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Introduction
Single-phase induction motors are the most familiar of all electric motors because they are
used in home appliances, businesses, and small industries. In general, they are employed
when three-phase power is not available. Single-phase induction motors are usually twopole or four-pole, rated at 2 hp or less, while slower and larger motor can be manufactured
for special purposes. They are widely used in domestic appliances and for a very large
number of low power drives in industry. The single phase induction motor resembles, threephase, squirrel-cage motor except that, at full speed, only a single winding in the stator is
excited.
In a single-phase motor we have only a single field winding excited with alternating current;
therefore, it does not have a revolving field like three-phase motors. Thus, it does not selfstarting. Several methods have been devised to initiate rotation of the squirrel-cage rotor
and the particular method employed to start the motor will designate the specific type.

Single Phase Induction Motor

The current in each winding produces a magnetic field that is also

increasing in the upward direction. Since two rotor conductors that
are 180" electrical apart form a closed loop, the rotor conductors can
then be paired as shown. Examine one of the closed loops, say the
loop formed by conductors 2 and 2'. The flux passing through this
loop induces an emf and thereby a current in this loop. The direction
of the current in the loop is such that it
produces a magnetic flux which tends to oppose the increase in the
magnetic flux
set up in the windings. For this to happen, the current must flow out
of conductor
2 and into conductor 2', as shown by the dot and the cross,
respectively. In the
same way, we can determine the currents in the other conductors.
Each currentcarrying
conductor must experience a force in accordance with the Lorentz
force equation. The direction of the force acting on each conductor is
also indicated in Figure .The forces experienced by conductors 1, 2,

3, and 4 in unison withconductors l', 2', 3', and 4' tend to rotate the
rotor in the counterclockwise direction.
However, the rotation is opposed by the forces acting on the
remaining conductors.
The symmetric placement of the rotor conductors ensures that the
motor conductors l', 2', 3', and 4' tend to rotate the rotor in the
counterclockwise direction.
However, the rotation is opposed by the forces acting on the
remaining conductors.
The symmetric placement of the rotor conductors ensures that the
motor
develops equal torque in both directions and the net torque
developed by it is
zero. Hence the rotor remains in its standstill position.
As mentioned earlier, if the rotor is made to rotate in any direction
while the
single-phase winding is excited, the motor develops torque in that
direction.develops equal torque in both directions and the net torque
developed by it is zero. Hence the rotor remains in its standstill
position.
As mentioned earlier, if the rotor is made to rotate in any direction
while the single-phase winding is excited, the motor develops torque
in that direction.

Double Revolving-Field Theory

According to this theory, a magnetic field that pulsates in time but is
stationary
in space can be resolved into two revolving magnetic fields that are
equal in
magnitude but revolve in opposite directions. Let us consider the
standstill condition
of the rotor again. The magnetic field produced by the motor
pulsates up
and down with time, and at any instant its magnitude may be given
as
B = B, cos of (10.1)

where B, is the maximum flux density in the motor.

The flux density B can be resolved into two components B, and B,
such that
the magnitude of B , is equal to the magnitude of B,. Thus, B, = B, =
0.5 B. If we
assume that B, rotates in the clockwise direction, the direction of
rotation of B, is
counterclockwiseAn emf is induced in the rotor circuit owing
to each revolving field. The polarity of the induced emf in the rotor
due to one
revolving field is in opposition to the other. Thus, the rotor currents
induced by
the two revolving fields circulate in opposite directions. However, at
standstill,
the slip in either direction is the same (s = 1) and so is the rotor
impedance.
Therefore, the starting currents in the rotor conductors are equal and
opposite. In
other words, the starting torque developed by each revolving field is
the same.
Since the direction of the starting torque developed by one revolving
field opposes
the other, the net torque developed by the motor is zero. This is the
same conclusion
we arrived at before. However, we have gained some insight into the
operation
of a single-phase induction motor according to the double revolvingfield
theory. We can look upon a single-phase induction motor as if it
consists of two
motors with a common stator winding but with rotors revolving in
opposite directions.

Equivalent circuit of the single phase induction motor

One section of the rotor circuit is usually referred to as the forward

branch,
and the other is called the backward branch. When the motor
rotates, say in the
clockwise direction, the forward branch represents the effect of the
revolving field
in that direction. In this case, the backward branch corresponds to
the rotor circuit
associated with the counterclockwise revolving field. At standstill,
both branches
have the same impedance. The rotor circuit currents are also the
same, and the
same is true for the torques developed. Thus, when the rotor is at
rest, the net
torque developed by it is zero. We usually speak of torque developed
by a branch.
What we really mean is the torque developed by the rotor resistance
in that particular
branch.
the rotor is rotating in the clockwise direction with

a speed Nm. The magnetic field revolving in the clockwise direction

has a synchronous
speed of Ns, (Ns, = 120f/P). The synchronous speed of the
revolving field
in the counterclockwise direction is then -Ns. The per-unit slip in the
forward
(clockwise) direction is

FIGURE: Equivalent circuit of induction motor at any slip s

ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

From the equivalent circuit we obtain the effective impedance of
forward and backward branch as :

I2F : Rotor current in forward branch

I2F =I1(jXm)/{(r2/s)+j(X2+XM)}
I2B : Rotor current in the backward branch
I2B= I1(jXm)/{(r2/2-s)+j(X2+XM)}
Air gap power due to the forward and backward revolving fields are :
Pagf =(I1)2RF
Pagb =(I1)2Rb
The net air gap power is
Pag = Pagf - Pagb
Pd=(1-s) Pag
Hence , the torque developed by the single phase motor is :
Td=Pag/wS
The power available at the shaft is
PO=PD-PR

PR :rotational loss of motor

The load torque is :
Ts=Po/wm
The torque developed by the forward and revolving fields is :
Tdf=Pagf/wS
Tdb=Pagb/wS
The net torque developed by the motor is
Td = Tdf - Tdb

Speed torque characteristic of a single phase induction motor

TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Each single-phase induction motor derives its name from the method
used to
make it self-starting. Some of the motors discussed in this section
are split-phase

motor, capacitor-start motor, capacitor-start capacitor-run motor,

and permanent
split-capacitor motor. The currents in the two phase windings are 90"
electrical
out of phase with each other. The placement of the two phase
windings in space
quadrature in a single-phase motor is no problem. However, the
artificial creation
of a second phase requires some basic understanding of resistive,
inductive, and
capacitive networks.

Split-Phase Motor
This is one of the most widely used induction motors for
mechanical applications in the fractional horsepower
range. The motor employs two separate windings that are
placed in space quadrature and are connected in parallel
to a single-phase source. One winding, known as the main
winding, has a low resistance and high inductance. This
winding carries current and establishes the needed flux at
the rated speed. The second winding, called the auxiliary
winding, has a high resistance and low inductance. This
winding is disconnected from the supply when the motor
attains a speed of nearly 75% of its synchronous speed. A
centrifugal switch is commonly used to disconnect the
auxiliary winding from the source at a predetermined
speed. The disconnection is necessary to avoid the
excessive power loss in the auxiliary winding at full load .

Capacitor Start Motor

In a capacitor-start motor a capacitor is included in series with
the auxiliary winding.
If the capacitor value is properly chosen, it is possible to design
a capacitorstart
motor such that the main-winding current lags the auxiliarywinding current

Capacitor start motor

by exactly 90". Therefore, the starting torque developed by a

capacitor motor can
be as good as that of any polyphase motor.
Once again, the auxiliary winding and the capacitor are
disconnected at about
75% of the synchronous speed. Therefore, at the rated speed
the capacitor-start
motor operates only on the main winding like a split-phase
induction motor. The
need for an external capacitor makes the capacitor-start motor
somewhat more
expensive than a split-phase motor.

Capacitor-Start Capacitor-Run Motor

Although the split-phase and capacitor-start motors are
designed to satisfy the rated load requirements, they have low
power factor at the rated speed. The lower the power factor,
the higher the power input for the same power output. Thus,
the efficiency of a single-phase motor is lower than that of a
polyphase induction motor of the same size. For example, the
efficiency of a capacitor-start or a splitphase single-phase
motor is usually 50% to 60% in the fractional horsepower
range. On the other hand, for the same application, a threephase induction motor may have an efficiency of 70%) to 80%.

 Permanent Split-Capacitor Motor

A less expensive version of a CSCR motor is called a permanent
split-capacitor
(PSC) motor. A PSC motor uses the same capacitor for both
starting and full load.
Since the auxiliary winding and the capacitor stay in the circuit
as long as the
motor operates, there is no need for a centrifugal switch. For
this reason, the motor
length is smaller than for the other types discussed above. The
capacitor is usually
selected to obtain high efficiency at the rated load. Since the
capacitor is not properly matched to develop optimal starting
torque, the starting torque of a PSC
motor is lower than that of a CSCR motor. PSC motors are,
therefore, suitable for
blower applications with minimal starting torque requirements.
These motors are
also good candidates for applications that require frequent
starts. Other types of
motors discussed above tend to overheat when started
frequently, and this may
badly affect the reliability of the entire system.

TESTING OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Similar to a three phase induction motor, the various tests can be
performed on single phase induction motor. The results of these
tests can be used to obtain the equivalent circuit parameters of a
single phase induction motor. The tests usually conducted are :
1. No load test or open circuit test
2. Blocked rotor test or short circuit test

1. No load test
The test is conducted by rotating the motor without load. The
input current, voltage and power are measured by connecting the
ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter in the circuit. These readings are
denoted as Vo , Io and Wo .
Now
Wo = Vo Io cos

The motor speed on no load is almost equal to its synchronous

speed hence for practical purposes, the slip can be assumed zero.
Hence r2/s becomes and acts as open circuit in the equivalent
circuit. Hence for forward rotor circuit, the branch r 2/s + j x2 gets
eliminated.
While for a backward rotor circuit, the term r 2/(2 - s) tends to
r2/2. Thus xo is much higher then the impedance r 2/2 + j x2. Hence it
can be assumed that no current can flow through and that branch
can be eliminated.
So circuit reduces to as shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1
Now the voltage across xo is VAB

But
...
But

VAB = Io xo
xo = VAB /Io
xo = Xo /2

Thus magnetising reactance Xo can be determined.

The no load power Wo is nothing but the rotational losses.

2. Blocked Rotor Test

In balanced rotor test, the rotor is held fixed so that it will not
rotate. A reduced voltage is applied to limit the short circuit current.
This voltage is adjusted with the help of autotransformer so that the
rated current flows through main winding. The input voltage, current
and power are measured by connecting voltmeter, ammeter and
wattmeter respectively. These readings are denoted as V sc , Isc and
Wsc.
Now as rotor is blocked, the slip s = 1 hence the magnetising
reactance xo is much higher than the rotor impedance and hence it
can be neglected as connected in parallel with the rotor. Thus the
equivalent circuit for blocked rotor test is as shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

Now
But
...

Wsc = Vsc Isc cos sc

cos sc =Wsc /Vsc Isc
= blocked rotor power factor
Zeq = Vsc/ Isc
Req = Wsc /( Isc)2
Req = R1 + R2
R2 = Req - R1
= rotor resistance referred to stator
Xeq =(Zeq 2 - Req 2)
X1 = X2 we get,

The stator resistance is measured by voltmeter-ammeter

method, by disconnecting the auxiliary winding and capacitors
present if any. Due to skin effect, the a.c. resistance is 1.2 to 1.5
times more than the d.c. resistance.
Key point : Thus with two tests, all the parameters of single
phase induction motor can be obtained.

Shaded Pole Single Phase Induction

Motor

The stator of the shaded pole single phase induction motor has
salient or projected poles. These poles are shaded by copper band or
ring which is inductive in nature. The poles are divided into two
unequal halves. The smaller portion carries the copper band and is
called as shaded portion of the pole.
ACTION: When a single phase supply is given to the stator of shaded
pole induction motor an alternating flux is produced . This change of

flux induces emf in the shaded coil. Since this shaded portion is
short circuited, the current is produced in it in such a direction to
oppose the main flux. The flux in shaded pole lags behind the flux in
the unshaded pole. The phase difference between these two fluxes
produces resultant rotating flux.
We know that the stator winding current is alternating in nature and
so is the flux produced by the stator current. In order to clearly
understand the working of shaded pole induction motor consider
three regions1.

When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly

maximum positive value.

2.

When the flux remains almost constant at its

maximum value.

3.

When the flux decreases from maximum positive

value to zero.
REGION 1: When the flux changes its value from zero to nearly
maximum positive value In this region the rate of rise of flux and
hence current is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever
there is change in flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is
short circuit the current starts flowing in the copper band due to this
induced emf. This current in copper band produces its own flux. Now
according to Lenz's law the direction of this current in copper band is
such that it opposes its own cause i.e rise in current. So the shaded
ring flux opposes the main flux, which leads to the crowding of flux
in non shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in shaded part. This
non uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in the
middle of the non shaded part.
REGION 2: When the flux remains almost constant at its maximum
value In this region the rate of rise of current and hence flux
remains almost constant. Hence there is very little induced emf in
the shaded portion. The flux produced by this induced emf has no

effect on the main flux and hence distribution of flux remains

uniform and the magnetic axis lies at the center of the pole.
REGION 3: When the flux decreases from maximum positive value
to zero - In this region the rate of decrease in the flux and hence
current is very high. According to Faraday's law whenever there is
change in flux emf gets induced. Since the copper band is short
circuit the current starts flowing in the copper band due to this
induced emf. This current in copper band produces its own flux. Now
according to Lenz's law the direction of the current in copper band is
such that it opposes its own cause i.e decrease in current. So the
shaded ring flux aids the main flux, which leads to the crowding of
flux in shaded part of stator and the flux weaken in non shaded part.
This non uniform distribution of flux causes magnetic axis to shift in
the middle of the shaded part of the pole.
This shifting of magnetic axis continues for negative cycle also and
leads to the production of rotating magnetic field. The direction of
this field is from non shaded part of the pole to the shaded part of
the pole.