DEFINITION OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

Introduction:

The economic future of India depends on our ability to design, make and sell
competitive products. Excellent design and effective manufacture are the prerequisites of a successive industry. There is a general impression that the quality of
Indian products can still be improved. The fact that consumers have lost their
confidence on Indian-made products cannot be denied. This problem can be solved
only by designing and manufacturing better products through improved
methodology. Keeping this in view, the subject Design and manufacturing
purpose to present the methods and procedures of design and manufacture.
Although engineers are not the only people who design things, the professional
practice of engineering is largely concerned with design. It is usually said that
design is the essence of engineering. The ability to design is both a science and an
art. The science can be learned through procedures developed by eminent scholars.
But the art can be learned only by doing design.

Types of Products:

A product is the tangible end result of a manufacturing process and is meant

for satisfying human needs. The product can be classified as follows: -

1. Convenience goods

These are less expensive and are clustered around shops and restaurants.
These can be purchased at consumer's convenience.
E.g. Cigarette, Candy, Magazines etc.

2. Shopping goods

These are expensive and people buy it less frequently.

E.g. Jewellary garments etc.

3. Specialty goods

These are purchased, taking extra pain.

E.g. Rare objects like stamps.

4. Industrial goods.

These are items used in the production of other items.

Eg. Raw materials.

Another way of classifying products is into,

1. Continuous Products, and

2. Discrete products
The continuous products are those which are produced in a continuous
fashion. For example, plates, sheets, tubes and bars etc are produced in very long
lengths, and then these are cut into desired lengths. On the other hand, discrete
products are produced one after another, each in separate units. On the basis of the
output product, the Industry is usually named as continuous industry and discrete
industry.

Requirements in a good product

Customer Satisfaction
Profit

How to achieve customer satisfaction?

The product should function properly.

It must have desired accuracy
It must have desired reliability
It must be easy to operate
It must be serviceable
It must make minimum space utilization

 It must withstand rough handling

Pleasant appearances.
Reasonable price.

How can it be profitable?

It must be easy to manufacture

The raw material must be cheap and easily available
The manufacturing process has to the decided on the basis of quantity to be
produced
It must use standard parts
It must be easy to pack and distribute.

Definition of Design:

Designing is such a vast field that it is defined in several ways. Various

definitions of designing as pronounced by well-known designers are

Design is that which defines solutions to problem which have previously

been solved in a different way
Design is the conscious human process of planning physical things that
display a new form in response to some pre-determined need.
Design is an act of collecting all pertinent information for the production
of goods and services to meet some human need.

The design of any component includes two things,

o Product design
o Process design
The product design involves the development of specification for a product
that will be functionally sound, good in appearance, and will give satisfactory
performance for an adequate life.
The process design involves developing methods of manufacture of the
products so that the component can be produced at a reasonably low cost.

History of Design Process

o Design by Single Person

o Over-the-wall design
o Simultaneous Engineering
o Concurrent Engineering

o Integrated design and Manufacture.

In olden times one person could design and manufacture an entire product.
Even for a large project such as the design of a ship or a bridge, one person had
sufficient knowledge of the Physics, Materials and manufacturing processes to
manage all aspects of the design and construction of the project. This period is
referred to as the period of design by single person in the history of design.

By the middle of the 20th century products and manufacturing processes

became so complex that, one person could not handle all aspects of design and
manufacturing. This situation led to over-the-wall design process.

In this method each functional departments were separated from others, as

shown by wall. There was only one-way communications between Customer,
Marketing, Engg. Design and production department. The customers throw' their
needs to marketing department. The marketing department may throw the customer
needs to the design department, in many instances, orally. The Engg. Design
department may conceive a design and hands it over to the manufacturing sections.
The manufacturing department interprets that design and makes the product
according to what they think suitable. Unfortunately, often what is manufactured
by a company using over-the-wall process is not what the customers had in mind.
This is due to lack of interaction between the different departments. Thus, this

single direction over-the-wall approach is inefficient and costly and may result in
poor quality products.

By the early 1980's the concept of simultaneous engineering emerged. This

philosophy emphasized simultaneous development of the manufacturing processthe goal was the simultaneous development of the product and the manufacturing
process. This was accomplished by assigning manufacturing representatives to be
members of design team, so that they could interact with the design engineers
throughout the designs process.
In the 1980's the simultaneous design philosophy was broadened and called
concurrent engineering. A short definition of concurrent engineering is the
simultaneous progression of all aspects, at all stages of product development,
product specification, design, process and equipment etc. In concurrent
engineering the primary focus is on the integration of teams of people having a
stake in the product, design tools, and techniques and information about the
product and the processes used to develop and manufacture it. Tools and
techniques connect the teams with the information. Although many of the tools are
computer-based, much design work is still done with pencil and paper. In fact,
concurrent engineering is 80% company culture and 20% computer support.

With the advent of computer technology, drastic changes have taken place in
the field of design and manufacturing. The result was a completely integrated
design and manufacturing system. This system makes a good use of technologies
such as CAD/CAM, FMS etc. The computer integrated manufacturing systems
(CIMS) moves towards the Factory of the future'. CIMS is necessary for better
quality, efficiency and productivity.

TYPES OF DESIGNS

The design can be classified in many ways. On the basis of knowledge, skill
and creativity required in the designing process, the designs are broadly classified
into three types

Adaptive Design (W 95, 97, 98 00)

Variant Design (S 97, 99)
Original Design

Adaptive Design

In most design situations the designer's job is to make a slight modification

of the existing design. These are called adaptive designs . This type of design
needs no special knowledge or skill. E.g. converting mechanical watches into a
new shape.

Variant Design

This type of design demands considerable scientific training and design

ability, in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea, by adopting a new
material or a different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer
starts from the existing designs, the final product may be entirely different from the
original product.
E.g. converting mechanical watches into quartz watches. Here a new technology is
adopted.

Original Design

Here the designer designs something that did not exist previously. Thus, it is
also called new design or innovative design. For making original designs, a lot of
research work, knowledge and creativity are essential. A company thinks of new
design when there is a new technology available or when there is enough market
push. Since this type of design demands maximum creativity from the part of the
designer, these are also called creative designs.

On the basis of the nature of design problem, design may be classified as

o Selection design
o Configuration design
o Parametric design
o Original design
o Re-design

Selection Design.

It involves choosing one or more items from a list of similar items. We do

this by using catalogues.
Eg. -Selection of a bearing from a bearing catalogue
-Selection of a fan for cooling equipment
-Selecting a shaft.

Configuration / Layout / Packaging Design

In this type of problem, all the components have been designed and the
problem is how to assemble them into the completed product. This type of design
is similar to arranging furniture in a living room.

Consider the packing of electronic components in a laptop computer. A

laptop computer has a keyboard, power supply, a main circuit board, a hard disk
drive, a floppy disk drive and room for two extension boards. Each component is
of known design and has certain constraints on its position. For example, the
extension slots must be adjacent to the main circuit board and the keyboard must
be in front of the machine.

Keyboard

Main Circuit board

Extension slots

Floppy drive

Power supply

The different components are shown above. The designer's aim is to find,
how to fit all the components in a case? Where do we put what? One method
for solving such problems is to select a component randomly from the list

and position it in the case so that all the constraints on that component are
met.

Let's take keyboard first. It is placed in the front. Then we select and place a
second component. This procedure is continued until we reach a conflict, or all the
components are in the case. If a conflict arises, we back up and try again. Two
potential configurations are shown above.

Parametric Design

Parametric design involves finding values for the features that characterize
the object being studied.
Consider a simple example
We want to design a cylindrical storage tank that must hold 4 m 3 of liquid.
The volume is given by
V= r2l
The tank is described by the parameters, radius 'r', and length l .

Given V = 4 m 3 = r 2 l
r 2 l = 1.273
We can see a number of values for the radius and length, that will satisfy this
equation. Each combination-values of r and l gives a possible solution for the
design problem.

Original Design

As described in an earlier section, an original design in the development of

an assembly or component that did not exist before.

Redesign

The redesign is a modification of an existing product to meet new

requirements. It is same as adaptive design. Most design problems solved in
industry are for the redesign of an existing product. Suppose a manufacturer of
hydraulic cylinders makes a product that is 0.25m long. If the customer needs a
cylinder 0.3m long, the manufacturer might lengthen the outer cylinder and the
piston rod to meet this special need.

On the basis of the objective or strategy the designs are of following main
types.

o Production Design
o Functional Design
o Optimum Design

1. Production Design

In production design , the designer designs something in such a way that the
cost of producing the product is minimum. That is, the first responsibility of the
designer is reduction of production cost. Hence, a production designer is concerned
with the ease with which something can be produced, and that at a minimum cost.

2. Functional Design

In functional design , the aim is at designing a part or member so as to meet

the expected performance level.
Functional design is a way of achieving given requirements.- but the same
may the unproducible or costly to produce. A good designer, then, has to consider
the production aspects also. A product designed without keeping all these aspects
into account, wastes time, money and efforts.

3. Optimum Design

It is the best design for given objective function, under the specified
constraints.

On the basis of the field/ area or the domain of design, the following types
are important.
Mechanical Design
Machine Design
System Design
Assembly/sub-assembly design
Computer aided design

A. Mechanical Design

It means use of scientific principles, technical information and imagination

in the design of a structure,or machine to perform prescribed functions with
maximum economy and efficiency.

B. Machine Design

It is the process of achieving a plan for the construction of a machine.

C. System Design

System Design is an iterative decision making process to conceive and

implement optimum systems, to solve problems and needs of society.

D. Assembly/sub-assembly design

In the design of Assembly/sub-assembly the major criterion is the fulfillment

of functional requirements. The assembly has to be designed to meet broad
technical parameters and purpose for which it was meant.
The characteristic features are:
The total number of parts used in the design must be minimum.
Sub-assemblies should be capable of being built separately in order to give
maximum manufacturing flexibility.
Standard parts may be used.
Flexible parts should be avoided, as they are easily damaged during handling
and assembly.

E. Computer aided design [CAD]

It is a design methodology in which the designs take the advantages of

digital computer to draw concepts, analyze and evaluate data etc. Computers are

largely used in a design office for simulation and prototype study. In modern
design, computers have become an indispensable tool.
Other types of designs are

a. Probabilistic Design
b. Industrial Design

A. Probabilistic Design

It is a design approach in which design decisions are made using statistical

tools. Generally, the external load acting on a body, the properties of materials etc
are liable to vary. In probabilistic design, the designer takes into account the
variations of such parameters.

B. Industrial Design

It is the design made by considering aesthetes, ergonomics and production

aspects.

Questions

1. What are the characteristics features of system design, assembly/subassembly design and component design? Explain briefly with the help of examples.
2. Distinguish between functional design and industrial design.
3. Discuss the meanings of conceptual design, creative design, adoptive
design and variant design.
4. What are the three main types of design? Give a comparative analysis.
5. Explain the difference between creative design, adoptive design and
variant design.
6. Explain the meaning of (i) Conceptual design, (ii) Functional design and
(iii) production design. Give suitable example of each.
7. Explain layout design.

DESIGN PROCESS AND ITS STRUCTURES

Introduction

Developing a manufacturable product is not an easy job. This chapter

presents some methods that help achieve quality products. Rather than making a
detailed study, only an overview of designing process is attempted here.

Features of design process

The following features can be observed in a design process.

 Iteration
Decision-making
Conversion of resources
Satisfaction of need

Design is completed in many phases. In each phase, repeated attempts are

required to accomplish the aim. A satisfactory conclusion can be reached on, only
after a number of trials.
Decision-making is essential for a designer to select one out of several. A designer
often comes across several equally acceptable alternatives to meet some end. In
such conflicting situations, designer has to make the best decision.
In any design process, there is conversion of resources such as time, money,
talent, materials and other natural resources.
All designs are aimed at satisfying some human need. Needs, whether
important or unimportant is the starting point of design.

How a design is born?

In a broad sense there are two methods by which a design comes into
existence.
Design by evolution (Traditional Design)
Design by innovation (Modern Design)

1. Design by evolution

This implies the traditional method of design in which the objects and
articles that we see around has taken its present form by gradual change of time. If
one looks at history it can be seen that most of the tools, equipments, implements,
took a long time to acquire their present form. Things changed gradually with the
passage of time. Each change was made to rectify some defects or difficulties faced
by the users. Bicycles, calculators, computers, steam locomotives etc. all went
through a process of evolution in which designers tried one concept after another.
Even today this process is being used to some extent. However, this evolutionary
process is very slow. i.e., it took a very long period of time to occur even a slight
modification. The main reason for this slow evolutionary process of design was the
absence of proper information and design data records.
In modern design situations the evolutionary methods are not adequate
because of the following reasons

The traditional designing did not consider the interdependence of products.

They were concerned about only one component /product. But in the modern
world, the existence of one product is dependent on another in some way or
other.
In the past, production was on small scale. Thus the penalty of a wrong
design was tolerable. But, in the present time, production is on large-scale
basis. As a result, any penalty of a wrong design will cost great loss.
Requirements of the customers of today's world changes so frequently.
Traditional design lags behind the advanced product & process technologies
available today.
Traditional design methods cannot cope with competitive requirements of
the modern world.

 Due to the above reasons modern design problem cannot be handled by

traditional methods.

2. Design by Innovation

Since the traditional design method failed to cope with modern design
requirements, nowadays almost all designs are made by innovation. i.e.,
developments of a product by following scientific and purposeful effort.
The innovative design is entirely different from the past practice of evolutionary
design. Here the designer's task is greatly magnified. He has to design and create
something, which did not exist yet. Here he tries to solve the design problem in a
systematic and orderly manner. This approach is similar to analytical problem
solving. However, an innovative designer faces the following difficulties.

He has to collect and evaluate information on a product, which is nonexisting yet.

Necessity of analyzing complicated interaction of components.
He has to make predictions regarding its performance.
He has to ensure the technical and economical feasibility of the product.

Notwithstanding the above difficulties, there are eminent experts like Morris
Asimow, J.E. Shigly, Dieter etc have attempted to systematize the design process.
This systematized steps in design process is called Morphology of Design . The
best way in which any problem can be solved is to break up the problem and to try

for a solution in an analytical method. This approach of problem solving is also

adopted in the Morphology of design.

3. Problem-solving Methodology

Knowingly or unknowingly we follow six basic actions when we try to find

solution of any problem.
Establish or convince ourselves that there is' a problem. Or we understand
that a solution is needed.
Plan how to solve this problem
By analyzing the problem we decide what is actually required from the
problem-solver. Or we decide the requirements.
Generate alternative solutions.
Evaluate the alternatives.
Present the acceptable solution.

1.0 DESIGN PROCESS

The design process is illustrated by the following models namely Shigley,
Paul and Beitz, Ohsuga and Earle.
1.1 Shighely Model:
In the design process, there are six steps to be followed which are shown in
fig 1.5.

Recognition of need:
The problems in the existing products (or) Potential for new products in
market has to be identified.
Definition of problem:
The problem in the existing product or specification of the new product is
specified as Design Brief to the designers. It includes the specification of
physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, performance requirements etc.

Fig 1.1. The general design procedure defined by Shigley Synthesis:

In this stage, the designer develops number of designs to meet the
requirement of design brief.
Analysis & Optimization:
Each design from the synthesis stages are analysed and optimum one is
selected.
It should be noted that synthesis and analysis are highly iterative. A certain
component or subsystem of the overall system conceived by the designer in
the synthesis stage is subjected to analysis.

 Based on the analysis, improvements are made and redesigned. The process
is repeated until the design optimized within all the constraints imposed by
designer.
Evaluation:
In this stage optimized design from the previous stage is checked for all the
specification mentioned in the Design Brief.
A prototype of the product is developed and experimentally checked for its
performance, quality, reliability and other aspects of product.
The discrepancies/problems are faced, it is recommend to redesign the
product which should be fed back to the designer in the synthesis stage.
Presentation:
After the product design passing through the evaluation stage, drawings.
diagrams, material specification, assembly lists, bill of materials etc. which are
required for product manufacturing are prepared and given to process planning
department and production department.
1.2 Earle model:
The steps in the design process prepared by Earle are shown in fig.1.2.
Problem identification

Fig 1.2. Steps of design process by Earle

(1). Problem identification:
The problem identification can be one of two general types.
(i). Identification of need.
(ii). Identification of design criteria.
Identification of need is the beginning point of the design process. It may be
a defect or discrepancy in the existing product or need for a new product.
Identification of design criteria is the part of the problem identification
where the designer conducts an in-depth investigation of the specifications that
must be met by a new design. Types of problem identification are shown in fig 1.9.
Types of problem identification

Fig 1.3. Type of problem identification

The problem identification needs to gather data of several types. Such as
survey, historical records, personal observations, experimental data, physical
measurements etc.
The following steps should be used in problem identification.

Fig 1.3. Steps followed in problem identification

(a) Problem statement: write down the problem statement to begin the thinking
process. The statement should be complete and comprehensive but concise.
(b) Problem requirements: list the positive requirements that must be achieved
through design.

(c) Problem limitations: list negative factors that confine the problem to be
specified as limitations.
(d) Sketches: make sketches of physical characteristics of the problem. Add notes
and dimensions that would make these sketches more understandable.
(e) Gather data: the gathered data should be graphed for easy interpretation.
(u) Preliminary ideas:
Preliminary ideas are the generation of as many ideas as possible for
solution. These ideas should be sufficiently broad to allow for unique solutions that
could revolutionize present methods. All ideas should be recorded in written form
with sketches. A systematic approach should be used to gather preliminary ideas
for the design problem. The following sequence of steps is suggested.
Design need
1. Defects.
2. Bad condition.
3.Need for solution.
4. Market need.
Design criteria
1. Features.
2. Numbers.
3. Size-weight.
4. Price cost.
Problem identification
(a) Conduct brain stroming session: Brainstrom is a conference technique by
which a group attempts to find a solution for a specific problem by amassing all the
ideas spontaneously contributed by its members.
(b) Prepare sketches and notes: Sketching is most important medium for
developing preliminary ideas. Computer graphics can be used for modifying and
developing a number of ideas.

(c) Research existing designs: Preliminary ideas can be obtained through research
of similar products, designs from technical magazines, manufacturer s brochures,
patents and consultants.
(d) Conduct survey: Survey methods are used to gather opinions and reactions to
a preliminary design or complete design. This could be accomplished by
interviews, questionnaire etc.
(iii) Design refinement:
Several of better preliminary ideas are selected for further refinement to
determine their true merits. Rough sketches are converted to scale drawings that
will permit space analysis, critical measurements etc. descriptive geometry can be
applied for this purpose. Computer graphics is a powerful tool that can be used to
refine the preliminary idea.
(iv) Analysis:
A product must be analyzed to determine its acceptance by the market before
it is released for production. It involves the evaluation of best designs to determine
the comparative merits of each with respect to cost, strength, function and marketappeal.
The general areas of analysis are
(a) Functional analysis.
(b) Human engineering.
(c) Market and product analysis.
(d) Specification analysis.
(e) Strength analysis.
(f) Economic analysis.
(g) Model analysis.
The physical specifications of a product must be analyzed to finalize the
design. Eg. size, ranges and shipping specifications. The design must be analyzed
for strength to support dead loads, shock loads, fatigue loads etc. The cost analysis
must be performed to determine the items production cost and margin of profit
that can be realized from it. Engineering graphics and modeling of descriptive
geometry are valuable tools for analysis.

1.2 MORPHOLOGY OF DESIGN

The morphology of design refers to the study of the chronological structure of
design projects. It is defined by seven phases and their sub steps. Out of the seven
phases, the first three phases belong to design and the remaining four phases
belong to production distribution, consumption and retirement.
.
Morphology means a study of form or structure'. Morphology of design refers to
the time based sequencing of design operations. It is a methodology of design by
which ideas about things are converted into physical objects. The logical order of
different activities or phases in a design project is called the morphology of design
Morphology of design:
Detailed description of the complete design process
The design Process

General
Information

Specific
Information

Design
Process

Outcome

NO

Phase I. Conceptual Design

Evaluat
e

YES

o It requires the creativity,

o Single best concept, feasibility study
o Coordination among many functions in the business organizations
Identification of customer needs
Problem definition
Problem Statement
Benchmarking
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
Product Design Specification (PDS)
Gathering information
Internet
Patents
Trade
Literature
Conceptualization
Brainstorming
Functional
Decomposition
Morphological Chart
Concept selection
Pugh Concept Selection
Decision Matrix
Refinement of the PDS
Design review

A design project begins with a feasibility study. The various steps followed are.
(1) To determine whether the need is original, whether it is valid, has current
existence or has strong evidence of latent existence.
(2) To explore the design problem generated by the need and to identify its
elements such as working parameters, constraints and major design criteria.
(3) To conceive a number of feasible solutions to the problem.
(4) And sort out the potentially useful solution out of the feasible ones on the
basis of

(a) Technical suitability. (b) Physical reliability and (c) Economic feasibility.

Phase II: Embodiment design or preliminary design

- Strength ,material selection, size, shape and spatial

compatibility
Product architecture
Dividing overall design system into sub system or
modules
Arrangement of Physical Elements to carry out Function
Configuration design of parts and components
Preliminary Selection of Parts and Materials
Modeling and Sizing of Parts
Parts are made up of features like holes, ribs, splines and
curves
To determine what features will be present &how those
features are arranged in space
Parametric design: To establish the exact dimensions and tolerances
Robust Design
Tolerances
Final Dimensions
Design for Manufacturability (DFM)
In this phase, preliminary design of system starts with set of useful solution
which were developed in the feasibility study. The various steps involved in the
phase are
(1) To establish which of the proposed alternatives is the best design
concept. Each of the alternative design is subjected to the test of analysis. Until

evidence suggests that either the particular solution is inferior to other or is

superior to all. Surviving solution is tentatively accepted for further examination.
(2) Synthesis studies are initiated for establishing the range within which the
major design parameters must be controlled.
(3) Next, the tolerances in the characteristics of major components and
critical materials which require mutual compatibility are investigated and properly
fit into the system.
(4) Examining the influence of environmental, internal and external
constituents on the system.
(5) Project studies are undertaken to study whether the design will meet
customers need, status of the product to be developed with that of products from
competitors, availability of critical raw materials, effect of technological
advancement, rate of obsolescence or wear etc.
(6) Testing the critical aspect of the design in order to validate the design
concept and to provide necessary information for the subsequent phases.

Define Problem
Problem Statement
Benchmarking
QFD
PDS

Gathering information Concept Generation

Internet
Brainstorming
Patents
Functional
Trade
Decomposition
Literature
Morphological Chart

Evaluation of concepts
Pugh Concept Selection
Decision Matrix

Product architecture
Configuration design
Parametric design
Detail Design
Preliminary Selection matls. & mfg.
Modeling/sizing
Arrangement of physical elements to carry out function
Robust design Detailed drawings and specifications
Tolerances
Final dimen.
DFM

Phase III: Detail Design

In this phase, the engineering description of a tested and producible design is
furnished. Up to this point, the design project is characterized by great flexibility.
Major changes in the concept could be accommodated with out of greater financial

loss. But in this stage, searching on a large scale must come to an end and a final
decision for a particular design can be made or the project must be abandoned as
infeasible. The various steps taken in this design phases are
(1) Developing an overall synthesis of the design project and preparing a major
layout of the system.
(2) Preparing specifications of various sub systems and components on the basis
of master layout.
(3) Deciding various dimensions of components.
(4) Initiating the experiment design by constructing to check untried ideas.
Complete engineering description of a tested and producible product
Form ,dimensions, tolerances, properties, materials and manufacturing
process of each part
Engineering drawings &computer generated drawings-determine assembly
drg,
Before the information passed on to manufacturing
Phase IV: Planning For Manufacture
Process sheet established
List of manufacturing operations that must be performed on the
component
It specifies the form and condition of material and tooling &production
m/cs
Estimation of production cost of the component
Designing specialized tools and fixtures
Specify production plant to be used
Planning the work schedules & inventory control
Planning the quality assurance system
Establishing the standard time and labor cost for each operation
Establish the system of information flow
Phase V: Planning For Distribution
Effective distribution to the consumer of the system

 Marketing, advertising and news media techniques

Shipping Package
Documentation
Shelf Life
Warehouses
After production of the products, the products have to be distributed. Designers
are not directly involved in the distribution activities. His job is finding the
problems of distribution and getting solution for these problems.
In this phase, a plan on effective and flexible system of distribution of designed
goods: Some of the activities which are carried out in this phase are
(1) Design the packaging of the product:
Based on the outer shape of the product, packaging system will be
developed such a way that the transportation cost will be minimum and
safe.
Individual and special packaging may be needed to secure protection
from shock and weather.
Special strapping and palletizing arrangement may be developed to
facilitate handling.
(2) Planning the ware housing system:
Economically favorable locations for warehouse are selected and the
warehousing facilities are designed.
(3) Planning for promotional activity:
brochures/ Technical phamplets, displays based on design features and
test data have to be developed.
(4) Factors such as attractive display, additional attachment features and final
conditioning.
There should be enough flexibility in design to allow
(a) for special modifications to suit customers need,
(b) for adding available optional feature as required by the customer

(c) for modular additions to the system to increase its capacity.

Phase VI: Planning For Use

Consumption is the third phase in the production-consumption cycle. Its
influence on design is very high compare to the other phase of design.
In design for consumption, the following factors must be considered.
(1) Design for maintenance
(2) Design for reliability
(3) Design for safety.
(4) Design for convenience of use.
(5) Design for economic operation.
(6) Design for aesthetic features.
(7) Design for adequate duration of services.
(8) Product improvement based on the service data.
User oriented design process
Ease of maintenance ,reliability, safety, aesthetic appeal ,economy
of operation, duration of service
Phase VII: Planning For Retirement Of The Product
Disposal of the product, end of its useful life
Green design-recycling of materials, remanufacture,
Useful Life
o Deterioration
o Technical Obsolescence
o Fashion or Taste
o Environmental Issues
Industrial Ecology Green Design

o RFI
o Power Consumption

Detailed Morphology of Design

A design project goes through a number of time phases. Morphology of

design refers to the collection of these time phases. The morphology of design as
put forward by Morris Asimow can be elaborated as given below. It consists of
seven phases.

1. Feasibility Study:

This stage is also called conceptual design. A design project always begins
with a feasibility study. The purpose and activities during feasibility study are
To ascertain there really exists a need [ie the existence of need must be
supported by necessary evidences, rather than the outcome of one's fancy]
Search for a number of possible solutions
Evaluate the solutions
i.e. is it physically realisable?
Is it economically worthwhile?
Is it within our financial capacity?

2. Preliminary (Embodiment) Design.

This is the stage art which the concept generated in the feasibility study is
carefully developed. The important activities done at this stage are:
Model building & testing
Study the advantages and disadvantages of different solutions.
Check for performance, quality strength, aesthetics etc.

3. Detail Design

Its purpose is to furnish the complete engineering description of the tested

product. The arrangement, from, dimensions, tolerances and surface properties of
all individual parts are determined. Also, the materials to be used and the
manufacturing process to be adopted etc. are decided. Finally, complete prototype
is tested.

4. Planning for manufacture

This phase includes all the production planning and control activities
necessary for the manufacture of the product. The main tasks at this phase are
Preparation of process sheet, i.e. the document containing a sequential list of
manufacturing processes.
Specify the condition of row materials.
Specify tools & machine requirements.
Estimation of production cost.
Specify the requirement in the plant.
Planning QC systems.
Planning for production control.
Planning for information flow system etc.

5. Planning for Distribution

The economic success of a design depends on the skill exercised in

marketing. Hence, this phase aims at planning an effective distribution system.
Different activities of this phase are

Designing the packing of the product.

Planning effective and economic warehousing systems.
Planning advertisement techniques
Designing the product for effective distribution in the prevailing conditions.

6. Planning for Consumption/use

The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the design all necessary useroriented features. The various steps are

Design for maintenance

Design for reliability
Design for convenience in use
Design for aesthetic features
Design for prolonged life
Design for product improvement on the basis of service data.

7. Planning for Retirement.

This is the phase that takes into account when the product has reached the
end of useful life. A product may retire when

It does not function properly

Another competitive design emerges
Changes of taste or fashion

The various steps in this phase are

Design for several levels of use
Design to reduce the rate of obsolescence.
Examine service-terminated products to obtain useful information.

METHODS OF INNOVATIVE DESIGN

As we know, innovative design is an organized, systematized and logical

approach for solving a design problem. There are two design methods for
innovative design.
1. Design by creative design route

2. Engineering Design

1. Design by creative routs [Creative Design]

This is a design method that demands maximum creativity' from the part of
the designer. Hence this method is also called creative design. Here the designer
finds solutions to problems by allowing his creativity aspects grow in a particular
manner.
A. Creativity

Majority of designs belong to variant design, where the designer simply

modifies an existing system. But the success of engineering design depends on the
modes of thinking and acting distinctively different from others. A creative
designer is distinguished by his ability to synthesize new combinations of ideas
and concepts into meaningful and useful forms. Design is commonly thought of as
a creative process involving the use of imagination and lateral thinking to create
new and different products.

B. Qualities of a creative designer

The creative designer is generally a person of average intelligence, a

visualiser, a hard worker and a constructive non-conformist with average
knowledge about the problem at hand.
Generally, a creative designer has the following qualities.

 Visualization ability.
Creative designers have good ability to visualize, to generate and
manipulate visual images in their heads.

Knowledge
All designers start their job with what they know. During designing,
they make minor modifications of what they already know or, creative
designers create new ideas out of bits of old designs they had seen in the
past. Hence, they must have knowledge of past designs.

Ability to manipulate knowledge

The ability to use the same knowledge in a different way is also an
important quality of a designer.

Risk taking
A person who does not take the risk of making mistakes cannot
become a good designer. For example, Edison tried hundreds of different
light bulb designs before he found the carbon filament.

Non-conformist
There are two types of non-conformists:-constructive and obstructive.
Constructive non-conformists are those who take a firm stand, because they
think they are right. Obstructive non-conformists are those who take a stand
just to have an opposing view. The constructive non-conformists might

generate a good idea. But the obstructive non-conformists will only slow
down the design process. Creative designers are constructive nonconformists, and they want to do things in their own way.

Technique
Creative designers have more than one approach to problem solving.
They are prepared to try alternative techniques, till they reach a satisfactory
solution.

Motivation
They always motivate others in the design team. In such a favourable
environment creativity is further enhanced.

Willingness to practice
Creativity comes with practice. Creative designers are ready to practice for a long
enough period.

2. Roadblocks to Creativity

Fear of making a mistake

Unwillingness to think and act in a way other than the accepted norm.
Desire to conform to standard solutions.

 Unwillingness to try new approaches

Fear of criticism
Lack of knowledge
Overconfidence due to past experience
Unwillingness to reject old solutions
Fear of authority
Difficulty in visualization
Inability to distinguish between cause and effect
Inability to collect complete information
Unwillingness to be different

3. Methods to enhance Creativity

Use of analogy
Asking question from different view points
Memories of past designs
Competitive products
Deliberate day-dreaming
Reading science fictions, etc.

4. Intuition

Intuition means sudden ideas or flashes of inspiration and involves complex

associations of ideas, elaborated in subconscious mind. Intuitive ideas lead to a
large number of good and even excellent solutions.

5. Creative Design Route

Creative design route is the procedure through which a creative design is

born. The success of this design lies with the creativity of the designer. Creative
design route can be practiced by following the sequences shown in figure.

a. Preparation

During preparation period, the designer analyses the need and collect all the
necessary information required at various stages.

b. Concentration

Concentration is the period when the designer digests all the aspects of the
problem situation and tries various possible combinations.
The next step is the incubation period. The designer relaxes away from the problem
for some time.

c. Illumination

Illumination is the sudden insight and throwing up with a solution.

d. verification

The final step is the verification. Now, testing and inspection of the design is
done and the details are completed. For a designer using creative methods for
design, habitual or familiar methods must be avoided.

ENGINEERING DESIGN (Other process)

Another procedure for obtaining innovative design is Engg. Design. Apart

from creativity-approach, this is a logical and intellectual attempt to solve design
problems. It largely depends on discoveries and laws of science.
The different steps in Engg. design process is given below:

Recognition of need

Definition of the problem

Gathering of Information

Conceptualization

Evaluation of concepts

Communication of the design

a. Recognition of the need

Since all design projects are meant for satisfying some need, any design
work starts with Recognition of the need . The need for a design is initiated by
either a market requirement, the development of a new technology or the desire to
improve an existing product.

b. Define the Design problem

Once the need has identified, the next step is to define the design problem .
This is the most critical step in the design process. The definition of the problem
expresses as specifically as possible, what the design is intended to accomplish. It
should include objectives and goals, definitions of any special technical terms, the
constraints on the design and the criteria that will be used to evaluate the designs.

The success of a design project depends on the clarity in the definition of the
problem. Need Analysis is the technique used to define the problem.

c. Collecting information

The next step is collecting information . In many phases of deign process a

large quantity of information may be required. The required information can be
obtained from textbooks, journals, or other agencies

d. Conceptualization

The conceptualization step involves, finding several design ideas to meet the
given need. Inventiveness and creating is very important in this step.
e. Evaluation

The different ideas conceived are weighted and judged in

the evaluation step. The advantages and disadvantages of each idea against its
performance, cost aesthetics etc is valued.

f. communicating

After evaluation, the best design is emerged. This final design with every
detail is furnished in last step-ie c ommunicating the design.

Common features between Creative Design & Engg. Design

The preparation phase in creative design and need analysis in Engg. Design
is more or less common. Both steps deal with analyzing the need.
In both design methods brainstorming and Synetics can be applied.
Reviewing is applicable in both design methods.
For both deigns, the success depends on the clarity with which the need
statement is prepared.
Testing and inspection is applicable for both designs.

Difference between Creative Designs & Engg, Designs

Intelligence is not a must for creative design-but the same is desirable in

Engg. Design.
Creative design is based on use of analogy and synthesis of alternatives
but engineering design is based on proven laws and past experience.
Creative design involves phases like incubation, illumination but no such
philosophy is followed in engineering designs.
Creative person is highly intuitive and independent in thinking and usually
resists working in group but engineering designers like teamwork.
Customs, habits and traditions are enemies of creativity but the same are
required in engineering design.

TRIZ
Once the matrix has been used to find those inventive principles candidates to
solve the engineering contradiction, they can be applied to generate solutions for
the problem at hand. These inventive principles can also be used independently of
the contradiction matrix as a source of ideas to solve conflicts. The forty TRIZ
design principles to solve engineering conflicts are Forty inventive principles
1. Principle of segmentation
Divide an object into independent parts that are easy to disassemble.
Increase the degree of segmentation as much as possible.
Examples:
Sectional furniture, modular computer components, folding wooden ruler,
food processor.
Garden hoses can be joined together to form any length needed. Drill shafts.
2. Principle of removal
Remove the disturbing part or property of the object.
Remove the necessary part or property of the object.
To scare birds from buildings and airports, reproduce the sound of a scare
bird using a tape recorder.
Hovercraft.
3. Principle of local quality
Change the structure of the object or environment from homogeneous to
non-homogeneous.
Have deterrent parts of the object carry out different functions.
Place each part of the object under conditions most favorable for its
operation.
Examples:

 Fuselage skin of commercial airplanes.

Stapler. A pencil and an eraser in one unit.
4. Principle of asymmetry
Make an object asymmetrical.
Increase the object asymmetry.
Examples:
Eccentric weight on motor creates vibration
5. Principle of joining
Merge homogeneous objects or those intended for contiguous (adjacent)
operations.
Combine in time homogeneous or contiguous operations.
Examples:
TV/VCR, Cassette tape heads.
The working element of a rotary excavator has special steam nozzles to
defrost and soften frozen ground in a single step.
6. Principle of universality
Let one object perform several different functions.
Remove redundant objects.
Examples:
Sofa which converts from a sofa in the daytime to a bed at night.
Fingernail clipper.
7. The nesting principle
Place one object inside another, which in turn is placed in a third, etc.

 Let an object pass through a cavity into another.

Examples:
Telescoping antenna, stacking chairs.
Mechanical pencil with lead stored inside.
8. Principle of counterweight
Compensate for the weight of an object by joining it with another object that
has a lifting force.
Compensate for the weight of an object by interaction with an environment
providing aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces.

Examples:
Boat with hydrofoils, hot air balloon.
Rear wings in racing cars to increase the pressure from the car to the ground.
9. Principle of preliminary counteraction
Perform a counter-action to the desired action before the desired action is
performed.
Examples:
Reinforced concrete column or oor. Reinforced shaft.
10. Principle of preliminary action
Perform the required action before it is needed.
Set up the object such that they can perform their action immediately when
required.
Examples:
Cutter blades ready to be snapped o_ when old.
Correction tape.

11. Principle of introducing protection in advance

Compensate for the low reliability of an object by introducing protections
against accidents before the action is performed.
Examples:
Fuses, electric breakers. Shaft couplers.
Shoplifting protection by means of magnetized plates in products.
12. Principle of equipotentiality
Change the conditions such that the object does not need to be raised or
lowered.
Examples:
Pit for change oil, Loading dock, airport gate.
13. Principle of opposite solution
Implement the opposite action of what is specified.
Make a moving part fixed and the fixed part mobile.
Turn the object upside down.
Examples:
Abrasively cleaning parts by vibrating the parts instead of the abrasive.
Lathe, Mill.
14. Principle of spheroidality

Switch from linear to curvilinear paths, from flat to spherical surfaces, etc.
Make use of rollers, ball bearings, spirals.
Switch from direct to rotation motion.
Use centrifugal force.

Examples:
Computer mouse.
Screw lift.
15. Principle of dynamism
Make the object or environment able to change to become optimalat any
stage of work.
Make the object consist of parts that can move relative to each other.
If the object is fixed, make it movable.
Examples:
A flashlight with flexible neck.
Bicycle drivetrain and derailer.
16. Principle of partial or excessive action
If it is difficult to obtain 100% of a desired effect, achieve somewhat more
or less to greatly simplify the problem.
Examples:
Raincoats, snowboards.
17. Principle of moving into a new dimension

Increase the degrees of freedom of the object.

Use a multi-layered assembly instead of a single layer.
Incline the object or turn it on its side.
Use the other side of an area.

Examples:
A computer mouse where a 2D screen is transformed into a horizontal
mouse pad.
A composite wing where loads are in only one direction per layer.

18. Use of mechanical vibrations

Make the object vibrate.
Increase the frequency of vibration.
Use resonance, piezovibrations, ultrasonic, or electromagnetic vibrations.
Examples:
Vibrating casting molds.
Quartz clocks.
19. Principle of periodic action
Use periodic or pulsed actions, change periodicity.
Use pauses between impulses to change the effect.
Examples:
Hammer drill.
Emergency flashing lights.
20. Principle of uninterrupted useful effect
Keep all parts of the object constantly operating at full power.
Remove idle and intermediate motions.
Examples:
Steam turbine, mechanical watch.
21. Principle of rushing through
Carry out a process or individual stages of a process at high speeds.
Examples:
Cutting thin wall plastic tubes at very high speeds so cutting action occurs
before deformation.

22. Principle of turning harm into good

Use harmful factor to obtain a positive effect.
Remove a harmful factor by combining it with other harmful factors.
Strengthen a harmful factor to the extent where it ceases to be harmful.
Examples:
Medical defibrillator. Use of high frequency current to heat the outer surface
of metals for heat treatment.
23. The feedback principle
Introduce feedback.
If feedback already exists, reverse it.
Examples:
Air conditioning systems.
Noise canceling devices.
24. The go between principles
Use an intermediary object to transfer or transmit the action.
Merge the object temporarily with another object that can be easily taken
away.
Examples:
Gear trains.
25. The self-service principle
The object should service and repair itself.
Use waste products from the object to produce the desired actions.
Examples:

 Nail resistant tires.

26. The copying principle
Instead of unavailable, complicated or fragile objects, use a simplified cheap
copy.
Replace an object by its optical copy, make use of scale effects.
If visible copies are used, switch to infrared or ultraviolet copies.
Examples:
Rapid prototyping. Crash test dummies.
Measure shadows instead of actual objects.
27. Cheap short life instead of expensive longevity
Replace an expensive object that has long life with many cheap objects
having shorter life.
Examples:
Inkjet printer heads embedded in ink cartridges. Cardboard box.
28. Replacement of a mechanical pattern
Replace a mechanical pattern by an optical, acoustical or odor pattern.
Use electrical, magnetic or electromagnetic fields to interact with the object.
Switch from fixed to movable fields changing over time.
Go from unstructured to structured fields.
Examples:
CD player.
Microwave oven. Crane with electromagnetic plate.

29. Use of pneumatic or hydraulic solutions

 Replace solid parts or an object by gas or liquid.

Examples:
Power steering. Bubble envelopes.
30. Using flexible membranes and fine membranes
Replace customary constructions with flexible membranes and thin film.
Isolate an object from outside environment with thin film or fine
membranes.
Examples:
Dome tent. High Altitude Balloon.
31. Using porous materials
Make the object porous or use porous elements.
If the object is already porous, all the pores in advance with some useful
substance.
Examples:
Running shoe soles. Air filters.
32. The principle of using color
Change the color or translucency of an object or its surroundings.
Use colored additives to observe certain objects or processes.
If such additives are already used, employ luminescence traces.
Examples:
Transparent bandage. Roadway signs.
33. The principle of homogeneity

 Interacting objects should be made of the same material, or material with

identical properties.
Examples:
Shaft and bushing.

34. The principle of discarding and regenerating parts

Once a part has ful_lled its purpose and is no longer necessary, it should
automatically be discarded or disappear.
Parts that become useful after a while should be automatically generated.
Examples:
Multistage rockets. Bullet castings.
35. Changing the aggregate state of an object
Change the aggregate state of an object, concentration or density, the degree
of flexibility or its temperature.
Examples:
Heat packs. Light sticks.
36. The use of phase changes
Use phenomena occurring in phase changes like change of volume and
liberation or absorption of heat.
Examples:
Fire extinguisher.
37. Application of thermal expansion
Use expansion or contraction of materials by heat.
use materials with different thermal expansion coefficients.
Examples:
Thermometers. Bimetallic plates.

38. Using strong oxidation agents

Replace air with enriched air or replace enriched air with oxygen.
Treat the air or oxygen with ionizing radiation.
Use ionized oxygen or ozone.
Examples:
Metal forming ovens. Torch cutting.
39. Using an inert atmosphere
Replace the normal environment with an inert one.
Carry out the process in a vacuum.
Examples:
Aluminum cans for beverages. Arc welding.

40. Using composite materials

Replace a homogeneous material with a composite one.
Examples:
Steel belted tires. Tennis racquets. High performance aircraft wings.

Divergence, Transformation & Convergence

The entire design process can be said to have composed of three distinct
phases Viz. Divergence, Transformation and Convergence phases.

The problem definition, need analysis and conceptualization etc. aims at

generating as many ideas as possible to solve a given design problem. Thus, these
activities belong to the Divergence phase.
That activity wherein the concept is converted into physical object is termed
as transformation phase. The convergence is a narrowing process, where the best
optimal solution is tried for, by eliminating unwanted ideas.

Design Process Using Advanced Technology

Although Engineering is a major sector of the economy in a developing

country. It has not been benefited greatly from advances in computer technology.
Engineers still use computers only in peripheral tasks, such as drafting and
analyzing, but not in making fundamental design decisions. Current computer tools
such as computer-aided drafting' are restricted to the end of the design process and
play no fundamental role in aiding design. It aids only in the final drafting of the
specifications. Computer-aided Design, (CAD) means a class of tools for crating
drawing, or the physical description of the object. CAD systems have been
sophisticated and 2D and 3D models are available.
The CAD allows the designer to conceptualize objects more easily. The
design process in CAD system consists of the following stages.
o Geometric modeling
o Analysis and optimization
o Evaluation
o Documentation and drafting
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY

Why Design for Assembly?

Design for Assembly is an exercise to facilitate ease of assembly when
manufacturing a component with multiple parts. Obviously, the reduction in the total
number of parts for an assembly has the added benefit of reducing the total cost of
parts in the assembly. Design for Assembly should ideally be considered at various
stages during the selection of material, shape and processes so that the overall
manufacturability and assembly of the component are facilitated.
Assembly Processes and Guidelines
The assembly processes involve the proper placement and appropriate integration of
more than one parts to manufacture a final component. The assembly processes can
be broadly classified into three classes: Adhesives, Fasteners and Welding. These
classes can be further divided into several sub-classes.

UNIT II

Quality Function Deployment

QFD is a planning and problem-solving tool that is finding growing

acceptance for translating customer requirements into the engineering
characteristics of a product.
Group decision-making activity
Graphical representatin using a diagram called House of Quality

1.Customer Requirements:
Affinity diagram
Used organize the ideas, facts, opinions

2.Competitive assessment:
Competitive product rank w.r.to two or three products scale 1-5,
3.Important ratings:
Product of customer importance, improvement ratio and sales point.
Relative weight:
Each value of importance weight divided by sum of all values of importance
weight
Sum of relative weight is equal to unity
4. Engineering characteristics
Satisfying the customer requirements are listed in column.
Characteristics that can be measure and given target value weight ,force,
velocity and etc..,
+ indicates higher value is better.
- Lower value is better
5.The correlation matrix
The degree of interdependence among the engineering characteristics in the
roof of house .

9 or . a strong relationship
3 or O medium relationship

6.Relationship matrix
the correlation between the engineering characteristics and customer
requirements

 Non linear scale 9/3/1/0 weight disproposonality those ECs strongly

effect customer requirements
7.Absolute importance:
multiply the numerical value in each of the cells of the relationship
matrix[6] by the importance rating [3] then sum of the numbers in the
cells each column
8.Relative importance
normalized scale 1 to 100 each value absolute importance divide by total and
multiply by 100

9.Technical competitive assessment bench mark ,scale1 to 5

10.Technical Difficulty: Ease with which each of the ease ECs can be achived.
1- low probability success
5- high probability of success
11.Target value satisfy the requirements
By knowing important ECs ,technical competition , feel for the
technical difficulty team to said target value for each ECs

From customer requirement to production planning

Part
Characteristics

Engineering
Process
Characteristics
Parameters

Customer Requirements

Customer Requirements

Engineering
Characteristics

Target Values

Product
Planning

Target Values

Part
Deployment

Manufacturing
Planning

Product Design Specification (PDS)

The basic control and reference documents for the design and manufacture
of the product .
The PDS is a documents which contains all of the facts related to the
outcome of the product development .
Elements
performance
speed

Production
Planning

capacity
power
accuracy
In-use purpose & market
Product title
Function the product is to perform
Special features of the product
What is the intended market?
Relationship of the product to the other company products
Target company selling price and estimated retail price
Functional requirements
Functional performance : flow of energy, information, materials
,operational steps, accuracy, efficiency
Physical requirements:
Size, weight,shape,surface finish
Service requirement:
Factory floor, transportation, humidity , dirt,
Life cycle issues:
human factors:
Useful life
aesthetics
Reliability
man-m/c interface
Robustness
user training
Maintainability
Testability
Repairability
Installability
Retirement from service and recyclability
Cost of operation
Corporative constraints:
Time to market
Manufacturing requirement
Suppliers

 Financial performance
Corporate ethics
Social ,political, legal requirements:
Safety and environmental regulations
Standards
Product liability
Patents and intellectual property
Complete possible outset of design
Quantitative
ERGONOMIC NEEDS
Planning the workflow to eliminate unnecessary lifting, lowering and
carrying of materials
Organizing work so that physical demands and work pace increase gradually
Minimizing distances materials are lifted, lowered and carried
Reduce the frequency of lifting, lowering and carrying and the amount of
time spent in these tasks by rotating workers through tasks
Clear spaces to improve access to materials being handled which allows
workers to get closer and reduces reaching, bending and twisting

PROCESS OF IDENTIFYING CUSTOMER REQUIREMENTS

Define the Scope
Mission Statement
Gather Raw Data
Interviews
Focus Groups
Observation

 Interpret Raw Data

Need Statements
Organize the Needs
Hierarchy
Establish Importance
Surveys
Quantified Needs
Reflect on the Process
Continuous Improvement
Example: Screwdriver Project
Product Description
A hand-held, power-assisted device for installing threaded fasteners
Key Business Goals
Product introduced in 4th Q of 2000
50% gross margin
10% share of cordless screwdriver market by 2004
Primary Market
Do-it-yourself consumer
Secondary Markets
Casual consumer
Light-duty professional
Assumptions
Hand-held
Power assisted
Nickel-metal-hydride rechargeable battery technology
Stakeholders
User

 Retailer
Sales force
Service center
Production
Legal department
The process:
1. Gather raw data from customers
2. Interpret raw data in terms of customer needs
3. Organize needs into a hierarchy (primary, secondary, etc.)
4. Establish relative importance of each need
5. Reflect on the results and the process
2. Gather raw data from customers
1. Interviews
2. Focus groups
3. Observing product in use
3. Interpret raw data in terms of customer needs
1. Express need as what, not how
2. Express the need as specifically as the raw data
3. Use positive, not negative, phrasing
4. Express the need as an attribute to the product
5. Avoid the words must and should
3. Organize needs into a hierarchy
(one method)
Print each need on separate card/post-it
Eliminate redundant statements
Group cards according to similar needs met
Choose a label for each group
Create supergroups (2 to 5 groups) where possible
Review / edit the organized need statements
4. Establish relative importance of each need
Develop a weighting system for customer needs:

 Rely on consensus of the team based on their experience

with customers
Or
Use further customer surveys
5. Reflect on the results and the process
Are results consistent with results of teams interaction with the
customers?
Have all important types of customers in target market been interacted
with?
What do we know that we didnt know when we started? Any
surprises?
How can we improve the process?
PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ETHICAL CONFLICTS.
1. DETERMINE whether there is an ethical issue or/and dilemma. Is there
a conflict of values, or rights, or professional responsibilities? (For example, there
may be an issue of self-determination of an adolescent versus the well-being of the
family.)
2. IDENTIFY the key values and principles involved. What meanings and
limitations are typically attached to these competing values? (For example, rarely
is confidential information held in absolute secrecy; however, typically decisions
about access by third parties to sensitive content should be contracted with clients.)
3. RANK the values or ethical principles which - in your professional
judgement - are most relevant to the issue or dilemma.What reasons can you
provide for prioritizing one competing value/principle over another? (For example,
your client's right to choose a beneficial course of action could bring hardship or
harm to others who would be affected.)
4. DEVELOP an action plan that is consistent with the ethical priorities
that have been determined as central to the dilemma.Have you conferred with
clients and colleagues, as appropriate, about the potential risks and consequences
of alternative courses of action? Can you support or justify your action plan with
the values/principles on which the plan is based? (For example, have you conferred

with all the necessary persons regarding the ethical dimensions of planning for a
battered wife's quest to secure secret shelter and the implications for her teen-aged
children?)
5. IMPLEMENT your plan, utilizing the most appropriate practice skills
and competencies. How will you make use of core social work skills such as
sensitive communication, skillful negotiation, and cultural competence? (For
example, skillful colleague or supervisory communication and negotiation may
enable an impaired colleague to see her/his impact on clients and to take
appropriate action.)
6. REFLECT on the outcome of this ethical decision making process. How
would you evaluate the consequences of this process for those involved: Client(s),
professional(s), and agency (ies)? (Increasingly, professionals have begun to seek
support, further professional training, and consultation through the development of
Ethics review Committees or Ethics Consultation processes.)

Instructional objectives

The primary objective of this lecture module is to outline how to identify the need
and define the problem so as to begin with the activities and steps involved in design
for manufacturing process
Steps involved in Engineering Design process
Figure 1.1.1 schematically outlines the typical steps involved in an engineering
design process.

Fig. Discrete steps involved in engineering design process. It also mentions the
important techniques used in each steps.
Conceptual design
It is a process in which we initiate the design and come up with a number of design
concepts and then narrow down to the single best concept. This involved the

following steps.
1. Identification of customer needs: The mail objective of this is to completely
understand the customers needs and to communicate them to the design team
2. Problem definition: The mail goal of this activity is to create a statement that
describes what all needs to be accomplished to meet the needs of the
customers requirements.
3. Gathering Information: In this step, we collect all the information that can be
helpful for developing and translating the customers needs into engineering
design.
4. Conceptualization: In this step, broad sets of concepts are generated that can
potentially satisfy the problem statement
5. Concept selection: The main objective of this step is to evaluate the various
design concepts, modifying and evolving into a single preferred concept.
Embodiment design
It is a process where the structured development of the design concepts takes place. It
is in this phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size shape and
spatial compatibility. Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks
product architecture, configuration design, and parametric design.
1. Product architecture: It is concerned with dividing the overall design system
into small subsystems and modules. It is in this step we decide how the
physical components of the design are to be arranged in order to combine them
to carry out the functional duties of the design.
2. Configuration design: In this process we determine what all features are
required in the various parts / components and how these features are to be
arranged in space relative to each other.
Parametric design: It starts with information from the configuration design process

and aims to establish the exact dimensions and tolerances of the product. Also, final
decisions on the material and manufacturing processes are done if it has not been
fixed in the previous process. One of the important aspects of parametric designs is
to examine if the design is robust or not.
Detail design
It is in this phase the design is brought to a state where it has the complete
engineering description of a tested and a producible product. Any missing
information about the arrangement, form, material, manufacturing process,
dimensions, tolerances etc of each part is added and detailed engineering drawing
suitable for manufacturing are prepared.
Need identification & Problem Definition
Out of all the steps in the engineering design process, the definition of the problem is
by far the most important step. A complete and thorough understanding the problem
is prerequisite in achieving the targeted solution. For example, the ultimate test of a
product is how well it sells. However, it is first essential to understand and provide
what a customer wants in the product which can only be achieved by defining the
problem precisely at the first place.
a. Prior activities
In majority of the situations, a significant amount of development work precedes
the tight definition of a design problem. These a-priori development works can
generally be referred to planning. The primary purpose of the planning stages is
to collect all the necessary information and to decide, for example, whether
manufacturing a new product is feasible or what would be the best time to market
a new or modified product, or whether a specific company has the adequate
resource to manufacture a new product. Usually the initial design projects can be
categorized as follows
Variation of existing product

This includes minor changes in few parameters of an existing the product e.g. change
in the power of a motor or change in the design of a typical clamping bracket, and so
on.
Improvement in an existing product
This involves major redesign of an existing product primarily to improve
performance and quality, update features (may be due to competitions), reduce cost in
manufacturing and so on.
Development of a new product for a low-volume production run
This is primarily referred to new parts or products that would possibly be
manufactured in smaller number of units (e.g. < 10000). In many cases, a large
manufacturing unit may wish to buy standard available components available from
smaller manufacturing units rather than actually making the same to avoid additional
costs.
Development of a new product for mass production
These include products or parts which need to be produced in large volumes e.g. in
the category of automobiles, home appliance etc. Such design projects provide the
design engineer the flexibility in selecting appropriate material and manufacturing
process through careful planning.
One-of-a-kind design
Such projects can vary from a simple, quick design requiring minimum of analysis
like designing of a welding fixture to hold parts to large exclusive projects such as
building of a 200-MW steam turbine.

Product life cycle

Every product goes through a cycle from birth, followed by an initial growth stage, a
relatively stable matured period, and finally into a declining stage that eventually
ends in the death of the product as shown schematically in Figure
1. Introduction stage: In this stage the product is new and the customer
acceptance is low and hence the sales are low.
2. Growth stage: Knowledge of the product and its capabilities reaches to a
growing number of customers.
3. Maturity stage: The product is widely acceptable and sales are now stable, and
it grows with the same rate as the economy as a whole grows.
4. Decline stage: At some point of time the product enters the decline stage. Its
sales start decreasing because of a new and a better product has entered the
market to fulfill the same customer requirements.

Figure Schematic outline of a product life cycle