Lecture-2

Fundamentals of Mapping
Mapping Fundamentals
The data collected through field surveying are presented in the form of a plan or a map.
Since, the actual surface of the earth is curved, and the surface of the map is flat, a method of
projection is usually used to fit a curved surface of earth into a plane surface of paper. However,
no map can represent a terrain without some distortion. To minimise the effect of distortion,
conformal projections are generally employed.
To prepare a map, first a grid of meridians and parallels of latitude is being prepared to provide a
framework of map. Control points are then plotted by their spherical coordinates (latitude,
longitude). A plane coordinate system is then used to plot other points accurately in orthogonal
coordinate system obviating direct use of spherical coordinates.

In case of plane surveying, the earth's surface is regarded as plane and thus, a map is constructed
by orthographic projection. Points are being plotted by their rectangular coordinates, angles and
distances as horizontal.
During the preparation of maps, the factors which need important considerations are:
Scales
Conventional symbols
Generalisation of details
Plotting accuracy
Rectangular Coordinates
Scales
The selection of scale is one of the most important considerations during mapping. It is decided
on the basis of :
purpose of the map;
nature of terrain to be mapped;
the size of the final sheet;

 availability of resources to get it prepared and printed.

Some of these factors are of opposite and conflicting in nature.Therefore, in selecting the scale,
the map-maker has to make a judicious decision and to make a compromise.
Table 2.1 Suggested scales for different types of survey
Serial
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Purpose of Survey Scale

Land Survey
Topographical
Survey
Building Site
Route Survey
Town Planning

R.F.

1 cm = 5 m to 50 m
1:500 to 1:5000
1 cm = 0.25 km to 2.5 1:25,000
km
1:250,000
1 cm = 10 m
1:1000
1 cm = 100 m
1:10,000
1 cm = 100 m
1:10,000

to

Conventional Symbols
After the selection of scale of plotting, the map preparation should be carried out in such a way
that it becomes intelligible. It conveys useful meaning to the reader only when one can identify
the ground features identical with those shown on the map. In India, conventional symbols,
proposed by Survey of India, are used to depict objects on map. Symbols generally used for
preparation of topographical map are shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Standard (Survey of India) Conventional Signs of Salient objects for Topographic
Map
Symbol

Description
Village (open)
Church
Temple

Mosque

Symbol

Description
Telephone
Line
Electric Power
Line
Railway,Broad
Gauge Double
Line
Bridge
carrying
Railway over
Road

Idgah

Metalled Road

Burial-Ground

National
Highway

Boundary pillar

UN-Metalled
Road

Aerodrome

Level
Crossing

Well
Swamp or Marsh
with Cultivation

Foot Path with

Bridge,Culvert
( Road or
Railway
)
Embankment

Lake with
a)Defined Limit
b)Fluctuating Limit

Orchard
Garden
Plantation

/
/

c)Embankment

Single Line Stream

Trees

a) Perennial

a) Scattered

b) Non-Perennial
Canal
with
Navigation
Lock
and Road
Aqueduct
with
Road Alongside

b) Surveyed
Bench Mark
Triangulation
Station

Earthwork Dam

Broken
or
Rocky Ground

Masonry dam with

Road

Contours

Map Generalisation
Since a map represents earth's surface in a small scale, it cannot depict all the objects present on
the surface of earth. However, it is essential to show the important details and weed out the
trivials.

The process involved in selecting the essential details from the multitude of topographical
objects and representing them in a specified manner is called generalisation'. It serves the
purpose of facilitating the production of a legible homogenous map.
Moreover, when the representation of an important object / feature is done by its conventional
sign, it occupies more space on the map sheet than what the scale permits. This space occupied
by the conventional sign may require cutting down of some other details known as
generalisation of details on maps. A topographical map or even a large scale engineering
survey map, therefore may not contain all the details as actually present on the surface of the
earth, as its scale does not permit the same.
The salient points required for generalisation are:
choice of object / features in connection with its purpose and the scale of map.
Elimination of terrain details that cannot be maintained because of legibility and clarity in the
map.
Simplification of the form of terrain details that cannot be omitted but of which a detailed
representation would interfere with the image of the map.
Plotting Accuracy
The precision of a map / plan depends on the fineness and accuracy with which the details are
plotted. Moreover, the plotting accuracy on paper, varies between 0. 1 mm to 0.4 mm, of which
the mean value of 0.25 mm is usually adopted as plotting accuracy. This, therefore, imposes limit
on linear measurements that can be represented on the map at a given scale and thus accuracy.
The measurements to be made on the ground. For example, if the plotting scale is 1: 1000, than
the maximum possible distance on ground, that can be represented as map, is 0.25 x 1,000 mm
i.e., 0.25 meter. Thus, any detail having length less than 0.25 meter can not be plotted and thus,
field measurement for objects having dimension less than 0.25 meter are not needed. If the scale
is still smaller say 1: 50,000, then maximum plottable ground distance is 0.25 x 50,000mm i.e.,
12.5 meter. Thus any object having length or width less than 12.5 meter, such as roads, railway
track, etc. cannot be plotted on map. However, if the features are important and can not be
ignored, these are represented on map by proper conventional signs and colours adopting the
Principles of Generalisation' of Details.

Scale : A specified distance on a map representing corresponding distance on the ground.

Rectangular Coordinates
Large scale maps of plane surveying are generally prepared by means of a system of rectangular
coordinates with two reference axes representing the east-west and north-south directions
respectively in horizontal and vertical directions. In order to make the individual surveys related
to common system and make the data useful for multi-purpose cadastral survey, at least one
station (Control point) within the area of survey should be designated by a pair of coordinates in

the National coordinate system. This is significant as the point such described is unique within
the system. For India, Survey of India defined the National rectangular coordinate system with
origin at Kalianpur (2407', 7739'), Madhya Pradesh.

Examples
Ex2-1 In a plan, a 10 cm scale drawn shrunks to 9.7 cm. If the scale of the given plan is written
as 1:250, determine the actual length of a line which at present shows 10 cm.
Solution :

Present representative fraction (R.F.) =

Therefore Actual distance =

= 25.77 m

Exercise 2
Ex.2-1 Differentiate between plan and map.
Ex.2-2 Enumerate the essential elements of a map.
Ex.2-3 Which of the following scale is the smallest and largest respectively:
(i) 1 cm = 10 meter. (ii) 1: 10,000. (iii) R.F=1/100, 000 (iii) 1cm=1000 Km.