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Perinatal mortality is late fetal death (22 weeks gestation to birth), or death of a newborn up to one
week postpartum.[2]
0-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100
100-110
No data
2 Causes
The leading causes of infant mortality are birth asphyxia, pneumonia, pre-term birth complications, diarrhoea, malaria, measles and malnutrition.[1] Many factors
contribute to infant mortality such as the mothers level
of education, environmental conditions, and political and
medical infrastructure. Improving sanitation, access to
clean drinking water, immunization against infectious
diseases, and other public health measures could help reduce high rates of infant mortality.
Leading causes of congenital infant mortality are malformations, sudden infant death syndrome, maternal complications during pregnancy, and accidents and unintentional injuries.[4] Environmental and social barriers prevent access to basic medical resources and thus contribute
to an increasing infant mortality rate; 99% of infant
deaths occur in developing countries, and 86% of these
deaths are due to infections, premature births, complications during delivery, and perinatal asphyxia and birth
injuries.[2] Greatest percentage reduction of infant mortality occurs in countries that already have low rates of
infant mortality.[5] Common causes are preventable with
low-cost measures. In the United States, a primary determinant of infant mortality risk is infant birth weight with
lower birth weights increasing the risk of infant mortality. The determinants of low birth weight include socioeconomic, psychological, behavioral and environmental
factors.[6]
2.1 Medical
Causes of infant mortality that are related to medical reasons include: low birth weight, sudden infant death syndrome, malnutrition and infectious diseases, including
Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths of neglected tropical diseases.
children less than one year of age per 1000 live births.
The rate for a given region is the number of children dying
2.1.1 Low birth weight
under one year of age, divided by the number of live births
during the year, multiplied by 1,000.[2]
Main article: Low birth weight
Classication
CAUSES
Low birth weight makes up 6080% of the infant mortality rate in developing countries. The New England Journal of Medicine stated that The lowest mortality rates
occur among infants weighing 3,000 to 3,500 g (6.6 to
7.7 lb). For infants born weighing 2,500 g (5.5 lb) or
less, the mortality rate rapidly increases with decreasing
weight, and most of the infants weighing 1,000 g (2.2 lb)
or less die. As compared with normal-birth-weight infants, those with low weight at birth are almost 40 times
more likely to die in the neonatal period; for infants
with very low weight at birth the relative risk of neonatal
death is almost 200 times greater. Infant mortality due to
low birth weight is usually a direct cause stemming from
other medical complications such as preterm birth, poor
maternal nutritional status, lack of prenatal care, maternal sickness during pregnancy, and an unhygienic home
environments.[2] Along with birth weight, period of gestation makes up the two most important predictors of an
infants chances of survival and their overall health.[7]
2.1.3 Malnutrition
2.1.2
2.2
2.1.4
Environmental
Infectious diseases
Babies born in low to middle income countries in subSaharan Africa and southern Asia are at the highest risk of
neonatal death. Bacterial infections of the bloodstream,
lungs, and the brains covering (meningitis) are responsible for 25% of neonatal deaths. Newborns can acquire
infections during birth from bacteria that are present in
their mothers reproductive tract. The mother may not
be aware of the infection, or she may have an untreated
pelvic inammatory disease or sexually transmitted disease. These bacteria can move up the vaginal canal
into the amniotic sac surrounding the baby. Maternal
blood-borne infection is another route of bacterial infection from mother to baby. Neonatal infection is also
more likely with the premature rupture of the membranes
(PROM) of the amniotic sac.[13]
Seven out of ten childhood deaths are due to infectious diseases: acute respiratory infection, diarrhea,
measles, and malaria. Acute respiratory infection such
as pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis account for
30% of childhood deaths; 95% of pneumonia cases occur
in the developing world. Diarrhea is the second-largest
cause of childhood mortality in the world, while malaria
causes 11% of childhood deaths. Measles is the fthlargest cause of childhood mortality.[2][14] Folic acid for
mothers is one way to combat iron deciency. A few
public health measures used to lower levels of iron deciency anemia include iodize salt or drinking water, and
include vitamin A and multivitamin supplements into a
mothers diet.[2] A deciency of this vitamin causes certain types of anemia (low red blood cell count).[15]
2.2
Environmental
3
across the board. Short-term and long-term eects of
ambient air pollution are associated with an increased
mortality rate, including infant mortality. Air pollution
is consistently associated with post neonatal mortality
due to respiratory eects and sudden infant death syndrome. Specically, air pollution is highly associated
with SIDs in the United States during the post-neonatal
stage.[18] High infant mortality is exacerbated because
newborns are a vulnerable subgroup that is aected by
air pollution.[19] Newborns who were born into these environments are no exception. Women who are exposed
to greater air pollution on a daily basis who are pregnant
should be closely watched by their doctors, as well as after the baby is born. Babies who live in areas with less
air pollution have a greater chance of living until their
rst birthday. As expected, babies who live in environments with more air pollution are at greater risk for infant
mortality. Areas that have higher air pollution also have
a greater chance of having a higher population density,
higher crime rates and lower income levels, all of which
can lead to higher infant mortality rates.[20]
The three key pollutants for infant mortality rates are
carbon monoxide, particulate matter less than 10 m in
diameter and ozone. Particulate matter and ozone have
no noticeable eects on infant deaths, but exposure to
high levels of carbon monoxide does increase the mortality rates. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas
that does great harm especially to infants because of their
immature respiratory system.[21] Another major pollutant
is second-hand smoke, which is a pollutant that can have
detrimental eects on a fetus. According to the American Journal of Public Health, in 2006, more than 42
000 Americans died of second hand smoke-attributable
diseases, including more than 41 000 adults and nearly
900 infants ... fully 36% of the infants who died of low
birth weight caused by exposure to maternal smoking in
utero were Blacks, as were 28% of those dying of respiratory distress syndrome, 25% dying of other respiratory conditions, and 24% dying of sudden infant death
syndrome. The American Journal of Epidemiology also
stated that Compared with nonsmoking women having
their rst birth, women who smoked less than one pack
of cigarettes per day had a 25% greater risk of mortality,
and those who smoked one or more packs per day had a
56% greater risk. Among women having their second or
higher birth, smokers experienced 30% greater mortality
than nonsmokers.
Modern research in the United States on racial disparities in infant mortality suggests a link between the
institutionalized racism that pervades the environment
and high rates of African American infant mortality.
In synthesis of this research, it has been observed that
African American infant mortality remains elevated due
to the social arrangements that exist between groups and
the lifelong experiences responding to the resultant power
dynamics of these arrangements.[6]
2.3
Socio-economic factors
CAUSES
higher rates Angola, Somalia and the Democratic Republic of Congo, for instance, all have rates above 200
the increase in Iraq is higher than elsewhere according to
commondreams.org. The primary causes of the increase
are external factors such as murder and abuse. However,
many other signicant factors inuence infant mortality
rates in war-torn areas. Health care systems in developing countries in the midst of war often collapse. Attaining basic medical supplies and care becomes increasingly
dicult. During the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s Bosnia
experienced a 60% decrease in child immunizations. Preventable diseases can quickly become epidemic given the
medical conditions during war.[26]
Social class is a major factor in infant mortality, both historically and today. Over the period between 1912 and
1915, the Childrens Bureau examined data across eight
cities and nearly 23,000 live births. They discovered that
lower incomes tend to correlate with higher infant mortality. If the father had no income, the rate of infant
mortality was 357% more than that for the highest income earners ($1,250+). As well, dierences between
races were apparent during this time period. AfricanAmerican mothers experience an infant mortality at a rate
44% higher than average,[22] however, research indicates
that socio-economic factors do not totally account for the Many developing countries rely on foreign aid for basic
racial disparities in infant mortality.[6]
nutrition. Transport of aid becomes signicantly more
While infant mortality is normally negatively correlated dicult in times of war. In most situations the average
with GDP, there may indeed be some opposing short- weight of a population will drop substantially.[27] Expectterm eects to a recession. A recent study by The ing mothers are aected even more by lack of access to
Economist shows that economic slowdowns reduce the food and water. During the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia the
amount of air pollution, which results in a lower infant number of premature babies born increased and the avmortality rate. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, erage birth weight decreased.[26]
the recessions impact on air quality is estimated to have There have been several instances in recent years of syssaved around 1,300 US babies.[23] It is only during deep tematic rape as a weapon of war. Women who become
recessions that infant mortality increases. According pregnant as a result of war rape face even more signito Norbert Schady and Marc-Francois Smitz, recessions cant challenges in bearing a healthy child. Studies sugwhere GDP per capita drops by 15% or more have a neg- gest that women who experience sexual violence before
ative impact on infant mortality.[24]
or during pregnancy are more likely to experience infant
Social class dictates which medical services are available
to an individual and usually, the various levels within
the socioeconomic hierarchy receive dierent quality of
medical services. Disparities due to socioeconomic factors have been exacerbated by advances of technology in
the medical eld. Developed countries, most notably the
United States, have seen a dichotomization from technological advances. Those living in poverty cannot aord
medical advanced resources which leads to an increased
chance of infant mortality.[16]
death in their children.[28][29][30] Causes of infant mortality in abused women range from physical side eects of
the initial trauma to psychological eects that lead to poor
adjustment to society. Many women who became pregnant by rape in Bosnia were isolated from their hometowns making life after childbirth exponentially more
dicult.[31]
2.4
War
In most cases, war-aected areas will experience a signicant increase in infant mortality rates.. Having a War
taking place where a woman is planning on having a baby
is not only stressful on the mother and fetus, but also
has several detrimental eects. Commondreams.org reported that in the years since 1990, Iraq has seen its child
mortality rate soar by 125 per cent, the highest increase
of any country in the world. Its rate of deaths of children under ve now matches that of Mauritania. Also,
Figures collated by the charity show that in 1990 Iraqs
mortality rate for under-ves was 50 per 1,000 live births.
In 2005 it was 125. While many other countries have
2.7
Cultural
2.6
Economics
5
Brazil, infant mortality rates are commonly not recorded
due to failure to register for death certicates.[36] Failure to register is mainly due to the potential loss of time
and money and other indirect costs to the family.[36] Even
with resource opportunities such as the 1973 Public Registry Law 6015, which allowed free registration for lowincome families, the requirements to qualify hold back
individuals who are not contracted workers.[36] Instead
of providing incentives for families to self-report, researchers for infant mortality rates in developing countries should be culturally sensitive in guring out why
families fail to accurately report infant mortality, even
when questioned by death recorders. Researchers can
be more culturally sensitive in the collection of mortality data by administrating popular death reporters
(members of the community who witness infant deaths;
people such as traditional healers, con workers, grave
diggers).[36] This alternative method of collecting infant
mortality data is both accurate and a culturally sensitive
method of collecting data in the most humane approach,
taking special consideration to those suering the diculty of an experiencing an infant death within their family.
Another cultural reason for infant mortality, such as what
is happening in Ghana, is that besides the obvious, like
rutted roads, there are prejudices against wives or newborns leaving the house. [37] Because of this it is making
it even more dicult for the women and newborns to get
the treatment that is available to them and that is needed.
Cultural inuences and lifestyle habits in the United
States can account for some deaths in infants throughout the years. It has been reported that cultures other
than white have an increased chance of experiencing infant mortality. According to the Journal of the American Medical Association the post neonatal mortality risk
(28 to 364 days) was highest among continental Puerto
Ricans compared to babies of the non-Hispanic race.
Examples of this include teenage pregnancy, obesity, diabetes and smoking. All are possible causes of premature births, which is the second highest cause of infant mortality.[10] Ethnic dierences experienced in the
United States are accompanied by higher prevalence of
behavioral risk factors and sociodemographic challenges
that each ethnic group faces.[7]
Even with a strong economy and economic growth (measured by a countrys gross national product), the advances
of medical technologies may not be felt by everyone,
lending itself to increasing social disparities.[16]
2.7.1 Gender favoritism
2.7
Cultural
High rates of infant mortality occur in developing countries where nancial and material resources are scarce
and there is a high tolerance to high number of infant
deaths. There are circumstances where a number of developing countries to breed a culture where situations of
infant mortality such as favoring male babies over female
babies are the norm.[2] In developing countries such as
Birth spacing
Education
PREVENTION
ucation have improved nutrition, medical care, information access, and economic independence. Infants reap
benets such as healthy environments, improved nutrition, and medical care. Mothers with some level of education have a higher probability to breastfeeding.[2][17][34]
The duration of breastfeeding has the potential to inuence the birth space.[39] Women without any educational
background tend to have children at an earlier age, thus
their bodies are not yet mature enough to carry and deliver a child.[2]
3 Prevention
Millennium Development Goals were created to improve
the health and well being of people worldwide. Its fourth
goal is to decrease the number of mortalities within the
infant and childhood population by two thirds, meaning it
will decrease mortality from 95 to 31 deaths per 1000.[2]
Countries slow to abide by the Millennium Development
Goal by 2015 are projected to have diculty in reaching
goal four.[25]
The mothers educational attainment and literacy are correlated with age of rst pregnancy, and probability that
the mother attain prenatal and postnatal care. Mothers
with a secondary education have a higher probability of
waiting until a later age to get pregnant. Once pregnant,
they are also more likely to get prenatal and postnatal Future problems for mothers and babies can be precare, and deliver their child in the presence of a skilled vented. It is important that women of reproductive age
attendant. Women who nish at least a primary-level ed- adopt healthy behaviors in everyday life, such as taking
3.3
Cultural changes
3.2
Medical treatments
7
injury during childbirth was also 6 per cent higher.
Dr William Palmer, who led the research, said there was
only a hint that a lack of consultants was playing a role
with tearing injuries to the mother slightly more common in wards that did not comply with rules on consultant stang levels. But he suggested that lack of other
sta could be to blame. Understang could be behind
it, he said. We did not look at the number of midwives
on duty, for instance, or other support sta. Overall, the
death rate among babies was 7.3 per 1,000 delivered at
weekends 0.9 per 1,000 higher than for weekdays. The
safest day to be born was a Tuesday, the doctors found. If
every other day was that safe, the team estimated that up
to 770 more babies per year could be saved a sixth of the
4,500 deaths seen in England each year, out of 675,000
births. Health minister Ben Gummer said last night: This
is further evidence that standards of care are not uniform across the week. But Professor Andrew Whitelaw
of Bristol University criticised the study because key data
for up to 10 per cent of babies was missing, including on
weight and twin births.[43]
DIFFERENCES IN MEASUREMENT
medical advances in access to clean water, health care facilities, education, and diet. These changes may decrease
infant mortality.[32][34]
Economically, governments could reduce infant mortality by building and strengthening capacity in human resources. Increasing human resources such as physicians,
nurses, and other health professionals will increase the
number of skilled attendants and the number of people able to give out immunized against diseases such as
measles. Increasing the number of skilled professionals is
negatively correlated with maternal, infant, and childhood
mortality. Between 1960 and 2000, the infant mortality
rate decreased by half as the number of physicians in- Life expectancy at birth by region
creased by four folds.[25] With the addition of one physician to every 1000 persons in a population, infant mortality will reduce by 30%.
Measurements provide a statistical way of measuring the
standard of living of residents living in each nation. Increases and decreases of the infant mortality rate reect
4 Dierences in measurement
social and technical capacities of a nations population.[5]
The World Health Organization (WHO) denes a live
birth as any born human being who demonstrates independent signs of life, including breathing, heartbeat, umbilical cord pulsation or denite movement of voluntary
muscles.[47] This denition is practised in Austria, for
example.[48] In Germany the WHO denition is practised
Infant mortality rate
(per 1000 births)
as well but with one little adjustment: the muscle move160-185
135-160
110-135
ment is not considered as a sign of life.[49] Many coun85-110
60-85
tries, however, including certain European states (e.g.
35-60
10-35
2-10
France) and Japan, only count as live births cases where
No data
Data Year: 2012
an infant breathes at birth, which makes their reported
IMR numbers somewhat lower and raises their rates of
[44]
Mortality rates, under age 5, in 2012
perinatal mortality.[50] In the Czech Republic and Bulgaria, for instance, requirements for live birth are even
higher.[51]
4.1
UNICEF uses a statistical methodology to account for re- they do not have information about infant mortality rate
porting dierences among countries:
statistic or do not have the concept about reporting early
[36]
Another challenge to comparability is the practice of infant death.
counting frail or premature infants who die before the
normal due date as miscarriages (spontaneous abortions)
or those who die during or immediately after childbirth
as stillborn. Therefore, the quality of a countrys documentation of perinatal mortality can matter greatly to the
accuracy of its infant mortality statistics. This point is reinforced by the demographer Ansley Coale, who nds dubiously high ratios of reported stillbirths to infant deaths
in Hong Kong and Japan in the rst 24 hours after birth, a
pattern that is consistent with the high recorded sex ratios
at birth in those countries. It suggests not only that many
female infants who die in the rst 24 hours are misreported as stillbirths rather than infant deaths, but also that
those countries do not follow WHO recommendations for
the reporting of live births and infant deaths.[53]
Another seemingly paradoxical nding, is that when
countries with poor medical services introduce new medical centers and services, instead of declining, the reported
IMRs often increase for a time. This is mainly because
improvement in access to medical care is often accompanied by improvement in the registration of births and
deaths. Deaths that might have occurred in a remote
or rural area, and not been reported to the government,
might now be reported by the new medical personnel or
facilities. Thus, even if the new health services reduce
the actual IMR, the reported IMR may increase.
Collecting the accurate statistics of infant mortality rate
could be an issue in some rural communities in developing countries. In those communities, some other alternative methods for calculating infant mortality rate
are emerged, for example, popular death reporting and
household survey.[36] The country-to-country variation in
child mortality rates is huge, and growing wider despite
the progress. Among the worlds roughly 200 nations,
only Somalia showed no decrease in the under-5 mortality rate over the past two decades.The lowest rate in 2011
was in Singapore, which had 2.6 deaths of children under age 5 per 1,000 live births. The highest was in Sierra
Leone, which had 185 child deaths per 1,000 births. The
global rate is 51 deaths per 1,000 births. For the United
States, the rate is eight per 1,000 births.[54]
Infant mortality rate (IMR) is not only a group of statistic
but instead it is a reection of the socioeconomic development and eectively represents the presence of medical
services in the countries. IMR is an eective resource
for the health department to make decision on medical
resources reallocation. IMR also formulates the global
health strategies and help evaluate the program success.
The existence of IMR helps solve the inadequacies of the
other vital statistic systems for global health as most of
the vital statistic systems usually neglect the infant mortality statistic number from the poor. There are certain
amounts of unrecorded infant deaths in the rural area as
10
4.2
Russia
Until the 1990s, Russia and the Soviet Union did not
count, as a live birth or as an infant death, extremely premature infants (less than 1,000 g, less than 28 weeks gestational age, or less than 35 cm in length) that were born
alive (breathed, had a heartbeat, or exhibited voluntary
muscle movement) but failed to survive for at least seven
days.[62] Although such extremely premature infants typically accounted for only about 0.5% of all live-born children, their exclusion from both the numerator and the denominator in the reported IMR led to an estimated 22%
25% lower reported IMR.[63] In some cases, too, perhaps
because hospitals or regional health departments were
held accountable for lowering the IMR in their catchment
area, infant deaths that occurred in the 12th month were
transferred statistically to the 13th month (i.e., the second year of life), and thus no longer classied as an infant
death.[64][65]
4.3
Brazil
EPIDEMIOLOGY
istries, and asking popular death reporters this can increase the validity of child mortality rates, but there are
many barriers that can reect the validity of our statistics
of infant mortality. One of these barriers are political
economic decisions. Numbers are exaggerated when international funds are being doled out; and underestimated
during reelection.[36]
The bureaucratic separation of vital death reporting and
cultural death rituals stems in part due to structural
violence.[66] Individuals living in rural areas of Brazil
need to invest large capital for lodging and travel in order
to report infant birth to a Brazilian Assistance League ofce. The negative nancial aspects deters registration, as
often individuals are of lower income and cannot aord
such expenses.[36] Similar to the lack of birth reporting,
families in rural Brazil face dicult choices based on already existing structural arrangements when choosing to
report infant mortality. Financial constraints such as reliance on food supplementations may also lead to skewed
infant mortality data.[36]
In developing countries such as Brazil the deaths of impoverished infants are regularly unrecorded into the countries vital registration system; this causes a skew statistically. Culturally validity and contextual soundness can
be used to ground the meaning of mortality from a statistical standpoint. In northeast Brazil they have accomplished this standpoint while conducting an ethnographic
study combined with an alternative method to survey infant mortality.[36] These types of techniques can develop
quality ethnographic data that will ultimately lead to a
better portrayal of the magnitude of infant mortality in
the region. Political economic reasons have been seen to
skew the infant mortality data in the past when governor
Ceara devised his presidency campaign on reducing the
infant mortality rate during his term in oce. By using
this new way of surveying, these instances can be minimized and removed, overall creating accurate and sound
data.[36]
5 Epidemiology
5.1 Global trends
See also: List of countries by infant mortality rate
For the world, and for both less developed countries
(LDCs) and more developed countries (MDCs), IMR declined signicantly between 1960 and 2001. According
to the State of the Worlds Mothers report by Save the
Children, the world IMR declined from 126 in 1960 to
57 in 2001.[68]
However, IMR was, and remains, higher in LDCs. In
2001, the IMR for LDCs (91) was about 10 times as
large as it was for MDCs (8). On average, for LDCs,
the IMR is 17 times as higher than that of MDCs. Also,
11
while both LDCs and MDCs made signicant reductions
in infant mortality rates, reductions among less developed
countries are, on average, much less than those among the
more developed countries.
A dierence of almost 100 times separate countries
with the highest and lowest reported infant mortality
rates. The top and bottom ve countries by this measure
(taken from The World Factbook's 2012 estimates[69] ) are
shown below.
Yet one has to keep in mind that according to Guillot,
Gerland, Pelletier and Saabneh birth histories, however,
are subject to a number of errors, including omission of
deaths and age misreporting errors. Not to say this information is incorrect, but to be aware that in other countries the numbers may not be fully accurate due to those
reasons.[70]
5.2
12
REFERENCES
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(5): 670681. PMC 2728659. PMID 19753945.
[8] Infant Mortality, Low birth Weight and Racial Disparity.
nationalhealthystart.org (2000)
[9] WHO | Preterm birth. Who.int. Retrieved 2013-09-29.
[10] McNeil, D. (May 2, 2012) U.S. Lags in Global Measure
of Premature Births. The New York Times
See also
List of countries by infant mortality rate
Neonatal mortality only includes deaths in the rst [15] Folic Acid. National Center for Biotechnology Informa28 days of life.
tion, U.S. National Library of Medicine
Postneonatal mortality only includes deaths after 28
days of life but before one year.
Child mortality includes deaths within the rst ve
years after birth.
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[16] Gortmaker SL (1997). The rst injustice: socioeconomic disparities, health services technology, and
infant mortality. Annu Rev Sociol 23: 147170.
doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.147. PMID 12348279.
[17] Jorgenson, A. K. (2004). Global inequality, water pollution, and infant mortality. The Social Science Journal 41
(2): 279288. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2004.01.008.
[18] Woodru TJ (2008). Air pollution and postneonatal infant mortality in the United States, 1999-2002.
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[19] Glinianaia SV (2004). Does particulate air pollution contribute to infant death?
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71. doi:10.1289/ehp.6857. PMC 1247561. PMID
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[20] Infant Mortality. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
[21] Benjamin, D.K, (2006). Air Pollution and Infant Mortality. Property and Environmental Research Center Report.
24 (4).
[22] Haines, Michael R. (June 2010) Inequality and Infant and
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[23] A recession breathes life. The Economist. 2009-06-01.
Archived from the original on 2009-07-25.
13
[39] Rutstein SO (2005). Eects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under-ve years mortality and
nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from
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PMID 15820369.
[40] Curtis, Val; Cairncross, Sandy (May 2003). Eect of
washing hands with soap on diarrhoea risk in the community: a systematic review. The Lancet Infectious Diseases
3 (5): 275281. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00606-6.
[41] The State of the Worlds Children 2008. Child Survival.
UNICEF
[42] McDonald, M. (4 July 2012). Whats Killing Cambodias
Children? The New York Times
[43] http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3332826/
Risk-having-weekend-baby-Major-study-reveals-greater-threat-stillbirth-de
html
[44] Infant Mortality Rates in 2012, UNICEF, 2013.
[45] King, Gary; Zeng, Langche (July 2001). Improving forecasts of state failure. World Politics (PDF) 53 (4): 623
658. doi:10.1353/wp.2001.0018.
[46] Anthopolos, R.; Becker, C. M. (2010).
Global
Infant Mortality:
Correcting for Undercounting.
World Development 38 (4):
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[47] Neonatal mortality rate (per 1000 live births) at the
Wayback Machine (archived December 21, 2011).
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[48] Allmer, Gertrude.Bundesgesetz uber den Hebammenberuf. pegerecht.at
[49] PStV Einzelnorm. Gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved
2013-09-29.
[50] Healy, Bernadine (2006-09-24). Behind the Baby
Count. US News & World Report. Retrieved 2014-0324.
[51] Demographic Statistics: Denitions and Methods of Collection in 31 European Countries (by European Communities, 2003). (PDF). Retrieved 2013-09-29.
[52] Millennium Indicators. United Nations. Retrieved 201309-29.
[53] Coale AJ (1994).
Five decades of missing females in China.
Demography 31 (3): 459479.
doi:10.2307/2061752. PMID 7828766.
14
EXTERNAL LINKS
9 External links
Child and infant mortality estimates for all countries
- website by UNICEF
15
10
10.1
Infant mortality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_mortality?oldid=692869859 Contributors: Kpjas, Slrubenstein, Fredbauder, William Avery, SimonP, Hephaestos, Edward, Patrick, Menchi, TakuyaMurata, Jpatokal, Snoyes, Nerd~enwiki, Andres, Rl,
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10.2
Images
File:2012_Infant_mortality_rate_per_1000_live_births,_under-5,_world_map.svg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/03/2012_Infant_mortality_rate_per_1000_live_births%2C_under-5%2C_world_map.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: M Tracy Hunter
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Infant_Mortality_Rate_by_Region_1950-2050.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Infant_
Mortality_Rate_by_Region_1950-2050.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rcragun
File:Infant_Mortality_Rates_in_the_US_by_Race_and_Hispanic_Ethinicity_of_the_Mother.png Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Infant_Mortality_Rates_in_the_US_by_Race_and_Hispanic_Ethinicity_of_the_Mother.png
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6301a9.htm Mathews TJ, MacDorman MF.
Infant mortality statistics from the 2010 period linked birth/infant death data set. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2013;62(8). Original artist: Mathews
TJ, MacDorman MF
File:Infant_mortality_map_of_the_world.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Infant_mortality_map_
of_the_world.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Altes
File:Life_Expectancy_at_Birth_by_Region_1950-2050.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Life_
Expectancy_at_Birth_by_Region_1950-2050.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rcragun
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Requirements_for_reporting_a_live_birth,_United_States_and_selected_European_countries,_2004.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Requirements_for_reporting_a_live_birth%2C_United_States_and_selected_
European_countries%2C_2004.png License: Public domain Contributors: NCHS/National Vital Statistics System for U.S. data and
European Perinatal Health Report Original artist: NCHS
16
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Content license