1.

History of Computers

This chapter is a brief summary of the history of Computers. It is supplemented by the two
PBS documentaries video tapes "Inventing the Future" And "The Paperback Computer". The
chapter highlights some of the advances to look for in the documentaries.
In particular, when viewing the movies you should look for two things:

The progression in hardware representation of a bit of data:

1. Vacuum Tubes (1950s) - one bit on the size of a thumb;
2. Transistors (1950s and 1960s) - one bit on the size of a fingernail;
3. Integrated Circuits (1960s and 70s) - thousands of bits on the size of a hand
4. Silicon computer chips (1970s and on) - millions of bits on the size of a finger
nail.
The progression of the ease of use of computers:
1. Almost impossible to use except by very patient geniuses (1950s);
2. Programmable by highly trained people only (1960s and 1970s);
3. Useable by just about anyone (1980s and on).

to see how computers got smaller, cheaper, and easier to use.

First Computers

Eniac Computer

The first substantial computer was the giant ENIAC machine by John W. Mauchly and J.
Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator
and Calculator) used a word of 10 decimal digits instead of binary ones like previous

automated calculators/computers. ENIAC was also the first machine to use more than 2,000
vacuum tubes, using nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes. Storage of all those vacuum tubes and the
machinery required to keep the cool took up over 167 square meters (1800 square feet) of
floor space. Nonetheless, it had punched-card input and output and arithmetically had 1
multiplier, 1 divider-square rooter, and 20 adders employing decimal "ring counters," which
served as adders and also as quick-access (0.0002 seconds) read-write register storage.
The executable instructions composing a program were embodied in the separate units of
ENIAC, which were plugged together to form a route through the machine for the flow of
computations. These connections had to be redone for each different problem, together with
presetting function tables and switches. This "wire-your-own" instruction technique was
inconvenient, and only with some license could ENIAC be considered programmable; it was,
however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed.
ENIAC is generally acknowledged to be the first successful high-speed electronic digital
computer (EDC) and was productively used from 1946 to 1955. A controversy developed in
1971, however, over the patentability of ENIAC's basic digital concepts, the claim being
made that another U.S. physicist, John V. Atanasoff, had already used the same ideas in a
simpler vacuum-tube device he built in the 1930s while at Iowa State College. In 1973, the
court found in favor of the company using Atanasoff claim and Atanasoff received the
acclaim he rightly deserved.

Progression of Hardware
In the 1950's two devices would be invented that would improve the computer field and set in
motion the beginning of the computer revolution. The first of these two devices was the
transistor. Invented in 1947 by William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of Bell
Labs, the transistor was fated to oust the days of vacuum tubes in computers, radios, and
other electronics.
The vacuum tube, used up to this time in almost all the
computers and calculating machines, had been
invented by American physicist Lee De Forest in
1906. The vacuum tube, which is about the size of a
human thumb, worked by using large amounts of
electricity to heat a filament inside the tube until it was
cherry red. One result of heating this filament up was
the release of electrons into the tube, which could be

Vaccum Tubes

controlled by other elements within the tube. De Forest's original device was a triode, which
could control the flow of electrons to a positively charged plate inside the tube. A zero could
then be represented by the absence of an electron current to the plate; the presence of a small
but detectable current to the plate represented a one.
Vacuum tubes were highly inefficient, required a great
deal of space, and needed to be replaced often.
Computers of the 1940s and 50s had 18,000 tubes in
them and housing all these tubes and cooling the
rooms from the heat produced by 18,000 tubes was not
cheap. The transistor promised to solve all of these
problems and it did so. Transistors, however, had their
Transistors

problems too. The main problem was that transistors,

like other electronic components, needed to be

soldered together. As a result, the more complex the circuits became, the more complicated
and numerous the connections between the individual transistors and the likelihood of faulty
wiring increased.
In 1958, this problem too was solved by Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments. He
manufactured the first integrated circuit or chip. A chip is really a collection of tiny
transistors which are connected together when the transistor is manufactured. Thus, the need
for soldering together large numbers of transistors was practically nullified; now only
connections were needed to other electronic components. In addition to saving space, the
speed of the machine was now increased since there was a diminished distance that the
electrons had to follow.

Circuit Board

Silicon Chip

Mainframes to PCs
The 1960s saw large mainframe computers become much more common in large industries
and with the US military and space program. IBM became the unquestioned market leader in
selling these large, expensive, error-prone, and very hard to use machines.
A veritable explosion of personal computers occurred in the early 1970s, starting with Steve
Jobs and Steve Wozniak exhibiting the first Apple II at the First West Coast Computer Faire
in San Francisco. The Apple II boasted built-in BASIC programming language, color
graphics, and a 4100 character memory for only $1298. Programs and data could be stored on
an everyday audio-cassette recorder. Before the end of the fair, Wozniak and Jobs had
secured 300 orders for the Apple II and from there Apple just took off.
Also introduced in 1977 was the TRS-80. This was a home computer manufactured by Tandy
Radio Shack. In its second incarnation, the TRS-80 Model II, came complete with a 64,000
character memory and a disk drive to store programs and data on. At this time, only Apple
and TRS had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive, personal
computer applications took off as a floppy disk was a most convenient publishing medium for
distribution of software.
IBM, which up to this time had been producing mainframes and minicomputers for medium
to large-sized businesses, decided that it had to get into the act and started working on the
Acorn, which would later be called the IBM PC. The PC was the first computer designed for
4

the home market which would feature modular design so that pieces could easily be added to
the architecture. Most of the components, surprisingly, came from outside of IBM, since
building it with IBM parts would have cost too much for the home computer market. When it
was introduced, the PC came with a 16,000 character memory, keyboard from an IBM
electric typewriter, and a connection for tape cassette player for $1265.
By 1984, Apple and IBM had come out with new models. Apple released the first generation
Macintosh, which was the first computer to come with a graphical user interface(GUI) and a
mouse. The GUI made the machine much more attractive to home computer users because it
was easy to use. Sales of the Macintosh soared like nothing ever seen before. IBM was hot on
Apple's tail and released the 286-AT, which with applications like Lotus 1-2-3, a spreadsheet,
and Microsoft Word, quickly became the favourite of business concerns.
That brings us up to about ten years ago. Now people have their own personal graphics
workstations and powerful home computers. The average computer a person might have in
their home is more powerful by several orders of magnitude than a machine like ENIAC. The
computer revolution has been the fastest growing technology in man's history.

2.

A Brief History of the Windows Operating System

Windows has been a mainstay in the computer market for so long that it's nearly impossible
to imagine life without it. As the world's most popular operating system, it enjoys huge
success, but that success wasn't easily attained. Bumps along the way are what helped
Windows move from an obscure operating system to the dominating power in computers it is
today. Check out some of the past versions and features that
paved the road to Windows 8.
Windows 1.0: The very first version of Windows, Windows
1.0, was a basic interface that used "gadgets," like the
calendar and calculator, but it gained little popularity.
Released in 1985, the system had basic functionality and
introduced the first version of MS Paint and a primitive word
processor.

Windows 2.0: Released in 1987, the next version of

Windows wasn't much better than the first. While it did
introduce two current staples Excel and Word to users,
this version came under fire when Macintosh sued Microsoft
for mimicking the look and feel of their current operating
system. The lawsuit was eventually dropped.

Windows 3.0: The third time's the charm, they say, and that adage was proven with
Windows' third release. The introduction of virtual memory, improved graphics, and the
ability to multitask helped propel Windows to sell 10 million copies. In fact, while it was
released in 1990, Windows 3.0 wasn't discontinued until 2001.

Windows 3.1: A pseudo-release for Microsoft, Windows 3.1 contained necessary fixes and
improved font functionality. Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop a new release,
Windows NT, hoping it could be released as a continuation of Windows 3.0 and 3.1.
Unfortunately, issues with driver support and software meant that it was time for a new
version altogether.

Windows 95: Marking the change from 16-bit to 32-bit,

Windows 95 was designed for increased compatibility and
ultimate user-friendliness. As it became clear that consumer
computers would become the future, Windows 95 was
offered on newer computers only because it lacked some
backwards compatibility at first. Newer releases and patches
later made the version easier to use on older machines, but by
1995, Microsoft had achieved a more widespread interest in
home computers.

Windows 4.0: The follow-up to Windows 3.0, Windows 4.0

was released in 1996 with minor improvements and is not
considered a major Windows release.

Windows 98: As consumer computers became more widespread, Windows

98 included improved hardware and hardware drivers, Internet Explorer, and
eventually, Internet connection sharing. Released in 1998, with a new
release in 1999, Microsoft 98 was the first release designed specifically for
consumers, as opposed to the business or
technology set.

Windows 2000: Windows 2000 made everyone's lives easier

by increasing the number of plug and play devices
compatible with the operating system. Windows ME
(Millennial Edition) was also released, offering the system
recovery tool to help return a crashed computer to its last
known operating settings.

Windows XP: The system designed for ease and stability,

Windows XP was released in 2001, offering plenty of ease
and functionality for laptop and desktop users. The operating
system was designed to offer users help through a
comprehensive help center, and it gave users the ability to
consume a number of different types of media.
Windows Vista: Widely considered a flop in technology circles, Windows Vista was
released in 2006. It had high system requirements and suffered issues with performance
and security. The operating system also tended to drain laptop batteries. The version lasted
only for three years, during which some users downgraded back to XP to avoid the pitfalls of
Vista.

Windows 7: For this current release of Windows, Microsoft

learned its mistakes with Vista and created an operating
system with speed, stability and minimal system
requirements. Microsoft ditched the gadget bar from Vista,
replacing it with a cleaner feel. This version was released in
2009.
Windows 8: This latest Windows release is getting a lot of attention. With its
redesigned Metro-style user interface and Windows Store, this version is, once again,
redefining what Windows is. It also comes with integrated antivirus protection, a virtual hard
disk and a new platform based on HTML5 and JavaScript. It promises faster boot time,
touchscreen compatibility and the ability to create a bootable USB flash drive. It may not be
enough to get people to switch from Windows 7, but at least it's a glimpse into the future of
the Windows operating system
- See more at: http://windows-operating-system-reviews.toptenreviews.com/a-brief-historyof-the-windows-operating-system.html#sthash.ANh29CnL.dpuf
Windows 10The best Windows yet

Windows 10 Start menu

Windows 10 arrives early in 2015but not all at once. Microsoft makes early versions of the
operating system available to enthusiasts via the Windows Insider Program, inviting customers to
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contribute to the development and future of Windows 10. Devices worldwide are super-connected
and sharing content at incomparable speeds, and Windows 10 works to make that collaboration
seamless and delightful.
The Windows Insider Program plays an important part in making Windows 10 great. Insiders explore
and respond to preview builds, which means Microsoft can develop solutions in response to direct
feedback from the consumers who use Windows every day.
Beyond the box
This is the first time that a Windows upgrade is offered free to customers. Only one month after
launching, 75 million devices are running Windows 10. Microsoft hopes to see Windows 10 installed
on one billion devices by 2018.
The operating system delivers an upgraded Windows interface, focusing on the iconic Start menu
and building an intuitive experience from there. Windows 10 introduces a new Microsoft voice that's
more conversational and approachable than before. Cortanathe first digital personal assistant
from Microsoftmakes her first appearance on a PC with Windows 10, following her successful
introduction on the Windows 8.1 phone. Learning from the behaviors and preferences of each
person she interacts with, Cortana creates a personalized experience that carries across Windows
PCs, tablets, and phones. Shes intelligent, witty, and a huge step forward in the journey toward a
more personal Windows.
Windows 10 also introduces Windows as a service. It moves away from big releases with long
timelines, opting instead for frequent, automatic advancements. Windows 10 seeks to evolve and
advance human lives, uninterrupted.