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II.Osteology.2.Bone.Gray,Henry.1918.AnatomyoftheHumanBody.

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HenryGray(18211865).AnatomyoftheHumanBody.1918.

2.Bone

StructureandPhysicalProperties.Boneisoneofthehardeststructuresoftheanimal 1
bodyitpossessesalsoacertaindegreeoftoughnessandelasticity.Itscolor,inafresh
state,ispinkishwhiteexternally,anddeepredwithin.Onexaminingasectionofany
bone,itisseentobecomposedoftwokindsoftissue,oneofwhichisdenseintexture,
likeivory,andistermedcompacttissuetheotherconsistsofslenderfibersandlamell,
whichjointoformareticularstructurethis,fromitsresemblancetolatticework,iscalled
cancelloustissue.Thecompacttissueisalwaysplacedontheexteriorofthebone,the
cancellousintheinterior.Therelativequantityofthesetwokindsoftissuevariesin
differentbones,andindifferentpartsofthesamebone,accordingasstrengthorlightness
isrequisite.Closeexaminationofthecompacttissueshowsittobeextremelyporous,so
thatthedifferenceinstructurebetweenitandthecancelloustissuedependsmerelyupon
thedifferentamountofsolidmatter,andthesizeandnumberofspacesineachthe
cavitiesaresmallinthecompacttissueandthesolidmatterbetweenthemabundant,while
inthecancelloustissuethespacesarelargeandthesolidmatterisinsmallerquantity.
Boneduringlifeispermeatedbyvessels,andisenclosed,exceptwhereitiscoatedwith 2
articularcartilage,inafibrousmembrane,theperiosteum,bymeansofwhichmanyof
thesevesselsreachthehardtissue.Iftheperiosteumbestrippedfromthesurfaceofthe
livingbone,smallbleedingpointsareseenwhichmarktheentranceoftheperiosteal
vesselsandonsectionduringlifeeverypartoftheboneexudesbloodfromtheminute
vesselswhichramifyinit.Theinteriorofeachofthelongbonesofthelimbspresentsa
cylindricalcavityfilledwithmarrowandlinedbyahighlyvascularareolarstructure,
calledthemedullarymembrane.
THESTRENGTHOFBONECOMPAREDWITHOTHERMATERIALS
Weightin
Ultimatestrength.Poundspersquareinch.
Substance.
poundsper
Tension.
Compression.
Shear.
cubicfoot.
Mediumsteel
Granite
Oak,white
Compactbone(low)
Compactbone(high)
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490
170
46
119

65,000
1,500
12,50012
13,200
17,700

60,000
15,000
7,000
18,000
24,000

40,000
2,000
4,00013
11,800
7,150
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II.Osteology.2.Bone.Gray,Henry.1918.AnatomyoftheHumanBody.

Periosteum.Theperiosteumadherestothesurfaceofeachofthebonesinnearlyevery
part,butnottocartilaginousextremities.Whenstrongtendonsorligamentsareattached
toabone,theperiosteumisincorporatedwiththem.Itconsistsoftwolayersclosely
unitedtogether,theouteroneformedchieflyofconnectivetissue,containing
occasionallyafewfatcellstheinnerone,ofelasticfibersofthefinerkind,forming
densemembranousnetworks,whichagaincanbeseparatedintoseverallayers.Inyoung
bonestheperiosteumisthickandveryvascular,andisintimatelyconnectedateitherend
ofthebonewiththeepiphysialcartilage,butlesscloselywiththebodyofthebone,from
whichitisseparatedbyalayerofsofttissue,containinganumberofgranular
corpusclesorosteoblasts,bywhichossificationproceedsontheexterioroftheyoung
bone.Laterinlifetheperiosteumisthinnerandlessvascular,andtheosteoblastsare
convertedintoanepithelioidlayeronthedeepsurfaceoftheperiosteum.Theperiosteum
servesasanidusfortheramificationofthevesselsprevioustotheirdistributioninthe
bonehencetheliabilityofbonetoexfoliationornecrosiswhendenudedofthis
membranebyinjuryordisease.Finenervesandlymphatics,whichgenerallyaccompany
thearteries,mayalsobedemonstratedintheperiosteum.

Marrow.Themarrownotonlyfillsupthecylindricalcavitiesinthebodiesofthelong
bones,butalsooccupiesthespacesofthecancelloustissueandextendsintothelarger
bonycanals(Haversiancanals)whichcontainthebloodvessels.Itdiffersincomposition
indifferentbones.Inthebodiesofthelongbonesthemarrowisofayellowcolor,and
contains,in100parts,96offat,1ofareolartissueandvessels,and3offluidwith
extractivematteritconsistsofabasisofconnectivetissuesupportingnumerous
bloodvesselsandcells,mostofwhicharefatcellsbutsomearemarrowcells,suchas
occurintheredmarrowtobeimmediatelydescribed.Intheflatandshortbones,inthe
articularendsofthelongbones,inthebodiesofthevertebr,inthecranialdiplo,andin
thesternumandribsthemarrowisofaredcolor,andcontains,in100parts,75ofwater,
and25ofsolidmatterconsistingofcellglobulin,nucleoprotein,extractives,salts,and
onlyasmallproportionoffat.Theredmarrowconsistsofasmallquantityofconnective
tissue,bloodvessels,andnumerouscells(Fig.72),somefewofwhicharefatcells,but
thegreatmajorityareroundishnucleatedcells,thetruemarrowcellsofKlliker.These
marrowcellsproper,ormyelocytes,resembleinappearancelymphoidcorpuscles,and
likethemareameboidtheygenerallyhaveahyalineprotoplasm,thoughsomeshow
granuleseitheroxyphilorbasophilinreaction.Anumberofeosinophilcellsarealso
present.Amongthemarrowcellsmaybeseensmallercells,whichpossessaslightly
pinkishhuethesearetheerythroblastsornormoblasts,fromwhichtheredcorpuscles
oftheadultarederived,andwhichmayberegardedasdescendantsofthenucleated
coloredcorpusclesoftheembryo.Giantcells(myeloplaxes,osteoclasts),large,
multinucleated,protoplasmicmasses,arealsotobefoundinbothsortsofadultmarrow,
butmoreparticularlyinredmarrow.TheywerebelievedbyKllikertobeconcernedin
theabsorptionofbonematrix,andhencethenamewhichhegavetothemosteoclasts.
Theyexcavateinthebonesmallshallowpitsorcavities,whicharenamedHowships
foveol,andinthesetheyarefoundlying.

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FIG. 72Humanbonemarrow.Highlymagnified.(Seeenlargedimage)

VesselsandNervesofBone.Thebloodvesselsofboneareverynumerous.Thoseof
thecompacttissuearederivedfromacloseanddensenetworkofvesselsramifyinginthe
periosteum.Fromthismembranevesselspassintotheminuteorificesinthecompact
tissue,andrunthroughthecanalswhichtraverseitssubstance.Thecancelloustissueis
suppliedinasimilarway,butbylessnumerousandlargervessels,which,perforatingthe
outercompacttissue,aredistributedtothecavitiesofthespongyportionofthebone.In
thelongbones,numerousaperturesmaybeseenattheendsnearthearticularsurfaces
someofthesegivepassagetothearteriesofthelargersetofvesselsreferredtobutthe
mostnumerousandlargestaperturesareforsomeoftheveinsofthecancelloustissue,
whichemergeapartfromthearteries.Themarrowinthebodyofalongboneissupplied
byonelargeartery(orsometimesmore),whichenterstheboneatthenutrientforamen
(situatedinmostcasesnearthecenterofthebody),andperforatesobliquelythecompact
structure.Themedullaryornutrientartery,usuallyaccompaniedbyoneortwoveins,
sendsbranchesupwardanddownward,whichramifyinthemedullarymembrane,and
givetwigstotheadjoiningcanals.Theramificationsofthisvesselanastomosewiththe
arteriesofthecancellousandcompacttissues.Inmostoftheflat,andinmanyofthe
shortspongybones,oneormorelargeaperturesareobserved,whichtransmittothe
centralpartsofthebonevesselscorrespondingtothenutrientarteriesandveins.The
veinsemergefromthelongbonesinthreeplaces(Klliker):(1)oneortwolargeveins
accompanytheartery(2)numerouslargeandsmallveinsemergeatthearticular
extremities(3)manysmallveinspassoutofthecompactsubstance.Intheflatcranial
bonestheveinsarelarge,verynumerous,andrunintortuouscanalsinthediploictissue,
thesidesofthecanalsbeingformedbythinlamellofbone,perforatedhereandthere
forthepassageofbranchesfromtheadjacentcancelli.Thesameconditionisalsofound
inallcancelloustissue,theveinsbeingenclosedandsupportedbyosseousmaterial,and
havingexceedinglythincoats.Whenaboneisdivided,thevesselsremainpatulous,and
donotcontractinthecanalsinwhichtheyarecontained.Lymphaticvessels,inaddition
tothosefoundintheperiosteum,havebeentracedbyCruikshankintothesubstanceof
bone,andKleindescribesthemasrunningintheHaversiancanals.Nervesare
distributedfreelytotheperiosteum,andaccompanythenutrientarteriesintotheinterior
ofthebone.TheyaresaidbyKllikertobemostnumerousinthearticularextremitiesof
thelongbones,inthevertebr,andinthelargerflatbones.

FIG. 73Transversesectionofcompacttissuebone.Magnified.(Sharpey.)(Seeenlarged

image)

MinuteAnatomy.Atransversesectionofdensebonemaybecutwithasawand
grounddownuntilitissufficientlythin.
Ifthisbeexaminedwitharatherlowpowerthebonewillbeseentobemappedoutinto
anumberofcirculardistrictseachconsistingofacentralholesurroundedbyanumberof
concentricrings.ThesedistrictsaretermedHaversiansystemsthecentralholeisan
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Haversiancanal,andtheringsarelayersofbonytissuearrangedconcentricallyaround
thecentralcanal,andtermedlamell.Moreover,oncloserexaminationitwillbefound
thatbetweentheselamell,andthereforealsoarrangedconcentricallyaroundthecentral
canal,areanumberoflittledarkspots,thelacun,andthattheselacunareconnected
witheachotherandwiththecentralHaversiancanalbyanumberoffinedarklines,
whichradiatelikethespokesofawheelandarecalledcanaliculi.Fillingintheirregular
intervalswhichareleftbetweenthesecircularsystemsareotherlamell,withtheir
lacunandcanaliculirunninginvariousdirections,butmoreorlesscurved(Fig.73)
theyaretermedinterstitiallamell.Again,otherlamell,foundonthesurfaceofthe
bone,arearrangedparalleltoitscircumferencetheyaretermedcircumferential,orby
someauthorsprimaryorfundamentallamell,todistinguishthemfromthoselaid
downaroundtheaxesoftheHaversiancanals,whicharethentermedsecondaryor
speciallamell.
TheHaversiancanals,seeninatransversesectionofboneasroundholesatorabout
thecenterofeachHaversiansystem,maybedemonstratedtobetruecanalsifa
longitudinalsectionbemade(Fig.74).Itwillthenbeseenthatthecanalsrunparallel
withthelongitudinalaxisoftheboneforashortdistanceandthenbranchand
communicate.Theyvaryconsiderablyinsize,somebeingasmuchas0.12mm.in
diametertheaveragesizeis,however,about0.05mm.Nearthemedullarycavitythe
canalsarelargerthanthosenearthesurfaceofthebone.Eachcanalcontainsoneortwo
bloodvessels,withasmallquantityofdelicateconnectivetissueandsomenerve
filaments.Inthelargeronestherearealsolymphaticvessels,andcellswithbranching
processeswhichcommunicate,throughthecanalculi,withthebranchedprocessesof
certainbonecellsinthesubstanceofthebone.Thosecanalsnearthesurfaceofthebone
openuponitbyminuteorifices,andthosenearthemedullarycavityopeninthesame
wayintothisspace,sothatthewholeoftheboneispermeatedbyasystemof
bloodvesselsrunningthroughthebonycanalsinthecentersoftheHaversiansystems.
Thelamellarethinplatesofbonytissueencirclingthecentralcanal,andmaybe
compared,forthesakeofillustration,toanumberofsheetsofpaperpastedoneover
anotheraroundacentralhollowcylinder.Aftermaceratingapieceofboneindilute
mineralacid,theselamellmaybestrippedoffinalongitudinaldirectionasthinfilms.If
oneofthesebeexaminedwithahighpowerofthemicroscope,itwillbefoundtobe
composedofafinelyreticularstructure,madeupofveryslendertransparentfibers,
decussatingobliquelyandcoalescingatthepointsofintersectionthesefibersare
composedoffinefibrilsidenticalwiththoseofwhiteconnectivetissue.Theintercellular
matrixbetweenthefibersisimpregnatedbycalcareousdepositwhichtheaciddissolves.
Inmanyplacesthevariouslamellmaybeseentobeheldtogetherbytaperingfibers,
whichrunobliquelythroughthem,pinningorboltingthemtogethertheywerefirst
describedbySharpey,andwerenamedbyhimperforatingfibers(Fig.75).

FIG. 74Sectionparalleltothesurfacefromthebodyofthefemur.X100.a,Haversian
canalsb,lacunseenfromthesidec,othersseenfromthesurfaceinlamell,which
arecuthorizontally.(Seeenlargedimage)
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FIG. 75Perforatingfibers,humanparietalbone,decalcified.(H.Mller.)a,perforating

fibersinsitub,fibresdrawnoutoftheirsocketsc,sockets.(Seeenlargedimage)

TheLacunaresituatedbetweenthelamell,andconsistofanumberofoblong
spaces.Inanordinarymicroscopicsection,viewedbytransmittedlight,theyappearas
fusiformopaquespots.Eachlacunaisoccupiedduringlifebyabranchedcell,termeda
bonecellorbonecorpuscle,theprocessesfromwhichextendintothecanaliculi(Fig.
76).

10

TheCanaliculiareexceedinglyminutechannels,crossingthelamellandconnecting 11
thelacunwithneighboringlacunandalsowiththeHaversiancanal.Fromthe
Haversiancanalanumberofcanaliculiaregivenoff,whichradiatefromit,andopeninto
thefirstsetoflacunbetweenthefirstandsecondlamell.Fromtheselacunasecond
setofcanaliculiisgivenofftheserunoutwardtothenextseriesoflacun,andsoon
untiltheperipheryoftheHaversiansystemisreachedherethecanaliculigivenofffrom
thelastseriesoflacundonotcommunicatewiththelacunofneighboringHaversian
systems,butafterpassingoutwardforashortdistanceformloopsandreturntotheirown
lacun.ThuseverypartofanHaversiansystemissuppliedwithnutrientfluidsderived
fromthevesselsintheHaversiancanalanddistributedthroughthecanaliculiandlacun.
Thebonecellsarecontainedinthelacun,which,however,theydonotcompletelyfill. 12
Theyareflattenednucleatedbranchedcells,homologouswiththoseofconnectivetissue
thebranches,especiallyinyoungbones,passintothecanaliculifromthelacun.
Inthinplatesofbone(asinthewallsofthespacesofcancelloustissue)theHaversian 13
canalsareabsent,andthecanaliculiopenintothespacesofthecancelloustissue
(medullaryspaces),whichthushavethesamefunctionastheHaversiancanals.

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FIG. 76Nucleatedbonecellsandtheirprocesses,containedinthebonelacunandtheir
canaliculirespectively.Fromasectionthroughthevertebraofanadultmouse.(Kleinand
NobleSmith.)(Seeenlargedimage)

14
ChemicalComposition.Boneconsistsofananimalandanearthypartintimately
combinedtogether.
Theanimalpartmaybeobtainedbyimmersingaboneforaconsiderabletimeindilute 15
mineralacid,afterwhichprocessthebonecomesoutexactlythesameshapeasbefore,
butperfectlyflexible,sothatalongbone(oneoftheribs,forexample)caneasilybetied
inaknot.Ifnowatransversesectionismade(Fig.77)thesamegeneralarrangementof
theHaversiancanals,lamell,lacun,andcanaliculiisseen.
Theearthypartmaybeseparatelyobtainedbycalcination,bywhichtheanimalmatter 16
iscompletelyburntout.Thebonewillstillretainitsoriginalform,butitwillbewhite
andbrittle,willhavelostaboutonethirdofitsoriginalweight,andwillcrumbledown
withtheslightestforce.Theearthymatteriscomposedchieflyofcalciumphosphate,
about58percent.oftheweightofthebone,calciumcarbonateabout7percent.,calcium
fluorideandmagnesiumphosphatefrom1to2percent.eachandsodiumchlorideless
than1percent.theyconferonboneitshardnessandrigidity,whiletheanimalmatter
(ossein)determinesitstenacity.

Ossification.Somebonesareprecededbymembrane,suchasthoseformingtheroof 17
andsidesoftheskullothers,suchasthebonesofthelimbs,areprecededbyrodsof
cartilage.Hencetwokindsofossificationaredescribed:theintramembranousandthe
intracartilaginous.
18
INTRAMEMBRANOUSOSSIFICATION.Inthecaseofboneswhicharedevelopedin
membrane,nocartilaginousmouldprecedestheappearanceofthebonytissue.The
membranewhichoccupiestheplaceofthefutureboneisofthenatureofconnective
tissue,andultimatelyformstheperiosteumitiscomposedoffibersandgranularcellsin
amatrix.Theperipheralportionismorefibrous,while,intheinteriorthecellsor
osteoblastspredominatethewholetissueisrichlysuppliedwithbloodvessels.Atthe
outsetoftheprocessofboneformationalittlenetworkofspiculesisnoticedradiating
fromthepointorcenterofossification.Theseraysconsistattheirgrowingpointsofa
networkoffineclearfibersandgranularcorpuscleswithaninterveninggroundsubstance
(Fig.78).Thefibersaretermedosteogeneticfibers,andaremadeupoffinefibrils
differinglittlefromthoseofwhitefibroustissue.Themembranesoonassumesadarkand
granularappearancefromthedepositionofcalcareousgranulesinthefibersandinthe
interveningmatrix,andinthecalcifiedmaterialsomeofthegranularcorpusclesor
osteoblastsareenclosed.Bythefusionofthecalcareousgranulesthetissueagain
assumesamoretransparentappearance,butthefibersarenolongersodistinctlyseen.
Theinvolvedosteoblastsfromthecorpusclesofthefuturebone,thespacesinwhichthey
areenclosedconstitutingthelacun.Astheosteogeneticfibersgrowouttotheperiphery
theycontinuetocalcify,andgiverisetofreshbonespicules.Thusanetworkofboneis
formed,themeshesofwhichcontainthebloodvesselsandadelicateconnectivetissue
crowdedwithosteoblasts.Thebonytrabeculthickenbytheadditionoffreshlayersof
boneformedbytheosteoblastsontheirsurface,andthemeshesarecorrespondingly
encroachedupon.Subsequentlysuccessivelayersofbonytissuearedepositedunderthe
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periosteumandaroundthelargervascularchannelswhichbecometheHaversiancanals,
sothattheboneincreasesmuchinthickness.

FIG. 77Transversesectionofbodyofhumanfibula,decalcified.X250.(Seeenlarged

image)

FIG. 78Partofthegrowingedgeofthedevelopingparietalboneofafetalcat.(AfterJ.

Lawrence.)(Seeenlargedimage)

19
INTERCARTILAGINOUSOSSIFICATION.Justbeforeossificationbeginsthemassis
entirelycartilaginous,andinalongbone,whichmaybetakenasanexample,theprocess
commencesinthecenterandproceedstowardtheextremities,whichforsometime
remaincartilaginous.Subsequentlyasimilarprocesscommencesinoneormoreplacesin
thoseextremitiesandgraduallyextendsthroughthem.Theextremitiesdonot,however,
becomejoinedtothebodyofthebonebybonytissueuntilgrowthhasceasedbetween
thebodyandeitherextremityalayerofcartilaginoustissuetermedtheepiphysial
cartilagepersistsforadefiniteperiod.
20
Thefirststepintheossificationofthecartilageisthatthecartilagecells,atthepoint
whereossificationiscommencingandwhichistermedacenterofossification,enlarge
andarrangethemselvesinrows(Fig.79).Thematrixinwhichtheyareimbedded
increasesinquantity,sothatthecellsbecomefurtherseparatedfromeachother.A
depositofcalcareousmaterialnowtakesplaceinthismatrix,betweentherowsofcells,
sothattheybecomeseparatedfromeachotherbylongitudinalcolumnsofcalcified
matrix,presentingagranularandopaqueappearance.Hereandtherethematrixbetween
twocellsofthesamerowalsobecomescalcified,andtransversebarsofcalcified
substancestretchacrossfromonecalcareouscolumntoanother.Thusthereare
longitudinalgroupsofthecartilagecellsenclosedinoblongcavities,thewallsofwhich
areformedofcalcifiedmatrixwhichcutsoffallnutritionfromthecellsthecells,in
consequence,atrophy,leavingspacescalledtheprimaryareol.

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FIG. 79Sectionoffetalboneofcat.ir.Irruptionofthesubperiostealtissue.p.Fibrous

layeroftheperiosteum.o.Layerofosteoblasts.im.Subperiostealbonydeposit.(From
QuainsAnatomy,E.A.Schfer.)(Seeenlargedimage)

Atthesametimethatthisprocessisgoingoninthecenterofthesolidbarofcartilage, 21
certainchangesaretakingplaceonitssurface.Thisiscoveredbyaveryvascular
membrane,theperichondrium,entirelysimilartotheembryonicconnectivetissue
alreadydescribedasconstitutingthebasisofmembraneboneontheinnersurfaceofthis
thatistosay,onthesurfaceincontactwiththecartilagearegatheredtheformative
cells,theosteoblasts.Bytheagencyofthesecellsathinlayerofbonytissueisformed
betweentheperichondriumandthecartilage,bytheintramembranousmodeof
ossificationjustdescribed.Therearethen,inthisfirststageofossification,twoprocesses
goingonsimultaneously:inthecenterofthecartilagetheformationofanumberof
oblongspaces,formedofcalcifiedmatrixandcontainingthewitheredcartilagecells,and
onthesurfaceofthecartilagetheformationofalayeroftruemembranebone.The
secondstageconsistsintheprolongationintothecartilageofprocessesofthedeeperor
osteogeneticlayeroftheperichondrium,whichhasnowbecomeperiosteum(Fig.79,ir).
Theprocessesconsistofbloodvesselsandcellsosteoblasts,orboneformers,and
osteoclasts,orbonedestroyers.Thelatteraresimilartothegiantcells(myeloplaxes)
foundinmarrow,andtheyexcavatepassagesthroughthenewformedbonylayerby
absorption,andpassthroughitintothecalcifiedmatrix(Fig.80).Whereverthese
processescomeincontactwiththecalcifiedwallsoftheprimaryareoltheyabsorb
them,andthuscauseafusionoftheoriginalcavitiesandtheformationoflargerspaces,
whicharetermedthesecondaryareolormedullaryspaces.Thesesecondaryspaces
becomefilledwithembryonicmarrow,consistingofosteoblastsandvessels,derived,in
themannerdescribedabove,fromtheosteogeneticlayeroftheperiosteum(Fig.80).
Thusfartherehasbeentracedtheformationofenlargedspaces(secondaryareol),the 22
perforatedwallsofwhicharestillformedbycalcifiedcartilagematrix,containingan
embryonicmarrowderivedfromtheprocessessentinfromtheosteogeneticlayerofthe
periosteum,andconsistingofbloodvesselsandosteoblasts.Thewallsofthesesecondary
areolareatthistimeofonlyinconsiderablethickness,buttheybecomethickenedbythe
depositionoflayersoftrueboneontheirsurface.Thisprocesstakesplaceinthe
followingmanner:Someoftheosteoblastsoftheembryonicmarrow,afterundergoing
rapiddivision,arrangethemselvesasanepithelioidlayeronthesurfaceofthewallofthe
space(Fig.81).Thislayerofosteoblastsformsabonystratum,andthusthewallofthe
spacebecomesgraduallycoveredwithalayeroftrueosseoussubstanceinwhichsomeof
theboneformingcellsareincludedasbonecorpuscles.Thenextstageintheprocess
consistsintheremovaloftheseprimarybonespiculesbytheosteoclasts.Oneofthese
giantcellsmaybefoundlyinginaHowshipsfoveolaatthefreeendofeachspicule.The
removaloftheprimaryspiculesgoesonparipassuwiththeformationofpermanentbone
bytheperiosteum,andinthiswaythemedullarycavityofthebodyoftheboneis
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formed.

FIG. 80Partofalongitudinalsectionofthedevelopingfemurofarabbit.a.Flattened

cartilagecells.b.Enlargedcartilagecells.c,d.Newlyformedbone.e.Osteoblasts.f.
Giantcellsorosteoclasts.g,h.Shrunkencartilagecells.(FromAtlasofHistology,
KleinandNobleSmith.)(Seeenlargedimage)

FIG. 81Osteoblastsandosteoclastsontrabeculaoflowerjawofcalfembryo.(Klliker.)

(Seeenlargedimage)

Thisseriesofchangeshasbeengraduallyproceedingtowardtheendofthebodyofthe
bone,sothatintheossifyingboneallthechangesdescribedabovemaybeseenin
differentparts,fromthetrueboneatthecenterofthebodytothehyalinecartilageatthe
extremities.
Whiletheossificationofthecartilaginousbodyisextendingtowardthearticularends,
thecartilageimmediatelyinadvanceoftheosseoustissuecontinuestogrowuntilthe
lengthoftheadultboneisreached.
Duringtheperiodofgrowththearticularend,orepiphysis,remainsforsometime
entirelycartilaginous,thenabonycenterappears,andinitiatesinittheprocessof
intracartilaginousossificationbutthisprocessneverextendstoanygreatdistance.The
epiphysisremainsseparatedfromthebodybyanarrowcartilaginouslayerforadefinite
time.Thislayerultimatelyossifies,thedistinctionbetweenbodyandepiphysisis
obliterated,andtheboneassumesitscompletedformandshape.Thesameremarksalso
applytosuchprocessesofboneasareseparatelyossified,e.g.,thetrochantersofthe
femur.Thebonesthereforecontinuetogrowuntilthebodyhasacquireditsfullstature.
Theyincreaseinlengthbyossificationcontinuingtoextendbehindtheepiphysial
cartilage,whichgoesongrowinginadvanceoftheossifyingprocess.Theyincreasein
circumferencebydepositionofnewbone,fromthedeeperlayeroftheperiosteum,on
theirexternalsurface,andatthesametimeanabsorptiontakesplacefromwithin,by
whichthemedullarycavitiesareincreased.
Thepermanentboneformedbytheperiosteumwhenfirstlaiddowniscancellousin
structure.Latertheosteoblastscontainedinitsspacesbecomearrangedintheconcentric
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layerscharacteristicoftheHaversiansystems,andareincludedasbonecorpuscles.
27
Thenumberofossificcentersvariesindifferentbones.Inmostoftheshortbones
ossificationcommencesatasinglepointnearthecenter,andproceedstowardthesurface.
Inthelongbonesthereisacentralpointofossificationforthebodyordiaphysis:andone
ormoreforeachextremity,theepiphysis.Thatforthebodyisthefirsttoappear.The
timesofunionoftheepiphyseswiththebodyvaryinverselywiththedatesatwhichtheir
ossificationsbegan(withtheexceptionofthefibula)andregulatethedirectionofthe
nutrientarteriesofthebones.Thus,thenutrientarteriesofthebonesofthearmand
forearmaredirectedtowardtheelbow,sincetheepiphysesatthisjointbecomeunitedto
thebodiesbeforethoseattheoppositeextremities.Inthelowerlimb,ontheotherhand,
thenutrientarteriesaredirectedawayfromtheknee:thatis,upwardinthefemur,
downwardinthetibiaandfibulaandinthemitisobservedthattheupperepiphysisof
thefemur,andthelowerepiphysesofthetibiaandfibula,unitefirstwiththebodies.
Wherethereisonlyoneepiphysis,thenutrientarteryisdirectedtowardtheotherendof
theboneastowardtheacromialendoftheclavicle,towardthedistalendsofthe
metacarpalboneofthethumbandthemetatarsalboneofthegreattoe,andtowardthe
proximalendsoftheothermetacarpalandmetatarsalbones.
28
Parsons14groupsepiphysesunderthreeheadings,viz.:(1)pressureepiphyses,
appearingatthearticularendsofthebonesandtransmittingtheweightofthebodyfrom
bonetobone(2)tractionepiphyses,associatedwiththeinsertionofmusclesand
originallysesamoidstructuresthoughnotnecessarilysesamoidbonesand(3)atavistic
epiphyses,representingpartsoftheskeleton,whichatonetimeformedseparatebones,
butwhichhavelosttheirfunction,andonlyappearasseparateossificationsinearly
life.
Note12.Indicatesstresseswiththegrain,i.e.,whentheloadisparalleltothelongaxisof
thematerial,orparalleltothedirectionofthefibersofthematerial.[back]
Note13.Indicatesunitstressesacrossthegrain,i.e.,atrightanglestothedirectionofthe
fibersofthematerial.[back]
Note14.Jour.ofAnat.andPhys.,vols.xxxviii,xxxix,andxlii.[back]
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