Survey Manual Chap 7 Photogrammetric Surveys

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SurveyManualChap7PhotogrammetricSurveys
Chapter7PhotogrammetricSurveys
7.1
General
7.2
ComponentsofPhotogrammetry
7.3
AccuracyandErrors
7.4
ThePhotogrammetricProcedure
7.5
Orthophoto
ThischapterdoesnotsupersedetheNJDOTAerialMapping(Photogrammetry)Manual,but
providesgeneraloverview.Formorecompleteinformationonthesubject,pleaseconsult
theNJDOTAerialMapping(Photogrammetry)Manual.
7.1General
Photogrammetryisasurveyingandmappingmethodthathasmanyapplicationsinthe
DepartmentofTransportation.Applicationsofphotogrammetryinsurveyingpracticeinclude
topographicmapping,siteplanning,earthworkvolumeestimationforproposedroads,
compilationofdigitalelevationmodels(DEM),andimagebasemapping
(orthophotography).
Thetermphotogrammetryiscomposedofthewordsphotoandmetermeaning
measurementsfromphotographs.Theclassicaldefinitionofphotogrammetryis:
Theart,scienceandtechnologyofobtainingreliableinformationaboutphysicalobjectsand
theenvironment,throughprocessesofrecording,measuring,andinterpretingimageson
photographs.
Photogrammetryisanart,becauseobtainingreliablemeasurementsrequirescertainskills,
techniquesandjudgmentstobemadebyanindividual.Itisascienceandatechnology
becauseittakesanimageandtransformsit,viatechnology,intomeaningfulresults.
Modernphotogrammetryincludesimagesourcesandimageformsotherthanphotographs,
suchasradarimages.
Thephotogrammetricprocessconsistsofprojectplanning,imageacquisition,image
processing,controldataforimageorientation,datacompilationandpresentationofanend
product.Theendproductofthephotogrammetricprocesscanbecoordinatevaluesof
individualpoints,agraphicrepresentationofthegroundsurface(topographicmap),ora
rectifiedimageofthegroundsurfacewithmaplikecharacteristics(orthophoto.)
Imagesusedforphotogrammetrycanoriginatefromaspecial(metric)camera,anordinary
cameraorfromdigitalsensors.Theimagecanberecordedfromadevicemountedona
satellite,onanairplane(includinghelicopters),oronatripod(terrestrialphotogrammetry)
whichissetupontheground.InthisManual,onlyapplicationsthatarebasedonaerial
photographsrecordedwithametriccamerawillbediscussed.
7.1.1AdvantagesandDisadvantages.
Someadvantagesofphotogrammetryoverconventionalsurveyingandmappingmethods
are:
Itprovidesapermanentphotographicrecordofconditionsthatexistedatthetimethe
aerialphotographsweretaken.Sincethisrecordhasmetriccharacteristics,itisnot
http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/eng/documents/survey/Chapter7.shtm
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onlyapictorialrecordbutalsoanaccuratemeasurablerecord.
Ifinformationhastoberesurveyedorreevaluated,itisnotnecessarytoperform
expensivefieldwork.Thesamephotographscanbemeasuredagainandnew
informationcanbecompiledinaverytimelyfashion.Missinginformation,suchas
inadequateoffsetsforcrosssections,canberemediedeasily.
Itcanprovidealargemappedareasoalternatelinestudiescanbemadewiththe
samedatasourcecanbeperformedmoreefficientlyandeconomicallythenother
conventionalmethods.
Itprovidesabroadviewoftheprojectarea,identifyingbothtopographicandcultural
features.
Itcanbeusedinlocationsthataredifficult,unsafe,orimpossibletoaccess.
Photogrammetryisanidealsurveyingmethodfortoxicareaswherefieldworkmay
compromisethesafetyofthesurveyingcrew.
Anextremelyimportantadvantageofphotogrammetryisthatroadsurveyscanbe
donewithoutclosinglanes,disturbingtrafficorendangeringthefieldcrew.Oncea
roadisphotographed,measurementofroadfeatures,includingelevationdata,is
doneintheoffice,notinthefield.
Intervisibilitybetweenpointsandunnecessarysurveystoextendcontroltoaremote
areaofaprojectarenotrequired.Thecoordinatesofeverypointinthemappingarea
canbedeterminedwithnoextraeffortorcost.
Theaerialphotographscanbeusedtoconveyordescribeinformationtothepublic,
StateandFederalagencies,andotherdivisionswithintheDepartmentof
Transportation.
Somedisadvantagesare:
Weatherconditions(winds,clouds,hazeetc.)affecttheaerialphotographyprocess
andthequalityoftheimages.
Seasonalconditionsaffecttheaerialphotographs,i.e.,snowcoverwillobliteratethe
targetsandgiveafalsegroundimpression.Therefore,thereisonlyashorttime
normallyNovemberthroughMarch,thatisidealforgeneralpurposeaerial
photography.Aclearedconstructionsiteorahighwaythatisnotobstructedbytrees,
islesssubjectedtothisrestriction.Thesetypesofprojectscanbeflownand
photographedduringmostoftheyear.
Hiddengroundscausedbymanmadeobjects,suchasanoverpassandaroof,cannot
bemappedwithphotogrammetry.Hiddengroundproblemscanbecausedbytree
canopy,densevegetation,orbyruggedterrainwithsharpslopes.Theinformation
hiddenfromthecameramustbemappedwithothersurveyingmethods.
Theaccuracyofthemappingcontoursandcrosssectionsdependsonflightheightand
theaccuracyofthefieldsurvey.
7.2ComponentsofPhotogrammetry
Ingeneral,photogrammetryhasthreemajorcomponents.Thesecomponentsareimage
acquisition,imagecontrolandproductcompilation.
1. Imageacquisitionincludesplanningtheoverflight,selectinganappropriatecamera
system,phototakingfilmprocessing,filminspectionandannotation,printingofpaper
printsanddiapositives,andimagescanning(ifnecessary.)
2. Thecontrolcomponentincludesselectinglocationsforgroundcontrolandtargeting,
fieldsurveyingcontrolpointsandaerialtriangulation.Inthefuture,thiscomponent
couldbeeliminatedwhenadvancedGPSmethodologywillbeabletosolvethephoto
orientationproblemwithoutneedinggroundcontrol.
3. Theproductcompilationcomponentofphotogrammetryvariesanddependsonthe
natureoftheproduct.Topographicmaps,orthophotos,ormonoscopicupdatesareall
photogrammetricproductswhicharecompiledindifferentwaysasdiscussedlater.
Eachofthesecomponentsrequirestheutilizationofdifferentequipment,different
measurementtechniques,anddifferentdataprocessing.
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Asuccessfulphotogrammetricsurveyprojectdependsonathoroughunderstandingofthese
componentsandoncarefulplanningandexecutionoftheprojectspecifications.
7.2.1ImageAcquisition
7.2.1.FlightMissionPlanning
Aflightplangenerallyconsistsoftwoitems:
1. Aflightmapwhichshowswherethephotosaretobetaken.Aflightmapconsistsof
flightlines,usuallymarkedonamediumscaletopographicmap,showingthestarting
andendingpointsofeachline.Itisusedbythepilotfornavigationandbythe
photographerfortakingthepictures.Usually,thereareenoughtopographicalfeatures
intheflightareatoassistthepilotinflyingthedesignatedflightlines.Otherwise,a
largearrowonthegroundatthebeginningandendofeachflightstripisnecessaryto
aidthepilotandphotographer.Thenumberofflightlines,theirlocation,thespacing
betweenthem,andtheirorientationdependsonthecharacteristicsoftheprojectto
bemappedandonthespecificationsoftheflightmission.
2. Specificationswhichoutlinehowtotakethephotos,includingcameraandfilm
requirements,scale,flyingheights,endlap,sidelap,tiltandcrabtolerances,etc.
7.2.1.2AerialCameras
Aerialmappingcamerasareperhapsthemostimportantphotogrammetricinstruments,
sincetheyrecordtheimageonwhichthephotogrammetricprincipleswillbeapplied.Aerial
camerasmustbeabletoproduceverysharpimages,almostdistortionfree,inrapid
successionundertheadverseconditionsofamovingaircraft.Anyerror,distortion,or
compromiseintheclarityoftheimagewillresultinmappingandpositioningerrors.
7.2.1.3AerialFilms
Aerialfilmsarefinegrained,highspeedphotographicemulsiononastablepolyesterfilm
base.Thefinegrainisnecessaryforidentifyingfeaturesassmallas1micrononthe
negative.Highspeedfilmpermitsshortexposuretimewhichisnecessarytopreventimage
smearinganddisplacementthatmayresultfromthemovementoftheaircraft.Theimage
mustberecordedonastablefilmtopreventitfromirregularshrinkageorexpansion.Any
changeinthedimensionofthefilmresultsinameasurementerrorandlessaccurate
product.Aerialfilmscomeinarollofabout200exposuresof9x9inches(23x23cm)each.
Toinsuredimensionalstability,thefilmshouldnotbestretchedordeformedinanyway.It
shouldnotbesubjectedtoextremechangesinhumidityandtemperature.Thefilmshould
besealedinitscontainerandstoredatatemperaturerecommendedbythemanufacturer
atalltimes,exceptwheninactualuseduringtheflightmissionorwhenbeingprocessed.
7.2.1.4ImageScanning
Untilrecently,photogrammetricproductsweredevelopedfromdiapositivesorpaperprints.
Withtheemergenceofdigitalphotogrammetry,photographsarenowscannedintoadigital
formatthatiscompatiblewithdigitalimageprocessingsoftware.Scannersfordigital
photogrammetryareprecisiondevicesthatmaintaintheradiometricandgeometric
integrityofthescannedimage
7.2.2ControlforPhotogrammetry
7.2.2.1General
Thesecondelementofthephotogrammetricprocessiscontrol,whichisusedtoestablish
thepositionandorientationofthecameraattheinstantofexposure.Thenecessity,
accuracyandtherigorofphotogrammetriccontroldependsontheparticularproduct
sought.Photomosaicsusedforannotation,culturalstudies,publicmeetings,andother
variedpurposesmaynotrequireanycontrol.Rectifiedaerialphotographs,usedmainlyfor
photoplansheets,mayrequirepartialcontrolintheformofmeasureddistances.Field
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measureddistancesarescaleddowntomatchcorrespondingdistancesonthephotograph.
However,mostcommonphotogrammetricproducts,suchasmappingand
orthophotography,requirefullcontrolinformation.Theminimumfullcontroltoestablisha
stereomodelistwopointswithknownhorizontalpositions(forscaling)andthreepoints
withknownelevations(fororientation).Usingthisbareminimumisunacceptable
therefore,additionalcontrolisrequiredforaprocessingastereomodel.
Photographscanbecontrolledusingthreedifferentmethods:
1. Groundcontrolpointsthatweresurveyedonthegroundusingordinarysurveying
techniques.
2. Bridgingcontrolthroughaerialtriangulation.Bridgingisaccomplishedbymeasuring
onthephotographscommonpointsthatappearinthreeconsecutivephotographsorin
twoadjacentstripsandcomputingtheir3Dcoordinatevalues.
3. AerialphotographycontrolthroughkinematicGPStechniqueinwhichthepositionand
theattitudeofthecameraarecomputedwithoutgroundcontrol.
Inmostphotogrammetricprojects,acombinationofallorsomeofthesemethodsare
utilized.
7.2.2.2GroundControl
Groundcontrolcanbeclassifiedastargetedandphotoidentifiable(picked)controlpoints,
andcanalsobeclassifiedashorizontalcontrol,verticalonlycontrol,oras3Dcontrol.
Horizontalandverticalcontrolsrequiredifferentconfigurationstomakethemservetheir
intendedpurposes.Theuseofonlygroundcontrolisnowlimitedtosmallprojects,suchas
bridgesites,borrowareasandwhereonlyoneortwomodelsareneeded.Photoidentifiable
controlpointsarerarelyneeded.Thesurveyorneedstoknowwhattypeofcontroliscalled
forwhenheorsheattemptstopickorphotoidentifythepoint.Accessibilityforsurveying
shouldalsobeconsideredwhenselectingthelocationsforcontrolpoints.
7.2.2.3Targeting
Targetingoperationsareanessentialpartofphotogrammetricmappingtobeconsidered
priortoestablishingacontrolsurvey.Preflighttargetingisperformedtomakeground
locationsofcontrolpointsvisibleonthephotographs.Easyidentificationandclearimageof
thecontrolpointsonthephotographincreasestheaccuracyandefficiencyofthe
photogrammetricprocess.Highwaydesignmappingoftenrequirescarefulpreflightplanning
foroptimaltargetplacement.Toreducethepossibilityofpremarkedpointsbeingmoved
orlostpriortotheaerialmission,itisimportanttoeitherpaintthemonahardsurfaceor
schedulethefieldpanelingoperationascloseaspossibletotheanticipatedflight.Targets
shouldbelocatedwhereshadowswillnotadverselyaffectthevisibilityofthepanel.
Photographictargetsshouldbeofsymmetricalshape,adequatesize,andappropriate
photographiccontrastandresolution.(Figure7.1).
Figure7.1Photogrammetricgroundcontroltargets
Photo.Scale ThicknessofLeg(T) LengthofLegs(L)
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1:1800
6Inches(150mm)
3Feet(0.9m)
1:2400
6Inches(150mm)
3Feet(0.9m)
1:3000
6Inches(150mm)
4Feet(1.2m)
1:3600
6Inches(150mm)
4Feet(1.2m)
1:4200
6Inches(150mm)
5Feet(1.5m)
1:4800
8Inches(200mm)
6Feet(1.8m)
1:6000
8Inches(200mm)
6Feet(1.8m)
1:8400
12Inches(300mm)
7Feet(2.1m)
1:9600
15Inches(375mm)
8Feet(2.4m)
1:12000
18Inches(400mm)
10Feet(3.0m)
1:19200
24Inches(600mm)
15Feet(4.5m)
1:24000
30Inches(750mm)
20Feet(6.0m)
Table7.1.Recommendedtargetdimensionsasafunctionofphotoscale.
7.2.2.4FieldSurveyofPhotogrammetricControl
Fieldsurveysforphotogrammetriccontrolshouldbetreatedasordinarysurveys.The
methodsandproceduresthataredescribedinthismanualmustbeappliedto
photogrammetriccontrolfieldwork.Thekeyissuehereistoselectsuitablesurvey
proceduresthataddresstheprojectrequirements.
Photogrammetriccontrolpointsareusuallyspacedwidelyaroundtheprojectarea.For
largeprojects,thisspacingcouldbeextensiveenoughtorequireasignificantsurveying
effort.Therefore,GPSisthebettersuitedsurveyingmethodformostlarge
photogrammetricprojects.
Groundcontrolthatistobeusedinsuccessivephotogrammetricprojectsorfieldsurveys
shouldbemonumentedaccordingly.
7.2.2.5AerialTriangulation
Aerialtriangulation,oraerotriangulation,istheprocessofdeterminingX,Y,andZground
coordinatesofindividualpointsbasedonmeasurementsfromphotographs.Aerial
triangulationisusedextensivelyformanypurposes.Oneoftheprincipalapplicationsis
densifyinggroundcontrolthroughstripsorablockofphotostobeusedinsubsequent
photogrammetricoperations.Whenusedforthispurposeitisoftencalledbridging,because
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itallowsthecomputationofnecessarycontrolpointsbetweenthosemeasuredinthefield.
Inalargeproject,withdozensofphotographs,theeffortandcostofprovidingtheneeded
controlusingfieldsurveysisprohibitive.Aerialtriangulationisusedtoprovidethe
necessarycontrolforeachstereomodelwithonlyalimitednumberoffieldsurveyed
controlpoint.Otheradvantagesofaerialtriangulationare:
Thecontroldensificationisdoneintheoffice,thusminimizingdelaysandhardships
duetoadverseweatherconditions.
Fieldsurveysindifficultorunsafeareasareminimized.
Accesstomuchofthe(privateorpublic)propertywithinaprojectareaisnot
required.
Theaerialtriangulationprocessprovidesaccuracyandconsistencychecksforthe
fieldsurveyedcontrolpoints.
7.2.2.6GPSasControlforPhotogrammetry
Inrecentyears,GPShasbeendemonstratedtobeabletoreplace,partiallyorentirely,the
needforgroundcontrol.ThebasicconceptofGPScontrolledphotogrammetryistouseGPS
equipmenttodeterminethepositionandorientationofthecameraattheinstantof
exposure.Rememberthattheonlyreasonforusinggroundcontrolinphotogrammetryisto
recoverthepositionandorientaphotographinspaceatthetimethatthephotographwas
taken.Ifthevaluesoftheseparameterscanberesolvedatthetimeofphotographywith
GPSand/oradditionalinstruments,thereisnoneedforgroundcontroltocomputethem.
EvenifGPScontrolledphotographyisnotyetatalevelofmaturitytobeabletocompletely
replacetheneedforgroundcontrol,itdoesreducethenumberoffieldsurveyedcontrol
pointsinagivenproject.
7.2.3ProductCompilation
7.2.3.1PhotogrammetricPlotters
Themostcommonlyusedphotogrammetricinstrumentisthestereoplotter.Astereoplotter
isusedtoreconstructtheactualorientationandgeometricintegrityofanimageatthe
instantofexposureandtocollectthreedimensional(3D)data.Datacollectionwitha
stereoplotterisatwostageprocess.Thefirststageisorientation,whichconsistsof:
1. InnerorientationOrienteachphotographwithrespecttothegeometryofthe
camera.
2. RelativeorientationOrienttwophotographswithrespecttoeachothertoforma
stereomodel.
3. AbsoluteorientationOrientandscalethestereomodeltotheground.Insome
instrumentstherelativeandabsoluteorientationareperformedsimultaneously.The
simultaneoussolutionoftheseorientationsiscalledexteriororientation.
Inthesecondstage,theoperatorviewstheimageofthegroundin3D.Datacollectionis
performsbyplacingafloatingmarkontheimagesofthefeaturethatissurveyedand
recorditsX,Y,Zcoordinates.Linefeatures,suchasroadsorcontours,canbedigitized,
pointbypoint,ortracedandrecordedcontinuously.
Therearedifferenttypesofstereoplotters,analog,analytical,anddigital(softcopy.)Each
ofthesetypesofplottersareclassifiedaccordingtotheiraccuracycharacteristicsasfirst,
second,orthirdorderstereoplotters.Anotherclassificationofstereoplottersisas
precision,topographic,orsimpleplotters.Figure7.2summarizesthedifferencesbetween
thevarioustypesofphotogrammetricstereoplotters.
StereoPlotter
Characteristics
Analog
Analytic
Digital
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Image
Film
Film
Pixels
Plotter
Analog
Analytical
Computer
ModelConstruc.
Mechanical
mechanic/computer Computer
StereoViewing
Optical
Optical
Varies
Output
Mech./CAD
Mech./CAD
CAD
Aerotriangulation
Verylimited
On/OffLine
Semiautomatic*
Orthophoto
Verylimited
Unavailable
Automatic**
Limitations
Focallength
Filmformat
FilmFormat
None
Accuracy
Averageupto15
m(microns)
Veryhigh
upto3m
Sameasscanning
accuracy
Cost
Veryhigh
Veryhigh
Reasonabletohigh
*Someoperatorassistanceisneeded.
**IfDEMisavailable
Figure7.2.Characteristicsofphotogrammetricstereoplotters.
Twoadditionalphotogrammetricinstrumentsthatareusedinaerialtriangulationarethe
pointtransferdeviceandthecomparator.Thepointtransferdeviceisusedtodrillahole
intothediapositivetomarkapassoratiepoint.Thepointtransferprocessisas
follows.Theoperatorviewsapairofphotographsstereoscopically.Apassortiepointis
selectedbyplacingtheleftandrightfloatingmarksonthesameimageonthe
correspondingphotographs.Adrillingdeviceisthenactivatedtopierceatinyholeonthe
diapositivesexactlyatthelocationofthefloatingmarks.
Comparatorsareprecisedigitizers,manyofthemwithaonemicrometerleastcount,with
whichimagecoordinatesofpass,tieandgroundcontrolpointsaremeasured.Mono
comparatorsmeasureonephotographatatimeinmonoscopicmodewhilestereo
comparatorsmeasurethepointsinstereomode.Ifamonocomparatorisused,passpoints
mustbemarkedoneachphotograph.However,ifastereocomparatorisused,thepass
pointsaremarkedonlyononephotograph.Themarkedphotographistheoneonwhichthe
passpointsappearalongaverticallineatthecenterofthephotograph.
7.2.3.2DataCollectionandMapping
Photogrammetrycanbeusedtocollectavarietyofdata,presentedinthefollowing
formats:
PlanimetricmapsPlanimetricmapsaremapsthatrepresentsonlythehorizontal
featuresofthemappedarea.Planimetricmapsdisplayfeaturessuchasroads,sidewalks,
buildings,riverbanks,shorelines,manholes,treesetc.Noelevationinformationappears
onplanimetricmaps.
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TopographicmapsTopographicmapsaremapsonwhichbothhorizontalandvertical
featuresofthemappedarerepresented.Inadditiontotheabovementionedplanimetric
features,atopographicmapdepictselevationinformationascontoursand/orasspot
elevations.
DEM'sDigitalElevationModel(DEM)orDigitalTerrainModel(DTM)aredensenetworks
ofspotelevationsrepresentedbyX,Y,Zcoordinates.TheDEMpointsarecollectedina
regulargridwithbreakpointswhichdepictthecharacteristicsofthetopography.DEM'sare
usedtodrawcontoursandareanessentialingredientfortheproductionoforthophotos.
Inhighwayapplications,DEMScanbeusedforproducingcrosssections,roadprofiles,and
earthworkcomputations.TheadvantageofusingDEM'sforvolumecomputationsisthat
thecomputationandthegenerationoftheassociatedplotsarealmostautomaticifthe
designwasmadeunderthesamecoordinatesystem.Thisisanothergoodreasontouse
stateplanecoordinatesandauniqueelevationdatuminallNJDOTwork.Oneshouldbe
awarethatanappropriatephotoscalemustbeusedtoobtaincentimeterlevelelevations.
SpecialpurposemapsSpecialpurposemapsaremapsthataredesignedtomeet
specialneedsordepictaspecialtheme.Theruleisthatifyoucanseeitontheaerial
photograph,youcanmapitwithphotogrammetry.Forexample,arightofwaymapcanbe
producedifallpropertycornersareeithertargetedorcanbeidentifiedonthephotographs.
Anotherexampleisawetlandmapshowingthedelineationofwetlandareas.
7.2.3.3MonoscopingMappingandUpdates
Aerialphotographscanbeusedtoproducephotomapsmainlyforindexing,referencingand
generalstudies.Photomapscanbecomposedofasinglephotographorofseveralphoto
partsmosaicedtogether.Thisisnotanaccuratemetricproduct,butservesasavaluable
meanstopresentspatialinformation.
Monoscopicbasedphotogrammetryisalsousedforminorupdatesofmaps.Theupdatethat
resultsfromthisprocessisofalesseraccuracyandisintendedmoreformaintaining
featureinventoryatanapproximatespatiallocation.Mapupdatesareaccomplishedby
locallyrubbersheeting(superimposing)thephotographicimageandthemap.Afew
commonfeaturesareidentifiedonthemapandonthephotograph.Thephotographisthen
scaledand/ortiltedtolocallymatchthecorrespondingfeatures.Aspecialdevicecalledthe
zoomtransferscopeiscommonlyusedforthispurpose.
7.2.3.4Orthophotos
Orthophotosarecoveredinsection7.5ofthismanual
7.3AccuracyandErrors
Theattainableaccuracyofaphotogrammetricproductdependsontwomainfactors.The
firstisthescaleofthephotographsfromwhichtheproductisderivedandthesecondis
relatedtoerrorsinthephotogrammetricprocess.
Thescaleofthephotographdeterminesthegroundresolution.Ifthesmallestidentifiable
groundfeatureonthephotographisa0.1m2(1ft2)object,thenthemappingaccuracy
fromthisphotograph,assumingperfectdatacompilation,islimitedtonobetterthan0.3m
(1ft).Selectingtheappropriatephotoscaleforaparticularproductdependsonproduct
specifications.Forexample,thephotoscalefortopographicmappingisafunctionofthe
requiredmapscale,thecontourinterval,andthequalityofthephotogrammetricplotter.A
requiredaccuracycanbemetbyeitherusingsmallerscalephotographsandhighquality
equipmentorlargerscalephotoswithlessaccuratephotogrammetricequipment.Thephoto
scaleisalwayssmallerthanthemapscalebuttheratiobetweenthesetwoscalesshould
neverbelargerthaneight.
Thesecondfactorcontrollingtheaccuracyofaphotogrammetricproductisthetotalamount
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oferrorsaccumulatedduringitsderivation.Inphotogrammetry,asinanyothersurveying
andmappingprocedures,therearesystematicerrorsandrandomerrors,assumingall
blundershavebeenremoved.
7.4ThePhotogrammetricProcedure
Thephotogrammetricprocedurewillbeoutlinedbelow:
7.4.1ProjectPlanning
Projectplanningiscomprisedofthefollowingsteps:
1. Convertprojectrequirementstospecificationsintermsofareatobemapped,desired
mapscaleandcontourinterval.Thedeterminationofthesespecificationsdependson
therequiredaccuracyofthefinalmapandoncostconstraints.Moreaccuratemaps
aremorecostlyandtakelongertocompile.
2. Determinephotogrammetricspecificationsintermsofflightheight,thenumberof
photographsneeded,thenumberofstripsneeded,flightlines,approximatelocation
forexposurestations,andequipmenttobeused.Specificationsshouldalsobe
developedforgroundcontrol,aerialtriangulation,andcompilationmethodology.
3. Developascheduleforaerialphotography,fieldwork,andmapcompilation.The
scheduleshouldbecoordinatedamongthevariousgroupsinvolvedintheproject.A
criticalcoordinationisbetweenthefieldcrewplacingthetargetsandtheaerial
photographycrew.Targetsshouldbeplacedascloseaspossibletothetimeof
photography.Aprojecttimetablewithcompletiondatesfordifferenttasksandthe
approximatecostassociatedwiththemshouldbedevelopedaswell.
4. Definetheexpecteddeliverables,includingdetailsonwhatfeaturesaretobemapped
andtheirgraphicrepresentation.
7.4.2AerialPhotography
Theaerialphotographyprocessconsistsofthefollowing:
1. Verifythattheweatherconditionsaresuitableforflying.Flyingunderconditionsof
lowvisibilityorpotentialstrongturbulenceshouldbeavoided.Badweatherconditions
couldnotonlyproduceunacceptablephotographicresults,butalsorisktheflying
crew.
2. Mounttheaerialcameraaccordingtotheestablishedprocedure.Testthecamerato
ensurethatitfunctionsproperly.
3. Flythedesignedroutesandtakethephotographsaccordingtoplans.
4. Processthefilmaccordingtospecificationtoensureradiometricallyandgeometrically
qualityimages.
5. Ifnecessary,printonthenegativesthemissingphotoinformation(titles),suchas
serialnumber,date,projectinformation,etc.
6. Preparecontactprintsfromthenegatives.Ifnecessary,prepareenlargementstobe
usedlater,accordingtotheprojectrequirements.
7. Inspectthephotographsforimagequalityandforcoveragecompleteness.Verifythat
allthephotographshaveenoughendlapstoassurestereoscopiccoverageofthe
entireprojectarea.Asimilarinspectionshouldbemadetoverifycompletesidelap
coverage.Incompleteendandsidelapcoverageorcoveragegapscouldvoidthe
entireaerialphotographyandrequirereplanningorreflying.Anotherinspectionthat
hastobemadeisidentifyingthepresettargets.Targetinspectionincludeschecking
whethertheyarevisible,appearinastereocoverageandwhetherthereareenough
ofthemtoensurereliableresults.Ifsometargetsaremissing,ortheentireproject
wasnottargeted,pointsthatcanbeidentifiedandsurveyedonthegroundshouldbe
selectedandmarkedonpaperprints.Acopyoftheprintsandadescriptionofthe
pointsselectedshouldthenbesubmittedtothesurveyingcrewforfield
measurements.
8. Selectphotographsthatwillbeusedfordatacompilationanddevelopdiapositivesfor
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them.
7.4.3GroundControl
1. Researchprojectregionforexistingcontrol.Existingcontrolthatcanbetargetedcan
savetimeandmoneybyavoidingunnecessaryfieldsurveys.Sometimesitismore
costefficienttoexpandtheaerialphotographyslightlybeyondtheprojectareato
includeexistingcontrolthantoestablishnewcontrol.
2. Placetargetsaccordingtothediscussioninsection7.2.2.3ofthismanual.
3. Performfieldsurveysasdiscussedinsection7.2.2.2,andsection7.2.2.4ofthis
manual.Fieldsurveysofpickedpointscouldbenecessaryaftertheaerial
photographyiscompleted.
4. Computeandadjustthefielddataandestablishcoordinatevaluesforthecontrol
points.
5. Prepareareportonthesurveysandontheresults.Anaccuracyanalysisofthe
resultsshouldbeincludedinthereport.Theanalysisshouldindicatethemethodology
usedtodeterminethattheresultsareinagreementwiththeprojectspecifications.
7.4.4AerialTriangulation
1. Orderthephotographsasacontinuousstrip,orablockiftheprojectencompasses
morethanonestrip.
2. Selectandmarkpassandtiepoints.Passandtiepointsshouldbeclearlymarkedand
numberedonthepaperprints.Establishapointnumberingsystemthatwillmakeit
easytoassociatethesepointswiththeprojectandwithindividualphotos.The
selectioncriteriaaredescribedinsection7.2.2.5ofthismanual.
3. Markartificialpassandtiepointsonthediapositiveswithapointtransferdevice.
Pointsthataremarkedinstereo(tiepoints)shouldbeexecutedwithutmostcare.A
markingerrorinthelattercausesameasurementerrorthatisequivalentto
observinganincorrectpoint.
4. Measureandrecordpassandtiepointswithaphotogrammetricplotter(including
digitalworkstations)oracomparator.Atleastaninnerorientationmustbe
performedpriortomeasuringpassandtiepointssothatimagecoordinatesofthese
pointscanbeobtained.Iftheoperatorencountersdifficultiesinmeasuringsome
points,thesedifficultiesshouldbedocumented.Theoperatormaywanttorecord
supplementalpointsinareaswheretherearenowelldefinedfeaturesorsuitable
imagetexturetobeusedforpassortiepointselection.Measureandrecordground
controlpoints.Groundcontrolpointsaremeasuredwiththesamestereomodelsetup
orphotographmeasurementsasforthepassandtiepoints.
5. Computeandadjusttheaerialtriangulationmeasurements.Checktheresultsfor
possiblemeasurement,marking,identificationandcontrolerrors.Ifnecessary,
repeatsomemeasurementsandcomputationsuntiltheadjustmentsconsistofonly
smallrandomerrors.
6. Prepareareportontheaerialtriangulationresults.Thereportshouldincludethe
photogrammetricblocklayoutandadiagramshowingthelocationandnamesofall
thepointsthatparticipatedintheadjustment.Erroneouspointsthatwereremoved
fromthecomputationorhadtobemeasuredagainshouldbelisted.Theresultsofthe
computationsandanaccuracyanalysisoffinaladjustmentwithrespecttotheproject
specificationsaretobedocumentedaswell.
7.4.5StereoCompilation
TheuseofmostlyCADbaseddigitalmappingsoftwarehavesimplifiedthemanuscript
preparation,editinganderrorcheckingofthestereocompilationprocess.Thestereo
compilationprocessisasfollows:
1. Selectmodelstobeusedformapping.Theselectionshouldincludealayoutofwhat
areasaretobemappedfromwhichstereomodel.Mappingfromthefringesofthe
stereomodelisusuallylessaccuratethanatthecenter.Therefore,theoperator
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shouldbeinstructedonthelimitsofstereomodelthatshouldbeusedformapping.
2. Setupthestereomodelsbyperforminginteriorandexteriororientations.
3. Compiletheplanimetricfeaturesaccordingtotheprojectspecifications.The
specificationsshouldbeclearintermsofwhatfeaturesaretobemappedandtheir
graphicrepresentationintermsofcolor,shape,symbol,andotherattributes.
4. Compileelevationfeaturesascontoursorspotelevation.Contoursshouldbe
compiledaccordingtothespecifiedcontourinterval.Nowadays,contouringis
performedbyinterpolatingaDEM,insteadofplottingthemdirectlyfromastereo
model.DEMmustbecomprisedofspotelevations(regularlyorirregularlyspaced)
andbreaklines.ADEMthatdoesnotincludebreaklineswillprobablyproduce
unacceptablecontouringaccuracy.
5. Inspectthemapforcompleteness,consistencyandaccuracy.Thepurposeof
inspectingthemapforcompletenessistoverifythatalltherequiredfeatureshave
beenmapped.Modernphotogrammetricplottershaveacapabilityofsuperimposing
themaponthephotographicimagesothatbothofthemcanbeviewed
simultaneouslywithcorrectspatialregistration.Thissuperimpositionmakesitvery
easytoperformthecompletenessinspection.Thestereomodelisvisuallychecked
forrequiredfeaturesandthefeaturescanbeimmediatelyverified.Consistencyand
accuracyinspectionisperformedtoverifythatthefeaturesaremappedinthecorrect
locationwiththecorrectattribute.Forexample,alinerepresentingasidewalkshould
correspondtoanactualsidewalkanditshouldspatiallycoincidewiththeimageofthe
sidewalkinthestereomodel.Thisinspectionisimportant,especiallyforfeaturesthat
aremappedfrommorethanonestereomodelsince,forexample,aroadcanspan
overseveralstereomodels.Onehastomakesurethatfeaturesaremapped
continuouslyandaccurately.
6. Editthemapandmakethenecessarycorrections.
7.4.6FieldCompletion
Photogrammetrycanbeusedformappingonlywhatisvisibleonthephotographs.Thus,if
importantfeaturesareobscuredbytrees,manmadestructuresorsteeptopography,they
cannotbemapped.Therefore,afieldcompletionactivityhastotakeplacetomapthe
missingfeatures.Thefieldcompletionphaseoftheprojectshouldbeusedforaccuracy
testingofthemap.
7.4.7Drafting
DraftingofphotogrammetricallyderivedmapsisperformedwithCADsoftware.Itconsists
ofthefollowing:
SheetLayout
SheetFormat
ScaleChange
EditandFinalCorrections
Alloftheseparametersshouldbepartoftheprojectspecificationsandshouldbe
performedaccordingly.
7.4.8QualityControl
Afinalreportonthequalityandaccuracyofthemapsshouldaccompanythesubmissionof
thefinalproduct.Thereportshouldreviewtheaccuracyofthecontrol,asdescribedin
section7.4.3andsection7.4.4.Theprocedureusedtodeterminethemap'sspatialand
contentaccuracyshouldbedocumentedaswell.Astatement,suchasthismapmeetsthe
NationalMapAccuracyStandardsorthismapmeetstheprojectrequirements,is
unacceptable.Anyclaimofaccuracyorstandardmustbesubstantiatedbyanactualtest
andanalysis.Thetestingmethodologyusedandthefindingsofitsimplementationshould
bedocumentedinafinalreport.
7.5Orthophotos
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7.5.1General
Anorthophotoisanaerialimagethathasbeenrectifiedsothatitpossessescharacteristics
ofalinemap.Therectificationprocessisperformedbycombiningphotogrammetric
principleswithdigitalelevationmodel(DEM)data.Orthophotoshavebeenusedformany
yearsbyadiversegroupofusers.Recently,orthophotoshavebeenrediscoveredby
GIS/LISusersandarerapidlybecomingaleadingformofbasemaps.
7.5.2AerialPhotographvs.Orthophoto
Anaerialphotographdoesnothaveaconstantscalethroughouttheentireimage
therefore,itcannotbeusedasamap.Thescaleofanaerialphotographisdefinedasthe
ratiobetweenthefocallengthofthecameraandtheheightofthecameraabovethe
surface(topography).Thisscaleiscorrectonlyforonepointintheentireimage(usually
somewherearoundthecenterofthephotograph).Allotherpoints(orfeatures)have
differentscalescausedbytheperspectivenatureoftheimage,bythetiltofthecameraat
theinstanceofexposureandbychangesinelevation.Afeature,suchasatallbuilding,will
alsohaveshapedistortionbecausethetopofthefeaturewillhavealargerscalethanthe
bottomofit.Inaddition,thesidesofthebuilding,whicharenotsupposedtobemapped,
willshowonaphotograph.
Anorthophotoisapictureofthegroundpreparedinsuchamannerthatallofthesescale
andshapedistortionshavebeenremoved.Inthepast,orthophotoswereproducedwitha
speciallyoutfittedphotogrammetricstereoplotter.Withtheadventofdigital
photogrammetricmethods,anorthophotocannowbeproduced,evenonadesktopPC,
providedthatappropriatesoftwareanddataareavailable.Anorthophotoisproducedby
computingthescaleandpositiondistortionsofeachpixeloftheaerialphotograph,re
scalingandrepositioningthepixelsinanewcomputergeneratedimage.Thisprocessis
calleddifferentialrectification.Orthophotosthatareproducedfrom,andsavedas,digital
imagesaresometimescalleddigitalorthophotos.
7.5.3AdvantagesofOrthophotos
Orthophotoshaveseveraladvantagesoveratypicalplanimetricmap:
1. Anorthophotohasmaplikecharacteristics,whilepreservingthepictorialimage.A
majordrawbackofamapisthatitshowsonlywhatthemapperdecidedtoinclude.
Forexample,iftheclientwasnotinterestedintreestheywillnotbeshownonthe
map,exceptforthosethatthesurveyorsorthephotogrammetristdecidedtoinclude.
Ifahutwasleftoutduringdatacollection,itwillnotappearonthemap.However,if
themapisapicture,thisproblemdoesnotexist.Whateverexistsonthegroundand
islargeenoughtoberecordedontheimage,willautomaticallybemapped.Onedoes
nothavetodecideinadvance(usuallyabudgetconstraineddecision)whatfeatures
shouldbemapped.Everythingismappedbydefaultforthesameprice.
2. Speedofproduction,whichbecomesmoreevidentwhenmapshavetoberevisedor
updated.
3. CostTheyarelessexpensive,especiallywhenaDEMfortheprojectareais
available.
4. Hardandsoftcopyproducts.
5. GIScompatibleAlmostallGISsoftwarecanintegratedigitalorthophotosintoa
project.
6. Cartographicoverlaycanbeaddedtoenhanceinterpretability.
7. Abilitytoperformchangeanalysisbycomparingimagesfrombeforeandafter.
8. Useofwidersensingspectrum,suchasinfraredforspecialstudies.
9. Mappinginaccessibleareas,suchascontaminatedareas.
7.5.4DisadvantagesofOrthophoto
Orthophotoshaveseveraldisadvantagesaswell:
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1. Inordertoproduceaveryaccurateorthophotooneneedstoknownotonlythe
elevationofthesurface(topography)butalsotheheightofeveryfeature(buildings,
treesetc.)abovethatsurface.Otherwise,thesefeatureswillbepositionedincorrectly
ontheorthophoto.
2. Missingimagesofobstructedfeatures.Letusassumethattheelevationofeverypixel
onabuildingisknownandthatthebuildingwasrectifiedcorrectly(thepixelswere
relocatedtotheirproperlocations).Theproblemishowtomaptheareathatwas
obscuredbythebuilding(i.e.thestreetsegmentbehindthebuilding),whichhasnow
noavailableimages.Oneneedstosearchforadditionalinformationandsomehow
blenditintotheorthophoto.
3. Whilethepictorialimagespresentalltheexistingfeaturesontheground,their
interpretationandclassificationcouldbedifficultattimes.Amapwithaclearlegend
ismoreeasilyunderstoodandinterpretedthanapicture.Thus,anaddedcostofa
cartographicenhancementbecomesimperative.
7.5.5DigitalOrthophotoProduction
Theproductionofdigitalorthophotoshasmanystepsincommonwithphotogrammetric
mapping.Thesestepsare:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Projectandflightmissionplanning.
Imageacquisitionwithpreciseaerialcameras.
Filmprocessing,annotationetc.
Imagescanning.
Controlpointsandaerialtriangulation.
Detailsontheseoperationshavebeendiscussedearlierinthischapter.Proceduresthatare
specificfororthophotosare:
1. Imagerectification
Inordertocorrectscaledistortionsresultingfromtheperspectiveprojectionofan
image,theelevationofeachpixelmustbeknown.Thepixelelevationisinterpolated
fromaDigitalElevationModel(DEM).ThereareseveralsourcesforDEMdata.They
varymainlybycostandaccuracyofdatacompilation.Themostaccuratesourcefor
elevationisfromfieldsurveys.ButthecostassociatedwithdevelopingaDEM(even
forasmallproject)fromfieldsurveysisprohibitivetomostusers.Amorecommon
sourceforDEMisphotogrammetry.Oneshouldnotethatthesamephotographsthat
areusedfortheaerialtriangulationcouldalsobeusedfordevelopingtheDEM.Other
methodsforderivingDEM'sarekinematicGPSordigitizingcontoursfromtopographic
maps.DEMdataforsmallscaleapplicationsisalsoavailablefromUSGS.The
decisiononwhichDEMtousedependsonthescaleoftheorthophoto.Smallscale
orthophotoscanuselessaccurateDEM(i.e.USGSdata),whilelargescale
orthophotosrequireamoreaccurateDEM(i.e.photogrammetry).Oneshouldnote
thatDEMdatahasamuchlongershelflifethanplanimetricdata.Thus,agoodDEM
couldbereusedforseveralcyclesoforthophotoproduction.Whenallthedata
(image,orientationandDEM)isavailable,each(digital)photograph,orpartofit,is
rectifiedindividuallyusingaspecialsoftware.Asinglerectifiedphotographusually
coversonlyasmallportionoftheentireorthophotoproject.Thus,amosaicing
processbecomesnecessary.Mosaicingistheprocessofpiecingtogethermultiple
imagepatchesintoaseamlessandcontinuousorthophoto.Someofthetechnical
difficultiesofthismatchingprocessare:
2. MosaicingandImageEnhancement
SpatialcontinuityoredgematchingFeaturesthatappearonmorethanasingle
imagepatchmustbecontinuous.Forexample,aroadmustformacontinuousline
andshownojumpsattheoriginalphotoedgeswheretheimagesareconnected.
RadiometricconsistencyDifferentphotographsmayhavedifferentcontrastand
brightnessresultingfromlackofuniformconditionsduringthephotographic
processing,imagescanningorfromchangesinilluminationconditions.Forexample,
alakecouldappearaswhiteinoneimage,becauseofthereflectionofthesun,and
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blackonanotherimage,wherethereisnoreflection.Thismustbecorrectedduring
themosaicingprocess.
3. QualityControl
Thequalitycontrolinvolvesinspectingtheorthophotoforincorrectrectification,
imagematchingproblems,andmissingimagesduetohiddengroundproblems.
4. OutputDesignandCartographicEnhancement.
Outputdesignandcartographicenhancementconsistsofformattingtheimageand
enhancingitbyadding:
lineinformationthateitherappearsfuzzyordoesnotexistontheimage(for
example,parcelboundaries)
area(polygon)information(forexampleshadingaparkarea)
acontourlayertoshowhypsography(relieffeatures)
coordinategraticulesandNortharrow
annotation(textandsymbols)
legend,productinformationetc.
7.5.6AccuracyandQualityIssues
Theelementsthatcontributeerrorstoanorthophotoproductare:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Camera(characteristicsandcalibration)
Scanner(characteristicscalibrationandresolutionorimagescale)
Groundcontrol(accuracy,distribution,andabundance)
Aerialtriangulation(design,measurement,andcomputation)
DigitalElevationModeling(DEM)(methodofcompilationqualityofthesource
materialcharacteristicsoftheterrainsamplingspacing,withorwithoutbreaklines
typeofbreaklinesusedmethodofinterpolationintopixelgridandavailabilityof
heightinformationonorabovesurfacefeatures,suchasbuildings.)
6. Rectificationprocess(methodandsoftware)Whenalloftheseerrorsare
propagatedandsummedupfollowingavaliderrortheorymethodology,onecan
assessthespatialaccuracyofthefinalproduct.
Imagequalityissuesoforthophotosare:
1. Pictorialdefectscausedbyorthophotoproduction:
Contrastandbrightnessdifferencesresultingmainlyfromthemosaicing
process.
Dirtandscratchingmarksthatappearontheimageresultingfrom
inappropriatehandlingofthefilmduringthelabprocessingorduringthe
scanningprocess.
2. ImagedefectscausedbyinaccurateDEM:
Missingimages
Imageblurring
Doubleimage
Discontinuitiesoffeatures
Thegroundresolutionofeachpixelandtheaddedimpactoftheaboveerrorsdefinethe
spatialaccuracyoftheorthophoto.Toassessthataccuracy,oneshouldtestitwiththe
sameprocedureusedforlinemaps.
AdditionalreadingandinformationonorthophotoontheWeb:
USGeologicalSurvey
ESRIMapping
LastDocumentCorrection:
March8,2007
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