORK CLOUD
An X.25 Switch located at the corporate office has a no. of network ports which are connected to
remote station equipment. At the remote nodes i.e. at our different Regional Offices, Engineering
Offices and IT centre, Packet Assembler Dissembler (PAD) equipment are installed. Network
Ports of all these PADs are connected to the network ports of the Central Switch over Microwave
and Optical Fibre system. Computers at the nodal offices are connected to the serial ports of the
PADs. Few Serial ports of the Regional Office Servers are also connected to the PAD ports. There
may be two different types of connection
(a) Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC):
(i) For accessing the Regional Office Servers from Computers located at different offices.
(ii) IP based applications are also supported over this serial connection by using Point to Point
Protocol. The main application is File Transfer among different host machines in simultaneous
multiple sessions.
(b) Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC): This is a permanent point to point connection between two
computers for dedicated, secured file transfer operation.
The interconnection of the X.25 Data Network with the carrier system (Microwave Network) is
shown below.
217
MW
O/S
DATA NMS
PAD
SR
SR TELECOM
TELECOM
9000 PC
9000 PC
HP OPENVIEW
HP OPENVIEW
18
X.25
S
W
I
T
C
H
ROUTER
MW
O/S
MW
C/S
16
2
1
PAD
SR
SR TELECOM
TELECOM
MW
O/S
PAD
DTU
SR
SR TELECOM
TELECOM
X.25 Port
PAD
INBRIDGE
3630
DTU
INBRIDGE
3630
PAD
VHF Communication System

VHF wireless radios were the principal means for exchange of Voice information in the early days.
Though with the advent of modern digital communication technologies there has been a
revolutionary change in the choice and pattern of information exchange, VHF wireless radios are
still a very vital and cost effective solution for
Back-up against any catastrophic failure of the modern communication system
Power system Field Operation
Mobile fault Restoration Vehicles.
Apart from the above, the latest microprocessor based synthesized VHF Radio sets are deployed in
our unmanned Distribution stations to Transfer alarm contacts to the Central Load Dispatch Centre
against specific events e.g. tripping of Feeder, Transformer.
GSM Mobile Phone in Closed User Group

Though uses of Mobile Telephones have added more pace to every Business Process, for
utilities where the operational talk time is supposed to be very high, free usage of Mobile
phones as per normal tariff plans are not cost effective. The Closed User Group concept which
is very cost effective has considered to be very much suitable for our use because the voice
traffic is by & large restricted within our organization and is required round the clock.
Features & advantages of Mobile phone under CUG Plan:
Total around 450 Nos. General User are registered under the CUG who can make unlimited 2way communications among themselves and receive call from any caller (from both PSTN &
Cellular) beyond the CUG.
Around 130 nos. Super Users are also included in the CUG who can enjoy all service provisions
in a normal Mobile Phone.
Flexible & efficient Power System operations and corporate administration through increased
availability of operational & administrative personnel. End result, enhanced Customer
satisfaction.
218
MV & LV INSTALLATION PRACTICES

Overhead / Underground Biased Districts
Sl. No.
District
Predominance of Service Type
Southern District
Overhead
South West District
Overhead
Central District
Underground
Cal North District
Underground
Northern District
Overhead
Howrah District
Overhead
Serampore District
Overhead
Cal South District
Underground
West Suburban District
Overhead
10
North Suburban District
Overhead
Types of MV Underground Cables in Use
We have standardized on five sizes of cables for our use.

All these cables have:
Al Conductors, Sector Shaped Cores, Flat Steel Strips as Armour, Inner Sheath and PVC
Outer Sheath.
The Insulation over the Conductors are either PVC or XLPE.
Sizes, Ratings, Insulation Type and End Use
Sl
No.
Size mm2
x No. Of
Cores
Guiding
IS Code
Type Of
Insulation
25 x 3
1554 Pt I
PVC
75
70
Service
70 x 3
1554 Pt I
PVC
1357
130
Service /
Distributor
150 x 3
7098 Pt I
XLPE
255
294
Service /
Distributor
240 x 3
7098 Pt I
XLPE
333
402
Distributor /
Service
400 x 4
7098 Pt I
XLPE
426
542
Feeder
*Current Rating In
Amps
In Ground In Air
End Use
The Above Rating Are Based On The Following Parameters:

Temp Coefficient of Al = 0.004.
219
Thermal Resistivity of Soil Is considered = 150deg C-cm/w.

Ground Temperature = 30 deg C.
For Cables having XLPE Insulation
Temp Coefficient of Al = 0.004.
Thermal Resistivity of Soil Is considered = 150deg C-cm/w.
Ground Temperature = 30 deg C.
For Cables having PVC Insulation
Thermal Resistivity of Insulation = 650degC-cm/w.
Maximum temperature conductor can withstand during Short Circuit duration of 1 sec =
160degC.
Maximum conductor temperature under continuous load =70degC.
Selection of The Size and Number of Cables Required As Distributors are Based on
Existing load requirement.
Redundancy of 25% is usually maintained for load transfer during exigencies.
Future load growth.
Cable Laying Procedure
Cables are laid to enable load growth and also for obtaining flexibility of supply in case of
outages.
Cable laying job can be divided into two areas A) Fixing of Route and B) Process of
laying.
A) Fixing of Route
a) Route Fixation
Cable route should be as straight as possible.
Width of route should be adequate to allow jointing of higher size cables.
As far as possible crossing of major roads, tram tracks or rail tracks should be avoided.
Footpath must be used as much as possible.
b) Plan Sanction
After finalizing route, a detailed plan of route with all relevant details must be
prepared.
The plan has to meet the approval of the concerned Municipal Authority.
The plan must be sent well in advance to above authority to enable completion within
target period.
For PCP (Public Common Passage) written permission of co-owners of plots / buildings
along that passage is required.
c) Trial Pits
On receipt of sanction, an intimation is to be sent to appropriate authorities giving
tentative programme of work.
Trial pits are to be dug approx at 10 meters intervals or less as necessary.
This determines exact cable alignment to be followed during laying
Thus creating minimum interference with underground obstructions and installations
of other agencies.
220
B) Process of Laying
a) Pipes and Pipe Laying
Pipes used now for cable laying below ground are made from HDPE.
Pipes are laid for crossing roads, tram tracks, petrol pumps garage entry or entry to
multistoried buildings.
For wide roads pipe laying is done by excavating half the road width at one time.
For smaller roads and lanes while open cut is adopted traffic should be diverted.
Road crossing operation should preferably be done at night.
Pipes are also required to be laid inside consumers premise by consumer, if location of
service termination is away from kerb edge.
Pipes are also used as support and protection from external damage where a) cables
emerging from underground and to be terminated on to Overhead Conductor at a pole
and b) where cables run vertically. These pipes are made of G.I.
The table gives an idea of the selection criteria of pipes
Sl
No.
Cable Size
(mm2)
Road Width To
Be Crossed
Material
Diameter Of
Pipe (mm)
Pipes for
Pole Box
Cable
400
All Roads
HDPE
150
----
240
All Roads
HDPE
100
G.I / 75 mm
150
All Roads
HDPE
100
G.I / 75 mm
70
Over 3.0 meter

width
HDPE /
G.I
100
G.I / 50 mm
25
Below 3.0 meter

width
HDPE /
G.I
75
G.I / 50 mm
b) Trenching Work
The CESC notice board should be deployed at site and work area should be cordoned off.
Depth of trench should not be less than 75 cm and 60 cm wide.
The trench should not be continuous to enable pedestrian crossing.
Holes should be bored into the earth at uncut pedestrian crossings.
Excavated earth should be retained besides the trench on either side.
Exposed cables and pipes should be suitably supported.
In case of damage to installation of other agencies they should be immediately informed.
An attempt should also be made for temporary repairing of damaged installations.
Standby pumps and shuttering planks are required for exigencies.
c) Laying Procedure
Before placing drum at site the following needs checking - condition of drum, cable size,
cable length and integrity of cable end sealing.
The drum is then placed around spindle and lifted by Jacks, both of suitable capacity.
A few lashings of a manila rope of adequate strength are made around outer sheath of cable
end.
Cable payout is done by rolling drum in direction opposite to marked Roll This Way.
Overlapping with any existing cable should be maintained as per jointing instruction.
Upon completion, the cable is covered with 150 mm loose soil free of rubbles.
221
Tiles are then placed, over this surface, butting each other.
Backfilling is done with excavated soil and rammed at different levels.
Upon completion, necessary restoration order has to be made for municipality and work
card for updating the 50ft plan.
LT Tiles
The tiles used in our system are made from Reinforced Cement Concrete.
The reinforcement is done by steel wire cage having wire thickness12 SWG.
The concrete is mixed in proportion 1:1.5:3.
The colour of tiles is RED.
This differentiates from tiles of other voltage grades and other agencies.
The dimensions of the tile used are: 345 mm long x 180 mm wide x 25 mm thick
The front protruding head has a radius R50
While the rear has a cavity of radius R52 for easy insertion of head.
New Service Installation
The procedure of service installation can be divided into five subgroups namely:
A) Inspection for service;
B) Laying of service cable;
C) Fixing of meter board;
D) Termination of cable at meter board; and
E) Tee Jointing of cable.
A) Inspection For Service
In Areas Served By Overhead Network:
Selection between Overhead or Underground mode of supply is done weighing both
economic and technical parameters.
In O.H area if consumer insists on U.G supply then whole cable is chargeable.
If width of road is less than 3.0 meters, then U.G service is given.
If load requisition is more than 15 kw, then U.G service is provided.
In Areas Served By Underground Network:
The size and location of Distributor cable from which service is to be tapped is noted.
If required, the Distributor has to be strengthened keeping in mind future load growth.
General Requirement:
If consumers load requirement is more than 40 kw, then dedicated service through CT
metering is done.
A clear space 80 cm wide should be available in front for installation up to 4 way meter
board and 1.2 meters for multiway meter boards.
Consumers Main Switch must be within 3 feet from our meter board and always in same
room.
Consumer has to be informed to make meter board wall 10 thick, if not done.
Length of cable required in MP, PCP, and PP should be clearly defined.
Cable route is kept as short as possible and free from obstructions.
Selection of the Correct Cable Size for Service
The size of cable is selected on basis of load requisitioned by consumer.
The selection of Cutout to be installed is also dependant on cable size and load.
222
The table below shows the criteria for selection

Sl No.
Range Of Load
Cable Size
Cut-Out size
0 Less than 25 KW
25 mm2
25 KW Less than 40 KW
70 mm2
40 KW Less than 100 KW
150 mm2
50/100 Amps DMC

100/200 Amps
Composite
200 Amps Composite
100 KWLess than 150 KW
240 mm2
300 Amps Composite
B) Laying of Service Cable

Applicants details from paid bill and job slip must be verified.
The meter board position and wall for fixing board must be verified.
Depth of laying cable is 75 cm
Cable should be laid inside pipes whenever crossing any installations of other agencies and
to be adequately protected.
Precut length of cable is laid in trench prepared and within pipes laid for this purpose.
The service cable should contain a loop in ground below meter board.
This cable must enter meter board through a 75 mm dia PVC pipe 1.0 meter long placed
vertically below board.
C) Meter Board Installation
The Main Switch or Switches must be identified.
The consumers installation / wiring must be verified for completion.
The Main Switch must be in Off position.
A 2 way / 4 way m/board is installed on wall by four nos. 4 x No.14 Screws.
The board must be at least 1.0 meter vertically above floor level.
Earthing Brackets must be provided to all meter boards.
In 2 way Meter Boards the Earth Terminal is prefixed.
A connection from our earth is provided to meter board Earth Bracket for consumers use.
If requirement is more than a 4 way board size, same is fabricated at site by fitting extra 2/4
way board as necessary.
Asbestos millboards are fixed over the rear wall for fire protection.
These boards must have doors and locking arrangements.
Steel meter board is installed with CT Metering arrangement for load above 40 kw.
Meter Loops and Bus Bar Arrangement
Loops must be properly wired, dressed within board and fixed with cleats.
Loop wiring at site for a multiway board is different.
o These loops need not be wired from Cut-out.
o Here a Bus-Bar arrangement with 50/95 mm2 s/c cable is done.
o Short loops are Tapped off by Tee jointing with this bus bar.
o This jointing is done by soldered married joint and properly insulated by taping.
In 2/4 way meter boards, after the meters are installed and looped, the meter terminal plates
are sealed.
A Neutral Disc is fixed around the Neutral loop connecting Meter to consumers Main
Switch.
223
Load Requisitioned / Sizes of Loops / Current Ratings / Meters Used
2.5 mm2 s/c Cu
Loops Max
Current
Rating
32
Loops Safe
Current
Rating
27
1 ph, 5/20 A
3.1 to 4.0 kw
10 mm2 s/c Cu
72
60
1 ph, 10/40 A
4.1 to 12.0 kw
2.5 mm2 s/c Cu
---
---
3 ph x 10/20 A
12.1 to 36.0 kw
10 mm2 s/c Cu
---
---
3 ph x 30/60 A
36.1 kw and
above
70 mm2 s/c Cu
235
205
Static CT
Bus Bar Loops
95 mm2 s/c Al
180
150
----
For Temporary
Lighting
16 mm2 s/c Al
50
40
----
Sl
No.
Range of Load
Suggested Loop /
Bus Bar cable
Up to 3.0 kw
Meter Size
D) Termination of Cable at 2 Way Meter Board With 25 mm2 Cable

The outer sheath is removed up to a defined length.
The cable section is inserted through the gland till the inner step of pressure gland its on the
outer sheath cut.
The armour strips are cut to required length, bent back and spread over the gland surface to
ensure intimate earth contact with main body.
Insert main body over gland and tighten fully.
Fix gland to earth plate with Jam nut provided.
It must be ensured that consumers earth terminal is also in intimate contact.
The cores are then flared and cut to required length at the cutout studs.
Evostrip Compound is then applied around the cores at the crutch near gland mouth.
Crimping sockets are used to terminate the cores at the cutout studs.
Fig 1 illustrates the method of terminating at Meter board.
224
E) Tee Jointing of 25mm2 Service Cable

Solder basted married joints between conductors of service cable and main cable is made.
All procedures to be followed are elaborated in the Jointing Instruction Sheets.
Pillar Box
Types of Box
o There are two types of box used in our system.
A) 6 Way
This is generally installed as Feeder Pillar in conjunction with distribution transformers.
Here six nos. of cables may be terminated.
B) 4 Way
This is generally installed for terminating distributor cables and also for achieving network
flexibility.
Here four nos. of cables may be terminated.
Where To Erect
Erection requirements for both 4 & 6 Way are same.
They are preferably to be erected on footpaths
Sufficient clearance from building line is maintained for smooth pedestrian movement.
Every Pillar Box has two openings.
A) The cable side where the cables are terminated
This is usually towards the road and preferably not less than 300 mm from kerb.
B) The fuse side where the fuses are inserted
This is usually towards the building.
The position selected for installing the box has to cater to existing and proposed network.
Trial holes are first made to locate the installations of other utilities particularly gas pipe
lines.
Orientation Of Unit Installation
o In a Feeder pillar, the feeder unit is installed at extreme left when facing pillar from fuse
side.
o The other units meant for Distribution cables are installed thereafter.
o However this orientation may be varied to suit exceptional site situation.
Civil Erection Procedure
o Notice is issued to concerned municipal authority and police station before starting work.
o A pit is excavated in ground of size 1.5m x 1m x 0.6m for 6 way and 1.25m x 1m x 0.6m for
4 way pillar box.
o The bottom of the pit is rammed with lime and brickbats.
o 4 nos. of cement anchors are then placed at 4 corners of the rammed foundation such that
pillar box legs can rest on them once same is erected.
o The portion of pillar box which remains underground is 550mm.
o After erection the vertical alignment is checked for free operation of doors panels and locks.
o The vacant portion of pit is filled by loose earth and rammed well.
o Two coats of anti-corrosive Black Bituminous paint are applied up to a height of 600 mm
from ground level and on inside surface of all doors.
o Above this level, one coat of Red Oxide primer followed by two coats of Aluminium paint
is applied.
o For a Distribution pillar box, the numbering is painted on all doors, sides and cowl.
o For a Feeder pillar box, the name of source is written on cowl and doors.
Erection of Electrical Installations
o 500 / 300 Amp Units frames as required are to be fitted with bolts on the frames provided.
225
o Al Bus Bars of size 50mm x 12mm, and length to suit 6 / 4 way box are fixed with top and
Neutral studs.
o Hylam sheet Phase separators are fitted over each bus bar with L shaped Clamps.
o Rewireable Cu fuse wires are fixed between the L Contacts at Top and Bottom studs.
Earthing Practice
All pillar boxes body are earthed.
Two nos. 4.5 mtr long x 50m dia G.I pipes are sunk into holes dug with the help of earth
Auger.
The holes are 600 mm apart and dug 450 mm away from pillar box.
Two nos. 95 mm2 S.C cables are bolted at the ends of the Angle Iron Frame within pillar
box.
The Neutral Conductor is earthed only at Feeder pillar box.
Here the two earthing cables are bolted to the Al Bus Bar where the Neutral conductors are
terminated.
Neutral earth and body earth must be on opposite sides of box and separated by one meter.
Nowhere in underground system are the Neutral and cable armour interconnected.
Fig 2 & 3 illustrates the installation of 6 way pillar along with earth arrangements.
Figure 2
226
Figure 3
Earthing In Joints
The function of Continuous Earth Wire in overhead system is performed by armour wires of
cables in underground system.
Hence during jointing it is imperative that correct installation method is adopted for earth
clamp and collet and the clamps are connected by the requisite earth lead provided in kit.
In tee jointing, armour of both the main and branch cables are to be interconnected by
means of clamps and leads.
Earth Lead Sizes for Joints
Sl No.
1
2
3
4
5
Cable Size Used for Jointing

2
25 mm
70 mm2
150 mm2
240 mm2
400 mm2
Earth lead Size

25 mm2 S.C cable x 1 no.
70 mm2 S.C cable x 2 nos.
227
LT Jointing
There are three types of cable jointing done.
A) Straight Through Jointing.
Here crimping is done when jointing Aluminium conductors.
However at a few instances, solder basting is done when Cu & Al conductors are jointed.
Crimping of Conductors
o Aluminium crimping ferrules or In-Line connectors are made as per IS 8308
o Salient features of the process involved in crimping are:
The conductor surfaces(s) are to be thoroughly scrubbed using emery cloth.
The inner surface of the barrel of ferrule will have to be thoroughly scrubbed also
using emery paper.
Corrosion Inhibiting grease based on Lithium and having conducting properties,
popularly known by its trade name Pentex A is applied over these scrubbed
surfaces
The ferrule is inserted over the conductors placed in line and with a defined gap in between.
The correct Die, appropriate to conductor size, is selected for Ratchet type tools.
For Rotary tools, the Die heads are rotated till the correct size is set.
Crimping is started from the edge of conductor cut which is inserted inside barrel.
The second crimp is given on the other conductor edge.
After completion of crimping, the sharp edges are smoothened away and excess grease
should be wiped away.
Recommended Gap Between Conductors and Number of Crimps Required For Each
Conductor Size
Conductor Size In
mm2
Gap In mm
No. Of Crimps
Required On Each
Side
25
70
150
240
400
The Fig 4 illustrates the method to be followed for crimping ferrules.
228
Materials Required to Make a Straight Through Joint

Sl. No.
Item
Sl. No.
Item
Crimping Thimbles
Earth Continuity Clamps with

Collets
Emery Paper
Plastinet Mesh
Cleansing Solvent
Earth Leads
Cleansing Cloth
10
Polyurethane Compound
PVC Tape
11
BOPP Tape
Insulating Pads
12
o The above items in table are available in Kit form.

o The size and quantity of individual components depends on the cable to be jointed.
There are five types of Straight Through Jointing kits available
Sl No.
1
2
3
4
5
Cable Size In sq mm
25 x 3 C
70 x 3 C
150 x 3 C
240 x 3 C
400 x 4 C
Kit Nomenclature
SLA 4 / CESC
SLA 6 /CESC
SLA 8 / CESC
SLA 11 / CESC
SLA 13 / CESC
The above kits also contain the Instruction Manual showing steps to be adopted for making
a correct joint.
B) Tee Jointing
Here a married joint is made between conductors of tee cable and main cable.
This is adopted for service connections
Materials Required for Making A Tee Joint
Sl.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Item
Sl. No.
Item
Eyre 7 Flux
Alca P solder metal
White Cotton Tape
Cleansing Solvent
Cleansing Cloth
Emery Cloth
PVC Tape
8
9
10
11
12
13
Insulating Pads
Earth Clamps with Collets
Plastinet Mesh
Earth Leads
Polyurethane Compound
BOPP Tape Rolls
o The above items except those in Sl. Nos. 1, 2 & 3 are available in Kit form.
o The kits have been specially designed for use with 25 mm2 service cable.
229
There are four types of Tee Jointing Kits available.

Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
Cable Size In mm2

Main Cable
Branch Cable
25
70
150
240
25
25
25
25
Kit Nomenclature
T-3 / Mesh
T-7 / Mesh
T-14 / Mesh
T-23 / Mesh
The above kits also contain the Instruction Manual showing steps to be adopted for making a
correct joint.
Kit Design
o In a Kit the requisite quantity is pre-assembled.
o Kits are made of light weight material and as compact as possible.
o Kits are portable with easy availability of all items.
o This ensures minimum wastage, better quality control.
Married Jointing Of Conductors.
o The salient features of the process are:
The outer strands of conductors of service cable are flared.
The inner single strand is wound round the core where the insulation is cut to reinforce the
base.
Cotton tape is wrapped around the insulation cuts of both service and distributor cable cores,
to serve as protection during soldering.
The conductors of distributor cable are first Tinned using Alca P and Flux.
The flared strands of service cable cores are divided in two parts.
One part is wound in clockwise direction and another in anticlockwise direction around the
tinned conductors of distributor after matching of phases is ensured.
Pour Alca P over the married joint.
Flux is then applied once more over this joint.
Alca P, metal maintained at a liquefied temperature of 300 330 degC is poured so as to
ensure basting.
Basting continues till metal cools down to semi-liquid and then to viscous stage.
The excess metal is wiped off by cotton tape.
After soldering is complete the cotton tapes are removed.
Evostrip Compound should be applied over conductors at their insulation cuts.
Figs 5 & 6 illustrate the winding of strands to form a married joint.
Figure - 5
230
Figure - 6
C) Cable Termination
o The conductors of different cables are terminated using Al Crimping Thimbles.
Aluminium crimping thimbles are made as per IS 8309.
The requirements for crimping have already been explained earlier.
Termination can be of two types.
At Meter Board
explained earlier
At Pillar Box - where
o A cable coil is retained at base of pillar box for future use.
o The cable portion kept in vertical position against the 500/300 Amps frame is terminated at
the studs of the frame.
Pillar Box termination consists of two parts
a) Armour termination and b) Conductor termination.
Heat Shrink Components are used at both locations.
o Al crimping thimbles are used for terminating the conductors on to the studs of fixing
frame.
o Cu braids and Cu mesh are used for maintaining earth continuity between cable armour and
ground through pillar box frame earthing.
o The heat shrink components, crimping thimbles along with earthing accessories are
available in Kit form for cable sizes 150, 240 and 400 mm2.
o The above kits also contain the Instruction Manual showing steps to be adopted for making
a correct termination.
231
Overhead
Type of Pole Used
Poles are manufactured vide IS 2713.
Poles are of two types i) Stepped Poles and ii) Swaged Poles.
We procure Swaged poles vide our drawings which is in line with IS- 2713.
Poles used for LT Mains has a specification equivalent to 410SP38.
Planting
Outside Diameter
Overall
Approx
Depth in
Length of Section
&
Length
Weight
Ground
Thickness of Section
Working
Load
Bottom Middle
Top
200 kgf
mm
mm
mm
assuming
160 kgs
9.5 mtrs 1.8 mtrs
5.0
2.25
2.25
165.1
139.7
114.3
Factor of
mtrs
mtrs
mtrs
X 4.85
X 4.5
X 3.65
Safety 2.0
In our procurement drawing some of the thickness have been rationalized for easy procurement and
better quality check.
Pole Erection
Bill of Materials Required For Pole Erection
Item
Quantity
MS Pole
01
Bricks
2 nos.
Khoa
0.2 cu.m
Soorky
0.1 cu.m
Lime
0.05 cu.m
Poles installed in our system have three nomenclatures namely:
Description
Illustrating
Sl
Nomenclature
Figs
No.
Bottom
1
2
3
Tangent Pole
Sectional Pole
Terminal Pole
Middle
Top
Where Main Line takes a Bend

Where Main Lines are terminated on either side
The Last Pole on any Section beyond which no line exists.
1
2
3
Figure - 2
232
Figure -3
Pole position is decided by the following guidelines

Existing position.
Convenience of other agency.
Inspection report for new services.
Sanction from local authorities.
The Minimum Road width in between Building Lines should be not less than 3.0 meters (10
ft).
Method of Erection
Use 14 inch dia Pole Auger for boring a hole 1.6 mtrs. Deep.
Prepare a lime concrete bed 25 mm thick at bottom of hole.
Lay 02 nos. bricks on the lime concrete bed.
Place 2 nos. G.I pipes in hole as Skid Boards for supporting bottom of pole.
Slide pole against the skid board.
Make a Shear Leg of 2 nos. 3 mtr. long bamboo poles.
Support pole weight at its top third section on the Shear Legs.
Restrict side ways movement by tying a rope at pole top.
Hold the rope in opposite directions.
Prepare Masonry materials as in table.
Pour mixture into the sides of the hole and ram till hole is filled up.
The Fig 4 & Fig 5 illustrates the above method
233
Figure - 4
Figure-5
234
Pole Earthing
All Poles must be Earthed

Bill of Materials for Pole Earthing
Sl
No.
1
2
3
4
Item
Quantity
50 mm C.I. Pipe
No.4 G.I. Wire
! x MS Bolt & Nut
1 x MS Bolt & Nut
1 no.
1.2 kgs
1 no.
1 no.
Method of Earthing
Insert a 5 mtr. long No. 4 SWG GI Wire through PVC pipe.
Connect one end of wire to a 50 mm dia C.I Pipe.
Sink pipe to a depth of 4.0 meters below ground at 1.0 meter away from Pole with the aid of
Pole Auger.
Connect other end of Wire to Earth Terminal Block fixed on pole.
Connect the Continuous Earth wire to Bolt of Shackle plate to maintain earth continuity with
pole.
Fig 6 illustrates the installation of Pole Earthing procedure.
Figure - 6
235
Protection of Poles
A) Painting
All new manufactured poles are to be protected against corrosion.
The external surface is to be de-rusted.
Black Bituminous paint is applied throughout the outer surface up to depth of burial.
The remaining portion is painted by a coating of Red oxide paint.
Erected poles must be painted first by Red Oxide, then with Aluminium paint.
B) Muffing of Poles
Muffing is to be done on all steel poles after erection.
Muffing stops corrosion of pole base and subsequent breakdown.
The outer surface of pole base has to be thoroughly derusted.
A concrete mixture consisting of inch stone chips, coarse sand and cement mixed in ratio
4:2:1 is to be used.
Concrete should cure for 07 days, with water being sprayed twice daily.
The muffed surface should be lapped with a coating of cement slurry and polished.
The top should be sloped to prevent water accumulation.
This slope must have a flush finish against the pole surface.
The angle of the flushed slope should not exceed 45 deg with vertical.
Fig 7 illustrates the typical muffing.
Figure - 7
C) Reinforcing of Poles

This is done post installation during routine inspection and maintenance.

Those pole bases, which have been corroded, are to be reinforced.
Reinforcement is done from inside the pole by RCC.
Fill the bottom of pole up to 1 feet with broken brick bats.
6 nos. steel rods 2 mtrs. x 12 mm size along with cement concrete mixed in ratio 4:2:1 is
poured over brick bats.
Fig. 8 illustrates the method of Reinforcing.
236
Figure - 8
Different Types of Stay Arrangements and Their End Uses
A Stay is a device installed to maintain the mechanical stability of the overhead line.
It exerts a force opposing the resultant tension of a line upon completion of installation.
A Stay is installed on Angle (Tangent) pole, on Terminal pole, or on Sectionalizing pole.
However, in an Urban Suburbs like in our case, where the overhead network is increasing,
there exists little scope for installing a standard Stay.
A resolution of force tension on Stay will show that the best angle for a Stay is 45 deg.
So, various types of Stays have been devised and also adopted in our system.
Some of the Stays along with their end use and sketches are enumerated below:
Sl
No.
a
Types of
Stays
Line Stay
Strut Pole
Stay
c
d
e
f
End Use
This is the standard stay used where space is
available.
Where no standard stay position is not available, to

balance the line tension a recovered pole is
installed, butting against the terminal pole and
pushing it from the opposite direction.
Aerial Stay This is installed when space for both line and strut
Pole Stay are not available.
Bow Stay
It is used where no position exists for line or strut pole
stays. It prevents the top section of pole from bending
thereby increasing the line sag
Vertical Bow This is a substitute for line stay, where space is not
Stay
available.
Y Stay
Used where an Extension Bracket is used on the

terminal pole. Here a single anchor takes care of two
supports.
Sketch
Fig 9
Fig 10
Fig 11
Fig 12
Fig 13
Fig 14
237
Figure-9
Figure - 11
Figure-13
Figure-10
Figure-12
Figure-14
238
Details of Overhead Conductors

In our system we use ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) Conductors.
We have selected three different types of ACSR Conductors manufactured as per IS Code
No. IS 398 (Part - 2).
The Chart below shows the Technical Parameters of ACSR Conductors Used:
Sl.
No.
Trade
Name
Size of
Conductor
Recommended
Maximum Current
Loading in Amps
Sectional Area
of Aluminium
Weight in Kgs
Per 100 Meters
1
2
3
Raccoon
Ferret
Squirrel
6 / 1 / 4.09 mm
6 / 1 / 3.00 mm
6 / 1 / 2.11 mm
268 A
180 A
120 A
78.83 mm2
42.41 mm2
20.98 mm2
31.8
17.1
8.5
The End Use and the Recommended G.I Earth Continuity Wires are tabulated :
Types of Insulators and their use
Name of
Sl.
Size (SWG) Of G I Earth
Size Of
Type of End Use
Main Line
No.
Continuity Wire
Neutral
Conductor
Main Line
Raccoon
Ferret
Spur Line
Ferret
Squirrel
Street Light Line
Squirrel
Blind Lane Line

(02 Spans)
Squirrel
Sl.
1
2
3
Squirrel
Squirrel
There are nine types of Insulators used in our system and their end use are tabulated below:
Type of Insulator
Small Reel Insulator
Large Reel Insulator
Egg Insulator
End Use
Carrier for 10mm2 Service cable
Carrier for 16 mm2 Service Cable
Installed on Main Line Device between
Continuous Earth wire and Neutral Conductor
in Delta Configuration
4
Guy Insulator
Used after Large Straining Screw on 4/8 GI
Wire at Terminal Pole
5
Small Shackle
Used at Service Ends and on Sectional /
Insulator
Terminal Poles for Squirrel / Ferret
Conductors / continuous Earth Wire
6
Large Shackle
Used on Sectional / Terminal Poles for
Insulator
Raccoon Conductor.
7
EP -53
In Line / Tangent Pole with less than 5deg
Angle, for Squirrel & Ferret Conductor
8
Round Head Insulator
In Line Pole / Tangent Pole with less than
5deg Angle, for Ferret & Squirrel Conductors
9
Large Pin Insulator
In Line / Tangent Pole with less than 5deg
Angle, for Raccoon Conductor
Use of Different Joints, Device and Jumper
Use of Al Binding Wire
Material
HDPE
HDPE
HDPE
Brown Glazed
Porcelain
White Porcelain
White Porcelain
White Porcelain
White Porcelain
White Porcelain
239
Avoid using Al Binding Wire where Electrical Continuity of Phase Conductors is to be

maintained.
Use of Al binding is recommended for maintaining mechanical firmness.
Use it for neck binding at shackle, pin, round head and EP 53 insulators.
Requisite extra conductor sections are retained after Binding for use as jumper connections.
For all jointing work the under mentioned two methods should be adopted.
Al Sleeve Joints: Mid Span conductor joints during breakage.
No Sleeve Jointing should be done within 1.0 meter from poles.
Sizes of Sleeve Joints available depend on the size of the conductor.
Prior to inserting the conductor ends, Derust both the conductor and inner sleeve surfaces
by emery cloth.
Apply anticorrosive grease on all the surfaces where joint is to be done.
For a proper joint to happen the sleeve should be twisted as defined.
Sleeve For
Number of Turns
Raccoon
Ferret
Squirrel
7
7
5
For jointing conductors within 1.0 meter of pole.

Jumper connection at Sectional Pole or connection to fusing arrangement is done through P.G
Clamp.
PVC sleeves are used to protect the jumpers from short circuit.
P.G clamps are also of three types for the different conductors.
Here also the anticorrosive grease should be first applied before installing conductors.
Horn Bracket Assembly
Horn Bracket Assembly are fitted below Earth and Neutral Bracket.
350 mm gap is to be maintained in between Horn Bracket of each phase.
95 mm2 S.C cable is used as jumper for these brackets.
This protection is mainly incorporated at,
Isolation point of sources / Line Protection;
Nearest to the 10th pole on Straight Main Line from Feed Point;
The point where Main Line is teed off having envisaged load of more than 80 amps.
The fig. 15 Illustrates the installation of Horn Bracket assembly.
Figure - 15
240
Pole Box Jumpers

From Pillar Box the feed to Main Line is through Pole Box Termination.
For 150 mm2 and above cable sizes this connection is to be made using P.G. Clamp and
same size conductor as Main Line.
For lower size cables connection is made through Double Pole Cutout as:
For Neutral Conductor the cable is bound by No.12 Al Binding Wire.
Cable conductor strands are to be split in two halves with anchor.
R and Y phases Bindings will be parallel to conductor Horizontally.
B phase binding will be parallel to line conductor Vertically.
The Gland of cable armour will be connected to Earth wire by G.I wire.
The fig. 17 illustrates the installation o Pole Box Jumper.
Figure - 17

Main Line Device

There are two types used for the different conductor stringing configuration.
In Delta Configuration, Device is made from No.8 SWG G.I Wire;
An Egg Insulator is incorporated in Device to isolate Neutral and Earth Conductor;
They are fixed 2 mtrs. away from pole and spaced every 5 mtrs;
In Vertical Configuration, No. 4 SWG G.I wire is used shaped like a Diamond; here a Reel
Insulator is used to separate the Earth wire;
The first Device is installed 2.0 mtrs. away from pole on either side and next is installed 5.0
mtr. away from first one;
Two nos. PVC pipes are installed over the legs of the second Device to prevent short circuit
during swinging of conductors;
The fig 18 illustrates the installation method.
241
Figure - 18
Drawing of Overhead Mains

Bill of Materials Required For Main Line, One Pole Extension Using Ferret Conductor
Brackets and Insulator:
Sl No.
Item
Quantity
1
C Bracket and Back
8nos.
2
MS Angle Iron Bracket
2 nos.
3
Small Shackle Insulator
12 nos.
4
5
Conductors
Sl. No.
Small Shackle Plate

Egg Type Insulator
12 pairs
9 nos.
Item
Span (s)
Ferret
3 span length
Squirrel
2 span length
G.I Wire and Binding Wire

Sl No.
Item
1
No. 8 SWG G.I Wire
2
No.12 SWG Al Binding Wire
3
No. 14 SWG Al Binding Wire
Quantity
As per Span Length
2 kgs
1.2 kgs
242
P.G Clamps and jointing Sleeves

Sl No.
Item
1
Al P.G Clamp for Raccoon
2
Al P.G Clamp for Ferret
3
Al P.G Clamp for Squirrel
4
Pentex A type Anticorrosive Compound
5
Toughset B Compound
6
Al Jointing Sleeve
Nut and Bolts:
Sl No.
Item
Quantity
3
1
1
Lump Sum
One pack
If Required
Quantity
6 x 5/8 MS Bolt & Nut
2
3
4
5

4 x MS Bolt & Nut
3 x MS Bolt & Nut
8
4
12
12
6
7
5/8 G.I Washer

G.I Washer
1 kg
kg
While Drawing Main Line

Install Pole Stay as required
Attempt for Delta Configuration unless compelled by unavoidable circumstances
Accessories To Be Installed on New Pole
Suitable Pole Brackets for Phase Conductors, Street lighting Conductors;
Angle Iron Bracket for Neutral and Earth Conductor;
Modify the Brackets suitably at existing Pole from where line to extend;
While fixing brackets keep a gap of 350 mm between conductor levels.
Use of Extension Brackets
If required provide Extension Brackets on the poles to reduce the angle of Main Line thus
maintaining safety and other statutory requirements ( Rule 79) as in fig 19.
Figure - 19
243
Installation of Insulators
Install the relevant Insulator as per the pole and conductor.
Use of Tools and Tackles for Stringing Conductors
Apply tension on the conductor being drawn by Sisal Rope;
Ferret Conductor is drawn with help of Single Pulley;
Raccoon Conductor is drawn with help of winch and two Pulleys;
Tie the conductors with the Insulators by 14 SWG Al Binding Wire;
Stringing In Delta configuration
R&Y Phases are drawn first simultaneously followed by B Phase Conductor.
Neutral and Earth Conductors are drawn after that followed by Street light
Conductor.
Device on Delta Configuration
Provide Main Line Device made from No.8 G.I wire to isolate Neutral And Earth.
Fix Device from 2 meters away from pole and at every 5 meters interval.
Earthing of Neutral Conductor
On Radial Distributor over a span length of10 spans, further Neutral Earthing is required.
This eliminates the chance of floating neutral in case of snapping.
A hole is bored into soil by means of earth Auger.
A 50 mm2 S.C Insulated cable is terminated on to a telephone Bracket.
This Bracket is then clamped around a 2 Dia x 4.5 mtr. long G.I pipe.
The pipe is sunk to a depth of 6.0 mtrs.
The top of pipe should be 1.5 mtr. from the soil surface.
The cable is then drawn through another 2 dia G.I Pipe
This pipe is clamped on to pole by Saddle.
The free end of cable is tied to Neutral by Binding with No. 4 Al wire.
The fig 20 illustrates the method of Earthing.
Figure - 20
244
Overhead Service Connection

Bill of Materials Required for Installing a 230 v Catenary Service
Sl.
Material
Quantity
Sl No.
Material
No.
Variable Quantity Materials
1
2 G.I Pipe
5
Conduit
2
2 C x 10 mm2 Cable
6
Conduit Clamp
3
7 / 14 SWG G.I Wire
7
Conduit Bend
Aluminium
4
O/H Junction Box
8
Paint
Sl. No.
Material
2 HDPE Bend
1 no.
19
2 G.I Bend
1 no.
20
2 Telephone Bracket
1 no.
21
Star Plate
1 no.
22
5
6
2 Jam Nut
G.I Stay Hook
3/8 x 10 Straining
Screw
1 no.
2 nos.
23
24
1 no.
25
Small Shackle
2 nos.
26
Multiple Connector
2 nos.
27
10
Stay Hook
2 nos.
28
11
No.4 Stay Thimble
2 nos.
29
12
Al Binding wire
0.8 kgs
30
13
2.5 mm2 Cu PVC cable
3.5 mtrs
31
14
15
16
17
18
Neutral Disc
Lead Seal
Sand
PhilPlug
No.8 G.I wire
1 no.
3 nos.
4 kgs
0.075 kgs
1 kg
32
33
34
35
36
Sl
No.
Quantity
Sl No.
Fixed Quantity Materials
Quantity
Material
10 mm2 Al
Crimping Socket
Wooden Plug
Toughset B
Compound
6 x 5/8 MS Bolt
& Nut
4 x 14 No. Screw
x 7 No. Screw
C Bracket and
Back
DMC Cut
4 x MS
Earthing Clamp
9 x 2 G.I Short
Piece
20 mm Reel
Insulator
G.I Cleat
1 x G.I bolt &
Nut
x No.8 screw
Cement
Notice Plate
Iron Tacks
2 way M/Board
There are two types of cables in use for providing service connection
The technical details are given in table:
Size
Insulation
Conductor
10 mm2 x 2 C
16 mm2 x 4 C
PVC Insulated and

Sheathed
PVC Insulated and
Sheathed
Aluminium,
stranded
Aluminium,
Stranded
Current
Rating
47
51
Quantity
4 nos.
6 nos.
1 unit
4 nos.
4 nos.
4 nos
1 set
2 nos.
1 no.
1 no.
15 nos.
4 nos.
4 nos.
8 nos.
2 kgs
1 no.
4 nos.
1 no.
Relevant IS
Code
1554
Pt. 1
1554
Pt. 1
245
Service Installation Procedure.
Initial Activity
Collect meter and service material.
Inspect applicants details from paid bill against job slip.
Check meter-board wall for requisite thickness of 10.
Identify and check position of applicants Main Switch.
Check whether applicants installation is ready.
Preparation for Installation

Service Bracket Assembly includes Short Piece, G.I Bend. Pipe and HDPE bend.
One Telephone Insulator as well as Service Line Stays are installed on the pipe.
The 2 C cable is measured from pole to service point and appropriate length cut.
The cable along with No.8 G.I wire are then inserted through pipe.
The remaining length is inserted through Reel Insulators which are suspended from
7/14 G.I wire.
The Reel Insulators are suspended from G.I wire by no. 12 Al Binding wire as in fig
21
A hole is cut in proposed wall at a height of approx 1.0 meter from ground level.
The bracket is installed through this hole and jammed by Star and Back Plates.
At pole end the C Bracket and Back are installed along with Shackle Insulator
The 7/14 wire is fixed to the bolt inserted through Bracket and connected to Mains
Earth.
The cable is bound at the neck of shackle by Al Binding wire.
The Connectors are installed on Main Line Phase and Neutral
Cable phases ends are crimped to Al sockets and terminated at the Connectors after
the other ends are fixed to service cutouts.
Installation of Meter Board

Meter Board is to be installed on a 10 thick wall and at a height of 1.0 meter from
floor.
A hole is cut into the back wall of board prior to wiring and fixing of Earth Plate.
The wired board is then placed around the mouth of Short Piece projecting into the
consumers wall.
The Board is then fixed to the wall using the 4 long screws.
The free ends of the cable are terminated onto the DMC cutouts.
The Earth wire is terminated onto the Earth Plate.
The Earth Plate has to be shown to consumer.
The supply at cutout is checked by Test Lamps.
Fuse for phase cutout and solid link fir Neutral are then inserted.
Connect the loop cables to the meter.
The rotation of the meter is verified.
The meter seals are checked and cutouts sealed.
The Notice Plate is fixed on cover door of Board after closing and sealing it.
The figs 21, 22 & 23 illustrates a typical Catenary cable service with / without
conduit system.
246
Figure - 21
Figure - 22
Figure - 23
247
Any O/H Service is kept in position by means of 2 nos. Stays as detailed.

Two nos. of Stays comprises of No. 8 G.I Wire, Stay Hooks and Stay Thimbles.
One Stay neutralizes Service Line Tension;
The other prevents toppling over.
The Stays are installed at suitable points against the outer wall of building where service
is being done.
Service Bracket Installation
The configuration and length of bracket is variable.
It depends on location of meterboard and thickness of wall supporting the bracket.
The aim is to reduce the length of service line thereby providing stability.
The overhang of the Bracket outside the consumers wall should not exceed 1.0 meter to
prevent sagging.
If overhand exceeds then a 3rd Stay is involved along with an angle for support.
Mains Tap Service bracket is used where no standard position even with a special L
Bracket exists.
In extreme case (s) a pole has to be erected near the Service Bracket to act as Carrying
Bracket.
Three different Service Bracket arrangements are shown in the figs 24, 25 & 26.
Figure - 24
Figure - 25
248
Figure - 26
Application of I.E. Rules
Some of the IE Rules which are applicable in our system while stringing LT / MV lines are in a
nutshell:
A) Rule 74:
Minimum Breaking Strength of any Overhead Conductor shall not be less than 350 kgs.
However if span is less than 15 meters or on consumers premise this Breaking Strength
should not be less than 150 kgs.
B) Rule 75:
There shall not be more than 02 nos. joints on any O/H Conductor in any One Span.
The ultimate strength of a joint shall not be less than 95% of the ultimate strength of the
conductor and electrical conductivity same as the conductor.
C) Rule 77:
Minimum Clearance Required Above Ground of the Lowest Conductor / Service Line
For lines erected across a street
For Low and Medium Voltage Lines 5.8 metres;
For High Voltage Lines 6.1 metres;
249
For lines erected along a street

For Low and Medium Voltage Lines 5.5 metres;
For High Voltage Lines 5.8 metres.
For lines erected elsewhere
For Lines upto and Including 11000 volts, if bare 4.6 meters;
For Lines upto and Including 11000 volts, if insulated 4.0 mtrs;
For Lines above 11 000 volts 5.2 meters.
D) Rule 78: Not so much applicable in our case, as it deals with clearance from tram / trolley lines.
E) Rule 79:
Minimum Clearance Required Based on Maximum Sag and maximum Deflection , From the
Nearest Accessible Point of a Building for any Low and Medium Voltage Line
a) For any Flat Roof, Open Balcony, Verandah Roof, and Lean to Roof
(i) When a Line passes Above the building A Vertical Clearance of 2.5 meters from Highest
point;
(ii) When a Line passes Adjacent to a building a Horizontal Clearance of 1.2 meters from the
Nearest point.
b) For Pitched Roof(i) When a Line passes Above the building A Vertical Clearance of 2.5 meters Immediately
under the line;
(ii) When a Line passes Adjacent to a building a Horizontal Clearance of 1.2 meters from the
Nearest point.
c) For any situation where clearance is less than that specified, the conductor shall be adequately
insulated and shall be strung suitably with a bare Earthed Carrier Wire having a UTS not less
than 350 kgs.
F) Rule 81: For lines of different voltages to be strung on the same support, adequate precautions
have to be taken for the method of construction and clearance to ensure maximum safety against
charging at higher voltage and should have the prior approval of the Inspector.
G) Rule 85: For Overhead Line when erected in, over or along any street the interval between poles
shall not exceed 65 meters without written consent of Inspector.
H) Rule 90: All metal and Cement Concrete supports and metal fittings attached must be efficiently
and permanently earthed. A continuous Earth Wire should be provided which shall be securely
fastened to each pole and earthed at three equidistant points within one km. The metallic Bearer wire
used to carry Insulated O/H cable should also be efficiently earthed.
I) Rule 91: Every bare overhead line erected over any part of street or at public place or consumers
premise shall be protected by device which shall render it electrically harmless in case it breaks.
250
SYSTEM OPERATIONS
CESC is a distribution licensee having its own generation

It mainly caters electricity to consumers spread within its licensed area of 567 sq. km.
Generation Details
Station
BBGS
SGS
TGS
NCGS
TOTAL
Terminal Voltage
(kV)
16.5
10.5
10.5
33
Installed Capacity
(MW)
250 x 2
67.5 x 2
60 x 4
100 (derated)
Total (MW)
500
135
240
100
975
Transmission & Distribution System of CESC

BBGS
IMPORT
132kV
132/33kV
NCGS
TGS
SGS
33kV
33/20kV
33/11kV
11kV
33kV
CONSUMER
11/0.42kV
20kV
CONSUMER
33/6kV
CONSUMER
6kV
6/0.42kV
CONSUMER
6/3.3kV
400/230 V
CONSUMER
3.3kV
CONSUMER
Nearly 9% of this total generation is consumed by station auxiliaries and the rest is released
as Sent Out.
Average Summer peak demand of CESC system is 1400 MW. We therefore need nearly 510
MW from outside agencies to meet this demand.
Bulk of this power is imported from WBSEDCL and the rest from other power utilities
through various trading agencies.
251
Import Points
Receiving
Station
Southern
Corresponding
WBSETCL Substation
Botanical
Garden
Kasba
Prinsep Street
Belur
Titagarh
Howrah
Kasba
Belur
Titagarh
Capacity (132/33 kV)
Contractual Off take
65 MVA x 1 + 100 MVA +

150 MVA
= 315 MVA
170
75 MVA x 2 +
125 MVA +
50 MVA X 2
= 375 MVA
50 MVA x 3
65 MVA x 2
220
130
40
CESC OVERVIEW
Philosophy of System Operation

CESC system is kept synchronised with the Eastern Grid at WBSETCL HOWRAH
SUBSTATION through SRS & BGS points (single point synchronisation).
System parameters such as voltage, frequency and current are closely monitored through
SCADA from PCR.
Since CESC remains synchronised with Eastern Grid which in turn is connected with other
four regional grids, any small disturbance within our system will not significantly affect the
voltage or frequency of our system.
We import power at other Receiving Stations in radial mode.
During system operation some loads are transferred from station to another without
interruption while some loads can be transferred with interruption.
252
Islanding of System
Normally CESC system runs synchronised with the grid at SRS/BGS points. But whenever any
abnormal condition arises in the grid, our system needs to be islanded from the grid.
Islanding is carried out on the following occasion :
Under frequency
: 47.8 Hz, 0.5 Hz
Over frequency
: 52.3 Hz, 0.5 Hz
Directional Over current : > 500 A for 2.5 sec.
towards WBSETCL
Emergency push button
Busbars in CESC System
Broadly two types of CBs are used viz. Outdoor type & Indoor typeOutdoor type
B.
1 BREAKER
A.
M1
M2
TRANSFER
Indoor type
A. Single Bus Bar System
M1
B. Double Bus Bar System

M2
Insulation may be air or GIS

253
Preparation of Daily Schedule

System demand for every 15 minutes block is assessed on the previous day
Generating Stations declare their availability
Duration and Quantum of power available for export is also assessed
Import requirement from outside agencies is calculated for every 15 minutes block
Peak Off Peak ratio is considered
Final schedule is prepared
Schedule is published at CESC net
Schedule is sent to WBSEDCL
SCHEDULING :
Time
09:00
Requisition &
Bilateral Agreements
10:00
15:00
Drawal Schedule
S
L
D
C
17:00
22:00
CESC
Revision in Requisition
23:00
Final
Drawal Schedule
0 to 24
hours
Revisions during
Current day
Merit Order Scheduling

During preparation of daily generation schedule generation of the station with least cost per
unit
Cost of generating stations as on July08 (YTD) :
Generating
Station
Generation
Cost (Rs.)
Sent Out Cost

(Rs.)
BBGS
1.02
1.11
SGS
1.13
1.23
TGS
1.22
.34
NCGS
2.54
2.81
Combined
1.17
1.27
Order of increasing generation :
BBGS > TGS > SGS > NCGS

Rescheduling
Predicted system demand may vary with the actual one due to various reason such as :
Inclement weather
254
Sudden loss of generation

Fault in transmission line
Distribution outage etc.
Sr. Control Engineer carries out rescheduling from PCR considering the above. It is then
published and sent to WBSEDCL.
Generation Control- Merit Order, Economic Load Dispatch.
Most important thing from commercial point of view.
Generation is given in this order viz. BBGS > SGS > TGS > NCGS taking into account
network constraints simultaneously .
Switching Operations are done to maximize Merit Order generation .
Import Control Utilising diversity factor
CESC system is synchronised at Southern Receiving Station with WBSETCL 220 KV
Howrah S/S . Through which Import / Export is done.
BGSS , KRS , PRS , BRS and TRS are other five import stations. Here imports are kept in
Radial mode.
Switching Operations are done to balance import in all these Import points depending on
Network Constraints.
Depending on WBSETCL s request load transfer is also carried out, for example: from
KRS to BRS 20 MW load transfer request is done by switching operation
Example of Switching Operation:
Outgoing 33KV Feeders
SIEMENS BUS
JADAVPUR S/S
KRS
M3
M2
132 KV BUS
M1
EE BUS
75 MVA T3
75 MVA T2
75 MVA T1
WBSETCL KASBA S/S
We intend to take 33KV M3 Bus of KRS from Import to Generation ( 150 MVA Jadavpur Circuit)
Export and its Control:
CESC Commenced export at 0000 hrs on 12th March 2004 to WBSEB
Exported outside the region through Trader from 8th October 2004
Since then exported to the following states : West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, Haryana, Meghalaya, Tripura, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya, Sikkim etc.
Traders are : PTC, NVVNL, RETL, LEUL, JSWPTCL, GEL, VISA POWER,
Karamchand Thapar, ADANI, TPTCL etc.
We also export power on day ahead basis through bidding in Indian Energy
Exchange (IEX).
Power Trading (Import):
CESC normally import power from WBSEDCL.
255
We first imported power from outside the region through Trader from 26th
September 2004
Since then we have imported power from the following states and CPPs : Tripura,
Gujrat, Nagaland, Andhra Pradesh, GRIDCO, TISCO, NBFAL, and other CPPs of
SR and ER through traders.
We also import power through bidding in Indian Energy Exchange (IEX).
Energy Exported:
Energy Exported
500
458.32
450
418.5
441.4
400
350
(MU)
300
250
200
160.05
150
100
50
7.52
0
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
2007-08
Bilateral Energy Import
140
121.37
120
90.6
100
80
(MU)
54.57
60
40
20
12.89
2007-08
2006-07
2005-06
2004-05
256
7660
7136
7056
7176
7091
7006
6674
6654
6172
6011
5583
5089
4975
4847
4624
4482
4284
4000
4086
5000
3885
(MU)
4234
6000
5345
7000
6433
8000
7520
9000
8238
Growth of System Energy
3000
2000
2006-07
2004-05
2000-03
2000-01
1998-99
1996-97
1994-95
1992-93
1990-91
1988-89
1986-87
1984-85
1000
Load Curves
SYSTEM LOAD CURVES (TYPICAL SUMMER)
07/05/2008
1500
1300
1100
900
MW
700
500
300
100
0 -100
50
-200
0:
00
1:
00
2:
00
3:
00
4:
00
5:
00
6:
00
TIME
CESC Sent Out
7:
00
8:
00
9:
00
10 11
:0 :0
0
0
Import
12
:0
0
13
:0
0
14 15 16 17 18
:0 :0 :0 :0 :0
0
0
0
0
0
System Demand
19
:0
0
20
:0
0
21 22
:0 :0
0
0
export
23
:0
0
257
Load Curves:
Load Curves:
19/12/2007
SYSTEM LOAD CURVES (TYPICAL WINTER)
1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
MW 550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
23:00
22:00
16:00
11:00
12:00
13:00
14:00
15:00
21:00
20:00
17:00
19:00
0:00 1:002:003:004:005:006:007:008:009:0010:00
18:00
TIME
CESC Sent Out
Import
System Demand
export
SLDC Drawal Schedule vis--vis Actual Net CESC Drawal

25th August, 2008
600
575
550
525
500
475
450
425
400
375
350
325
300
275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
25
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
-125
-150
-175
-200
-225
-250
50.50
Freq corresponding to
UI rate equal to
WBSEDCL Tariff
50.00
49.50
49.00
48.50
Curtailment
Actual Net Drawal
Grid Freq
SLDC Drawal Scxhedule
CESC Drawal Requirement

ActNet+LS
(A-S)/S : -0.51%
UI Receivable
258
ABT Overview
It is a performance-based tariff for the supply of electricity by generators owned and
controlled by the central government.
It is also a new system of scheduling and despatch, which requires both generators and
beneficiaries to commit to day-ahead schedules.
It is a system of rewards and penalties seeking to enforce day ahead pre-committed
schedules, though variations are permitted if notified One and half hours in advance.
The order emphasises prompt payment of dues. Non-payment of prescribed charges will
be liable for appropriate action.
Grid Status Before Introduction of ABT
Low frequency during peak load hours, with frequency going down to 48.0-48.5 Hz for
many hours every day.
High frequency during off peak hours, with frequency going up to 50.5-51 Hz for many
hours every day.
Rapid and wide changes in frequency 1 Hz change in 5 to 10 minutes, for many hours
every day.
Very frequent grid disturbances, causing tripping of generating stations,
interruption of supply to large blocks of consumers, and disintegration of the regional grids.
Integrated grid operations require the normalisation of frequency across all five regions
requiring proactive load management by beneficiaries and dispatch discipline by generators.
Least cost power not dispatched in preference of more costly power
ABC of ABT
Three Part Tariff
Capacity Charge
A fixed charge (FC) payable every month by each beneficiary to the generator for making
capacity available for use. It will comprise interest on loan, depreciation, O&M expenses,
ROE, Income Tax and Interest on working capital.
Energy Charge
Energy charge per kWh of energy supplied as per a pre- committed schedule of supply
drawn a daily basis.
Unscheduled Interchange (UI)
A charge for Unscheduled Interchange (UI charge) for the supply and consumption of
energy variation from the pre-committed daily schedule. This charge varies inversely with
the system frequency prevailing at the time of supply /consumption. UI Charge is payable or
receivable depending upon the deviation from the schedule and also subjected to the grid
condition (frequency) at that point of time. Through this clause, disciplining regime is
introduced using commercial tools.
ABT and UI
UI mechanism is primarily a competitive real-time balancing Mechanism
The view that UI mechanism is a penal and disciplinary mechanism to deter utilities from
deviating from schedule needs reconsideration
UI mechanism is Real-time Pricing
UI mechanism is self-healing, self-dealing
UI rate is transparent
259
Decreasing marginal return with every additional unit of deviation from schedule acts as a
counterweight
Settlement is weekly
Significance of Unscheduled Interchange Mechanism in the Indian Electricity Supply
Industry:
Helping the grid gets rewarded, hurting the grid is penalized
Is hedgehog simple, elegant and flexible
Eliminates the need for elaborate contracts
Is inexpensive to implement
Price signal available at any outlet
Addresses the concerns of Grid operators & all other players in the power system
Economists Regulators, Policy makers
UI Rate: a function of frequency
For a frequency F <= 49, the UI rate will be = 10.00 Rs/kwh
For a frequency F >= 50.5, the UI rate will be = 0
For a frequency 49 < F <= 49.8, the UI rate will be = (1000 - (F-49)*18/.02) / 100 Rs/kwh
For a frequency 49.8 < F < 50.5, the UI rate will be = (0 + (50.5-F)*8/.02) / 100 Rs/kwh
Actual < Schedule
UI
Actual > Schedule
For Generation Payment
For Generation Receipt
UI
For Import Payment
For Import Receipt
Schedule Actual
Varying UI Rate depending

on average grid frequency
on 15-minute block
Schedule Actual
If UI Rate > S.O. Cost, then Payment is penalty & Receipt is incentive
w.r.t. Receipt of Scheduled Cost @ S.O. Cost
If UI Rate < S.O. Cost, then the opposite is true
In case of Import If UI Rate > Import Cost, then Payment is penalty & Receipt is incentive
w.r.t. Payment of Scheduled Cost @ Import Cost
If UI Rate < Import Cost, then the opposite is true
260
UI Graph: Effective from 07.01.2008
UI Rate
1100
1000
18 paisa
ramp
900
1000 paisa at
below 49.00
hz
Paise/kwh
800
0 paisa at
50.50 hz or
above
700
600
500
BBGS
cost
400
300
TGS &
SGS
cost
8 paisa
ramp
NCGS
cost
280 paisa at
49.80 hz
200
100
48.96
49.14
49.32
49.50
49.68
49.86
50.04
50.22
50.40
50.58
Frequency
Balancing Market guiding Vector

Unscheduled Interchange (UI) Rate
Applicable only for deviations from contract in real-time
1200
Deficit Condition
in the Grid
800
600
Surplus
condition
in the Grid
signal to serve more

consumer if possible else
save fuel by reducing
generation
Signal to use all available

generating resources else
reduce energy
400
280
200
Frequency (HZ)--->
51
50.9
50.8
50.7
50.6
50.5
50.4
50.3
50.2
50
50.1
49.9
49.8
49.7
49.6
49.5
49.4
49.3
49.2
49.1
49
48.9
48.8
48.7
48.6
0
48.5
Rate(Paise/KWH)--->
1000
UI Rate wef 07th Jan 2008
261
Power Trading
Bilateral Import and Import of power take place through short term, day ahead and same day
contracts.
Short term contracts: The quantum and price are fixed at least three months ahead.
Day ahead contracts: Although the price is fixed earlier, the quantum is fixed on one day in advance
Same day contracts: The price is fixed earlier but the quantum is fixed 4/6 hours in advance.
Connection of Five Regions :
NORTHERN
REGION
400 kV DC
Gorakhpur
Muzaffarpur
(AC)
NORTH
EASTERN
REGION
400 kV DC
Malda
Bongaigaon
1 X 500 MW Sasaram (HVDC)(AC)
2 X 250 MW Vindhyachal (HVDC)
\\ \\
400 kV DC AC Raipur - Rourkella
WESTERN
REGION
//
EASTERN
REGION
220 kV (AC) Budiapara - Korba
///
2 X 1000 MW Talcher Kolar (DC)

2 X 500 MW Chandrapur
(HVDC)
2 X 500 MW Gazuaka (HVDC)
SOUTHERN
REGION
Power flow through regions
Whenever any power flows through our region to another, the receiving end gets less power than
the sending end due to power loss in the network.
262
ER
WR
95 MW
91 MW
88 MW
5%
4% 3.9%
Cost of Import / Export / Generation

Cost of Import (as on July08) :
WBSEDCL
Other Agencies
Combined
2.62
9.95
2.79
Cost of Export (as on July08) :
Combined selling price to other agencies : Rs 6.09
Network Management
Voltage, frequency and line loadings are constantly monitored through SCADA.
Outage of any transformer / tie line results in overloading of other transformers / tie lines.
Loads are adjusted between the stations to avoid such overloading.
In case of station shutdown, essential loads / start up power are restored from adjacent
network at the first priority.
Planned maintenance jobs at various plants are arranged after arranging to shift some loads
to adjacent network so that the remaining plants can cater the load safely during the period.
Shortfall Management
Whenever there is shortage in available power in the grid, load shedding is carried out
according to a schedule depending upon the quantum of shortfall.
263
Outage of power transformer / distribution transformer, HT feeder / EHT feeder also

necessitates load shedding to prevent overloading of remaining plants.
System Protection
Whenever any unit trips in CESC system, matching load is switched off automatically
through Unit Lock Out relay to prevent overloading of existing plants.
BBGS ULO :
SGS ULO
:
TGS ULO
:
Whenever system frequency decreases, some feeder are switched off automatically through
U/F relay when the frequency reached a particular value & stays there for a pre-defined
period
Whenever generation of BBGS is decreased to such a value that the currents through
BBGS Chakmir 132 kv Circuit falls below 40A, ULO relay for BBGS will operate.
In case of tripping of PRS East Calcutta 132 kv Circuit, 132/33 kV, 50 MVA T1 & T2
at East Calcutta Sub-Station will trip through I/T relay to arrest fall of frequency of TGS
NCGS sub system.
PRS East Calcutta 132 kV circuit will trip in case of any system disturbance whenever
power flows from East Calcutta to Prinsep Street GIS accompanied by a frequency less than
47.5 Hz or an U/V of 70% to segregate North & South sections of the network.
264
GROUNDING PRACTICE IN SUBSTATIONS

1.0
2.0
2.1
Grounding :
Grounding is the practice of providing a good electrical connection between metallic parts,
structures or electrical circuits with a metallic system usually buried in earth with the
objective of maintaining these metallic parts at the electrical potential of the earth (zero
potential) to prevent rise of dangerous potential. Due to failure of insulation in power
circuits of any electrical equipment, dangerous conditions may arise resulting in their
metallic parts getting alive and hence susceptible to electric shock to any personnel touching
the body of the equipment. Proper earthing will protect the installation from occurrence of
such conditions thereby increasing safety of personnel as well as improving quality of
service.
Hence, Earthing of non-current carrying metal work and conductor is essential to the safety
of human life, animals and property and is generally known as Equipment Earthing while
Earthing associated with current carrying conductor is normally essential to the security of
the system is known as System Earthing.
Adequate grounding is required to prevent at any installation causing the body of the
electrical equipments to become live. Hence, a low resistance between the grounding
connections and earth is necessary to keep the potential developed during an earth fault to
minimum. However, grounding forms an important aspect in the operation of power
systems. The basic functions of a proper grounding installation are:
1) To limit the touch and step potential in and around the installation such as power
house, switchyard, substations etc. within tolerable levels to ensure safety to
personnel.
2) To limit total potential rise above true earth within acceptable limits during fault
conditions.
3) To limit system over-voltages during fault conditions.
4) To provide a current path for operation of protective gears.
A grounding system will prove itself adequate to perform these functions if :
A. It has a low value of earth resistance
B. The surface potential gradients are within acceptable limits.
The acceptable value of earth resistance may be anywhere from 0.1 to around 1 ohm or
slightly more depending on the acceptable value of ground potential rise, which in turn is
dependent on the magnitude of the fault currents flowing through the ground. With power
systems growing, the magnitude of fault currents is increasing rapidly, hence there is need
to achieve as low an earth resistance as possible.
Requirements of a Good Grounding System
Current carrying capacity
Any conductor, electrode or connection used in grounding system should be large enough to
carry the following currents without excessive heating
a) Faults currents of magnitude and duration such as to produce maximum heating effect
(I2t) in the grounding system components.
b) The currents caused by a direct lightning stroke or induced by a lightning stroke.
These currents may be relatively high but are usually of short duration and therefore
generally present no problem for grounds that meet the other electrical and mechanical
requirements.
c) The current that may be expected to flow in the grounding system as a result of
sustained system neutral currents.
265
2.2
2.3
3.0
3.1
Control of ground potentials and gradients

The grounding system should provide a low impedance path to ground for fault currents,
neutral currents and lightning discharges, with uniform or near-uniform potentials of earth
surfaces in the area under consideration.
This result should be accomplished without occurrence of hazardous potential differences
between any surface on which a person may be standing and any surrounding structures or
objects within his reach and also without imposition of dangerous differences of potential on
equipment and circuits.
Statutory provisions for Earthing
Earthing should generally be carried out in accordance with the requirements of Indian
Electricity Rules 1956 with latest amendment and relevant regulations of the Electricity
Supply Authority concerned.
All medium voltage equipment shall be earthed by two separate and distinct connections
with earth. In case of high and extra high voltages, the neutral points shall be earthed by not
less than two separate electrodes.
General Design Considerations:
An effective substation earthing design is dependent on various factors like duration,
frequency and magnitude of fault current, resistivity of surface layer of soil, magnitude of
current that a human body can safely carry and the permissive earth potential rise that may
take place due to fault current.
Safe Body Current :
Earthing grids are designed considering the equation for safe body currents recommended in
IEEE-Std:80/1976 based on the average weight of a human body. The equations are :
a) I = 0.116 / t (for 50kg body weight)
b) I = 0.157 / t (for 70kg body weight)
However in India, CBIP has recommended to use the following equation for determination
of safe body current :
I = = 0.155 / t
(1)
The above equation is based on the following consideration :
i) The duration of the shock is from 8 milliseconds to 3 seconds.
ii) Magnitude of fibrillating currents considered in IEEE Std:80/ are more conservative
than those obtained by other investigators for short duration of shocks.
3.2
Effect of Frequency
Humans are very vulnerable to the effects of electric current at frequencies of 50 to 0 Hz.
Currents of approximately 0.1 amps can be lethal. At higher frequencies, of 3000-10,000
Hz, higher currents can be tolerated
3.3
Effect of Magnitude
The physiological effects of electric current on human body in the order of increasing
magnitude are muscular contraction, unconsciousness and fibrillation of heart and burning.
Currents of 1mA is generally recognized as threshold perception.
Currents of 1 6mA are often termed as let-go currents, though unpleasant to sustain,
generally do not impair the ability of a person holding an energized object to control his
266
muscles & release it.

In 9-25mA range, currents may be painful. For higher currents, muscular contractions
could make breathing difficult.
In 60-100mA range, ventricular fibrillation or stoppage of heart might occur and cause
injury or death. Hence, current magnitude causing fibrillation of heart is the cause of
concern in safe grounding system design. If shock currents can be kept below this safe
value by carefully designing grounding system, injury or death may be avoided.
3.4
Accidental ground Circuit
3.4.1 Resistance of Human body
For DC & AC voltage at power frequency, the human body can be represented by a noninductive resistance. The value of this resistance is difficult to establish and varies between
500-3000 ohms. For the purpose of designing of grounding systems Hand and shoe resistances are assumed as zero.
Value of resistance of a human body is considered as 1000 ohms for calculation
purpose.
Step Potential
It is the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1
meter with his feet without contacting any other grounded object.
Touch potential
It is the potential difference between the ground and surface potential at the point where a
person is standing, while at the same time having his hand in contact with a grounded
structure.
Mesh Potential
It is the maximum touch potential to be found within a mesh of a grid.
3.4.2 Accidental circuit equivalents

The tolerable voltage between any two critical points of contact can be determined using the
value of the tolerable body current as given by eqn. (1) and considering appropriate circuit
constants.
If,
IA = Current through the accidental circuit
RA = Total effective resistance of the accidental circuit.
IB = Permissible body current, defined in eqn. (1)
Then obviously, IA < IB is required for safety.
RA is the function of body resistance RB and footing resistance RF . For circuit analysis,
human foot is usually represented as a conducting metallic disc. As per IEEE Std. 80, the
self & mutual resistances for two metallic discs of radius b separated by a distance dF on
the surface of a homogeneous earth of resistivity are :
Rfoot =
4b
(2)
RMfoot
= 2dF
(3)
Where,
267
Rfoot = self resistance of each foot to remote earth in ohms

RMfoot = Mutual resistance between the foot in ohms
The resistance of the ground beneath the two feet in series & parallel are respectively,
(4)
R2FS = 2 [Rfoot - RMfoot ]
& R2FP = [Rfoot + RMfoot ]
(5)
Fig. 1 shows equivalent circuit of a foot-to-foot contact. Thus, the equivalent circuit for a
step potential circuit is given by :
RA = RB + 2 [Rfoot - RMfoot ]
(6)
IA
RF
RB
RMF
IA
RF
df
(1 mtr.)
Step Voltage Circuit
Similarly, the equivalent circuit for a hand-to-two feet contact as shown in fig. 2, i.e., for a
touch potential circuit is given by :
(7)
RA = RB + [Rfoot + RMfoot ]
IA
U
RB
U
RF
IA
RMF
RF
Touch Voltage Circuit
In IEEE Std. 80, the radius of the disc representing one foot is considered as 0.08m (3
inches) and neglects mutual resistance. Hence, the eqn. for series & parallel resistances of
two feet can be obtained in numerical form and expressed by combining the above
equations as
(8)
R2FS = 6
R2FP = 1.5
. (9)
If the surface soil has a different soil resistivity [s] compared to that of an underlying soil
[] as in case of substations with a top layer of crushed rock or gravel, the eqns. (8) & (9)
will be,
(10)
R2FS = 6 Cs (hs*K)s
268
R2FP = 1.5 Cs (hs*K)s

(11)
Cs = reduction factor for derating the nominal value of surface layer resistivity
= 1 for crushed rock resistivity equal to soil.
hs = Thickness of the top layer or crushed rock layer, in metres.
K = Reflection factor = ( - s) / ( + s)
3.4.3 Criteria for permissible potential difference for ensuring safety :
The three basic situations involving a person and grounded facilities during a fault are :
1) GPR or Ground Potential Rise, i.e., the maximum voltage that a station grounding grid
may attain relative to a distant grounding point assumed to be at the potential of
remote earth.
2) Step potential
3) Touch Potential
The safety of a person depends on preventing the critical amount of shock energy from
being absorbed before the fault is cleared and system de-energised. The maximum driving
voltage of any accidental circuit should not exceed the limits defined below :
For Step Voltage, the limit is
EStep = [ RB + R2FS ] IB
(12)
Combining equations (12), (10) & (1) & taking RB = 1000 ohms,
Permissible Step Voltage is
EStep = [ 1000 + 6 Cs (hs*K)s ] 0.155 / t
The computed step voltage Es should be less than the maximum allowable step voltage,
EStep as given above to ensure safety.
Similarly, the Touch Voltage limit is
Etouch = [ RB + R2FP ] IB
(13)
Combining equations (13), (11) & (1),
Permissible Touch Voltage is
.. (14)
Etouch = [ 1000 + 1.5 Cs (hs*K)s ] 0.155 / t
The computed touch voltage or mesh voltage should be less than the maximum allowable
touch voltage as given above to ensure safety.
3.4.4 Maximum Ground Potential Rise
The GPR is equal to the product of the fault current entering the earth and the ground
resistance of the earthing system. This potential rise can result in dangerous touch voltages
occurring in the following ways :
1) A metal conductor connected solidly to the earthing system conveys the GPR to
remote areas.
2) The potential spreads through the earth itself and causes earth potential rise in
structures located in the vicinity of a station.
The potential (1) & (2) above are also called transferred potentials. In many situations, it is
difficult to achieve a GPR which is low enough to be safe as a touch voltage.
4.0
SOIL RESISTIVITY & GROUNDING RESISTANCE

Most of the soils are very poor conductors of electricity when they are completely dry.
Exceptions to this are soils containing certain minerals which are conductors because of
269
their metallic content. Sands, loams and rocks are however, in themselves of such high
resistance that they can be treated as non-conductors. However, when soil contains traces of
moisture, the conductivity increases considerably although it is still very poor when
compared with metals. Conduction of electricity in soil is through water.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
The main factors which determine the resistivity of soil are :

1. Type of soil
2. Chemical composition & concentration of salts dissolved in the contained water
3. Moisture content
4. Temperature
5. Grain size of the material and distribution / compactness of grain size.
Effect of Moisture
Moisture has a great influence on resistivity value of soil which varies inversely with the
moisture content. The resistivity of soil falls sharply with the increase in moisture content
up to a certain value. With subsequent increase in moisture, there is very little effect on the
soil resistivity. This limiting value of this moisture content lies between 14-18% by weight
of dry soil.
Effect of dissolved salts in water
The amount and type of salts dissolved in water present in a soil influence the resistivity of
any soil. A small quantity of salt 1-2% by weight of moisture drops the resistivity by 80%,
as the concentration is increased, the moisture tends to a reach a steady low value. There is
little advantage in increasing the salt content beyond 3% of the weight of soil (moisture
15%). Experiments have shown that common salt has the maximum effect in increasing the
conductivity of the soil.
Effect of Temperature
Temperature above freezing point appears to have no appreciable influence on soil
resistivity, but below 0oC, resistivity increases sharply with the decrease in temperature. At 15oC, soil resistivity is almost 10 times that at 0oC.
Effect of Grain size
Grain size governs the holding capacity of moisture or water in a soil and hence, it
undoubtedly have bearing on the resistivity of soil. Resistivity of compact dense soil have
lower resistivity than that of loose soil which can hold less moisture.
Seasonal variation
Moisture in the soil is the most important element determining its conductivity. Hence,
conditions which increase or decrease the distribution of the moisture content in the soil
result correspondingly in an increase or decrease of the conductivity. During monsoon, the
soil is moist and the resistivity is minimum. But in winter, the moisture content in soil
decreases considerably with corresponding increase in resistivity. This seasonal variation
can effect the soil resistance even up to 60%.
Artificial Treatment
In grounding practice, it is always desirable to have a very low value of resistance of the
ground electrode to ground. In soils possessing high resistivity, this may be quite difficult to
achieve. In such cases, treatment with common salt, charcoal and soft coke with periodic
watering is effective in soils of moderately high resistivity say upto 300 ohm-meters. Where
soil resistivity value exceed 300 ohm-meters, the conventional methods of chemical
treatment will be inadequate to get the desired value of earth resistance and artificial
treatment to ground electrodes may have to be done with some chemicals. Now a days, the
use of a clay-like material called Bentonite is used for reducing the ground resistance of
270
earthing systems. The properties of Bentonite is discussed in details in the subsequent

chapters.
5.0
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL RESISTIVITY

The most accurate method in practice for measuring the average resistivity of large volumes
of undistributed earth in the Wenners Four Electrode method. In this method, four small
electrodes are buried at four points in the earth, all at depth b and spaced in a straight line
at intervals a as shown in the figure. A test current I is passed between the two outer
electrodes and the potential E between the two inner electrodes is measured with a
multimeter. The E/I gives the mutual resistance R in ohms which can be substituted in the
eqn. below. The resistivity is :
4 aR
=
1+
2a
2
a
2
a + 4b
a2 + b2
However, in practice, four rods are usually driven into earth in a straight line at equal
intervals a, to a depth not exceeding 0.1a. So we assume b = 0 and the formula reduces
to
= 2 aR
This gives approximately the average resistivity of the soil to a depth b. Usually, a
variation in apparent resistivity upto 30% is neglected and such a soil is considered as
homogenous soil.
A
a
C1
a
P1
a
P2
C2
Resistance measurement of large grounding systems

The basic technique which is universally used for the measurement of a grounding system
resistance is known as fall-of-potential method. The measurement is done with an Earth
Tester having 4 terminals C1, C2, P1 & P2. C1 & C2 are connected to the current coils &
P1 & P2 connected to the potential coils of the Earth Tester. All 4 terminals of the Earth
Tester are connected to four electrodes by insulated wires of same lengths and then inserted
into the ground.
Method :
All the electrodes are spaced equidistant (say 5m, 10, 15m .) from each other in one line
with C1- C2 electrodes placed at the two ends & P1 P2 electrodes in between. C1 & P1 of
271
the Earth Tester shorted and connected to ground system E. Current I is injected into the
earth through C1 with return through electrode C2. The passage of the current produced at
a distance X from E results in a voltage drop VX in the soil. VX is measured by a
potential probe P2. The quotient VX/ I is the apparent resistance which under conditions give
the true resistance RE of the grounding system. VX/ I is plotted as a function of the potential
probe distance X.
The above exercise is repeated at various locations of the area where earth resistance is to be
measured and at various spacing in each location from which the average and maximum soil
resistivity in Ohm-meter of the area is determined. The table format in which the data
may be collected and the resistivity value that may be determined is furnished in Annexure
I attached.
6.0
6.1
6.2
SUBSTATION GROUND-MAT DESIGN

The ground-mat consists of a system of ground electrodes in the form of a grid of
horizontally buried conductors supplemented by a number of vertical rods connected to the
grid. The reasons for using the combined system of vertical rods and horizontal conductors
are :
1.
Horizontal conductors / grid are most effective in reducing the danger of high step and
touch potentials on the earths surface provided the grid is installed in a shallow depth
usually 0.6 1m below grade level.
2.
The vertical rods will penetrate the lower soil and will stabilize the performance of the
combined grid as resistivity of upper soil layers could vary with seasons due to
moisture content.
3.
No ordinary single electrode is adequate enough to provide the needed conductivity
and current carrying capacity in substations of any size. In turn, when several
electrodes, such as ground rods are connected to each other and to all neutrals and
frames or structures which are to be grounded, the result is a grid arrangement of
ground electrodes which represents an excellent grounding system.
DESIGN PROCEDURE
The step by step procedure followed for design of the grounding system in a power house /
substation is as follows :
1.Measurement of soil resistivity
2.Determination of maximum ground current
3.Calculation of resistance of grounding system
4.Preliminary design of grounding system
5.Calculation of resistance of grounding system
6.Calculation of maximum grid potential rise
7.Calculations of step and touch voltages
8.Calculation of step voltages at periphery
9.Investigation of transferred potentials and special danger points
10.
Correction & refinement of preliminary design as indicated in 7, 8 & 9 above.
11.
Field measurements of resistance and validation with designed values
Determination of Soil Resistivity
The method of measurement of soil resistivity has been discussed in details in the
preceeding chapters. A two-layer model of soil is usually more suitable than a uniform soil
model for calculation purpose as in most of the cases, it is very difficult to get uniform soil
272
6.3
6.4
all through the substation area. Besides, generally a substation always have a layer of
crushed granite which also forms a surface layer above the original soil layer.
Determination of Maximum ground fault current
Considering the correct value of ground fault current is important while designing of
grounding system of a substation. The three types of ground fault currents are :
i) Three phase- to-ground
ii) Two phase-to-ground
iii) Single phase-to-ground
The first two possible causes of fault currents are encountered to a lesser extent than single
phase-to-ground fault current. Moreover, the currents in these two cases are of lesser
magnitude since they have a return path. As single phase to ground current is more
commonly encountered and is more than the others, therefore, the maximum single phaseto-ground fault current is adopted for the grounding system design.
Evaluation of ground resistance
An ideal grounding system should provide a near zero resistance to earth. In practice, the
ground potential rise at the station site increases proportionately with the fault current. The
higher the fault current, the value of the calculated ground grid resistance should be lower.
Estimation of the total resistance to remote ground is one of the first steps in determining
the size and basic layout of grounding systems. The station resistance primarily depends on
the area to be occupied by the ground system.
As per IEEE-std.80:1986, SVERAKS approximation formula has been considered for
estimation total station ground resistance Rg.
For grid depths between 0.25 and 2.5 m, Sveraks approximation can be used which is -
Rg
6.5
6.6
1
+
L
1
1 +
20 A
20
1+ h
A
1
Ref:- Eq.40 of ANSI IEEESTD.80 -1986
where,
Rg
=
station ground resistance, in ohm
=
earth resistivity in ohm-m
A
=
area occupied by the ground grid, in m2
L
=
total buried length of conductors of grid rod combination, m
h
=
depth of burial of grid, m
Calculation of Maximum Grid Potential rise
The maximum rise in potential above remote earth is Eg = Ig * Rg, where Ig is the maximum
ground current in the grid and Rg is the ground resistance. If need for decrease in grid
potential rise occurs in case of transferred potential, the resistance may be decreased by
modifying the design and using more conductor length and if possible by increasing the area
of the grid. The increasing in area of grid is more effective than the increase in conductor
length only for decreasing the ground resistance.
Transferred Potentials
Where it is possible for the grounding system voltage to be conveyed to places outside the
grounding grid area, transferred potentials should be checked for pipes, rails, metallic
fences, auxiliary buildings etc. Adequate protection against transferred potential should be
273
provided. If required, resistance of the grounding system should be lowered by increasing

the conductor length to keep the transferred potential below desired level.
6.7
CORRECTION OR REFINEMENT OF PRELIMINARY DESIGN
If calculations based on preliminary design indicate that dangerous potential differences can
exist within the station, the following possible remedies should be explored / applied
wherever appropriate :
a) Decrease in total grid resistance will decrease the maximum ground grid potential rise
and hence transferred potentials. The most effective way of decreasing ground
resistance is by increasing the area occupied by the grid. Deep driven rods may be
used if available area is limited.
b) Improvement of gradient control can be obtained by applying closer spacing of grid
conductors. The problem of gradient control at the perimeter may be more difficult,
especially at a small station where earth resistivity is high. However, it is usually
possible by burying the grid perimeter ground conductor outside fence line to ensure
that steeper gradients immediately outside the grid perimeter do not contribute to the
more dangerous touch contacts.
c) Addition of relatively high resistance surface layer (e.g., crushed rock) to increase the
resistance in series with the body. A layer of 100 to 150mm thick decreases the danger
factor (ratio of body to short circuit current) by a ratio of 10 : 1 as compared to the
natural moist soil.
d) Limiting of short circuit currents flowing in the ground mats to lower value, if
feasible. This will decrease the total rise in ground mat voltage and all gradients in
proportion. Other factors, however if accomplished at the expense of greater fault
clearing time, the danger may be increased rather than decreased.
Using one or more of the above remedies can be useful for controlling the dangerous
potential differences in any station.
6.8
Design of grounding system
While designing of the grounding system, the following aspects have to be covered:
6.8.1 Type of grounding The procedure described in IEEE Std.80-1986 on methods of
substation grounding is generally followed in most utilities.
6.8.2 Design of Grid Practical design of a grid will usually start considering the layout plan of
equipment and structures including layout of the area. The design should adjust the total
length of the buried conductor computed with that of the length considered in the earth-mat
layout design to keep the computed potential differences within acceptable limits.
A typical grid usually extends over the entire substation yards and sometimes beyond the
fence which surrounds the building and equipment. Areas of the grid near high
concentration of fault currents such as at neutral grounding connections should have
reinforced ground conductors where necessary to handle adequately the most severe
condition taking into account both fault current magnitude and duration.
6.8.3 Connections to Grid
Conductors of adequate capacity and mechanical ruggedness should be used for connection
to the grid of :
a) All non-current carrying metallic parts which might accidentally become energized,
such as metal structures, building steel, transformer tanks, metal housing and guards,
electrical equipment bodies / supporting structures, machine frames etc.
b) Electrodes such as ground rods, water pipes etc.
c) Lightning arrestors, coupling capacitors, neutrals of transformers and machine windings,
power and lighting secondary circuits and other electrical circuits as desired.
274
6.8.4 Ground conductor size

Each element of the grounding system (including grid, connecting ground leads and
electrodes) should be so designed that it will :
a) Resist fusing and deterioration of electric joints under the most adverse combination of
fault current magnitude and fault duration to which it might be subjected.
b) Be mechanically rugged to a high degree, especially in location exposed to physical
damage.
c) Have sufficient conductivity so that it will not contribute substantially to dangerous
local potential difference.
Adequacy of conductor and its joints against fusing can be determined from Table 1
below. It provides a quick reference for most common materials under the following design
parameters :
a) Ambient Temperature of 400 C.
b) Conductor fusing temperature limit, as furnished in Table-1 below.
c) Required temperature of brazing joints, 4500 C.
Quantitative determination of short time temperature rise in a ground conductor or
evaluation of the ampacity of any conductor for which the material constants are known
while determining the ground conductor size from the following equation :
I = A In(Vm* Va* Ko) / t
Where,
I
Is the rms value of the current
Is conductor cross section in mm2
Vm
Maximum allowable temperature in 0C (2500 C)
Va
Ambient temperature in 0C (500 C)
Vo
Is the reference temperature for physical constants in 0C (200 C)
Is thermal co-efficient of resistivity at V0 0C
K0
Is equal to 1/ 0
Is the time of current flow, in seconds
TCAP Is the thermal capacity factor from Table-1

=
1
0104
(K0 + V0) TCAP
0 being the material resistivity at Va in /cm3

TCAP is the product of Specific Heat Sh and Specific Weight Sw. If the value of TCAP
is not available in Table-1, it can be evaluated as follows :
TCAP = 4.184 x Sh x Sw
Where,
Sh = Specific heat in cal/gram/ 0C
275
Sw = Specific weight in gram/ cm3

Ground grid conductor sizing should also take the criteria into consideration while
designing :
Current values used in calculation should take into account probability that
maximum fault current will increase over the years as the system grows.
Mechanical ruggedness of the conductor will set a practical minimum conductor
size.
The conductivity of the materials should be sufficient such that it will not itself
contribute substantially to dangerous potentials
TABLE 1
K0
Fusing
(1/ 0 ) Temp.
at 0 0C ( 0C)
200 C
TCAP
Resistivity Factor
0.00393
234
1083
1.7241
3.685
97.0
0.00381
242
1084
1.7774
3.680
Copper
Clad
Steel Core wire
40.0
0.00378
245
1084/
1300
4.310
3.684
Copper
Clad
Steel Core wire
30.0
0.00378
245
1084/
1300
5.747
3.858
Commercial EC
Aluminium Wire
61.0
0.00403
228
657
2.8264
2.846
Aluminium Alloy
Wire 5005
53.5
0.00353
263
660
3.2226
2.689
Aluminium Alloy
Wire 6201
52.5
0.00347
268
660
3.2840
2.676
Aluminium Clad
Steel Core Wire
20.3
0.00360
258
660/
1300
8.49
2.860
Stainless
No. 304
2.4
0.00130
747
1400
72.0
4.037
Description of
Materials
Material
Conductivity
Standard
Annealed
Soft
Copper wire
100.0
Commercial
Hard
Drawn
Copper wire
Steel
0 Factor
at 20 0C
6.8.5 Ground Conductor Material

Copper is by far the most common metal to be used for ground grid conductor. Copper in
addition to its high conductivity has the advantage of freedom from underground corrosion,
since it is cathodic with respect to other metals likely to be buried in the vicinity.
However, unfortunately, a grid of copper forms galvanic cells with buried steel pipes and
conduits, lead sheaths of cables etc., with which it is connected and is therefore likely to
276
hasten the corrosion of the latter. Due to cost of copper and the reasons as mentioned above,
galvanized steel flat or round CI Rods are used for underground earthmat grid nowadays.
6.8.6 Conductor length required for gradient control
A minimum conductor length has to be calculated to keep the touch voltages inside the grid
perimeter within safe limits. Touch voltages rather than step voltages or transfer voltages
are used as the basis for this computation because :
a) Step voltages encountered in practical installations are usually smaller than touch
voltages. Ground resistance between two feet are in series rather than parallel and are
thus more effective in limiting body current. Also, body can tolerate higher current
through foot-to-foot path.
b)
Transfer voltages are more difficult to limit and usually require isolation or other
special treatment.
For calculation of the minimum conductor length, the method / equations mentioned as per
IEEE Std. 80: 1986 is widely followed as furnished below.
The preliminary design should be adjusted so that the total length of the buried conductors is
able to limit the touch and step voltages to safe values. While designing the buried
conductor length, an irregularity factor should also be used to allow non-uniformity in the
flow of ground current per unit length of buried conductor.
L=
Km.Ki..I G t
116 + 0.174 s c s
Ref:- Eq.77 of ANSI

IEEE- STD.80 1986
Where,
Km
=
Ki
=
Spacing factor for Emesh

Corrective / irregularity factor for grid geometry
Surface resistivity in ohm-m.
Soil resistivity in ohm-m.
IG
ts
t
=
=
=
fault current contribution by remote source

duration of shock usually taken as 0.5 sec.
duration of short circuit (1 sec)
Km =
Ref:- Eq.17 of IEEE

Transaction on Power
Delivery, Vol-13,No.-3,
July-1998
( D + 2h) 2 h Kii 8
1 D 2
ln
+
ln
+
2 16hd
8 Dd
4d Kh ( 2n 1)
where,
Kh = 1 +
K ii
h
ho
1 for grids with ground rods along perimeter or with ground rods both in the
grid corners and inside the grid area
Or
Kii
( 2n)
2
n
for grids with a few inner ground rods or no rods.
Ref:- Eq.26 of IEEE

Transaction on Power Delivery,
Vol-13,No.-3, July-1998 (Copy
Enclosed )
277
Ki
irregularity factor = 0.644+ 0.148n
spacing of grid conductor in meter
diameter of grid conductor in meter
depth of burial in meter
h0
reference depth of grid
nI.nII.nIII.nIV
Ref:- Eq.23 of IEEE

Delivery, Vol-13,No.3, July-1998
Where,
=
nII
1 for square grids
nIII
1 for square and rectangular grids
nIV
1 for square, rectangular and L shaped grids
and/otherwise,
nI
nII
2Lc
Lp
Lp
4 A
0. 7 A
nIII
nIV
Lx. Ly Lx .Ly
A
Dm
Lx 2 + Ly 2
where,
A
area of grid in sq. m.
Lp
peripheral length of the grid in meter
Lc
total length of conductors forming the grid in meter
278
Lx
maximum length of the grid in x-direction in meter.
Ly
maximum length of the grid in y-direction in meter.
Dm
maximum diagonal of the grid in meter.
Cs
=
material
=
corrective factor reducing resistivity of the surface
1
s
1

a
1
0 .9 6
(2 h s + a )
;
Ref:- Eq.10 & 10A of IEEE Transaction on Power
Delivery, Vol-13,No.-3, July-1998
a = 0.106
hs
thickness of crushed stones in meter
reflection factor
Ref:- Page 763 of

IEEE Transaction on
Power Delivery, Vol13,No.-3, July-1998
( s )
( + s )
6.8.7 Effect of Irregularities or Non-Uniformity factor (Ki)

The factor Ki is known as the current irregularity factor. For ideal grid geometry and
uniform soil conditions, current per unit length of the conductor which flows from the mat
will vary , being higher at sides than at the centre and higher yet at the corners. Accordingly,
voltage gradient will also vary. Here, the current irregularity factor corrects the grid
geometry. This is because, conductor to conductor geometry of a grid is clearly a two coordinate affair, which in terms of model is reduced into one co-ordinate. The role of Ki is to
compensate for this quadratic to linear degradation. Hence, Ki may be defined in this
form
Y = C1x + C2 ; where C1 and C2 are constants.
When x = n & C1 = 0.148 and C2 = 0.644
Ki = 0.644 + 0.148n
6.9
Calculations of Internal Step and Touch Voltages
Based on the procedure of computation of conductor length furnished above, if the total
length of the buried conductor equals the computed value, the step and touch voltages
within the grid parameters should, in general, be within the tolerable limits. But there should
be a check to the above voltage values to be done in the method as given below :
6.9.1 Touch Voltage
Ref:- Eq.3 of IEEE

July-1998
Touch & Step Voltage

Touch voltage
(1000 + 1.5Cs )0.116

s
t
279
Permissible touch voltage for
=
(1000+1.5Cs. S )0.116
_________________
t
Ref:- Eq.11 of IEEE
50kg body weight, E touch 50
July-1998
6.9.2 Mesh Voltage

Based on estimated length LM, E mesh
Where, LM
Km.Ki. .I G
Lm
effective buried length applicable to grids with ground rods in the

corners as well as along the perimeter and inside the grid.
Ref:- Eq.24 of IEEE Transaction
on Power Delivery, Vol-13,No.3, July-1998
Lr
Lc + 155
. + 1.22
LR
2
2
+
Lx
Ly
total length of grid conductors, in meter
LR
total length of all ground rods, in meter
Lr
length of each ground rod, in meter
where, LC
E mesh should be less than E touch
Ref:- Eq.4 of IEEE

Delivery, Vol-13,No.-3, July1998
6.9.3 Step Voltage
Permissible step voltage for

50 kg bodyweight, E step 50
(1000 + 6Cs )0.116

s
Step voltage calculated on the basis of effective buried length Ls applicable to grids with or
without ground rods is
Es
K s .Ki. .I G
Ls
Ref:- Eq.12 of IEEE Transaction on Power

280
Ref:- Eq.25 of IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery,

Vol-13,No.-3, July-1998
where,
Ls
0.75 Lc + 0.85 Lr
Ks
1 1
1
1
+
+
1 0.5n 2
2h D + h D
Ref:- Eq.18 of IEEE Transaction on Power

Where n has been defined earlier as n = nI.nII.nIII.nIV
Calculated Step voltage Es should be less than tolerable E step.

6.9.4 Calculation of Step Voltage at Periphery
Within the grid, step and touch voltages can be decreased to any desired value by decreasing
the mesh intervals of the grid i.e., by increasing the conductor length, these voltages can be
made zero in the theoretical limiting case of solid plate.
This situation is different in the zone immediately outside the grid periphery where the
problem could exist even for a theoretical plate. This problem may be serious in small
stations where the grid can cover only a limited area. Fortunately, a station can usually be
designed to eliminate the possibility of touch contacts beyond the ground system periphery
and the limitations on step potentials are less.
If the value of Estep comes to be higher than the safe value of Estep as mentioned in the earlier
chapter, the design has to be modified by using closer meshes to bring this value below safe
limits.
6.10 Ground Grid Resistance
Sveraks approximation
For grid depths between 0.25 and 2.5 m, Sveraks approximation can be used which is
Rg
where,
Rg
=
=
6.11
1
+
L
1
1
1 +
20 A
20
1+ h
Ref:- Eq.40 of ANSI IEEESTD.80 -1986
station ground resistance, in ohm

earth resistivity in ohm-m
A
=
area occupied by the ground grid, in m2
L
=
total buried length of conductors of grid rod combination, m
h
=
depth of burial of grid, m
Ground mat is designed to control the surface gradients i.e. to see that the touch and step
voltages are well within the safe limits. Generally the average S.R. is considered for design
of the mat. However the step and touch voltages are again checked for the highest S.R. and
found to be less than the safe values.
Corrosion in Metals and buried grounding grids
Corrosion can be defined as the gradual destruction of a material because of reaction with its
environment. In case of metals, the destructive attack is usually by chemical or
electrochemical reaction.
281
Corrosion of metals buried in soil has been established as an electrochemical process and
the phenomenon is attributed to the flow of electrical currents in the innumerable micro
galvanic cells constituted by the existence of local anodic and cathodic sites on the metal
surfaces. Various constituents of the soil affect the ohmic resistance by the cathodic and
anodic processes.
The resistivity of soil is a measure of almost all the physiochemical properties of the soil.
The degree of corrosion of most of the soils increases with the decrease in the resistivity of
the soil as can be seen from the table furnished below :
Range of soil resistivity (Ohm-meter)
Class
Less than 25
Severely corrosive
26 - 50
Moderately corrosive
51 - 100
Mildly corrosive
Above 100
Very mildly corrosive
Soils acts as an electrolyte in corrosion. The moisture, oxygen and hydrogen concentrate
affect the electrochemical corrosion of metals buried in soils. The rate of corrosion of
earthing conductors will primarily depend upon the metal used for earthing, characteristics
of soil and any dissimilar metals that come in direct contact with the earthing installation in
ground.
Metals dissolve in corrosion medium by forming ions. Reduction in conductor area of metal
due to corrosion may reduce its current carrying capacity and strength. Copper has been
extensively and universally used as the material of underground conductors due to its high
corrosion resistance property in most of the soils. Steel (galvanized and un-galvanized) is
also very commonly used for earthing in view of its low cost. The unit of measure of
corrosion rate or more precisely corrosion resistance is given by MPY (Mils per year).
Safeguard against Corrosion
1. Providing extra allowance in conductor size. Hence bigger section of steel can take care
of corrosion economically and adequately. steel corrodes almost six times that of
copper.
2. Zinc coatings are used extensively as a measure against corrosion of steel. Galvanised
steel in ground corrodes at a slow rate in the beginning but when the zinc coating is
destroyed, it starts corroding at its usual high rate. Therefore, galvanizing as means of
protection against underground corrosion for extended period of time can not be
depended upon.
Ground mat is designed to control the surface gradients and see that the touch and step
voltages are well within the safe limits. Generally, the average soil resistivity is considered
for design of earth mat. However, the step and touch voltages are checked for the highest
soil resistivity and should be less than the safe/permissible values.
7.0 CASE STUDY
The grounding system design our 220/132kV Eastern Metropolitan Substation was carried
following the procedure as detailed in the previous chapters. At first, the soil resistivity
measurement of the substation site was carried out using proper earth testers and accessories
as mentioned below adopting the method described in point no. 5 of this report. The results
obtained is furnished below.
282
7.1 Results of Soil Resistance Measurements
1. Location : Proposed 220kV Switchyard Area

Date of Measurement : 17.01.2007
Weather Condition: Cloudy, Temp.: 120C
Proposed yard filled up with fly ash, rubbish & soil
S
(mtrs.)
Resistance
(ohm)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Resistance
(ohm)
(N - S)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Resistance
(ohm)
(E - W)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
(NW - SE)
0.62
7.791168
1.7
21.36288
0.67
8.419488
0.15
4.7124
0.1
3.1416
0.09
2.82744
10
0.05
3.1416
0.06
3.76992
0.04
2.51328
15
0.04
3.76992
0.03
2.82744
0.04
3.76992
25
0.02
3.1416
0.03
4.7124
0.02
3.1416
a. Maximum Soil Resistivity: 21.36288 m

b. Minimum Soil Resistivity: 2.82744 m
c. Average Soil Resistivity: 5.2695 m
2. Location : Proposed Transformer, 132kV & 33kV outdoor Yard & Control Room
Area
S
(mtrs.)
Resistance
(ohm)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Resistance
(ohm)
(NE - SW)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Resistance
(ohm)
(NW - SE)
Soil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
(E - W)
0.38
4.775232
0.285
3.581424
0.51
6.408864
0.12
3.76992
0.07
2.19912
0.08
2.51328
10
0.04
2.51328
0.04
2.51328
0.04
2.51328
15
0.01
0.94248
0.01
0.94248
25
0.01
1.5708
0.01
1.5708
1. Maximum Soil Resistivity: 6.408864 m

2. Minimum Soil Resistivity: 0.94248 m
3. Average Soil Resistivity: 2.7549 m
7.2
Ground Conductor Size

The ground conductor size selected is minimum 600 sq.mm. G.I. Flat (75 x 8mm)
corresponding to the maximum earth fault current after duly accounting for corrosion in
view of very low soil resistivity.
283
The earth flat has been designed with equally spaced grids being buried at a depth of
900mm from finished grade level. 100mm of crushed rock / gravel spread over finished
formation level is suggested around the base of all the equipment to a distance of 2 to 2.5
mtrs. This can be used for the entire area of the grid mat which is desirable but not essential
and hence for the purpose of economy it is suggested only around the equipment base.
7.3
RESULTS
7.3.1 Determination of Allowable Touch and Step voltages under different Soil Resistivity
Values
The allowable Touch and Step voltages have been worked out using the equations furnished
in the previous chapters for determination of these voltages as furnished in the table below
considering 4 typical cases of Maximum, Minimum, Average and Two layer soils.
Accordingly, the grid resistances have also been derived under these cases.
Allowable Volts
Calculated for soil resistivity values of

Case-1
Case-2
Case-3
Case-4
Parameter
With
Surface
Layer
Spreading
Touch
voltage
648 V
116.4 V
10.5
178.9
45.8
66.9
Step
voltage
2121 V
119.6 V
5.7
96.4
24.7
15.6
0.0027
0.62
0.011
0.023
Without
Surface
Minimum Max. of Average Two Layer with
Layer
of all
all
SR=4.1 Layer depth of
Spreading
readings readings
3.5mtrs
SR=21.36
SR1=12.52,
SR=0.98
SR2=3.45
Grid resistance
7.3.2 Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analysis was carried out by varying the grid spacings considering the average
value of soil resistivity of 4.10 ohm-mtrs for determining the following parameters :
a) Length of the ground conductor requirement
b) Actual Touch Voltage value
c) Actual Step Voltage value
d) Mesh Voltage value
It may be seen from the table furnished below that computations for the above parameters
have been carried out for various spacings from 2 mtrs to 25 mtrs and accordingly, the total
GI Earthflat requirement have also been worked out. 13 mtrs spacing gives the least total
length, but it has been suggested to take 9mtrs inspite of marginal increase in earth flat
requirement considering future additions and all other non-uniformity factors.
For 9 mtrs spacing, the touch and step voltages have been determined corresponding to
highest soil resistivity and same were also found well within the safe values.
284
Spac- Design Design

ing Emesh Estep in
in Volts
Volts
MS
Earth Mat
Earth Equipme Total
Round
Flat
flat-Fence nt Earth
Flat
Rods 1 length in Earthing
flat in
Length
Mtr LongMtrs
in Mtrs
Mtrs. in Mtrs.
Nos.
40
476
27159
870
2653
30682
2.5
12
36
384
21941
870
2829
25640
16
33
316
18474
870
3005
22349
22
30
236
14132
870
3357
18359
28
28
190
11539
870
3709
16118
33
26
160
9780
870
4061
14711
38
26
136
8350
870
4413
13633
42
25
116
7640
870
4765
13275
46
25
102
6816
870
5117
12803
10
49
24
94
6258
870
5469
12597
11
53
24
84
5868
870
5821
12559
12
56
24
78
5462
870
6173
12505
13
59
24
70
4997
870
6525
12392
14
62
24
68
4738
870
6877
12485
15
65
24
60
4474
870
7229
12573
16
69
24
56
4163
870
7581
12614
17
70
24
56
4203
870
7933
13006
18
73
24
52
3873
870
8285
13028
19
77
24
48
3545
870
8637
13052
20
78
24
48
3623
870
8989
13482
21
81
24
44
3346
870
9341
13557
22
82
24
40
3372
870
9693
13935
23
85
24
38
3192
870
10045
14107
24
88
24
36
3041
870
10397
14308
25
89
24
36
3067
870
10749
14686
Vertical electrodes of 100 mm dia, 10 to 13mm thick and 2.75 mtr long of machinable grade
Cast Iron pipes have been considered for all important equipments such as power
transformers, lightning arrestors etc., as close to the equipment as possible and inturn, they
are to be connected to the mat. Minor equipment and structures etc. have also been
considered to be connected to the mat. M.S. Round rods of 1 mtr long have been considered
to be connected to the grid at the periphery, driven into the soil at each junction on the
periphery.
285
Analysis of results
Emesh is less than Etouch (allowable as per the earlier table) for each case of analysis
and hence design is safe.
Es (calculated) is less than Estep (allowable as per the earlier table) for each case of
analysis and hence design is safe.
As seen from the above table, although design is safe for higher spacing, but there
is not much variation in total Earth Flat requirement for spacing of 9 mtrs. Hence
9 Mtrs spacing for Earthmat grid design has been considered here.
7.5
Bill of materials
G.I.Flat of size 75x8 mm for grid conductor, fence earthing, risers(connection to the
earth mat from the equipment) Total length 12803 mtrs(The length of the risers is calculated
with the assumption that all the equipments lie at the centre of each mesh which is the worst
case and hence the actual requirement may be less).
2) M.S. Rods of 1 inch dia each of 1mtr long nos 102.
3) Cast iron pipes of machinable grade 2.75 mtr long 10 to 13 mm thick having I.d. of
100mm nos Min 70 spread over the grid area such that they are as close to the
equipment as possible but a min dist of 5.5 mtrs is to be maintained between any two of
them as far as possible. All major equipments should be connected to individual
electrode and in turn they should all be connected to the earth mat without exception and
minor equipment and structure grounding can be directly connected to the earth mat
7.4
8.0
GUIDELINES FOR INSTALLATION OF EARTHMAT
8.1
EARTHING MATERIALS
8.1.1 The Conductor to be used for the underground earthmat is 75 x 8 mm Galvanised Iron Flat
for the entire yard. The fence earthing, risers for equipment, equipment body, transformer
neutral point, structures etc. shall also be done with 75 x 8 mm size G.I.Earth Flat.
8.1.2 The Earth electrodes i.e., the vertical electrodes shall be Cast Iron Pipes of machinable
grade 2.75 meter long, 10 to 13 mm thick having internal diameter of 100mm.
8.1.3 M.S. Round Rods of 1 meter long (as detailed in clause no. 2.12) are to be installed at the
periphery and to be driven into the soil at each junction of the periphery after connecting it
to the earthmat through proper welding.
8.1.4 All earth connections from equipment / cast iron pipe electrodes to the earthmat shall be
made using Galvanised Steel flats of cross section equal to the G.I. Flat size suggested for
the eartmat.
8.2
EQUIPMENT AND STRUCTURE EARTHING
8.2.1 All steel structures in the outdoor yard, steel / RCC columns, metallic stairs, hand rails etc.,
of the building housing electrical equipment shall be connected to the nearby earthing grid
conductor by earthing leads at two pints. Electrical continuity shall be ensured by bonding
the different sections of earth flats, metallics etc.
8.2.2 The connection between earthing pads / terminals and the earthing grids shall be made short
and direct earthing leads free from kinks and splices.
8.2.3 Electrical conduits, pipes and cable tray sections shall be bonded to ensure electrical
continuity and connected to earth conductors at regular intervals. Apart from intermediate
connections, end and beginning points shall also be connected to earthing system.
8.2.4 Metallic conduits and pipes shall not be used as earth continuity conductor.
8.2.5 Separate earthing conductors shall be provided for earthing of Street light poles, junction
boxes on the poles, flood light supporting structures, lighting fixtures, receptacles, switches,
286
8.2.6
8.2.7
8.2.8
8.2.9
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6
8.3.7
8.3.8
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
junction boxes, lighting conduits etc. and shall be connected to the station earthing grid /
mat at minimum two points.
Railway tracks within plant area shall be bonded across fish plates and connected to
earthing grid at several locations. At the point where the track leaves the plant area, the rail
section shall be provided with insulated joint at both ends.
Earthing conductor shall be buried 1000mm outside the Substation fencing. Every alternate
post of the fence shall be connected to earthing grid by one lead and gates by flexible braid
to the earthed post.
Miscellaneous items like junction boxes, field switches, cable end boxes / glands, fittings
and fixtures shall be earthed whether specifically mentioned or not.
Flexible earthing connectors shall be used where flexible conduits are connected to rigid
conduits to ensure continuity.
JOINTING OF EARTHING CONDUCTORS
The overlap portion shall be welded on all four sides by continuous welding keeping an
overlap not less than 100 mm along the run. To facilitate welding on all four sides, welding
work shall be done at ground surface and then laid in trench.
Resistance of the joint shall not be more than the resistance of the equivalent length of the
conductor.
The welding surfaces shall be cleaned and made free of all oxide films, grease, oil or any
foreign materials. However, the jointing surfaces should not be made too smooth / highly
polished to prevent the jointing metal from flowing away.
All welding connections shall be made of electric arc welding. All welded joints shall be
allowed to cool down gradually to atmospheric temperature before putting any load on it.
Artificial cooling shall not be allowed.
Since the efficiency of the earthing system is entirely dependent on the electrical continuity
of the earthmat, which in turn is dependent on the welding work, hence utmost care shall be
taken while welding, duly avoiding butt joints and mere spot welds.
Thick 2 coats of Anti-corrosive bituminous paint shall be applied at the welded joints duly
removing weld, flux and any burrs.
Earthing connections to equipment earthing pads / terminals shall be bolted type with GI
bolts and nuts. Contact surfaces shall be free from scale, paint, enamel, grease, rust or dirt.
Two bolts shall be provided for making each connection. Equipment bolted connections
after being checked and tested shall be painted with anti-corrosive paint / compound.
Flexible earthing leads shall be provided for earthing of equipments wherever required.
REQUIREMENTS FOR EQUIPMENT / SYSTEM EARTHING
POWER TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL - Two earthing leads shall be provided for
transformer neutral from the transformer base. Each of the earthing leads shall be directly
connected to a separate rod / pipe electroded treated earth pits which in turn shall be
connected to Sub-station earthing grid. The earthing leads shall be continuous earth
conductors i.e., Galvanised Steel Flats without any joints as far as possible and both the flats
are to be individually taped using PVC insulating tape. They shall run in opposite directions
from the power transformer neutral point to the earth pits provided for their earthing.
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS - Earthing terminal of each lightning arrester and lightning
down conductors shall be directly connected to rod / pipe electrodes which in turn shall be
connected to Station Earthing Grid. Each phase of the lightning arrester base plate shall be
connected to the cast iron pipe electrode provided for that individual phase by running
Galvanised Steel Flat from the base plate. The Cast Iron pipe in turn shall be connected to
the earthmat by welding using Galvanised Steel Flat. A flexible braided earth bond
287
8.4.3
8.4.4
8.4.5
8.4.6
8.4.7
8.4.8
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3
8.5.4
8.5.5
8.5.6
8.5.7
8.6
connection shall be made firmly between the base terminals and the Galvanised Steel Flat.
The length of the earth connection shall be as minimum as practicable.
LIGHTNING MAST - The earth conductor from the top of the Mast shall run up to the
earthmat and then to be welded.
OUTDOOR ISOLATORS AND CIRCUIT BREAKER - Earthing Mat comprising of
closely spaced (150mm approx.) conductors shall be provided below the operating handles
of HV Isolators and breaker operating kiosk. Operating handles shall be properly bonded
with flexible conductors.
INDOOR SWITCHBOARD - A minimum of two cast iron pipe electrodes are to be
provided at both ends of the switchboard / switchgear. A separate earth bus of Galvanised
Steel Flat shall be run along the switchgear on power cable entry side and cable sheath
earths shall be connected to this bus, which in turn shall be connected to the earthmat
through cast iron electrodes. Further, the earth bus provided in the switchgear by the
manufacturers shall also be connected to the earth bus run as above. The inter panel earth
connections shall be made firmly at the time of erection of panels.
EQUIPMENT BODY EARTHING - All non current carrying metal parts such as bodies
of Transformers, Circuit Breakers, Current Transformers, Voltage Transformers, Isolators,
Lightning Arresters, Outdoor Isolators and Isolator Structures are to be directly connected to
the earthmat using Galvanised Steel Flats with two distinct connections run in opposite
directions.
For Isolator Structures, a GS Flat shall run from the mounting pedestal channel duly
welding the three channels to the GS Flat running down to the earthmat. The Voltage
Transformer body shall be connected to the earthmat through an independent electrode for
each phase. The operating handles of isolators are to be connected to the earthmat
conductors (Galvanised Steel Flat) using braided earth bonds.
Flexible earthing leads shall be provided for earthing the equipments wherever required.
SUBSTATION FENCE EARTHING
Fence earthing shall be isolated from the main earthing of the substation.
The substation fence and fence earthing shall be provided at a distance of minimum 1.0 mtr
away from the edge of the substation earthmat along the periphery.
A separate earthing conductor of minimum size 75 x 8 mm GI Flat should be run along the
perimeter of the fence at a depth of 900 mm below ground surface.
The perimeter fence is to be connected to this GI Flat through independent vertical
electrodes (CI Pipe Electrodes) using Galvanised Steel Flat of minimum size 75 x 8 mm.
The connections are to be made by welding. When chain link / barbed wire fence is
provided, two flats shall be welded on either side of the fence vertically abutting the fence
and these flats are to be welded to the flat run below the ground through CI pipe electrode.
The metal gate and fence shall be firmly bonded.
The CI pipe electrodes shall be provided at corners and mid points of the fence if the
perimeter is more than 200 mtr. Otherwise, CI pipe electrodes may be provided only at the
corners or mid points.
The fence earth and Sub-station earthmat shall not have any electrical tie and should be
physically separate.
DISTANCE BETWEEN ELECTRODES
The location of the Cast Iron Pipe electrodes shall be installed keeping the following in
view:
a) The CI pipe electrode for lighting arrester and Power Transformer neutral shall be as
near as practicable to the respective equipment.
288
b)
The distance between any two CI pipe electrodes should not be less than twice the
length of the CI pipe electrode.
The lightning arrester earth connection should not be run over the ground surface. They
should be buried at the mat depth and connected to the earthmat at the nearest point.
9.0
EARTHING OF GAS INSULATED SWITCHBOARDS / SUBSTATIONS

In GIS, a metal sheath encloses the gas insulated switchgear and the inner high voltage
buses. Since a voltage is induced in the outer sheath whenever a current flows in the coaxial busbar, certain parts of the enclosure might be at different potentials with reference to
the station ground.
A person touching the outer sheath of a GIS might be exposed to voltage resulting from two
basic fault conditions:
a) An internal fault within the gas insulated bus system such as a flashover between the bus
conductor and the inner wall of the enclosure.
b) A fault external to the GIS in which the fault current flows through the GIS bus and
induces current in the enclosure.
Since the person may stand on a grounded metal grating and the accidental circuit may
involve a hand-to-hand and hand-to-feet current path, the analysis of GIS grounding
necessitates consideration of an additional problem of the permissible shock voltage for a
metal-to-metal contact.
Most GIS manufacturers consider the enclosure properly designed and adequately grounded
if the potential difference between individual enclosures and with respect to the voltage
level of other grounded structures does not exceed 65 130 volts during a fault.
Hence in the equation below, substituting s=0, the tolerable touch voltage for a metal-tometal contact reduces to Etouch = 155 / t Volts
(1)
9.1
DESIGN OF GIS EARTHING SYSTEM
9.1.1 Size of the Grid
As the area occupied by a GIS is typically only 10-25% of that of the equivalent air
insulated installation, then clearly achieving the required level of earth resistance is going to
be more difficult. It may therefore be necessary to resort to additional methods to achieve
the required value of earth resistance. Before designing, it is necessary to also necessary to
know the maximum earth fault current that the system will have to carry, the soil resistivity
and consequently, knowing the max. allowable earth potential rise, it is possible to calculate
the required overall earth electrode resistance.
Example :
If the max. allowable earth potential rise during a fault is 650 volts and the current is 10kA,
the ground resistance should be less than 0.065 Ohm.
9.1.2 Effect of different Mesh arrangements
Increase in length of the conductors laid within a single loop of perimeter conductor will
reduce the resistance of the grid but not in direct proportion to the additional length laid.
However, the desirability of proving frequent and short connections for the closely spaced
individual items of equipment does provide a better result.
9.1.3 Use of Deep driven Rods
289
If it is found to be impossible to reduce the earth electrode resistance to a sufficiently low

value using the method outlined above, then deep driven ground rods or chemical treatment
of soil may be beneficial to reduce the resistivity.
ANNEXURE - I
A proforma for recording the measurements of Earth Resistance / Soil Resistivity values
could be as follows :
LOCATION
DATE OF MEASUREMENT
TYPE OF SOIL
CONDITIONS OF THE GROUND
EARTH TESTER USED
CALIBRATION
Electrode
Spacing
(meters)
very wet / wet / dry / very dry
Readings in Ohms
5m
10m
15m
20m
25m
Location - 1
Location - 2
Location - 3
Location - 4
Location - 5
Average Resistivity in Ohm-meters
Maximum Resistivity Obtained
Accessories Required :
4. Four terminal Earth Tester
5. Electrodes : 4 nos. 50 centimeters long, 18mm dia
6. Leads : 7/20 PVC insulated copper wire of 200meters length
7. Measuring Tape : 50 meters
8. Hammer : 2 to 4kg
9. Common tools
References:
1. Indian Standard code of practice for Earthing, IS-3043.
2. IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding - IEEE, STN.80 -2000.
3. CBIP Tutorial on Power System grounding practices.
4. Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 (Amended upto 2006) published in 2008.
5. Earthing system parameters for HV, EHV and UHV Substations - Technical report No. 49,
CBIP.
290
SYSTEM EARTHING
What is it?
System Earthing or Neutral Earthing refers to the mode in which the power system Neutral
(viz. neutral point of a star-connected generator, transformer, motor or neutral point of a earthing
transformer) is connected to the Earth.
It is different from Equipment Earthing, which is the connection between non-current carrying
metallic parts in electrical installation to the earth.
From Ungrounded System to Grounded Systems A Journey
Before 1950s, the power systems were used to operate with a free neutral (ungrounded neutral).
Such systems were called insulated systems, and the advocates of this method claim its superiority
on the grounds that the supply can be maintained for a time on two healthy lines while an earthfault exists on the third. This argument is particularly true for an overhead transmission when the
failure of one line to earth is first of all, transient in a nature generally and when permanent is not
likely to develop into fault between two for more lines. On a cable system, however, one line down
to earth leads to heating and burning with the likelihood that, within a short time, an earth fault will
develop into a phase fault and to avoid this possibility, quick acting earth fault protection is
required. Hence, the majority of three-phase systems today operate with an earthed neutral, earthing
being achieved directly or through impedance.
On systems with insulated neutral, a fault to earth does not constitute a short circuit. The only
current flowing is the capacitance current of the healthy phases, the condition being indicated in
Figure 1. In case of overhead lines, this current may be so small as to render automatic isolation by
protective means difficult if not impossible. Such a fault has the effect of raising the voltage of the
two healthy lines above the normal to earth and may result in insulation breakdown. Furthermore, it
is an unstable condition, which may lead to arcing grounds at supporting insulations, causing
transient surge voltages to travel in both directions along the line, which may bring about further
failure at the insulators for terminal apparatus.
F
3I
3I
3I
Fig. 1
The advantages of the earthed neutral are many and include the following:
1)
When an earth-fault occurs, the fault current can return via the neutral point and in doing so
it can be utilised to bring about discriminative operation of protective apparatus, thereby
disconnecting the faulty circuit without disturbing the healthy parts of the system.
2)
By reason of (1) the voltage on healthy parts of the system is always held down to normal
line to neutral voltage.
3)
It avoids the transient overvoltage caused by earth fault arcs (arcing grounds) on insulated
neutral systems and which can be damaging to the system insulation as a whole.
4)
Induced static charges are conducted to earth without disturbance.
291
Coefficient Of Earthing (Ce)

It is given by
Ce =
Highest phase-to-earth voltage of Healthy Phase

Highest phase-to-phase system voltage
X 100
* If Ce > 80%, the system is said to non-effectively earthed.

In such case, intentional impedance (resistance or reactance) is connected between
neutral point and earth.
* If Ce < 80%, the system is said to be effectively or solidly earthed.
Earth Fault Factor:

V1
,
V2
Where, V1 = Highest rms phase-to-phase power frequency voltage of healthy phases during earth
fault on another phase
V2 = Rms phase-to-earth power frequency voltage at the same location with fault on the
faulty phase removed.
Another factor, which is commonly used, is given by
Typical Cases
a) Resonant Earthing:
Earthing through reactance of such a value that power frequency current in neutral connection is
almost equal and opposite to power frequency capacitance current between unfaulted phases and
earth.
Such reactance coil is also known as Arc-Suppression Coil or Peterson Coil or Ground Fault
Neutraliser, since by the use of such a coil as means of earthing, the danger of arcing grounds is
eliminated and under certain conditions the system can be left in service with one line to ground
until it is convenient to disconnect and effect repair.
IF
IP
3I
F
0
3I
3I
Fig. 2
In the condition shown at Fig.2, the capacitance current will lead the voltage of the faulty phase by
nearly 900. It follows that if an inductance of appropriate value is connected in parallel with the
capacitances, the current in fault will be either very considerably reduced or cancelled out, bringing
about the extinction of fault-arc. When the fault is a flashover due to some transient cause, the
extinguishing of the arc restores the system to normal, if no permanent damage has been done.
292
b) Earthing Transformer :
The neutral point (star point) is usually available at every voltage level from generator or
transformer neutral. However, if no such point is available due to delta connections or if neutral
point is desired on busbars, the most common method is using a zig-zag earthing transformer. Stardelta transformer is also sometimes used in these cases for earthing.
Source of Supply
Earth
a) Interconnected Star (zig-zag)
b) Star/Delta
Earthing Transformers
In zig-zag transformer as shown above, each phase of primary has two equal parts. There are 3
limbs and each limb has two windings providing opposite flux during normal condition. Since the
fluxes oppose, the transformer takes very small magnetising currents during normal condition.
During earth faults in the system, the zero sequence voltages are generated which have same phases
for three components VRO, VYO, VBO and so can easily flow zero sequence currents through the zigzag winding. In other words, zig-zag transformer offers low impedance to an earth fault.
Annexure on rc-Suppression Coils
B
R
CB
Ip
ICB
CY
CR
ICY
293
Fig. A
Icap
ICB
ERB
EB
ICY
ICY
ER
300
0
ICB
30
ER
EY
ERY
Fig B
Ip
Fig. B. shows the line-to earth capacitance currents and their driving voltages, and also indicates
that the total capacitance current in the fault is,
Icap = 2 ICY cos 300

(or 2 ICB cos 300)
= 3 ICY
If the line-to-earth capacitance is C Farads per phase
ICY = ElwC, where El is line-to-line voltage
Hence Icap = 3 El WC =3 EwC, where E is phase voltage
Now, the normal line-to-earth capacitance current without fault,
E
I = l wC = E W C
3
ICAP= 3I
With arc suppression coil, it has been stated that the inductance of the coil cancels out the
capacitance current. Therefore, the coil must have an inductance L such that :
Ip = ICAP
E
Or
= 3EwC
wL
where, w= 2f
f = frequency (Hz)
1
Or L =
Henries
3w 2 C
294
CESC Earthing Practices

In CESC system, we choose to the earth the system neutral at each and every voltage level starting
from 400V Distribution level to 132kV Transmission level. The mode of earthing varies a little
through various levels and the main considerations being limiting the voltage-rise and the
magnitude of earth fault current.
a)
400V Distribution Network Level:
Here the neutral point of the LT winding of the Distribution transformer (6kV/415V, Dy11
connected) is solidly connected to ground.
By solid earthing, we keep the voltage to earth of the unfaulted phases down to 230V even
during an earth-fault.
And since, the earth resistance of the earth plate, earth-connections etc. is of the order of 1.5
ohms, therefore, the earth current is limited to 230/1.5 i.e. 153A even with solid earthing.
Thus, apart from the other advantages of an earthed system, greater safety to personnel and
equipment is also ensured due to operation of fuses on earth fault and limitation of voltages.
b)
6kV level
At this voltage level, the system neutral is earthed through resistance, because the insulation
level of almost all the equipments of this level are of 11kV grade.
R
R
V
3V
3V
V
N
Before Fault
On Fault on R. Phase
As shown in the above figure, the earth point will shift from the neutral point towards the
faulty phase on development of earth fault. The amount of shifting will depend
predominantly on the value of resistance chosen for earthing. As shown, the maximum
voltage-rise to earth will be 3 times. Hence with 11kV grade insulation level, 6kV system
can be safely being earthed through resistance.
Now, the value of resistance is so chosen to limit the earth fault current to a small value.
i)
Distribution Stations (D/S):

NES
I E / F=
6000 / 3
= 1385 A
2.5
NGR=2.5
295
The earth fault current with this resistance is limited to less than 1400A at 6kV voltage (i.e.
less than 15MVA)
ii)
Generating Stations:
Various neutral grounding resistance values are chosen to limit the earth fault
current level of respective power system to their rated current withstand level.
Typical rating:
* TGS > 3.81, 1000A for 15 secs.
* SGS > 13.27 300A for 10 secs.
c)
11kV Level :
At this level of distribution network, we solidly earth the system neutral to avoid voltage
rise to earth during fault, since the insulation level of equipments are of 11kV grade only.
As the earthfault current is high, the fault clearing time by protection schemes are set to a
low value.
d)
33kV Level:
At our substations or receiving stations, where we have 132/33kV transformers (Yd1
connected), the 33kV delta side is earthed through zig-zag earthing transformer. As already
explained, zig-zag transformer behaves as a simple reactance to earth fault (But offers very
high impedance to normal positive sequence voltages).
Here also, voltage-rise during earth fault occurs but the equipments at this level are designed
with insulation level to withstand the short duration voltage-rise, which is fast cleared by
protection apparatus. Importantly, the reactance earthing is chosen to neutralize the high
magnitude capacitive fault currents, which is present in our 33kV network due to presence
of large high capacitance cable network at this level.
For an idea, the typical E/F current rating for 30 seconds of ET varies between 2000A,
1500A, 836A at our substations and receiving stations.
At generating stations, as no large cable network is present, the system neutral (Yconnected) is earthed through resistance. Typical rating:
*TGS > 15.88 , 1200A for 30 secs.
*SGS > 14.43 , 1400A for 30 secs.
e)
132kV Level:
At this level, neutral of the Y-connected 132kV side of 132kV/33kV transformers are
solidly earthed to prevent any voltage rise to earth. The cost of providing extra margin for
insulation at this high-voltage level is quite high. Moreover, the faults clearing time for
earth-faults (and all faults) are made very small by using high-speed protection schemes and
apparatus.
Another point is worth mentioning here, all the 132kV neutrals are solidly earthed, so our
132kV system is multipoint-earthed system. This is done to ensure reliably that the system
earthing is never lost due to outage of one 132kV/33kV transformer.
At all other levels, the system neutral is mostly single point earthed apart from few
unmanned distribution stations and few important receiving stations, etc where all system
neutrals are kept earthed.
f)
Generator Neutral Earthing:

The generator neutral is earthed through a single phase, resistance loaded distribution
transformer in TGS, SGS & BBGS (barring NCGS).
296
To Generator neutral
Trafo Rating
1 phase trafo
R
*TGS 0.9, 150A

16KVA, 1.5kV/220V
*SGS - 1, 145A
16KVA, 105kV/240V
*BBGS 0.4, 400A
30kVA, 16.5kV/240V
(5 min)
(83kVA, 5 min)
Here, the primary concern in selecting the system-earthing mode is to limit the earth-fault
current to few amperes (less than 5A) because even a small amount of fault current may be
devastating the machine (generator stator) core. The arcing at the fault point burns iron at
the core and welds laminations. Replacement of faulty conductor may not be a serious
matter but to re-building the core would require extensive dismantling of the winding. The
cost of repair and the cost of unavailability of large generator would be a mammoth.
The resistor in the secondary winding, allows the resistor value to be of low ohmic value
and be of rugged construction while still presenting high equivalent value in the generator
circuit and thus limiting the fault current to extremely low value.
While choosing the resistor value, it is checked that the equivalent resistance in the stator
circuit does not exceed the impedance at system frequency of the total summated
capacitance of the three phases. In other words, the resistive component of fault current
should not be less than the residual capacitance current. This is done to protect the
production of high transient over voltages in the event of an arcing earth-fault, which is
done by discharging the bound charge in the circuit capacitance through the resistor.
In NCGS, the 33kV generator neutral is earthed solidly through OCB before
synchronisation. After synchronisation, the OCB is made off.
References:
1. Fault Calculations: C H W Lackey
2. J & P Switchgear Handbook
297
SUBSTATION DESIGN & LAYOUT

1.0
Preface
Transmission & Distribution system forms the connecting link between Electricity Demand
and Supply and Substations and Distribution stations are major component in the T&D
system. With the growing demand in power, substations have the key role to play in the
power system.
In CESC system, to keep pace with the growing demand, there is on an average a yearly
capacity addition of around 75MVA at Substation level and 120MVA at Distribution
Station level including transformer capacity augmentation of around 30MVA. Presently,
there are around 13 Nos. of 132/33kV Substations, 1 no. 132kV Switching station and 92
nos. of 33/11-6.25kV Distribution stations in the system. As per the Rolling Capex (20072008 to 2011-2012), CESC have planned to install 24 nos. 33/11kV Distribution Stations &
3 nos. 132/33kV Substations.
2.0
Purpose & Scope

The purpose and scope of this document is to give an insight of the layout and design of
various types of substations. However, it is important to mention the role of the power
system planners here since based on their forecast of power requirements in the system, the
entire substation requirements are worked out.
The critical factors that governs setting up of a substations are :
Need for a substation
Type of substation Transmission S/S, Switching S/S or Distribution S/S.
Availability of land
Different site considerations
3.0
SUBSTATION DESIGN CHRONOLOGY

The chronology of studies and works involved in design and setting up a Substation is
broadly stated as follows :
a) Identification of Substation needs from Load-Forecast Study
b) Selection and Procurement of Land
d) Design Approval
e) Preparation of Plans and Specifications
f)
Preparation of Detailed General arrangement & layout drawings
g) Selection and Procurement of major Plant & Equipment
h) Preparation of Contract document for Construction works
i)
Installation works
j)
Testing & Commissioning
4.0
PLANNING PROCESS
The initial process for installation of substations is done by the power system planners. The
following studies are done in the planning stage for finalization of a substation:
STEP 1 : Short, Medium & Long term Load Forecasts
Assessment of Area-wise Present daily, monthly & yearly loading patterns
Assessment of area-wise forecasts of forthcoming loads from the future infrastructural
development plans of Govt. and other non-Govt. agencies.
Determination of load growth from pending connections
Assessment of addition of new consumers from past trends
Assessment of Bulk load requisitions
Assessment of Immediate / temporary load requirements in different areas.
298
Projection of load growth patterns from the above using standard statistical methods
STEP 2 : Determination of Load Centres from Load Forecast Study

Feasibility study of setting up Substations at load centres & finalising locations
STEP 3 : Determination of Capacity of the Substations
STEP 4 : Assessment of Network constraints & Future Requirements
Availability of Power Sources to bring power to the load centres
Conditions of Incoming & Outgoing lines
Assessment of network constraint & requirements through Load flow & short circuit
studies, fault calculations
STEP 5 : Review availability of land, its shape and size
STEP 6 : Economic comparison & suitability evaluation
STEP 7 : Preparation of Substation Design summary
STEP 8: Preparation of Functional Single line diagram & preliminary Layout
drawing
5.0
SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

After carrying out the planning studies, selection of site for setting up of a substation is
another major job that needs to be carried out. While selection of site for a substation, the
following criteria are to be considered :
a) Location of present and future load centers
The substation site should be located at or near to the load centre. In this case, the
present as well as the future load growth in the location area should be considered. In
case it is far away from the load centre, then the length of the Transmission /
distribution lines increases thereby increases the cost including the line losses.
b) Location of existing and future sources of power.
c) Availability of suitable right-of-way and access to site by overhead and underground
transmission and distribution lines The site should be located such that entry & exist of EHV and HV cables and / or
overhead lines from / to the substation is possible without any interference.
d) Location of existing distribution lines The location of the distribution substation should be as near to the load center as
possible such that the length of the lines connecting the existing distribution lines will
be less resulting in less voltage drop and line losses.
e) Proximity of roads, railway lines etc. for accessibility to heavy equipment
f) Space availability for present as well as future extensions.
g) Possible objections regarding appearance, noise, electrical effects, present & future
impacts on other public or private facilities
h) General topographical features of site and adjacent contiguous area, land shapes,
altitude, seismic zones, flood plains, wet lands, farmlands etc.
i) Public safety, avoidance of schools, playgrounds etc.
j) Land title limitations, ordnance and aviation restrictions, if any.
k) Drainage and soil conditions
l) Soil resistivity.
m) Cost of land development / cleanup including cost of bringing transmission and
distribution lines.
299
n)
o)
Atmospheric conditions: salt and industrial contaminations

Possible adverse effects on neighbouring communication facilities.
6.0
Initial Studies
Normally, a few site locations are first inspected and from these locations, the best suited
location is finalized. The initial studies that are carried out after inspection of these locations
are as follows :
a)
Site comparison and suitability evaluation.
b)
Environmental Assessment (EA) study.
c)
Preparation of final SLD
d)
Preparation of General Arrangement and detailed layout drawings of different
facilities
7.0
TYPE OF SUBSTATIONS
Substations may be Indoor or Outdoor type and are designed and constructed considering
the system requirement, availability of space, location of site, various public concerns etc.
The different types of outdoor substations are :
A.
DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION :
A distribution Substation is a combination of switching, controlling and voltage step-down

equipment arranged to reduce sub-transmission voltage to primary distribution voltage for
catering residential, commercial & industrial loads. For meeting the immediate load growth
of a small area, distribution substations are installed preferably at the load centers. However,
future load growth considerations are also taken into account to the extent possible while
setting up the same.
B.
T RANSMISSION SUBSTATION :
A transmission substation is a combination of switching, controlling and step-down

equipment arranged to reduce transmission voltage to sub-transmission voltage for
distribution of electrical energy to distribution substations and catering loads of bulk High
tension consumers. To meet the present and future load growth of a large area by way of
300
catering the load of a nos. of present and proposed distribution stations & bulk consumers, a
transmission or grid substation is installed.
C.
SWITCHING SUBSTATIONS :
A switching substation is a combination of switching and controlling equipment arranged to

provide system switching flexibility and circuit protection for maintaining reliable service
under certain abnormal or maintenance conditions. Hence, to achieve flexibility and
reliability of a system in terms of load management, a switching substation is often
installed. A step down transformer may not be necessarily installed in these type of
substations to cater the medium & LT load requirements from here.
8.0
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The following are the basic design aspects required to be considerate while setting up a
Substation :
1. Sizing/Capacity of Substation (MVA)
2. Operational & System requirements
3. Reliability Considerations
5. Future extension provisions
6. Maintenance considerations
7. Safety considerations
8. Interfacing considerations
9. Cost considerations
9.0
LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
After the initial planning studies are complete, the next step that comes is finalization of
layout of the substation. For this purpose, the following aspects are to be considered and
each of these areas are to studied and finalized keeping in view the available land and
projected cost of the substation :
1.
Selection of Busbar / Switching Scheme
2.
Finalisation of major equipment Both Indoor & Outdoor equipment
3.
Probable layout of the outdoor yard
4.
Electrical Safety clearances
5.
Substation Control Room Building layout
6.
Auxiliary facilities
7.
Control & Protection
8.
SCADA & Communication
9.
Fire handling & Protection facilities
10.0
DETAILED DESIGN & ENGINEERING JOBS

1.
Soil investigation and testing
2.
Equipment foundations
3.
Line & equipment support structures
4.
Control room building Architectural, equipment, layout, lighting etc.
5.
Auxiliary Systems & facilities
301
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Power & Control cabling

a)
Cable sizing
b)
Cable trench & duct layout
c)
Cable tray sizing
Station Earthing
a)
Soil Resisitivity measurements
b)
Ground fault current calculations
c)
Design of Earthmat
Station AC & DC supply systems
Fire protection
Specification of equipment & works with BOQ
11.0
BASIC DRAWINGS & DOCUMENTS

For detailed engineering, design and execution of the works, the following drawings are to
be prepared at the inception stage :
a)
Final Electrical Single Line diagram
b)
General arrangement plan of the Substation with sections & details
c)
Electrical Plot Plan
d)
Foundation Drawings
e)
Structural Drawings
f)
Grounding Layout
g)
Power & Control Cable Trench layout
h)
Power & Control Cable Tray layout
i)
Control Room building Plan & Sectional details
k)
Indoor equipment layout plans
l)
Substation lighting plans
m)
Relay/Control protection logic diagrams
n)
Schematic and detailed wiring diagrams
o)
Bill of Materials
p)
Detailed Work program
12.0
MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTION OF PLANT & EQUIPMENT

While finalizing the electrical plant and equipment of a substation, the following electrical
parameters needs to be considered :
1.
Insulation level of Substation (BIL)
2.
Fault level of Substation
3.
General rating parameters of different equipment :
Capacity
Voltage
Short circuit current with duration
Operation / Control Mechanism
Ambient temperature / Temperature rise over ambient / cooling
AC / DC Control voltage
Supporting structures
4.
Ground & phase-to-phase clearances
5.
Technology of equipment
6.
Type tests of equipment
7.
Service support
13.0
SUBSTATION DESIGN STANDARDS & GUIDELINES

The following are some of the Standards and guidelines that are followed while designing
any Substation and its equipment :
302
1.
2.
14.0
Electrical & Safety Clearances / Indian Electricity Rules (Latest

Ground Clearances / Sectional
version)
Clearances
CBIP Manual on Substation
Layout
Substation Earthing
Indian Electricity Rules
IEEE : Std.80
Code of Practice for Earthing
IS:3043
Manual on Design of Earthing
Mat for High Voltage Substation
STANDARD ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES, BAY WIDTHS & ELEVATIONS

While designing layout of the substations, it is extremely important to maintain minimum
electrical clearances between equipment-to-equipment, equipment-to-ground and between
buses for operational safety. The Indian Electricity Rules, CBIP standards and other
International Standards stipulates these clearances for HV and EHV Substations which are
furnished below.
14.1 SAFETY AND ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES

Clearances are to be maintained while installation of any Electrical equipment so that
sufficient space is available for easy operation and maintenance without any hazard to
operating and maintenance personnel working near the equipment. The various clearance
parameters stipulated in I.E Rules and safety guidelines are :
1. Minimum clearance from live parts to earth.
2. Minimum clearance from live parts to ground.
3. Minimum clearance between live parts of adjacent phases.
4. Sectional clearances between live parts & work section required for maintenance of an
equipment.
The stipulated safety and electrical clearances are as follows :
Rated
Voltage
(kV)
BIL
(kV)
11
Minimum Clearance Between (in mm)

Phase to
phase
Phase to
Earth
Min.
Ground
Clearance
Sectional
Clearance
75
320
320
3700
2600
33
170
630
630
3700
2800
145
550
900
1100
4600
3000
650
900
1100
950
1100
1100
5500
3500
1050
1300
1300
245
303
14.2
STANDARD BAY WIDTHS OF OUTDOOR YARDS

The standard bay widths of outdoor yards are:
11kV
3.5 Mtrs.
33kV
4.7 Mtrs.
66kV
7.6 Mtrs.
132kV
12.2 Mtrs.
220kV
17.0 Mtrs.
400kV
27.0 Mtrs.
14.3
STANDARD BUS & EQUIPMENT ELEVATIONS

In outdoor substations / yards, there are some stipulated elevations that are to be maintained
for equipment live points and buses from ground as well as between different main and
strung buses in the event they cross one above the other. These standard elevations are
furnished in the table below :
Rated
Voltage
(kV)
15.0
Equipment
Elevation of Main Bus / Buses
Live Terminal
(Mtrs.)
elevation
Low
High
(Mtrs.)
Take-off
elevation
(mtrs.)
11 & 33
4.0
5.5 to 6.5
9.0
6.5 to 8.5
66
4.0
6.0 to 7.0
9.0 to 10.5
9.5
132
4.5 to 5.0
8.0 to 9.5
13.5 to 14.5
12.0 to 12.5
220
5.0 to 5.5
9.0 to 13.0
18.5
15.0 to 18.5
400
8.0
14.0
--
20.0
INSULATION LEVEL IN SUBSTATIONS

Insulation in substations is important in terms of reliability of supply/system and safety of
personnel. While designing insulation level in Substations, BIL of the substation should be
considered.
BIL or Basic Impulse Level is the Impulse Withstand Voltage Ratings of
Outdoor/Indoor equipment i.e., it is the ability to withstand up to a specific maximum
impulse voltage which may be caused due to any of the following :
a) Transient faults in system
b) Direct lightning strokes & lightning surges
c) Switching surge over voltages.
Insulation rating of Equipment in Substations
The following voltage criteria are considered while preparing the specification of High
Voltage electrical equipment of outdoor yard :
a)
Rated Power frequency voltage of the system
b)
Lightning impulse withstand voltage
c)
Switching impulse withstand voltage
16.0
BUSBAR SCHEMES
Different busbar schemes / configurations are used in different types of substations to suit
the requirement of the stations. The physical size, type and arrangement of major equipment
such as power transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, current and voltage transformers etc.
304
may cause variance in the layouts. It is important to design a flexible bus bar arrangement so
that power may be served through alternative arrangement during fault in any specific
substation equipment and the equipments can be attended and maintained without any
supply interruption during routine and breakdown maintenance.
The busbar schemes that are generally implemented are :
Single Busbar
Main and Transfer Busbar
Double Busbar
Double Main and Transfer Busbar
Ring Busbar & Mesh Busbar
One-&-half Breaker arrangement or Diameter arrangement
16.1
SINGLE BUSBAR CONFIGURATION

A single busbar configuration consists of one main bus that is energized at all times and to
which all circuits are connected. This is the simplest arrangement and provides least amount
of system reliability. Bus faults or failure of circuit breakers to operate under fault
conditions results in complete loss of the substation. These bus configurations are used in
small distribution substations where reliability of service may be compromised.
The advantages and disadvantages of Single busbar configuration are as follows:

Advantages:
1. Lowest cost
2. Small land area required
3. Easily expandable
305
4. Simple in concept and operation

5. Relatively simple for the application of protective relaying
Disadvantages:
1. A single bus arrangement has the lowest reliability.
2. Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes loss of the entire substation.
3. Maintenance switching can complicate and disable some of the protective relay scheme
and overall relay coordination.
4.
Maintenance one circuit necessitates de-energization or protection of the other
connected circuits to the bus.
16.2
Single Busbar with sectionalized configuration

An extension of the single bus configuration is the sectionalized bus arrangement as shown
in the figures below.
This arrangement is basically two or more single bus schemes and each tied together with
bus sectionalizing breakers. The sectionalizing breakers may be operated normally open or
closed depending on system requirements. In this arrangement, a bus fault or breaker failure
causes only the affected bus-section to be removed from service thus eliminating total
substation shutdown. Usually, the fault can be isolated and rest portion can be restored to
service easier and faster because of the increased flexibility of the arrangement.
Advantages:
1. Flexible operation
2. Higher reliability than single bus scheme
3. Isolation of bus sections for maintenance
4. Loss of only part of the substation for a breaker failure or a bus fault
Disadvantages:
1. A sectionalized bus arrangement has a higher cost than a single bus scheme.
2. Additional circuit breakers are required for sectionalizing.
16.3
MAIN & TRANSFER BUS CONFIGURATION

The main and transfer bus configuration consists of two independent buses, one of which,
the main bus which is normally energized. Under normal operating conditions, all incoming
and outgoing circuits are fed from the main bus through their associated circuit breakers and
bay equipments. If it becomes necessary to remove a circuit breaker from service for
maintenance or repair, the integrity of the circuit operation can be maintained through use of
the bus-tie bay as shown in the figure thus ensuring reliability of service.
306
Bus-tie
Advantages:
1. Accommodation of circuit breaker maintenance while maintaining service & line
protection
2. Reasonable in cost
3. Fairly small land area required compared to the flexibility achieved.
4. Easily expandable
Disadvantages:
1. An additional circuit breaker is required for bus tie.
2. Since the bus tie breaker have to be able to be substituted for any line breaker, its
associated relaying may be somewhat complicated.
3. Failure of a circuit breaker or a bus fault causes loss of the entire substation.
16.4
One & Half Breaker Bus Configuration

One-and-a-half breaker configuration consists of two main buses which are normally
energized. The two buses are electrically connected with three circuit breakers with a circuit
coming out between each two breakers as shown below. In this arrangement, as three circuit
breakers are used for two independent circuits, hence there are one-and-a-half circuit
breakers per circuit. In this arrangement, better reliability and flexibility is attained during
operation and maintenance. Faults on either of the bus does not cause any interruption.
307
A typical bus configuration for the above arrangement is shown below.
Advantages:
2. High reliability
3. Can isolate either main bus for maintenance without disrupting service
4. Can isolate any circuit breaker for maintenance without disrupting service
5. Double feed to each circuit
6. Bus fault does not interrupt service to any circuits
7. All switching done with circuit breakers
Disadvantages:
1. One-and-a-half breakers are required per circuit.
2. Relaying is involved, since the center breaker has to respond to faults of either of its
associated circuits.
3. Land requirement is more.
16.5
DOUBLE BUS CONFIGURATION

The double breaker double bus configuration consists of two main buses energized and the
buses are electrically connected with two circuit breakers with one outgoing circuit between
the two breakers as shown in the diagram below. In this configuration, two circuit breakers
are required for each circuit and any circuit breaker can be removed from service without
interruption of the other. Faults in either of the main buses also does not cause any
interruption. This configuration is usually limited to large generating stations because of
high cost which can afford this additional reliability.
308
Advantages:
2. Very high reliability
3. Isolation of either main bus for maintenance without disrupting service
4. Isolation of any circuit breaker for maintenance without disrupting service
5. Double feed to each circuit
6. No interruption of service to any circuits from bus fault
7. All switching with circuit breakers
Disadvantages:
1. This configuration carries a high cost.
2. Two circuit breakers are required for each circuit.
COST COMPARISON OF TYPICAL SUBSTATIONS
The selection of bus bar scheme is very much dependent on the cost apart from other
aspects. In the table below, an approximate cost comparison of various schemes is
furnished.
SWITCHING
SCHEMES
Single Bus
Main & Transfer Bus
One-and-half Breaker
Double Bus
APPROX. RELATIVE
COST COMPARISON
100%
150%
200%
225%
309
17.0
INSULATORS
Outdoor insulators are primarily used to support rigid buswork and other electrical
equipment operated above ground potential. They are manufactured normally from single
piece electrical-grade wet-process porcelain. End caps are cemented at the two ends of the
porcelain. Presently, polymer insulators are also manufactured.
While designing requirement of insulators the criteria to be considered are:
1. Quantity of insulators required are to be optimized commensurate to the reliability of
supply and safety of personnel.
2. Creepage distance depending on atmospheric conditions (kV/mm).
3. Rated Power frequency & minimum impulse withstand voltage.
4. Usage : Bus Support i.e., Post type or Strain Insulators.
5. Failing Load (KN) i.e., Mechanical characteristics Horizontal breaking load at top,
ultimate tensile strength, ultimate torsional strength.
6. Type Cap & Pin / Solid core / Hollow / Disc / Long Rod / Stack / String
7. Material - Glazed Porcelain / Polymeric / Glass.
8. Nos. of stack in case of tension / suspension string or post type stack.
17.1
Creepage Distance
The contour of the insulators forms its creepage distance which allows the path for leakage
current to flow from the live part at the top to the earth member at the bottom.
In areas of high contamination, the contour of the insulators are such that the leakage
distance is more which prevents electrical breakdown from surface contamination. These
are called fog type insulators. The normal ones are called Anti-fog type.
Creepage Distances Recommended For Different Pollution Levels Are:
Pollution Level
Light
Medium
Heavy
Very Heavy
Creepage distance (mm/kV)

16
20
25
31
17.2
Mechanical Strength of Insulators

Cantilever strength is the most important mechanical characteristic of an insulator. The
other mechanical characteristics which becomes prominent during special applications are
Tensile strength, Compressive strength & Torsional strengths. Insulators are rated for equal
cantilever strengths for both upright and underhung mounting positions.
The standards govering the selection of Insulators are :
a)
Dimensions of Indoor & Outdoor Porcelain Post Insulators & insulator units - IS :
5350 (Part I to III); IEC 60273
b)
Tests on Ceramic Post Insulators IEC 60168
c)
Specification for Bushings for AC voltage above 1000 Volts IS : 2099 ; IEC 60137
d)
Composite Insulators IEC 61109 (1992) / 61462 (1998)
e)
Selection of Insulators IEC 60815 (1986)
f)
IS 9921 (1992) Part I to V) ; IEC 60129
17.3
Suspension & Tension Insulators

They are used as insulation and support for Strain & Jack buses in higher voltage in
substations and are strung together in series with the help of Ball & Clevis provided at
either ends of individual insulators to suit the application voltage requirement.
310
The nos. of suspension / tension insulators to be connected in series for a particular voltage
should be such that there are no occurances of any phase-to-phase or phase-to-earth
flashovers.
Suspension/Tension insulators are tested and categorized with simultaneous mechanicalelectrical strength ratings of a string. These are the rated strengths at which they were tested
at the factories and not the actual loads.
18.0
PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION INSULATION

Substation electrical equipment may be subjected to abnormal conditions as a result of
direct lightning strokes, lightning surges, switching surges and faults in the system. These
abnormal conditions can cause overvoltages that may result in flashover or insulation failure
in equipment. To prevent equipment damage and/or system shutdown from overvoltages,
protective devices are used to limit the overvoltages to reasonable levels. Application of
these devices is usually a compromise between the costs of the devices and the degree of
protection desired.
The protections provided for substations and substation equipment can be broken into two
main components :
1. Surge protection employed to protect equipment from damaging overvoltages caused
by lightning surges, switching surges and system faults.
2. Direct stroke protection employed to protect the equipment from direct lightning
strokes.
18.1 SURGE PROTECTION

Surge Arrestors are used for to protect equipment against overvoltages caused by incoming
surges. The arrestors function by discharging the surge current to the ground system and then
interrupt the current to prevent flow of normal power frequency current to ground.
1. Surge Arrestors protect substation equipment against travelling waves due to lightning
strokes on lines entering the substations.
2. Metal oxide gapless type surge arrestors are widely used for better protection level, higher
energy handling / discharge capability and low power loss.
3. Surge Arrestors should be located to give maximum possible protection of all major
equipment.
4. Since transformer is the costliest equipment in a substation, normal practice is to install
Surge Arrestors at the LV & HV sides of transformers.
5. They may also be located at the line entrances or at bus in some cases.
18.2
DIRECT STROKE PROTECTION

Direct stroke protection normally consists of shielding the substation equipment by using
lightning masts, overhead shield wires or a combination of both these devices. The type and
arrangement of protective schemes used are based on the size and configuration of the
substation and their equipment.
18.2.1 Overhead Shield wires

Overhead shield wires are used to provide direct stroke protection. These are normally 7/8
SWG G.I. wires. The shield wires are supported mostly from substation tower structures.
Sometimes, earthing towers are also constructed to achieve the required zone of protection.
Since these shield wires are located above the substation buses and equipment, their
breakage may result in outage and/or damage of equipment. Hence, the tension applied on
these shield wires during their stringing / installation should be minimum. Sag has to be
considered to ensure adequate clearance from energized equipment. A complete shield wire
311
system in a substation should apart from the substation equipment and overhead lines shall
also include the terminating points of the overhead and incoming lines.
18.2.2 Shielding Masts
Shielding masts are used for all types of outdoor substations to provide protection against
direct lightning strokes. It consists of high mast installed on the poles or lattice structures
which forms the highest points in the substations and they are connected to earth through GI
wires running all along the structures and embedded in the ground in separate earth pits.
Normally in outdoor substations, a combination of Shielding masts and Overhead Shield
wires are used for Direct stroke lightning protection.
18.3 Calculation of Zone of Protection
There are two widely used methods for substation shielding / lightning protection.
1.
Fixed Angle method
2.
Rolling sphere method
The zone of protection of a shielding system is the volume of space inside which the
equipment and overhead conductors of a substation is considered adequately protected for
direct stroke lightning.
18.3.1 Fixed Angle method
The fixed angle design method uses vertical angles to determine the number, position and
height of shielding masts and wires. The figure above shows the zone of protection covered
by single and double mast and/or shield wires. For a single shield wire, the zone of
protection is a wedge. For a single mast, the zone of protection is a cone. When a
combination of two or more masts and shield wires are used, the zones of protections of
each overlap to provide complete coverage.
As per CBIP guideline, a single shield wire/mast covers a zone of protection of 45 deg
vertical solid angle A and two or more masts / wires covers a zone of protection of 60 deg.
solid angle B as shown in the drawing.
18.3.2 Rolling Sphere method
The rolling sphere method involves rolling a imaginary sphere of a specific radius over the
substation over the lightning masts, shield wires and other grounded structures provided for
shielding. An equipment is protected from a direct stroke if it remains below the curved
surface of the sphere as shown in the figure below, by virtue of the sphere being elevated by
shield wires and masts. The equipment / system that touches the sphere is not protected.
312
The radius of the sphere is determined by calculating the strike distance. The strike distance
is the length of the final jump of the stepped leader as its potential exceeds the breakdown
resistance of the last gap of air to ground. A stepped leader is the static discharge that
propagates from a cloud into the air.
Here, R=8KIg0.65
Where Ig= Allowable stroke Current
& K=1 for strokes to wires & 1.2 for strokes to a Mast
18.3.3 Shield system grounding

A shielding system cannot effectively protect substation equipment unless adequately
grounded. Mulitple low impedance connections from the shielding system to the substation
ground is essential. It is recommended to ground each eathmast / ground wire atleast in two
points. The ground wires should be connected at the overhead mast / wire and should run
down along the structures and to be connected at the ground earth pits.
Summary :
1. Protection / shielding of substation equipment from direct lightning strokes shall be done by
using a combination of lightning masts and overhead shield wires covering the entire
substation yard area.
2. Shielding wires should be located above substation buses & equipment such that the lowest
point of the shielded system always maintains earth clearance from the live point underneath
it as recommended. For 132kV, the clearance is 1300mm and for 220kV, it is 2100mm.
3. A shielding system should be effectively grounded with more than 1 low impedance
connection to the substation grounding grid.
19,0
Detailed Civil Design & Engineering Jobs

The major civil jobs essentially involve the followings:
Land development
Outdoor Equipment foundations
Foundations of Structural Towers
Power & Multicore cable Trenches
Yard drainage system
Substation Building
- Switch Room
- Control Room
- Cable Basement
- Cable Spreader Room
- Station / SCADA Battery Room
- Office & Utilities
- Standby DG room
- Material Unloading Bay
Roads
19.1
Design of Structures
Steel is commonly used for substation structures. They are normally hot-dip galvanized for
protection against corrosion. The type of structures essentially used are :
Lattice Structures
Tubular Structures
Tower
Gantry
Equipment Supports
Earthing / lighting Masts

313
The structures are designed as per the maximum loading that can on them due to any static
or dynamic loading. The maximum electrodynamic force that the structures may experience
during short circuit conditions are also taken into account during design. For ascertaining
the loading on structures, the following parameters are taken into account :
a)
Height of Main / strung bus
b)
Slope of conductor Span
c)
Static Load on Structures :
Weight of equipment
- Weight of Tension or Suspension Insulator String
- Weight of Conductors
- Weight of earth wires
d)
Max. Stringing Tension on Gantry
- Nos. of Strings per phase Single /double etc.
- Tension on one side or both sides of the gantry
- Turn angle of the strings at gantry / terminal points
e)
Max. Span length of overhead Conductor / bus
f)
Max. Span length & tension of overhead earth wires
g)
Wind Pressure on Structures 125 kg/sq.m
h)
Wind Pressure on Conductors
20.0
SAG TENSION CALCULATION

The tower and gantry structures of the substations are normally designed for taking the
tension and suspension loads of the ACSR strings alongwith the associated insulators,
clamps and hardware. For ascertaining the tension to be applied on any ACSR conductor
length, the calculation that is carried out is called the sag tension calculation. With this
calculation, a chart is prepared with stringing tensions and corresponding sags for a range of
conductor temperatures expected during installation. The maximum sag is generally
obtained at the mid span of a conductor length in the event elevation of both end points of a
conductor are same. Sag tension calculation is done based on the following considerations :
1. Distance between two Girders
2. Girder Width
3. Span length excluding girder width
4. Length of Disc insulator string
5. Length of ACSR Conductor
6. Initial tension for full wind load condition at 32 deg C
7. Diameter of ACSR Conductor
8. Weight of ACSR Conductor
9. Wind pressure on ACSR conductor
10. Area of cross-section of the conductor
11. Modulus of elasticity of the conductor
12. Co-efficient of thermal expansion
13. Number of conductors per phase
14. Max. temperature in conductor
The steps that are followed for doing this calculation :
STEP -1
Loading of Conductor at specified Wind pressure and temperature
W1. The resultant of the weight of conductor and wind pressure on the
total conductor length is considered for measuring this loading.
Loading of Conductor due to weight of Hardware W2. The resultant
STEP -2
of the weight of Hardware and wind pressure on the total hardware length
is considered for measuring this loading.
Loading of Conductor due to weight of Insulator String W3. The
STEP -3
314
STEP -4
STEP -5
STEP -6
21.0
resultant of the weight of Insulator String and wind pressure on the total
Insulator String length is considered for measuring this loading.
Determination of Load Distribution in the Span due to W1, W2 & W3
Determination of maximum loading at two Anchoring points
Determination of Sag from (Sag = Total cross force / moment on the
conductor / Tension on the conductor) from shear force diagram.
BUSBAR MATERIALS
Flexible Conductors
Busbars installed in outdoor yards are either flexible / strain bus or rigid bus. The flexible
busbars are generally of ACSR conductors and are used for overhead busbars strung
between structures from strain / tension insulators as well as equipment tappings / jumpers /
droppers in an outdoor substation. The conductor type selected for a particular application
depends on :
Rated Current
Span length
Tension
Tolerable sag
Cost
Bundle conductors (two / three / four) are used where high ratings of busbars are required.
ACSR is manufactured from hard-drawn aluminium and galvanized steel wires having
desired mechanical and electrical properties. The various sizes of ACSR commonly used
and their design parameters are furnished in the table below.
Code
Name of
ACSR
Stranding & Wire

Current Ratings
Calculated
Diameter
Weight of
Resistance at
Conductor
20 deg C
Aluminium Steel
In still Air In wind
Panther
30/3.0
7/3.0
976
0.1375
370
510
Deer
30/4.27
7/4.27
1977
0.06786
590
800
Zebra
54/3.18
7/3.18
1621
0.06915
610
812
Moose
54/3.53
7/3.53
2002
0.05517
665
880
Climatic conditions and surface emissivity i.e., surface conditions have effect on conductor
Ampacity. ACSR conductors are normally designed with ambient of 40 deg C and maxm.
Temperature rise of 75 deg C.
Rigid Conductors
Rigid conductors are generally used for connection between equipment to equipment in
outdoor substations. Aluminium pipes are commonly used for rigid busbars and there are
varieties of pipes of different sizes which are used for this purpose. The selection criteria of
these pipes are based on the following parameters :
Duty Type
Light / Heavy / Extra Heavy (Depending on current)
Material
Aluminium / Copper
Shapes
Flat / Tubular / Channel
Alloys
Variety of alloys with conductivities and strengths
The different sizes of Aluminium tubes (specified in IPS meaning International Pipe
Standard) normally used at different voltage levels are :
315
22.0
Voltage Grade
Size of Aluminium Tubes

generally used (diameter)
11 / 33kV
132kV
220kV
400kV
50 mm
65 / 80 mm
80 / 100mm
100 mm
Bus Connections
The bus connections can be done using the following methods :
Type of Connectors /
connections
Use
Bolting
Connecting Flat surfaces. Primary means of connection to equipment

terminals.
Clamping
Compression
Welding

Connecting round conductors / pipes etc. to any equipment or

between conductorto-conductor. Available in rigid & flexible
varieties.
Termination / splicing of round flexible conductors.
Primarily used for joining round tubular busbars. Proper welding
connections have resistances almost equal to the conductor
themselves and eliminate any hot spot in joints. TIG & MIG welding
machines are used for welding. Joints are tested by Dye-penetration
and sample radiography tests to find any holes or cracks within
joints.
Properties of connectors :
There are various types and shapes of connectors manufactured as per requirement. The
connectors are mostly made of aluminium alloy.
The connectors should have equivalent electrical & Mechanical Properties to that of the
conductors where they are connected. The ratings specified for connectors apart from their
size are Rated current, Short time current, breaking strength etc.
Bi-metallic plates / washers are used in transition joints Between copper to aluminium.
Clamps are used where ACSR Conductors are to anchored with string insulators at tension
or compression points in Conductor strings
References:
1. Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 (Amended upto 2006) published in 2008.
2. Technical Handbook of APSEB Engineers, Hyderabad.
3. Power Engineers' Handbook, TNEB Engineers' Association.
3. Design Guide for Rural Substations, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
4. Relevant IS & IEC of different Substation equipments.
316
MASD SYSTEM
In CESC, the System for processing applications for new connection by the way of new service,
new load in existing service, additional load, shifting and/or strengthening of service etc. is known
as MASD System.
MASD stands for Mains Account Security Deposit. This is an age old system which operates from
the District Offices of Mains Department.
The primary objective of this System is to process an application at the quickest possible time,
addressing all en-route paraphernalia, towards giving new connection to the intending consumers
whose applications get matured.
All the applications that are submitted do not go to the maturity stage. Many applications get stuck
up due to non-compliance on the part of the applicants and finally attain their natural death. Some
are regretted by the licensee, i.e. us, and for some cases the Bills tendered by us are not paid by the
applicants.
Statistics show that on an average around 2 lac applications are submitted in a calendar year
across the 10 Mains Districts out of which little more than 1 lac get matured for execution.
The activities in the MASD System are broadly classified into seven stages.
Sl No
Name of the Stage
Application Stage
Inspection Stage
Letter Stage
Offer Stage
Bill Stage
6
7
Execution Stage
Pending stage
Deals with
Receiving of the application from, giving an
acknowledgement thereof and booking of an inspection
Carrying out of the inspection and scrutiny of inspection
report.
Sending of a standard letter to the applicant after carrying
out an inspection.
Sending of the offer letter to the applicant and receiving of
the compliances to be met by the applicant
Sending of the Bill to the applicant. Receiving payment of
the Bill.
Maturing a job after payment matching, sending the job to
site office and executing the work.
Keeping aside a matured job from execution due to noncompliance of any formalities on the part of the applicant.
The job is again re-matured once that compliance is met.
In MASD parlance item 1&2 are termed as Pre-MASD stage, item 2-5 are termed as MASD stage
and item 6&7 are termed as Post MASD stage.
Before 1976 the system for processing applications for supply of electricity was purely manual. The
office of the District Engineer, upon receipt of an application, used to arrange for a site inspection.
On the basis of the inspection report, if the District Engineer decides, an offer letter was sent to the
applicant requesting him to meet with certain compliances. On receipt of the compliances a manual
Bill for service charges was raised from the District Office and sent across to the applicant. After
the Bill is paid the supply is given and meter fixed by the Site Office and the Commercial
Department is advised to commence the monthly billing.
From 1976 the MASD system became partially computerized, the computerization was mainly
oriented at Computer House. It continued till 1986 when Mains Dept. started computerization of
MASD system at users level, i.e. at District Office end. This System is known as Pre-Fast Track
MASD System. The basic flow of the business process was as below:
317
1. The applicants used to submit an application in Provisional Requisition form (PRF), which are
available at District Offices free of cost.
2. On receipt of the PRF, the static data (name, address, load, rate category etc.) are entered in the
counter and a zone code is given. The system allocates a MR No. and an Inspection Date and a
slip is printed in two parts, showing the MR No. and inspection date, one part of which is handed
over to the applicant across the counter. The format of MR Number is xx/yyyyy/zz, where xx =
Two digit District Code, yyyyy = Running Serial Number and zz = Year Code.
3. On the appointed date the Inspector Concerned (IC) carries out the requisite inspection,
furnishes the report onto the RC and submits to the District Engineer (DE).
4. DE scrutinizes the report and gives his decision on the RC. The decisions predominantly varies
around three broad categories, viz. i) Offer (where DE intends to offer a new supply), ii) letter
(where any kind of correspondence with the applicant is felt necessary) or iii) Further Appointment
(F/A).
5. Where a letter is to be sent, the same is typed out on a Letterhead stationary and sent across
through post after DE has signed the same. Sometimes pre-printed standard formats are used and
the typist strikes off appropriate portions.
6. Where an Offer Letter is to be sent, the same is typed out on Letterhead stationary and sent to DE
for his signature. The forms pertaining to statutory and/or specific compliances are attached with
the offer letter before it is dispatched by post. Test Form (TF) is one such statutory compliance. By
filling up this form a Govt. licensed Electrical Contractor certifies that the wiring installation of the
applicant is drawn by him under supervision of a licensed supervisor and is tested ok. The applicant
is required to meet this compliance by submitting this TF duly filled in by the Govt. Licensed
Contractor and Supervisor having respective license valid up to date.
7. If the inspection carried out at site turns out to be ineffective, for any reason whatsoever, and
cannot help DE to take a firm decision until a re-inspection is made, then it necessitates for a F/A.
In such event another appointment is fixed and the applicant is intimated through post card, and the
process recycles.
8. The RC, which is the master document containing all information pertaining to an application,
also contains a formatted portion (see Appendix-4) where the technical information are entered in
terms of specific codes. These codes were designed by IT Department and they consider the RC as
a Data card and termed D-01. When the applicant meets all compliances then one clerk codifies
the D-01 portion in the RC. The codified RCs are then sent to IT Department at Computer House
where all static information like MR No, name, address etc. along with the codes for technical
details are entered in the computer. The RCs are then sent back to the respective District Office.
9. After the details are entered in IT Department, they print a D-03 form and send it to the
concerned Regional Office of Commercial Department. The D-03 form is meant for allocation of
consumer number, which is done by the DR Section of Commercial Department. Before
allocating the consumer number the Commercial Department checks for existence of any
Outstanding (OS) amount lying recoverable in the premises where the supply in question is
requisitioned for. If any such OS is detected, then the DR Section refers the application to OS
section and the applicant is advised by letter to settle the OS. Once the OS is cleared then the DR
section allocates a consumer number, enters in the D-03 form and sends back to Computer House
for data entry.
10. The IT Department at Computer House then prints the MASD Bill and sends it to the applicant
by post. The MASD Bill comprises both Service Charge (MA part) and Security Deposit (SD part)
and also contains the allocated consumer number. A Bill Register is printed at Computer House and
sent to the respective Mains District, who in turn dockets the Bill date, Bill Amount etc. in the
manual Master Register as well as on the RC.
318
11. The applicant pays the MASD Bill at the concerned Regional Office cash counter. The stub
portion goes for data entry. Once the payment data is entered and matched at IT Department,
another form called D-07 is printed and sent to respective District Office. D-07 is known as
Payment Advice cum Meter Installation Order.
12. The District Office, on receipt of the D-07 form, dockets the payment date on Master Register
and RC and matures the job. The matured RC, attached with D-07, is then sent to Site Office for
execution of job.
13. The job (new service / new load in existing service / shifting / strengthening / alteration of
service etc.) is executed from Site office and meter is fixed or exchanged, as the case may be. The
detail of meter installation / exchange is furnished both on the RC and on D-07. The D- 07 forms,
duly filled in, are then sent across to Computer House for entry of meter details.
14. Once the meter details are entered, IT Department generates the Meter Page and sends to
Commercial Department for inclusion in the Meter Book and monthly meter reading commences
from the next reading date.
In the later stage some of the standard letters and the offer letters were being printed through the
System. The Offer letter contained only service charge comprised of Material and Labour. There
was no mention of the Security Deposit in those offer letters. To begin with, the System used to
calculate the service charge for loop cases only. Later on it started calculating service charges for
the direct services as well. The service charges for all other cases were computed and entered into
the system manually. This system continued to 1995 till the FAST TRACK MASD System came
into being in Calcutta Central District.
The FAST TRACK MASD System, which was indigenously conceived and developed by the
Mains MIS Cell, not only alleviated all the shortcomings of its earlier system but also computerized
all the activities of Mains District Offices. It embarked in Calcutta Central District followed by
North Suburban District in 1995, and thereafter proliferated slowly and gradually in other Regional
/ District offices till it was implemented in NRO in year 2001.
The major advantages of FAST Track MASD System are enumerated below: 1. Not all the applications are sent for inspection. Applications submitted at the PRF counter in
District offices are rather passed through OS checking by Commercial staff first and only those
cases are sent for inspection where OS is not present.
2. Most of the Standard Letters and the Offer Letter are computerized. The estimated amount in
the offer letter comprises both Service Charge and Security Deposit. Before printing of the offer
letter the technical data including the D-01 codes is codified in the System in two parts viz. Job
Detail 1 & Job Detail 2 (i.e. JD-1 and JD-2).
3. The traditional practice of sending of original RC to Computer House for data entry is done away
with. A great operational inconvenience is thus avoided.
4. Instead of generating the MASD Bill at Computer House, it is generated at the concerned District
Office after all compliances are met. This MASD Bill, however, does not bear the allocated
consumer number; thereby the wastage of man hour as well as redundant consumer number could
be avoided.
5. IT Department is provided with all static, technical and commercial information pertaining to the
paid MASD Bills through one Master Input data file (M1FT) twice a week.
6. The Commercial Department allocates the Consumer number at this stage only, thereby
rendering the workload of consumer number allocation to optimum level. The allocation of
consumer number thus became a parallel operation while a case gets matured for execution once the
MASD Bill is paid. This saves a lot of time.
319
7. The generation of D-07 form at IT Dept. end is also done away with. Instead a new instrument
called Job Tag is generated in two parts, which serves the purpose of Meter slip at job site. The
detail of meter installation / exchange is to be furnished on it at site office and returned to the
District office for Meter details entry.
8. The data pertaining to Meter installation/exchange details are sent through another data file
(M3FT) twice a week from Regional/District Office Server to IT Dept, who in turn, collates the
information with Master Input and allocated consumer number and generates the Meter Pages.
Over a period of time the following modernisations were done to the FAST Track MASD System.
1. Bar coding of the MASD Bill was introduced.
2. The process of entry of payment details from the stub portion of the Bills was done away with.
Treasury Dept. started to send data in flat files initially through Floppy Disk, and finally across
CESCs Intranet. The payment files are received centrally at one location by Mains MIS and then
re-distributed to concerned Regional Servers for payment matching programmatically.
3. Entry of meter details was discontinued since the data pertaining to meter installation / exchange
started flowing from SOS (Site Office System) to MASD System through the CESCs Intranet.
The detailed activities of FAST Track MASD System are furnished in a logical flow chart in
Appendix-1 attached herewith.
The above process has been running steadily till such time the Electricity Act 2003 came into force
with a policy by the Central Govt. encouraging the private sector for participation in generation,
transmission and distribution as also with a view to harmonizing and rationalizing the provisions in
the Indian Electricity Act, 1910, the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 and the Electricity Regulatory
Commissions Act, 1998 in a new self-contained comprehensive legislation.
In terms of section 82 of the Electricity Act 2003, every State Government had to constitute a
Regulatory Commission for the State and accordingly West Bengal Electricity Regulatory
Commission (WBERC) was constituted in our state.
In exercising the powers conferred to WBERC by clause (za) and clause (zb) of sub-section (2) of
section 181 of the Electricity Act 2003, the Regulations on the matter pertaining to New
Connection were notified in Notification No. 16/WBERC dated 09.06.2004, which was published
on 15.06.2004 in the Kolkata Gazette, extraordinary. These Regulations were titled as The West
Bengal Electricity Regulatory Commission (Standard of Performance of Distribution Licensees
Relating to Consumer Services) Regulations, 2003. Subsequently, the aforesaid notification was
repealed and replaced by Notification No. 24/WBERC dated 18.10.2005, which was published on
19.10.2005 in the Kolkata Gazette, Extraordinary. These Regulations were titled as The West
Bengal Electricity Regulatory Commission (Standard of Performance of Distribution
Licensees Relating to Consumer Services) Regulations, 2005. The regulations pertaining to
Temporary Supply were, however, covered under
Notification No. 22/WBERC dated 28.09.2005, which was published on 14.10.2005 in the Kolkata
Gazette Extraordinary and titled as The West Bengal Electricity Regulatory Commission
(Recovery of Expenditure for Providing New Connection) Regulations 2005.
The above two Notifications have brought in many changes in procedures and conventions which
deviate from what was being practiced so far. It has, therefore, became incumbent on the Company
to modify the existing MASD System so as to incorporate those directions stipulated in the
Regulations.
Accordingly a modified WBERC compliant MASD System was conceived, which is named as
New MASD System.
The salient features of the Regulations stipulated in Notification No. 24/WBERC are as follows:-
320
1 Two application forms to be introduced in lieu of existing PRF viz:

Annexure A Form, through which an applicant would request the distribution licensee for
inspection & preparation of estimate of expenditure to be borne by him/her. (Please see
Appendix 2 for Annexure-A form)
Annexure B Form, through which, upon receipt of the Estimate/Bill for the expenditure to
be borne by him/her, an applicant would request the distribution licensee for connection.
(Please see Appendix3 for Annexure-B form). This is basically an agreement between
the Licensee and the Applicant.
Cost of these two forms is Rs. 5 each. (For Temporary Supply cost of Annexure A Form is Rs.
10).
2 An Earnest Money is to be Deposited (EMD) by the applicants along with the submission of
Annexure A the deposits being:
Domestic & Commercial @ Rs. 500 in Urban Areas

Domestic & Commercial @ Rs. 200 in Rural Areas
Industrial @ Rs. 2,000 both in Urban & Rural Areas
Temporary Supply @ Rs. 250 both in Urban & Rural Areas
3. Inspection & first communication (offer or normal letters) has to reach the applicant within 2
weeks (in urban area) or 4 weeks (in rural area) of the Annexure A being submitted along with the
EM.
4. The Offer Letter will consist of the following items:
a. Offer Letter
b. MASD Bill with the EMD suitably adjusted and including Rs.10 towards cost of Annexure A
&.B
c. Annexure B form.
d. Test Form etc.
e. Any other forms (PCP form, etc.), if necessary, for the purpose of compliance.
5. Applicant is required to comply with the offer within 45 days from the date of receipt of the offer
letter compliances include:
a. Payment of MASD Bill.
b. Annexure B to be signed and submitted in duplicate
c. Test Form duly signed by Govt. Licensed Electrical Contractor.
d. Other compliances as applicable on a case-to-case basis.
6. An application is considered matured for job execution once ALL Compliances have been met
(payment of MASD Bill will now be considered as one of the compliances to be met).
7. Once a job has matured, the time frame for executing the various types of jobs are:
a. Loop & Direct Service
1 (one) month
b. Extension >30m & <= 100 m
45 days
c. Extension > 100 m
90 days
d. MVAC Source required
3 months
321
8. Failure to release new connection within the due time frames will render the Company liable to
pay Compensation.
9. System should be able to refund / forfeit EMD as the case may be
10. Refund of EMD can be through cheques/ drafts or by adjusting against future electricity
consumption bills.
11. System should be able to flag the Compensation amount automatically for
any default.
12. For Temporary Supply Applications:
(As per Notification No. 22/WBERC dated 28.09.2005)
a. Applicants have to submit Annexure A at least 10 days prior to the commencement of

temporary supply.
b. Cost of Annexure A is Rs 10.
c. Earnest Money to be deposited is Rs. 250
d. Estimate (including inspection, if required) to be prepared within 3 days from the date of
payment of EMD.
e. Applicant has to collect the Bill/Estimate from Licensees office within 24 hours of preparation
of estimate.
f. Applicant has to pay the Bill within 24 hours of receipt of bill (not including Sundays etc.)
g. Any revision of the estimate, at the instance of the applicant, will attract an extra charge of Rs.
50.
h. If temporary supply at the location desired is not feasible then applicant must be told & refund of
EMD has to be arranged within 3 days from the date that the EM was deposited.
To incorporate the above changes the following modifications have been made in the existing
FAST Track MASD System as shown in the Flow chart below.
322
A. INSPECTION & PRE-MASD STAGE
START
APPLICANT DEPOSITS
ANNEX .A WITHEMAT
RECIONAL CASH
COUNTER
CASHIER TO
ACCEPTEMAT CASH
COUNTER
SOFT COPY OF EM DETAILS

TO MANS EVERYDAY
APPLICANT RECEIVES
RECEIPTED ANNEX .A
FROMRECIONAL CASH
COUNTER
APPLICANT SUBMITS
RECEIPTED ANNEXURE A
MAINPRF COUNTER
DATAENTERED &
APPLICANTGETS
INSPECTION DATE
APPLICANT CETSRECEIPT
PART OF AMMEXURE A AT
MAINSPRF COUNTER
MASD SYSTEM
GENERETESINSP.
DATA & LETTER. CLERKHANDS
OVERLETTER TO APPLICANT
MAINS UPDATES AND

RECONCILE FORM NO. DAILY
WITH APPLICATION RECVD.
SENDS DOFT COPYSTATEMENT

PERIODICALLY TO FINANCE
DEPT
END
Application
sent for
inspection
FOR OFF-LINE
CHECKING OF O/S
& LCC ISSUES
323
PARALLEL OPERATIONFOR O/S & LCC CHECKING- OFFLINE
COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT
START
FEEDBACK ON O/S &/

ORLCC UPLOADED IN
TO MASD SYSTEM.
INSPECTOR DOES
THE ONSPECTION
AT SITE
DATA AVAILABLE
ON-LINE TO COMM
DEPT FOR O/S
COMM DEPT
CHECK.ES FOR O/S
AT BACK OFFICE
DE CODIFIFS
FORLETTER/
OFFER/FA
ETC
INSPECTOR
SUBMITS
REPORT FROM
HIS DESK TOP
PC THROUGH
COIR
START
DATA AVAILABLE
ON-LINE TO LCC
CHECK.ING
LCC CHECKS FOR

PILFERAGE ISSUE
PILFERAGE PRESENT
/NOT PRESENT MARKED
FOR SENDING
FEEDBACK TO MAINS
COMM DEPT
CHECK.ES FOR O/S
AT BACK OFFICE
ON-LINEUPDATION OF
LCC STATUS TO MAINS
MASD SYSTEM SENDS

APPROPRIATE LETTER
TO APPLICANT AFTER
DE s CODIFICATION
END
324
A. INSPECTION & PR E-MASD STAGE (CONTD);
START
IF O/S & /OR LCC PRESENT AS
PER FEEDBACK
CORRESPONDING LETTER(S)
ARE SENT EVEN IF CODIFIED
FOR OFFER
INSPECTION CODIFIES
INSPECTION REPORSFOR:
DIRECTSVC
& LOOPS
EXTENSION
CASES
INSPECTORS TO
CODIFY REPORTS
THROUGH COIR
SOFTWARE FROM
DESKTOP PCS
ALT/SHFTI
NG/ETC
LETTER/FA/
OS/LCC
SRC. REQ. &/OR

NETWRK REORG
DE APPROVES INSPECTION REPORTS

CASEFORWARDED
TO PODDAR COURT
FOR PREPARATION
OF SCHEME & OR
BUDGETARY OFFER
SYSTEM ADJUSTS
EMBEFOR MASD
BILL PRINTING
CODIFYCATION FOR OFFER/LETTER/FA INCLUDING

BUDGETARY OFFER & MASD BILLS
PRINTING OFALL OFFERS/ LETTERS/MASD BILLS INCLUDING

COURIER LISTING
SYSTEM
CALCULATES SVC
CHARGE AND SD
FOR ALL TYPES OF
OFFER
325
A. INSPECTION & PRE-MASD STAGE (Contd):
START
START
APPLICANT SUBMITS IF
ETCATCOMPLANT
COUNTER MAINS
APPLICANT SUBMITS IF
ANNEX. B IN DUPLICATE, AT
COMPLANT COUNTER OF
MAINS
CLERK AT COUNTER
UPDATES MASD OF
COMPLIANCES MET
CLERK AT COUNTER ENTERS

DATE RECVD. IN TO MASD
SYSTEM & FORWARDS
ANNEX.B TO DE.
COMPLIANCES LINKED UP
WITH FILE OF PPS.
ANDFILED.
BOTH COPIES OF ANNEXURE-B

FORMS ARE CHECKED AND DE
CODIFIES FOR APPROVAL
APPLICANT PAYSTHE MASD

BILL AT RECIONAL CASH
COUNTER
TREASURE FORWARDS
PAYMENT ADVISE TO
MAINS MIS CELL
SYSTEM MATCHES
PAYMENT & UPDATES
MASD ACCORDINGLY
BOTH ANNEX.B FORMS ARE

SICNED BY DE & RETURNED
TO CLERICAL SECTION
IF ALL OMPLIANCES
MET- JOBREADY FOR
EXECUTION
SYSTEM PREPARES LIST

FOR IN SERTIKON IN TO
IT MASTER MASD DATA
(MIFT)
MIS CELL SENDSLISTS

FOR UPDATING IT
MASTER MASD DATA
TWICE WEEKLY
END OF MIFTSTAGE
326
B. MASD & POST-MASD PROCESSING (CONTINUED):
START
CLERK PRIN RC CUM JOB TAGS FOR ALL

COMPLIA MET CASES FOR SENDING TO
SITE OFFICE.
MASD SYSTEM MAKES THE ENTIRE

TECHNICAL DATA AVAILABLE
THROUGH IN TERFACE TABLES/VIEWS
TO SOS INCLUDING THE SKETCHES,IF
ANY
JOB IS ALLOCATED IN SOS SYSTEM

AND WORK IS EITHER EXECUTED OR
RETURNED FROM SITE OFFICE
(D-11 CASES)
ALL ACTIONS AT SITE OFFICE ARE

UPDATED IN THE IN TERFACE
TABLES/VIEWS AND AVAILABLE ON-LINE
TO BOTH MASD AND SOS SYSTEM
MASD SYSTEM GETS THE METER IN

STALLATION/EXCHANGE DETAILS FROM
SOS THROUGH IN TERFACE REASON
CODE FOR JOB RETURN IS SPECIFIED.
START
CLERK SEPARATES
ORIGINAL & XEROX OF
ANNEX. B
ORIGINAL ANNEX. B
WITH LIST FOR DELIVERY
TO APPL. HANDED TO
COURIER
COURIER DELIVERS
ORIGINAL ANNEX. B &
RETURNS POD TO
DISTRICT FOR FILING.
XEROX COPY OF ANNEX.

B LINKED & FILED WITH
CORRESPONDING ANNEX.
A
ANNEX.B PROCESSENDS
327
START
AUTO UPDATION OF METER

INSTAILATION DE TAILS IN
TO MASD
SYSTEM CHECKS IF EM>

MASD BILLAMOUNT
IF EM > MASD BILLAMOUNT

SYSTEM PREPARES A SOFT COPY
FOR FINANCE DEPT. FOR REFUND
OF BALANCE OF EM
FINANCE ARRANGES REFUND

TO APPLICANT WITH
FEEDBACK TO MAINS
MASD UPDATES
FINANCE DATA IN TO
SYSTEM.
SYSTEM PREPARESM3FT
FILES FOR ALL CASES.
FILES SENT TO IT DEPT. FOR

METER PAGE GENERATION AND
INSERT IN TO LTBS FOR BILLING
MASD UPDATES DATA &

TRANSFERS CASE TO HISTORY
FOR FUTURE REFERENCE
ANNEX. B, & IF
TO COMM. DEPT.
FOR SCANNING
MASD & POST-MASD PROCESSENDS
328
The New MASD System is Graphical User Interface (GUI) based and is designed to operate on
windows platform under Client-Server architecture with Power Builder 10.5 as the front-end tool
and Oracle 10g as the backend RDBMS. This Oracle-10g would reside in a Sun Fire V890-V890
Central Server cluster (8 nos. 2.1 GHz SUN Ultra SPARCIV CPUs, 40 GB RAM and 5 TB
SAN Storage) residing at IT Department at Computer House. The client machines are Intel
PentiumIV Branded PCs with 512 MB RAM and 80 GB Hard disk. LaserJet Printers will replace
all the Dot Matrix Printers that are presently in use in Fast Track MASD System.
The New MASD System has, therefore, to handshake with the systems of other Departments as
well. The critical Interface Modules are described as below:
Interfaces with Treasury Dept.:

Acceptance of Annexure A form & EMD Bar Codes with soft copy feedback
Acceptance of 2 line - 130 character bar code MASD Bill with 330-character soft copy feedback.
Interfaces with I.T. Dept.:
New O/S checking interface with feedback.
Modified m1ft flat file interface with feedback.
Interfaces with LCC:
New LCC checking module for ALL new applications for supply with soft copy feedback.
Interfaces with Finance Dept.:
Interface files for refund or forfeiture of EMD to Finance with feedback
The Salient Features of New MASD System
Fully GUI based modules.
User friendly and easy to use.
Automatic synchronisation of date-time stamp with server & updates executables when logging
on.
Regional/district activities under one executable no need to close applications to start another.
Distributed data accessed transparently by the system.
External systems have interface with MASD through interface tables / views (e.g. SOS, SLIM,
consumer data etc.) to get information on-line.
Each user has his own user_id & password system recognises the user and allows access to only
those modules to which he/she is authorised to use.
24*7 availability as the system is operated from i.t. central server cluster at computer house.
The New MASD System, however, has not yet been implemented. Instead a modified version of it
named Interim MASD System was implemented in Calcutta Central District on 03/10/2007,
which was further replicated in Calcutta South District and Southern District on 03/11/2008. The
interim MASD System is GUI based and bears many functionalities of the New MASD System but
the business process follows the logics of the existing FAST Track MASD system.
329
Page 1
FLOW CHART OF EXISTING FAST TRACK MASD SYSTEM:

Entry of consumers
static data by Mains
EDP Operator.
Start
Provisional Requisition
Form received.
From the applicant
O/S liability against the premises is
checked by the operator of Com.
Dept. at Mains Enquiry Counter from
the terminal hooked with
Commercial computer
Auto allocation of unique

OS reference no
(>80000) for identification
of such case and generation
of std. unsigned letter
advising the applicant to
settle dues with Com Dept
& forwarding a copy to
comm. Dept. A flat file
(Rev) is also generated &
sent to Comm.Dpt.
O/S
Settled.
O/S
Present?
Clearance to Mains Dept is sent

electronically (OS18 flat file) by
Comm. Dept.
Necessary data entry by Mains EDP
Operator.(Auto updtn. & OS Conv.)
Auto allocation of unique Mains Reference
No (MR. No) & inspection date. Generation
of receipt for applicant with above
information.
Printing of RC (D01)
Linking up application with RC and forwarding to

Inspector concerned.
Data Entry for
Reinspection.
(See page no.2).
A
Inspection done at site and report submitted.
330
Page 2
A
LCC Clearence Reqd?
Address locked/unlocked
by LCC Dept. through
flat files (lccadd / lccdel)
at any stage
Dist.Engr certifies /sanctions Inspection Report .
DEs Codification is done for Offer/ Letter/ FA/

Misc.etc at his Terminal as per Inspection report
O/S dues found

at site during
inspection?
After DEs authentication the
first phase of clerical
codification is done at the
terminal of Office Supervisor
Clerical section.
O/S
settled by
Applicant
Clearance to Mains
Dept. through OS18
flat file generated by
Com. Dept.
After codification at
clerical section 2nd phase
codification at the
terminal by EDP
operator.
OK for
supply?
Cost estimation and printing of offer

according to different requirements and
generating checklist.
Linking of letters and attaching of
Enclosures (i.e. forms as
applicable.
Signature of
DE
Std. letter for compliances

within stipulated period.
Compliances
received
within
stipulated
period?
Data entry
for
reinspection
Re-inspection
done at site &
report submitted
(See Page no. 1)
331
Page 3
Despatch
Submission of compliances by
applicant
Compliance
received within
stipulated
period ?
Exception report for

cases generated &
application treated as
lapsed and records
deleted from the
computer database.
END
All compliances met & MASD

bill printed & check list for such
cases generated.
Dispatching the
MASD bill.
Payment of
MASD bill
within two
months at
cash
Sending payment information to

Mains Dept. electronically
(through flat files) Finance Dept.
332
Consumer no. allocated from Com. Dept .against
Page 4
C
Payment files are processed at Central
server of Mains Dept and forwarded to
respective Regional server.
Com. File (See Page 5
Correction of error
files at Mains
Dept.
**)
Information to Com. Dept. for

allocation of Consumer no.
through flat files (Com. File).
Payment matching and generation

of job tag under the coverage of a
checklist.
Linking of Job Tag with RC (D01)

matured for execution.
Docketing of cases at the computer

before sending to site office and
generating a date wise checklist for
all such cases.
Forwarded Error files to

Mains Dept. through
printout.
Accepted
after Data
validation
at IT Dept?
Information to IT department for

formation of master record (M1FT
File) is sent through network.
RC & Job Tag returned to District

Office with necessary reasons.
Forwarding RC to Site Office

under the coverage of checklist for
execution (Flat file is also
generated & sent to SOS )
Entry of reason code (D-11) at the

terminal
Printing computerized letter to the applicant

advising for necessary compliances.
Dispatch letter.
Job ready
for
execution /
meter
Compliance received at District

Office.(If additional .payment is
required , Supp.Bill is generated
and after payment matching
another flat file (M2FT) is
generated and sent to I.T.Dept. for
Job executed/meter installed & job

tag filled in.
Linking up with relevant papers

and rematured for execution again.
333
Page 5
RC & filled in Job tag returned to

Dist. Office
Relevant papers (PRF,TF)

to Comp. Dept. for record
keeping.
Meter details data comes from SOS
system and updates at Regional
Server. Svc. Completion entry is done
at District office
Correction of Error File
at Mains Dept.
Error file to Mains

Dept. through Flat files
/ Printout
(** From Page. 4)

Information from IT for consumer no.
allocation through flat files.
Consumer no.
allocated from
Com. Dept. against
Correction Error file at

Com Dept.
Meter installation
details (M3FT) &
Svc. Completion
(M4FT) to IT
Dept. is sent
through network.
Data of
M1FT,M3FT,
M4FT,Com file
validated?
Forwarding error
file to Com. Dept
Error in
Consumer No.
Allocation?
through Network
334
Page 6
Generation of Meter Page of Meter Book for use

of Com. Dept. for monthly consumption bills
Information to District Office through flat file

(MDFL file)
Data Downloading at Mains Computer at District

Office.
Deletion of Records after transferring permanent

data to history file.
END
335
Conversion Table
1 Inches = 2.54 Centimeters
1 Foot = 30.48 Centimeters = 0.3048 Meters
1 Square Feet = 0.0929 Square Meters
1 Square Meters = 10.76 Square Feet
1 Litre = 0.22 Gallon
1 Cubic inch = 16.387 Cubic cm
90 Degree = 1.5707963267948965 Radian
1 Pounds = 0.4536 Kilograms = 453.6 grams
1 kg/sq cm = 14.22 lb/sq in
1 kg/sq cm = 0.96780 atmospheres
1 atmospheres = 0.76000 Std Hg Col Meters
1 Joules = 0.00023 K-cal
1 Kw-hrs = 3600000 Joules
1 HP = 746 Watt
1 KWatt = 1.34 HP
Few Important Parameters

Material
Silver
Copper
Aluminium
Iron
Lead
Resistivity (m) at 20 C
1.5910-8
1.7210-8
2.8210-8
1.010-7
2.210-7
Temperature coefficient [K-1]

0.0038
0.0039
0.0039
0.005
0.0039
Sl. No
IS No.
1 IS 335: 1993
2 IS 11182 (Part 1) : 1984
3 IS 11182 (Part 2) : 1984
4 IS 11182(Part 3/Sec 1) : 1986
5 IS 11182 (Part 3/Sec 2) : 1996

6 IS 11182 (Part 5) : 1993
7 IS 11182 (Part 6) : 1986
8 IS 11182 (Part 7/Sec 1) : 1986
9 IS 13528 : 1992
10 IS 10118 (Part 1) : 1982
11 IS 10118 (Part 2) : 1982
12 IS 10118 (Part 3) : 1982
13 IS 10118 (Part 4) : 1982
Relevant IS Codes
DESCRIPTION
New insulating Oils (fourth revision)
Guide for evaluation of insulation systems of electrical equipment: Part
1 Identification, evaluation and ageing mechanism
2 Thermal endurance test procedure.
3 Electrical endurance test procedures, Section 1 General considerations
and evaluation procedures based on normal distributions
3 Electrical endurance test procedures, Section 2 evaluation procedures
based on extreme value distribution.
5 Mechanical endurance fuctional tests.
6 Performance evaluation based on service experience and functional
tests.
7 Multifactor functional testing, Section 1 Test procedures.
Test procedure for measurement of loss of tangent angle of coils and
bars for machine winding-guide
Code of practice for selection, installation and maintenance of
switchgear and controlgear : Part 1 General.
switchgear and controlgear : Part 2 Selection.
switchgear and controlgear : Part 3 Installation.
switchgear and controlgear : Part 4 Maintenance.
EQ. IEC No.
IEC 60727 (1982)
IEC 60941 (1988)
IEC 60894 (1987)
Sl No.
IS No.
14 IS 3427 : 1997
15 IS 9135 : 1979
16 IS 9920 (Part1) : 1981
17 IS 9920 (Part 2) : 2001
IS 9920 (Part 3)
18 IS 9920 (Part 4) : 1985
19 IS 13118 : 1991
20 IS 692 : 1994
21 IS 1255 : 1983
22 IS 3961 (Part 1) : 1967
23 IS 3961 (Part 2) : 1967
IS 3961 (Part 3)
IS 3961 (Part 3)
24 IS 5819 : 1970
25 IS 5831 : 1984
26 IS 7098 (Part 2) : 1985
27 IS 7098 (Part 3) : 1993
DESCRIPTION
A.C Metal enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated voltage above
1kV upto and including 52 kV (first revision)
Guide for testing of circuit breakers with respect to out-of-phase
switching
Switches and switch isolators for voltages above 1000V : Part 1General
and definitions.
High voltage switches : Part 2 High voltage switches for rated voltages
of 52 kV and above (first revision)
Design & Construction
Switches and switch isolators for voltages above 1000V : Part 4 Type
tests and routine tests.
General requirements for circuit breakers for voltages above 1000 V
(Superseding all Parts and Sections of IS 2516)
Parer insulated lead sheathed cables for rated voltages upto and
including 33 kV (third revision)
Code of practice for installation and maintenance of power cables upto
and including 33 kV rating (second revision )
Recommended current ratings for cables : Part 1 Paper insulated lead
sheathed cables.
Recommended current ratings for cables : Part 2 PVC insulated and
PVC sheathed heavy duty cables.
Rubber insulated Cable
PVC insulated Cable
Recommended short circuit ratings of high voltage PVC cables
PVC insulation and sheath of electric cables (first revision)
Crosslinked polyethylene insulated PVC sheathed cables : Part 2 For
working voltages from 3.3 kV upto and including 33 kV (first revision)
Crosslinked polyethylene insulated thermoplastic sheathed cables : Part
3 For working voltages from 66 kV upto and including 220 kV.
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 60298 (1990)
IEC 265 (1958)

IEC 60265-2 (1988)
IEC 129 (1975)

IEC 60056 (1987)
IEC 502 (1983)

IEC 60502 (1983)
Sl No.
IS No.
28 IS 10810 (Part 43) : 1984

29 IS 10810 (Part 45) : 1984
30 IS 1248 (Part 1) : 1993
31 IS 1248 (Part 2) : 1983
32 IS 1248 (Part 3) : 1983
33 IS 1248 (Part 4) : 1983
34 IS 1248 (Part 5) : 1983
35 IS 1248 (Part 6) : 1983

36 IS 1248 (Part 7) : 1984
37 IS 1248 (Part 9) : 1983
38 IS 2992 : 1987
39 IS 9249 (Part 1) : 1979
40 IS 9249 (Part 2) : 1982
DESCRIPTION
Methods of test for cables : Part 43 Insulation resistance.
Methods of test for cables : Part 45 High voltage test.
Direct acting indicating analog electrical measuring instruments and
their accessories : Part 1 general requirements (Third revision)
their accessories : Part 2 Ammeters and voltmeters (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 3 Wattmeters and varmeters (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 4 Frequency meters (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 5 Phase meters, power factor meters and
synchroscope (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 6 Ohmmeters (impedence meters) and
conductance meters (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 7 Multifunction instruments (Second revision)
their accessories : Part 9 Test methods (Second revision)
Insulation resistance testers, hand operated (magneto generator type)
(Second revision)
Safety requirements for indicating and recording electrical measuring
instruments and their accessories : Part 1 Common safety
requirements for instruments.
Safety requirements for indicating and recording electrical measuring
instruments and their accessories :Part 2 Safety requirements for
instruments using a mains supply.
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 51-1 (1984)
IEC 414 (1973)
IEC 414 (1973)
Sl No.
IS No.
41 IS 11287 : 1985
42 IS 11599 : 1986
43 IS 11994 : 1986
44 IS 12784 (Part 1) : 1989
45 IS 14570 : 1998
46 IS 9792 (Part 1) : 1987

47 IS 11426 : 1985
48
49
50
51
IS 11448 : 2000
IS 12346 : 1999
IS 13010 : 1990
IS 13779 : 1999
52 IS 14697 : 1999
53 IS 325 : 1996
54 IS 900 : 1992
55 IS 4029 : 1967
56 IS 4691 : 1985
57 IS 4722 : 2001
58 IS 4728 : 1975
DESCRIPTION
Bridge insulation testers (Magneto generator type)
Portable ac clip-on-ammeters
Portable insulation resistance tester (mains operated)
Electrical measuring transducers for converting AC electrical
quantities into DC electrical quantities : Part 1 General purpose
transducers.
Electrical measuring transducers for converting AC electrical
quantities into DC electrical quantities : Part 2 transducers for outdoor
use.
Guide for testing, calibration and maintenance of AC electricity
meters : Part 1 Single phase whole current Watt-hour meters, class 2
(first revision)
Alternating current precision kilowatt-hour meters of class 0.5 for
testing purposes (first revision)
Application guide for AC electrical energy meters (first revision)
Testing equipment for AC electricity meters (first revision)
AC watt-hour meter, class 0.5, 1 and 2
AC static watthour meter (Class 1 and 2) (first revision)
AC static transformer operated watthour and varhour meters, class
0.2S and 0.5S Specification.
Three phase induction motors (first revision)
Code of practice for installation and maintenance of induction motors
(Second revision)
Guide for testing three phase induction motors
Degrees of protection provided by enclosure for rotating electrical
machinery (first revision)
Rotating electrical machines (second revision)
Terminal marking and direction of rotation for rotating electrical
machinery (first revision)
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 60736 (1982)

IEC 60521 (1988)
IEC 61036 (1996)
IEC 34-1 (1983)
IEC 34-5 (1981)

IEC 34-8 (1972)
Sl No.
59
60
61
62
63
64
IS No.
IS 4889 : 1968
IS 5422 : 1996
IS 7132 : 1973
IS 7306 : 1974
IS 7816 : 1975
IS 12802 : 1989
65 IS 13107 : 1991
66 IS 13529 : 1992
67 IS 13555 : 1993
68 IS 2026 (Part 1) : 1977
69 IS 2026 (Part 2) : 1977
70 IS 2026 (Part 3) : 1981
71 IS 2026 (Part 4) : 1977
72 IS 2026 (Part 5) : 1994
73
74
75
76
IS 3151 :1982
IS 3639 : 1966
IS 5553 (Part 1) : 1989
IS 5553 (Part 2) : 1990
77 IS 5553 (Part 3) : 1990

78 IS 5553 (Part 4) : 1990
79 IS 5553 (Part 5) : 1989
80 IS 5553 (Part 6) : 1991
DESCRIPTION
Method of determination of efficiency of rotating electrical machines.
Turbine type generators (first revision)
Guide for testing synchronous machines
Methods for determining synchronous machine quantities from tests
Guide for testing insulation resistance of rotating electrical machines.
Temperature rise measurement of rotating electrical machines.
Guide on measurement of winding resistance of an AC machine
during operation at alternating voltage.
Guide on effects of unbalanced voltage on the performance of three
phase cage induction motors
Guide for selection and application for three phase AC induction
motors for different types of driven equipment.
Power transformers : Part 1 general (first revision)
Power transformers : Part 2 Temperature rise
Power transformers : Part 3 Insulation level and dielectric tests
(Second revision)
Power transformers : Part 4 Terminal marking, tapings and
connections (first revision)
Power transformers : Part 5 Transformer/Reactor bushings minimum
external clearance in air Specification
Earthing transformers (first revision)
Fitting and accessories for power transformers
Reactors: Part 1 General.
Reactors: Part 2 Shunt reactors.
Reactors: Part 3 Current limiting reactors and neutral earthing
reactors.
Reactors: Part 4 Damping reactors.
Reactors: Part 5 Tuning reactors.
Reactors: Part 6 Earthing transformers (Neutral couplers)
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 34-3 (1988)
IEC 34-1 (1969)
IEC 34-4 (1967)
IEC 34-1 (1983)
IEC 60279 (1969)
IEC 60076 (1977)

IEC 60076 (1977)
IEC 60076 (1977)
IEC 60076 (1977)
IEC 60076 (1977)
IEC 60289 (1968)
IEC 60289 (1988)
IEC 60289 (1988)
IEC 60 289 (1988)
IEC 60 289 (1988)
IEC 60 289 (1988)
IEC 60 289 (1988)
Sl No.
IS No.
81 IS 6600 : 1972
82 IS 8468 : 1977
83 IS 8478 : 1977
84 IS 10028 (Part 1) : 1985
85 IS 10028 (Part 2) : 1981
86 IS 10028 (Part 3) : 1981
87
88
89
90
91
IS 10561 : 1983
IS 11171 : 1985
IS 13964 : 1994
SP 31 : 1986
IS 3043 : 1987
92 IS 5216 (Part 1) : 1982

93 IS 5216 (Part 2) : 1982
94 IS 13234 : 1991
95 Is 13235 : 1991
96 IS 418 : 1978
97 IS 1860 : 1980
98 IS 4666 :1980
99 IS 11548 : 1986
100 IS 13340 : 1993
DESCRIPTION
Guide for loading of oil immersed transformers.
On-load tap changers
Application guide for on-load tap changers
transformers: Part 1 Selection.
transformers: Part 2 Installation (Superseding IS : 1986)
transformers: Part 3 Maintenance (Superseding IS : 1986)
Application guide for power transformers.
Dry type power transformers.
Methods of measurement of transformer and reactor sound levels.
Special publication chart on treatment for electrical shock
Code of practice for earthing
Guide for safety procedures and practices in electrical work : Part 1
General (first revision)
Guide for safety procedures and practices in electrical work : Part 2
Life saving techniques (first revision)
Guide for short circuit current calculations in three phase AC systems
(superseding IS 5728)
Calculation of effects of short circuit current (superseding IS
5728 : 1970)
Tungsten filament general service electric lamps (third revision)
Electric passenger and goods lifts (first revision)
Electric passenger and goods lifts (first revision)
Capacitors for surge protection for use in voltage system above 650 V
and upto 66 kV.
Shunt capacitors for the self healing type for AC power systems
having rated voltage upto and including 650 V
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 60726 (1982)
IEC 60909 (1988)

IEC 60865 (1986)
IEC 64 (1973)
IEC 60831-1 (1988)
Sl No.
IS No.
101 IS 13341 : 1992

102 IS 13585 (Part 1) : 1994
103 IS 13925 (Part 1) :1998
104 IS 13925 (Part 2) : 1993

105 IS 3070 (Part 3) : 1993
106 IS 15086 (Part 1) : 2001
107 IS 15086 (Part 5) : 2001
108 IS 2705 (Part 1) : 1992
109 IS 2705 (Part 2) :1992
110 IS 2705 (Part 3) :1992
111 IS 2705(Part 4) :1992
112 IS 3156 (Part 1) :1992
113 IS 3156 (Part 2) : 1992
114 IS 3156 (Part 3) : 1992
DESCRIPTION
Requirements for ageing test, self healing test destruction test on shunt
capacitors of the self healing type for AC power systems having a
rated voltage upto and including 650V
Shunt capacitors of non self healing type for AC power systems
having a rated voltage upto and including 650V
Shunt capacitors having AC power systems having a rated voltage
above 1000V: Part 1 General performance, testing and rating safety
requirements Guide for installation and operation (Superseding IS
2834 : 1986)
Shunt capacitors for AC power systems having a rated voltage above
1000V: Part 2 Endurance testing.
Lightning arresters for alternating current systems : Part 3 Metal oxide
surge arresters without gaps for AC systems.
Surge arresters: Part 1 Non-linear resistor type gapped surge arresters
for AC systems [superseding IS 3070 (Part 1)]
Surge arresters: Part 5 Selection and application recommendations
(superseding IS 4004)
Current transformers: Part 1 General requirements (second revision)
Current transformers: Part 2 Measuring current transformers (second
revision)
Current transformers: Part 3 Protective current transformers (second
revision)
(Part 4) : 1992 Current transformers: Part 4Protective current
transformers for special purpose applications (second revision)
Voltage transformers: Part 1 General requirements (second revision)
Voltage transformers: Part 2 Measuring voltage transformers (second
revision)
Voltage transformers: Part 3 Protective voltage transformers (second
revision)
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 60831-2 (1988)
IEC 60931-1 (1989)
IEC 60871-1 (1987)
IEC 60871-2 (1987)

IEC 60099-4 (1991)
IEC 60099-1 (1991)
IEC 60099-5 (1996)
IEC 60185 (1966)
IEC 60185 (1966)
IEC 60185 (1966)
IEC 60185 (1966)
IEC 60186 (1987)
IEC 60186 (1987)
IEC 60186 (1987)
Sl No.
IS No.
115 IS 3156 (Part 4) : 1992

116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
IS 4146 : 1983
IS 4201 : 1983
IS 5547 : 1983
IS 6949 : 1973
IS 11322 : 1985
IS 3637 :1966
IS 1887 : 1966
IS 9385 (Part 1) : 1979
124 IS 9385 (Part 2) : 1980

125 IS 9385 (Part 3) : 1980
126 IS 9385 (Part 4) : 1983
127 IS 9385 (Part 5) : 1983
128 IS 9402 :1980
129 IS 12534 : 1988
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
IS 1554 (Part 1)
IS 7098 (Part 1)
IS 7098 (Part 2)
IS 7098 (Part 3)
IS 8130
IS 2713
IS 398 (Part 2)
DESCRIPTION
Voltage transformers: Part 4 Capacitor voltage transformers (second
revision)
Application guide for voltage transformers (first revision)
Application guide for current voltage transformers (first revision)
Application guide for capacitor voltage transformers (first revision)
Summation current transformers
Method for partial discharge measurement in instrument transformers
Gas operated relays.
D-type fuses
High voltage fuses: Part 1 current limiting fuses
High voltage fuses: Part 2 Expulsion and similar fuses (superseding IS
5792
High voltage fuses: Part 3 Application guide for high voltage fuses
High voltage fuses: Part 4 Determination of short circuit power factor
for testing of high voltage fuses.
High voltage fuses: Part 5 Types and dimensions of fuse-links for
current limiting fuses.
High voltage fuses for the external protection of shunt power
capacitors.
Application guide for the selection of high voltage fuses for
transformer circuit applications.
PVC insulated Cable upto 1.1kV
XLPE insulated Cable upto 1.1kV
XLPE insulated Cable from 3.3kV to 33kV
EHV grade XLPE insulated Cable
Conductor Specification
Overhead Pole Specification
ACSR Conductor specification
EQ.IEC No.
IEC 60186 (1987)
IEC 269-3 (1973)

IEC 282-1 (1979)
IEC 282-2 (1970)
IEC 282-2 (1970)
IEC 282-1A (1978)

IEC 549 (1976)
IEC 60502
IEC 60840

Distribution System Handbook

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Distribution System Handbook

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CESC Distribution System

DISTRIBUTION TRAINING INSTITUTE

Cable Jointing & Termination

Underground Cable Fault Location

Power System Protection

Billing System & Tariff Structure

Distribution Management: SCADA & Communications

MV & LV Installation Practices

Grounding Practice in Substations

Substation Design & Layout

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Electric Field Strength

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Therefore field strength dH = i dl sin / r2

Force on Current Carrying Conductor

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

The direction of the force is determined by Flemings Left Hand Rule.

Force between Two Parallel Linear Conductors

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Comparison of the Electric and Magnetic Circuits

Current actually flows in the circuit

2. Energy is needed till the current flows

Flux does not flow, it is only assumed to

Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Flemings Right hand rule:

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Delta-Star and Star-Delta Transformation

Star to Delta Conversion

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

e2 = - (dN2 / dt) volts

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Core / Magnetic Circuit construction:

Core Section: Seven step (left)

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Crossover Coil with round

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Disc Coil: Winding in progress wound

Air Cell of 75 MVA 132/33 KV

Deflated Air Cell inside

Transformers are also fitted with indicating type instruments viz.

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Resistance switching type OLTC schematics.

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Recommended Field Test:

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

Measurement of Winding Resistance:

2.2.2 Bridge Method:

The voltmeter should be disconnected before switching the current ON or OFF to

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

3.1.3 Tolerances for Ratio:

Distribution Training Institute, CESC Limited

The diagram of connection for the test is shown in Fig.4.

shall be done by this method.