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Title: Current status of vegetable grafting (Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation)
Article Type: Vegetable Grafting Special Issue
Section/Category: Vegetable Production
Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic
produce, Grafting machine, Grafting robot
Corresponding Author: Dr. Jung-Myung Lee, Ph.D.
Corresponding Author's Institution: Kyung Hee University
First Author: Jung-Myung Lee, Ph. D.
Order of Authors: Jung-Myung Lee, Ph. D. ; Jung-Myung Lee, Ph.D.; Chieri Kubota, Ph. D.; S. J. Tao, Ph. D.;
Zhilong Bie, Ph. D; Pedro Hoyos Echevarria, Ph. D; Luigi Morra, Ph. D.
Suggested Reviewers: Dan Leskovar Ph. D.
Professor, Horticulture, Texas A&M University, USA
d-leskovar@tamu.edu
Transplant Production Specialist
Giuseppa Colla Ph. D.
Professor, GEMINI, Univ. of Tuscia, Italy
giucolla@unitus.it
vegetable specialist
Yun-Chan Heo Ph. D.
Researcher, Plant Genetic Resources, RDA, Korea
wmelon@rda.go.kr
Vegetable and grafting specialist
Yoshiteru Sakata Ph. D.
Researcher, AFFRC, Japan
ysakata@affrc.go.jp
Vegetable seed & transplant specialist
Reza Salehi Ph. D.
Assistant Professor, Horticulture, Univ. of Teheran, Iran
salehir@ut.ac.ir
grafting & vegetable crop specialist
Menahem Edelstein Ph. D.
Researcher, Vegetable, Volcani Agric Institute, Israel
medelst@volcani.agri.gov.il
Cover Letter
Cover Letter from JMLee, Korea for an article to Special Issue of Vegetable Grafting
Submitted by Jung-Myung Lee
Republic of Korea
E mail: jmlee@khu.ac.kr
M. Oda g
Honorary Professor, Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
School of Plant Science, Univ. of Arizona, USA
c
Dept. of Horticulture, Natl Taiwan Univ., Taiwan
d
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agric. Univ., China
e
Polytech University of Madrid, Spain
f
Cra-Unita di ricerca, per le colture alternative al tobacco, Italy
g
Osaka Pref. University., Japan
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________
*,1 Corresponding author at : Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Global Campus of Kyung Hee
University, Republic of Korea 446-701, Tel: +82-31-201-2618, Fax: +82-31-202-1740, Email: jmlee@khu.ac.kr
b
Abstract:
Vegetable production by using grafted seedlings, which originated in Asia particularly in Japan and Korea to
avoid the serious crop loss caused by infection of soil-borne diseases aggravated by successive cropping, is now
rapidly spreading over the world. Vegetable grafting has been safely adapted for the production of organic as
well as environmentally-friendly produces which are the major concern in recent years as means of minimizing
uptake of undesirable agrochemical residues in fresh vegetables. The number as well as the size of commercial
vegetable seedling producers has markedly increased in concomitant with the increases in farmers preferences
on grafted seedlings of high quality and better performance. In addition to the widely recognized advantages of
disease tolerance and high crop yields, this technology is also highly effective in ameliorating crop losses
caused by adverse environmental conditions such as low soil temperature and high soil salts, especially under
protected cultivations where successive cropping or continuous farming is routinely practiced. Grafted
seedlings are much favored in hydroponics farming systems where the chances of rapid spread of noxious
diseases, once infected, is expected to be phenomenal. Active research has been focused to develop efficient
rootstocks and handy grafting tools. In addition, researchers are eager to develop grafting machines or robots to
reduce the higher price of grafted seedlings for more general use and transplanting machines of the grafted
seedlings. The quality of grafted transplants is extremely important for the successful farming in many cases in
addition to different cultivation techniques for the grafted plants to maximize high-quality crop yield. Use of
grafted vegetables has been and will be markedly increased in concomitant with the increased use of improved
soil mix or substrate, farmers preferences for better seedlings, efficient management of nursery system, lower
prices of the grafted seedlings, and efficient nationwide delivery and/or transportation system. Improved
grafting methods to cut down the labor cost for grafting and subsequent handling of plug-grown grafted
transplants will contribute further for the increased use of grafted vegetables worldwide.
Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic produce,
Grafting machine, Grafting robot
Editted manuscript
Click here to view linked References
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M. Oda g
Honorary Professor, Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea
School of Plant Science, Univ. of Arizona, USA
c
Dept. of Horticulture, Natl Taiwan Univ., Taiwan
d
College of Horticulture and Forestry, Huazhong Agric. Univ., China
e
Polytech University of Madrid, Spain
f
Cra-Unita di ricerca, per le colture alternative al tobacco, Italy
g
Osaka Pref. University., Japan
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
*,1 Corresponding author at : Department of Horticultural Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Global Campus of Kyung Hee
University, Republic of Korea 446-701, Tel: +82-31-201-2618, Fax: +82-31-202-1740, Email: jmlee@khu.ac.kr
b
Abstract:
17
Vegetable production by using grafted seedlings, which originated in Asia particularly in Japan and Korea to
18
avoid the serious crop loss caused by infection of soil-borne diseases aggravated by successive cropping, is now
19
rapidly spreading over the world. Vegetable grafting has been safely adapted for the production of organic as
20
well as environmentally-friendly produces which are the major concern in recent years as means of minimizing
21
uptake of undesirable agrochemical residues in fresh vegetables. The number as well as the size of commercial
22
vegetable seedling producers has markedly increased in concomitant with the increases in farmers preferences
23
on grafted seedlings of high quality and better performance. In addition to the widely recognized advantages of
24
disease tolerance and high crop yields, this technology is also highly effective in ameliorating crop losses
25
caused by adverse environmental conditions such as low soil temperature and high soil salts, especially under
26
protected cultivations where successive cropping or continuous farming is routinely practiced. Grafted
27
seedlings are much favored in hydroponics farming systems where the chances of rapid spread of noxious
28
diseases, once infected, is expected to be phenomenal. Active research has been focused to develop efficient
29
rootstocks and handy grafting tools. In addition, researchers are eager to develop grafting machines or robots to
30
reduce the higher price of grafted seedlings for more general use and transplanting machines of the grafted
31
seedlings. The quality of grafted transplants is extremely important for the successful farming in many cases in
32
addition to different cultivation techniques for the grafted plants to maximize high-quality crop yield. Use of
33
grafted vegetables has been and will be markedly increased in concomitant with the increased use of improved
34
soil mix or substrate, farmers preferences for better seedlings, efficient management of nursery system, lower
35
prices of the grafted seedlings, and efficient nationwide delivery and/or transportation system. Improved
36
grafting methods to cut down the labor cost for grafting and subsequent handling of plug-grown grafted
37
transplants will contribute further for the increased use of grafted vegetables worldwide.
38
Keywords: Vegetable grafting, Cucurbits, Solanum spp., Environmentally-friendly produce, Organic produce,
39
40
41
1.
Introduction
42
43
Even though grafting has been practiced in fruit trees for thousands of years (Ashita, 1927; Sakata et al.,
44
2007), vegetable grafting has been only recently widely adapted. Old records on vegetable grafting can be
45
found in Chinese as well as in Korean and Japanese writings. The commercial use of vegetable grafting is a
46
relatively recent innovation. The invention of plastic films and active uses for the production of vegetables in
47
the late 1950s provided the momentum for generalized production and use of grafted vegetables. The early use
48
of grafted vegetables was associated with protected cultivation which involved successive cropping.
49
Commercial vegetable grafting, originated in Japan and Korea and practiced for about 30 years until 1990, was
50
introduced to the Western countries from the early 1990s and is currently being globally practiced using local
51
scion cultivars and introduced rootstocks. Fortunately, seed companies have been able to select and/or breed
52
well-adapted scion cultivars for intensive growing. Even though the benefits of using grafted seedlings are
53
widely recognized, many other factors should be carefully considered to ensure successful cultivation and
54
satisfactory income with this new technology. For example, generous use of chemical fertilizers and synthetic
55
pesticides should be minimized for the production of environmentally-friendly produces, in which interest has
56
been exploding in recent years (Cushman and Huan, 2008; Davis et al., 2008; Kubota et al., 2008; Lee and Oda,
57
2003; Sakata et al., 2007). It has been well-known that the use of proper rootstocks can minimize the problems
58
associated with successive cropping and stress tolerance (Hoyos Echeverria, 2010; Lee, 1994; Lee et al., 1998,
59
Lee, 2003). The increasing awareness and interest in fresh horticultural produce has rapidly expanded among
60
people of all ages and locations to look for safe, environmentally-friendly, and functional foods. Fast foods are
61
now regarded as dangerous in many developed countries and obesity is currently defined as a disease, rather
62
than a symbol of health and prosperity. Many Asian people have been consuming more horticultural crops as
63
compared to those living in western countries, especially vegetables. However, because of the very limited total
64
and per capita cultivation area, intensive use of the land is inevitable to secure food and earnings for the
65
majority of farmers. Intensive land use is most frequently performed by multiple or successive cropping even in
66
Temperate Zone areas (Lee et al., 2008). In the southern parts of Korea, it is not unusual to find watermelon
67
growers producing 3 to 4 crops a year in the same greenhouse. The farmers usually apply heavy amount of
68
chemical fertilizers and frequent pesticides treatment to the densely-planted vines to obtain high crop yield and
69
earnings. Since the plants are cultivated under the protected structures year-round except for several months
70
from May to September, the plants are frequently subjected to poor to extreme environmental conditions in the
71
high tunnels during off- season cultivation (Lee, 2008). As a result farmers frequently encounter various
72
problems caused by successive as well as off-season cropping such as heavy infection of soil-borne diseases,
73
low temperatures during the winter, high humidity in the high tunnels, insufficient light intensity, and lack of
74
well-balanced fertilization. The plants and the fruits grown under these stressful conditions frequently suffer
75
from heavy incidence of soil-borne diseases, suboptimal temperature stresses, various physiological disorders,
76
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2.
79
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2.1.
81
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The vigorous roots of the rootstock exhibit excellent tolerance to serious soil-borne diseases, such as those
83
caused by Fusarium, Verticillium, Phytophthora, Pseudomonas, and viruses, even though the degree of
84
tolerance varies considerably with the rootstocks. The mechanism of disease resistance, however, has not been
85
intensively investigated. These characteristics are crucial for the plants grown under protected environments,
86
where extended harvesting and higher crop yield are expected. Resistant rootstocks can also effectively
87
counteract the rapid disease spread when the plants are grown in hydroponics system. The disease tolerance in
88
grafted seedlings may be entirely due to the tolerance of rootstock roots to such diseases (Table 1). However, in
89
actual planting, adventitious rooting from the scion is common (Fig. 1). Plants having the root systems of the
90
scion and rootstock are expected to be easily infected by soil-borne diseases. However, seedlings having dual
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root systems occasionally exhibit a certain degree of disease resistance, thus partially supporting the previous
92
report that substances associated with Fusarium tolerance are synthesized in the root and move to the scion
93
through the xylem. On the contrary, it is generally accepted that the disease-susceptible characteristics of the
94
95
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Table 1. Purpose of grafting in vegetables (Heo, 2000; Lee, 1994; Lee et al., 1998; Lee and Oda, 2003).
97
Fig. 1. Adventitious rooting from the melon scion grafted onto squash rootstocks through the hypocotyls cavity
98
of the rootstock, thus counteracting the grafting effect in some cases (A) and rooting from the scion of the TAG-
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2.2.
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Since the root systems of selected rootstocks are usually much larger and more vigorous, they can absorb
104
water and nutrients much more efficiently as compared to non-grafted plants, in addition to the disease
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For example, in watermelons, it is routinely recommended to reduce the amount of chemical fertilizers
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application to about one-half to two-third as compared to the standard recommendation for the non-grafted
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plants (Lee and Oda, 2003, Salehi et al., 2009). This is especially true for nitrogen fertilizers during early
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seedling growth for the safe setting of fruits at the desired node positions for early fruit set. Early fruit set is
110
crucial for the early harvesting in greenhouses to secure good market prices. Otherwise the fruit set as well as
111
the fruit quality at harvest will not be high enough to secure highest market grading.
112
Cytokinin composition in bleeding xylem sap from decapitated plants, grafted or own-rooted, is much
113
different in various cucurbits and, more interestingly, the scion portion is capable of converting the composition
114
of cytokinins in the ascending xylem sap (Table 2) in relative short period, thus clearly indicating the
115
contribution of higher cytokinin concentration in the ascending xylem sap for the growth promotion of grafted
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scion.
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The frequency of agrochemical application also can be significantly reduced by using vigorous rootstocks.
118
Spray of fungicides may also be greatly reduced or totally excluded depending upon the diseases, thus greatly
119
enhancing the successful production of organically-grown fruits. It has been shown that the incidence of various
120
diseases in tomatoes can be easily minimized by using disease tolerant rootstocks rather than using pesticides.
121
Even the scion infection of certain virus diseases (TMV races) could be markedly influenced. Expression of
122
deficiency symptoms may be minimized with proper rootstocks. Wise selection of rootstocks can also
123
effectively replace methyl bromide. In cucumber, vigorous root system of the rootstock can effectively absorb
124
125
126
Table 2. Cytokinin composition in xylem sap collected from intact and grafted plants of cucumber, squash, and
127
128
129
2.3.
Yield increases
130
131
Grafting is associated with noticeable increases in fruit yield in many fruiting vegetables regardless of
132
infection with certain soil-borne diseases. In oriental melons, fresh fruit weight increases of 25~55% have been
133
reported as compared to own-rooted plants. These yield increases were closely correlated with the maintenance
134
of good plant vigor until late in the growing season in addition to disease resistance. Virtually no marketable
135
yield was obtained from plants heavily infected with Fusarium. Similar results were obtained with tomato. Up
136
to 54% increase in marketable yield was obtained with Kagemusia and 51% with Helper rootstocks (Chung
137
and Lee, 2007). There were also significant decreases in abnormal fruits in plant grafted onto most rootstocks
138
as compared with the own-rooted Seokwang tomato. Similar yield increases have been reported by other
139
researchers on watermelon, cucumber (Lee and Oda, 2003), melon, pepper, and eggplant.
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141
142
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Tolerance to extreme temperature is crucial for the production of fruiting vegetables under the winter
144
greenhouse conditions. In cucurbits, cropping area under protected structure is substantially larger than field
145
cultivation for watermelon, cucumber, and melon in Korea. The transplanting of seedlings for protected
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cultivation is usually done in early to mid-winter and fruit harvesting is usually finished by spring to early
147
summer. Even though many growers heat their greenhouse during the winter, there are more growers who do
148
not have electric or gas-generated heating systems and depend solely on preservation of solar energy capture
149
during the daytime. These growers find it difficult to maintain optimum temperatures in winter greenhouses,
150
especially soil temperatures which are far below the optimum thus causing transplanted plants to suffer during
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the early stages of cultivation. This is especially true with crops that require high temperatures for optimum
152
performance such as watermelon and oriental melon. Grafting watermelon, melon, cucumber, even summer
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squash onto low-temperature tolerant rootstocks such as interspecific hybrid between Cucurbita maxima x C.
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moschata or figleaf gourd can greatly reduce the risk of severe growth inhibition caused by low soil
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temperatures in winter greenhouses. Cucumber grafted onto figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia), an excellent
156
grower even at low soil temperature, grows much faster than own-rooted cucumber or even summer squash
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because of the rootstocks ability to absorb water and nutrient more efficiently at low temperatures (Tachibana,
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1982).
159
resistance to temperature stresses varies with the rootstocks, different rootstocks should be used during the hot
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summer season.
Many physiological disorders can be effectively minimized by using grafted plants. Since the
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2.5.
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The fruit size of watermelons grafted to rootstock having vigorous root systems is often significantly
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increased compared to the fruit from intact plants, and many growers practice grafting mainly for this reason. It
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is also known that other quality characteristics, such as fruit shape and skin color, rind thickness, and soluble
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solids concentrations are influenced by rootstock. In cucumbers, especially those for export, external color and
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bloom development are important quality factors. Even though these are usually regarded as cultivar-specific
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hereditary characteristics, they can be greatly influenced by the rootstock. However, the effects of rootstocks on
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some fruit quality are often detrimental, except for increasing fruit size, shape, and bloomless-fruit production
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in cucumber. Therefore, most newly-devised growing recommendations are aimed at minimizing the
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detrimental effects of rootstock on fruit quality (Cushman and Huan, 2008; Ko, 2008)
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2.6.
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Grafting can be demonstrated for various other reasons. For example, tomatoes, eggplants, pepinos can be
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grafted on potatoes so that four or more different kind of vegetables could be harvested from a plant. Chinese
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cabbages and cabbages may be grafted on top of radish with radish roots. Grafting can be made for some
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physiological studies such as flower induction and early flowering. Grafting is also commonly used for
180
bioassays of virus infection. Use of grafted plants is highly recommended for hydroponics to avoid rapid spread
181
of root disease within the system (Lee and Oda, 2003; Davis et al., 2008).
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6
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2.7.
Rootstocks
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Various rootstocks have been screened from the existing cultivars for use in each crop. Recently, however,
186
seed companies and various breeders are eager to breed superior rootstocks for vegetables grown under certain
187
conditions and environments. The growers, therefore, have to make decision on selection of rootstocks most
188
suitable for their specific requirements. Some of the characteristics in cucurbits are summarized in Tables 3-6.
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Cucurbit species and number of registered rootstock cultivars are rapidly increasing due mostly to the increased
190
cultivation of grafted plants under various cultural as well as environmental conditions (Kato and Lou, 1989;
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Ko, 1999; Lee et al., 2008). In general, grafting is more commonly practiced for vegetables grown under
192
protected environment as compared to those under the field condition. Rootstocks belonging to different species
193
are preferred because the response to biological and environmental stresses differs considerably depending
194
upon the rootstock and cultivar species in cucurbits (Table 5) as well as in solanaceous crops (Table 6).
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Table 3. Rootstocks for cucurbitaceous crops and some related characteristics (Lee and Oda, 2003).
197
Table 4. Rootstock species and number of registered rootstock cultivars for cucurbitaceous crops in China (Bie,
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Table 6. Rootstocks for solanaceous crops (Lycopersicon, Solanum, Capsicum, and Datura) and their
201
202
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3.
Current status
3.1.
Production
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Although the possibility and benefits of using grafted plants were recognized much earlier, large-scale
208
commercial growing of grafted vegetables can be traced from the late 1950s to the early 1960s in Japan and
209
Korea. Statistics on the current use of grafted plants in Korea and Japan is shown in Table 7. In cucurbitaceous
210
crops, over 90% of watermelon seedlings are grafted onto various rootstocks and about 75% of cucumbers in
211
both countries. Melons show variable grafting percentages depending upon the genotypes. For example,
212
virtually all the oriental melons (Cucumis sativus var. makuwa MAKINO) are grafted onto squash in Korea, but
213
other melons are selectively grafted depending on the genotypes using various rootstocks (Ko 1999, 2008). In
214
solanaceous vegetables, 20~40% of tomatoes are grafting, 20~40% of eggplants, and 5~10% of capsicum
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peppers. Since grafting is mostly practiced in cucurbits and solanaceous vegetables, the percentages of
216
grafting in all vegetables was only about 5% in 2007. More than 700 million grafted seedlings were estimated
217
218
Even though vegetable grafting is actively practiced in other countries (Tables 8 and 9), accurate statistics are
219
unavailable. However, 40 to 45 million grafted seedlings were distributed in North America in 2005, about 30
220
million in Spain (Hoyos Echevarria, 2010, personal communication), 25 million in Italy (Morra and Billoto,
221
2008), 60 million in Honduras, etc. It was estimated that about 20% of Chinas watermelons and cucumbers are
222
223
throughout the world for some decades (Davis et al.,2008; Lee 2003; Lee 2007; Lee and Oda 2003; Oda 2007).
224
Well known multinational seed companies are now supplying the rootstock seeds which virtually have little or
225
negative effects on fruit quality. Even though cucurbits (watermelon, melons, and cucumbers) and solanaceous
226
crops (tomatoes, eggplants, capsicum peppers) are routinely grafted, many other vegetables can be grafted for
227
228
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Table 7. Vegetable cultivation area, number of total seedlings, and number of grafted seedlings needed in Korea
230
and Japan. Approximate 40 million grafted seedlings are estimated to be used in North American greenhouses
231
(Kubota, 2008).
232
233
Table 8. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in Asian and other countries and regions as of
April 30, 2010.
234
Table 9. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in European and other countries as of April 30,
235
2010.
236
237
The majority of the grafted seedlings are produced by commercial growers globally. In Korea, more than 200
238
seedlings growers, excluding individual farmers and farmers associations, are producing plug seedlings and
239
about half of them are producing grafted seedlings. Hoban Nursery, the largest one in Korea located in
240
Chooncheon, Gangweon-do, produced 15.6 million grafted seedlings in 2007 (Table 10, Fig. 2). Nongwoo
241
GreenTek produced 9.0 million followed by Nosung, Gongju, and Yeoju. Pureun Nursery produced about 2.8
242
million seedlings, mostly for export. Yet, less than 10% of all grafted seedlings are estimated to be produced by
243
commercial growers in Korea (Ko, 2008). The price of grafted seedlings varies with crops and countries,
244
0.8~1.2 $ in the USA and some Asian countries including Japan and Korea, and 0.6~1.0 euros in Spain and
245
some European countries (Table 9). The price of scion seeds, rootstock seeds, and labor cost for grafting and
246
postgraft care are considered to be the major factors in price determination. In Shandong Province in China,
247
over 200 commercial growers are currently producing grafted vegetables and the biggest one produced 20
248
249
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Table 10. Number of grafted seedlings produced by some major nurseries in Korea in 2008 (unit: thousand).
251
Fig. 2. Hand grafting of high quality tomato seedlings at Hoban Nursery, Gangwon-do, Korea.
252
253
3.2.
International Export
254
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Even though plants growing in pot soil are frequently rejected at customs because of strict quarantine
256
regulations, grafted seedlings produced by export-oriented nurseries easily pass through the regulation. One of
257
the reasons for this easy pass is the use of sterile substrates rather than contaminated soils. Furthermore the
258
growing period is very short, usually less than 30 days in most cases except eggplants. Transportation and
259
shipping are also easy with plug seedlings grown in cell trays. Tomatoes are the major grafted vegetable for
260
export, followed by watermelons and eggplants. It is worthwhile to note that seedling growers in Agadir,
261
Morocco exported 12 million grafted seedlings to southern Europe countries in 2007 and it is expected that this
262
263
source of grafted seedlings, exporting more than 10 million grafted plants to the USA and northern Mexico.
264
Active export of grafted transplant from Korea to Japan had been taken place for several years via several
265
nurseries.
266
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Fig. 3. Plug seedlings grown in Morocco for export to southern European countries.
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4.
270
9
271
Graftage is a process that involves: (1) the choice of rootstock and scion species, (2) creation of a graft union
272
by physical manipulation, (3) healing of the union, and (4) acclimation of the compound plant. In fruit species,
273
pruning is often an essential part of the grafting process. Grafting methods vary greatly and considerably
274
depending upon the kind of crops, farmers experiences and preferences, facilities and machines available,
275
numbers of grafting, and even by the purpose of grafting such as grafting for their own uses or for sales only by
276
commercial growers. In case of Japan (Table 11), hole insertion grafting is by far the most popular grafting
277
method in watermelon. However, in cucumbers, tongue insertion grafting is most popular among the individual
278
growers producing transplants for their own use. In contrast, the commercial growers prefer splice grafting. In
279
eggplant, individual farmers prefer split grafting where as the commercial growers definitely prefer splice
280
grafting. In summary, less experienced, small-scale farmers select tongue approach grafting for most vegetables
281
whereas large-scaled experienced professional seedling producers like to adapt splice grafting. It is generally
282
accepted that the quality of seedlings grafted by splice grafting is much better than those grafted by tongue
283
approach grafting. Manual or hand grafting is by far the major grafting method even though several grafting
284
machines and semi-automatic machines or robots have been developed and commercially available.
285
286
Table 11. Grafted seedlings produced by different grafting methods in Japan (revised from the survey data of
287
Yoshioka, 2001).
288
289
4.1.
290
There are a number of grafting methods applicable for herbaceous grafting. Some of the most frequently used
291
292
293
294
Grafting methods vary with the kind of crops being grafted, preferences and experience of the growers, and
295
the kind of grafting machines or robots available. For watermelons, hole-insertion hypocotyl grafting (Fig. 4A)
296
is favored by many farmers in many areas because of the smaller seedling size of watermelon as compared to
297
the size of the rootstock, which is usually squash or bottle gourd. Watermelon seeds are sown 7 to 8 days after
10
298
the sowing of gourd seeds (rootstock) or 3 to 4 days after sowing squash rootstock seeds. Grafting is made 7 to
299
8 days after the sowing of watermelon seeds. Both the scion and rootstock should be uniform and strong
300
enough to undergo the grafting operation. The true leaf including the growing point should be carefully and
301
thoroughly removed and a hole is made with a bamboo or plastic gimlet or drill at a slant angle to the
302
longitudinal direction. The hypocotyl portion of the watermelon is prepared by slant cutting to have tapered end
303
for easy insertion. Care should be given to avoid the insertion into the hypocotyl cavity since this greatly
304
interferes with formation of a rapid union and facilitates later protrusion of watermelon adventitious roots into
305
the soil after downward elongation through the pith cavity of the rootstock (Fig. 1). Some growers insert young
306
watermelon seedlings (usually somewhat etiolated seedlings with cotyledons still in folded position) into the
307
hypocotyl (Fig. 4B). HIG had been favorably practiced for tomato and eggplant for a while, but splice grafting
308
is definitely much favored even among the farmers for their own uses.
309
310
311
312
Tongue approach grafting (Fig. 4C) is usually favored by less experienced farmers and those who do not have
313
a greenhouse with good microclimate control system. Even though this method needs more space and labor as
314
compared to other methods, a higher rate of seedling survival is possible even for beginners. Furthermore, no
315
special facilities and machines are needed for this grafting technique. Since the grafting operation would be
316
much more efficient with both scion and rootstock seedlings having similar height, the seeds of scion (usually
317
watermelons, cucumbers, and melons) are sown 5 to 7 days earlier than the rootstock seeds. The growing point
318
of the rootstocks should be carefully removed before grafting to reduce the unnecessary loss of nutrient for the
319
bud growth and to promote the rapid union of graft interface. Occasionally one cotyledon may also be removed
320
when removing the growing point to ensure complete removal of the growing point and to avoid overcrowding
321
in limited space on the greenhouse bench. The grafting cut for rootstock should be made in a downward
322
direction and the scion cut in an upward direction at an angle, usually 30 to 40 to the perpendicular axis, and
323
deep enough to allow the fusion of as many vascular bundles as possible. After the graft is completed, specially
324
designed clips are placed to fix the graft position. Grafted plants are then planted together in a 9 to 12 cm
325
diameter container.
11
326
The grafted plants are partially shaded for one or two days before placing them under normal greenhouse
327
growing conditions. The lower hypocotyl of the scion of several test plants is cut to examine the degree of
328
graft-take 10 to 12 days after grafting and based upon the results the remaining plants can be handled as
329
described below. The root and lower hypocotyl of the scion are removed from the grafted plant by simply
330
cutting off at the desired position, preferably at the closer position to the grafted position held by the clip. The
331
clips are usually removed at later stages, shortly before transplanting. An experienced person can graft about
332
800 plants per day, but grafting machines and robots specifically designed for this kind of grafting are also
333
334
TAG is the oldest and perhaps the most convenient grafting method for herbaceous plants. The method can be
335
used for basically any kind of plants such as cucurbits, solanaceous plants, and many other types. Grafting is
336
performed with very young seedlings and preferably at the hypocotyl portion of the rootstock and scion of
337
cucurbitaceous plants and at the lower epicotyl portion in solanaceous crops. In spite of the simple and easy
338
grafting operation and higher rate of survival, this method is not extensively used by commercial seedling
339
growers mainly because (1) labor required for grafting, (2) labor needed for cutting the rootstock again, (3)
340
needs for removal of clips after union, (4) larger space is needed for growing grafted plants as compared to
341
other methods, and (5) frequent rooting from the scion after transplanting if the seedlings are transplanted too
342
343
344
Splice grafting (SG), Tube Grafting (TG), and One Cotyledon Splice Grafting (OC-SG)
345
346
Splice grafting (Fig. 4D, E, J) is very popular among experienced growers and commercial plug seedling
347
nurseries. Splice grafting can be done by hand, machine, or robot and can be applied to most vegetables. The
348
major advantage is the production of strong and healthy grafted seedlings since all the vascular bundles of the
349
scion are fused with those of rootstock and the graft union is strong enough to take all the rough post-graft
350
handling.
351
farmers preference. For the cucurbit rootstocks, one cotyledon and the growing point are removed for grafting.
352
After placing the scion on the rootstock (Fig. 4D, E), ordinary grafting clips as in tongue approach grafting are
353
354
called as one cotyledon splice grafting (OC-SG). For solanaceous crops, grafting is usually made at lower
355
epicotyl and fixed (Fig. 4J) with ordinary clips, elastic tube-shaped clip with side slit, or ceramic pins (see Pin
Intact or excised (root-removed) rootstock seedlings may be used depending upon the growers and
12
356
Grafting below) developed specifically for this type of grafting. Tube grafting is performed by holding the
357
grafted position together in a slit elastic tube rather than using the usual grafting clips. The tube may be used
358
359
360
361
362
Cleft grafting (Fig. 4F) in herbaceous plants may be somewhat different from those of woody plants. Usually
363
a portion of the stem is cut longitudinally. The rootstock seedlings are decapitated and longitudinal cut is made
364
in a downward direction, 1 to 1.5 cm long and 3/4 depth of the stem diameter. The scion is pruned to have 1 to
365
3 true leaves and the lower stem is cut to slant angle to make a tapered wedge. After placing the scion into the
366
split made on the rootstock, a clip is placed to hold in position until the union. Various types of grafting clips,
367
differing in material, size, shape, and others, have been developed for cleft grafting. Cleft grafting had been
368
used in cucurbits for a while in several countries, but the use is usually confined to solanaceous crops these
369
days.
370
371
372
Pin grafting (Fig. 4H, I) is basically the same as the splice grafting. However, instead of placing grafting clips
373
to hold the grafted position, specially designed pins are used to hold the grafted position in place. The ceramic
374
pin developed by Takii Seed Co. in Japan is about 15 mm long and 0.5 mm in diagonal width of the hexagonal
375
cross section. The pins are made of natural ceramic so it can be left on the plant without any problem. The price
376
of ceramic pin is fairly high so that alternative methods are being sought. Experimental results revealed that
377
bamboo pins, rectangular in cross-sectional shape, could successfully replace the expensive ceramic pins at
378
much lower price. Watermelon seedlings grafted by HIG described above are shown in Fig. 5 and a
379
380
381
382
383
13
384
4.2.
385
386
A number of grafting tools to perform automated grafting and to hold the graft union together have been
387
developed by various agricultural companies (Lee and Oda, 2003). Unfortunately, however, most of them have
388
not been widely used by the commercial growers. Simple grafting aids, such as grafting clips, tubes, tapes, and
389
pins have been selectively but widely used for grafting (Fig. 7). The ordinary grafting clips consisting of a
390
round spring made out of plastic (Fig. 7A), have been most extensively used for tongue approach grafting in
391
cucurbits and other crops. The clips, although slightly different in size and shape depending upon manufacturer,
392
are inexpensive, ease to operate and handle for various stem sizes, and can be used many times. Various other
393
clips, especially elastic tube-shaped clips with or without attachment for supporting pole for the grafted
394
seedlings (Fig. 7), are also widely used by many commercial growers for manual grafting as well as for
395
machine or robot grafting. Much smaller elastic slit-tubes are being used in many countries including Israel and
396
The Netherlands (Fig. 7E) for tomato and pepper grafting. Ceramic pin is a very handy and efficient aid to fix
397
the grafted interface, and highly suitable for machine or robot grafting. It can be used with naked hands, with
398
simple pencil-shaped device, or with machine or robots. Adhesive tape or glue, or sometimes aluminum foil, is
399
another means of holding the grafted counterparts in place. Specially designed knives and gimlets for grafting
400
have been manufactured and are used by growers in different parts of the world. A special knife with self-
401
feeding connection of skimmed milk or alcohol to inactivate some potent viruses has been developed in The
402
Netherlands and in Korea. A hand held grafting device constructed with changeable stainless steel, single-edge
403
razor blades, makes it possible to simultaneously create a uniform wedge and a receptacle in the stem of
404
Phaseolus vulgaris. Rapid changes have been taking place recently and it is evident that marked progress will
405
be made on these devices with the improvement of grafting technology and introduction of new and efficient
406
grafting robots. Uniformly small seedlings are definitely favored for grafting, especially for machine grafting,
407
so that experienced growers are eager to produce uniform healthy seedlings for efficient grafting by using better
408
409
410
411
For tomato, a combination of high humidity and weak light, slightly higher than the light compensation point,
prevents wilting of grafted tomato scions and promotes healing of the cut surfaces of grafts. Films reducing
14
412
thermal radiation on acclimatization tunnels depress the rise of leaf temperate and increase the favorable range
413
of light intensity for graft healing. Under these high light intensity and high humidity conditions, healing of the
414
graft union is accelerated by air movement. Several types of acclimatization chambers have been developed and
415
widely used by commercial plug seedling growers in Japan and Korea (Lee and Oda, 2003).
416
417
4.3.
418
419
The first robot, the One Cotyledon Splice Grafting system was developed in 1980s by IAM BRAIN in
420
Japan to graft cucurbit vegetables (similar to the latest Korean version shown in Fig. 8). The robot took into
421
account variation of seedling shape, location of cutting and gripping, cutting, and attachment. Seedlings were
422
cut at the point of attachment of the cotyledon to the hypocotyl at an angle of 20 ~ 30 for the scion and the
423
rootstock, respectively. The prototype grafting robot was constructed in 1987 and the second in 1989 (Ito, 1992;
424
Kubota et al., 2008). It took 4.5 seconds to make a grafted plant with 95% survival. The demonstration model
425
robot was deemed practical and the results were transferred an agricultural machinery company that developed
426
machines for the market. Prototype semi-automatic grafting system was also developed in Korea. Several
427
grafting robots have been manufactured by the Rural Development Administration (RDA), Korea, and will be
428
distributed to the commercial plug seedling growers at relatively reasonable prices. Three grafting robots have
429
been developed in Korea, two in 1998 and one in 1999, and one was commercialized in 2001. The pin-grafting
430
robot developed by Rural Development Administration for solanaceous crops can graft 1,200 seedlings per
431
hour. The simple and economic grafting machine was developed by Yupoong and has been very popular in
432
Korea. This machine by Yupoong, priced about US $400, has been exported for more than 10 years to many
433
Asian countries and some European countries. This machine can graft up to 600 seedlings per hour by tongue
434
approach grafting, mostly in cucurbitaceous crop. However, an experienced operator is needed to run this
435
machine effectively and efficiently. Recently a multiuse semi-automatic grafting machine has been developed
436
by a private company in Korea (Helper RoboTech) and many growers purchased this machine to graft tomato
437
and pepper plug seedlings. This machine (Fig. 8) has also been actively exported to many foreign countries in
438
recent years because of the reasonable price, multiple functions (can be used for both cucurbit and solanaceous
439
crops), and convenient handling. More recently, a fully-automated grafting robot (1000 grafts per hour) has
15
440
been developed and used commercially for tomato in the Netherlands (ISO GROEP). With increasing demand
441
of grafted plants, faster, more reliable, and more flexible automation of grafting operations is one of the key
442
443
444
4.4.
445
Proper acclimatization is critical for grafted plants to survive. Acclimatization involves healing of the cut
446
surface and hardening for field or greenhouse survival (Lee and Oda, 2003). Maintenance of proper moisture
447
content before and after grafting is critical for the production of uniform grafted seedlings. Acclimatization may
448
be achieved simply by enclosing the rootstock and scion in a black plastic bag (to avoid heat buildup) until the
449
union is formed. Growers usually achieve acclimatization by use of plastic film coverings (Fig. 9). In many
450
commercial nurseries, the grafted plants, usually in cell trays of 32 to 72 cells, are placed on a greenhouse
451
bench and the trays are sealed with a single layer of semi-transparent high density polyethylene film (0.01 mm
452
or thinner) to reduce the moisture loss and kept sealed for 57 days without additional irrigation. Partially
453
shading may be needed during the daytime to avoid excessive heat build-up.
454
455
456
457
5.
458
459
Increasing use grafted seedlings is frequently accompanied by increases in commercial seedling growers,
460
461
quality grafted seedlings are usually produced by professional seedling growers rather than individual farmers.
462
The overall quality as well as the price of those grafted seedlings produced by large commercial growers is
463
much higher than those produced by smaller growers or farmers associations. However, the sale of these
464
grafted seedlings grown in cell trays has been grown explosively during the last decades. Even though there are
465
considerable differences in quality of plug-grown seedlings depending upon the growers as well as the substrate
Since the grafting usually takes additional facilities and techniques, high-
16
466
(Fig. 10), farmers would like to order their seedlings grafted on preferred combinations from the industrial
467
growers. Most of the seedlings are grown in trays of different number of cells. The cell trays in Korea are the
468
same in size and the seedlings are easy to handle for grafting and transport including export and also can be
469
efficiently transplanted by machine. Even though problems arising from the use of grafted seedlings are rather
470
common especially with respect to seedling health and quality of produces, more farmers are purchasing grafted
471
472
473
Fig. 10. Variation of pepper seedlings as affected by different nurseries (A.B.C) and
474
substrates [own(upper case letters) and commercial (lower case)]. Same scion cultivar seeds
475
were sown in the cell trays at the same date and the seedlings were photographed 50 days
476
after sowing. Note the great variation in seedling vigor depending upon growers and
477
substrate.
478
479
Since more and more farmers are purchasing grafted transplants from professional nurseries, the quality has
480
become one of the keen concerns among the farmers. As clearly recognized in Fig. 10, the quality of transplant
481
varies greatly depending upon the growers. The definition of high-quality seedling would be very complicated
482
task because so many factors are associated with quality evaluation. Seedlings are in the first place normal and
483
abnormal seedlings based upon the external appearance. Various factors influence the outcome of abnormal
484
seedlings. Uniformity in terms of genetic quality and cultural and/or physiological quality are the two major
485
factors influencing seedling quality (Lee, 2007). Mineral deficiency in the soil or substrate, frost damage,
486
heating, mechanical damage, insect damage, chemical treatment injury, declining vigor, pathogen infections,
487
water and temperature stresses, and many others. In vegetable seedlings, the quality of seedling also varied
488
greatly depending upon the kind of crops and types of seedling distribution such as seedlings without soil or
489
substrate, seedlings grown in conventional pots, or seedlings grafted or non-grafted, or seedlings grown in cell
490
trays. The performance check of the seedlings would be the best way to evaluate the seedling quality, but this is
491
almost impossible, because so many other factors also influence the seedling performance after the
492
transplanting. Therefore, the quality of seedlings is mostly evaluated at the time of transplanting or seedling
493
purchase at the commercial nurseries. On the basis of this concept, the high quality seedlings should be uniform
494
in size and traits, proper size or height with thick healthy stem with large thick leaves. The seedling should have
495
well-developed root systems and show good top/root ratio (T/R). Seedlings for fruit production should have
17
496
large number of flowers (female flowers) in good vigor. Those seedlings for leaf such as lettuces and cabbages
497
should not bolt after transplanting. The seedlings should not be exposed to extreme water and/or temperature
498
499
One of the conveniently used parameters to evaluate the seedling quality is the ratio of shoot dry weight
500
divided by shoot length. This may be appropriate for tomatoes, peppers, and eggplants. However, in cabbages
501
and Chinese cabbages, different criteria should be adapted and so are the cucurbits. In pepper, six parameters
502
were plotted in a graph based upon image analysis and the shape as well as the total area driven by evaluation
503
of each parameter (Fig. 11). Parameters such as number of expanded leaves, plant height or shoot length, shoot
504
dry weight, shoot dry weight (DW)/plant height, stem diameter, and stem diameter, and chlorophyll contents.
505
Other parameters, if needed, to be added or subtracted from this kind of evaluation based upon image analysis.
506
Perhaps, the critical factor involved in seedling quality is the infection of serious bacterial and viral diseases
507
which may not be easily recognized at the time of seedling purchase. Serious outbreaks of tomato bacterial
508
canker had been reported in Mexico caused by infected seeds, causing closure of a commercial propagation in
509
Mexico who was a main supplier of grafted seedlings (Kubota, 2009, personal communication). Serious
510
outbreaks of cucumber green mottle mosaic virus (CGMMV), a strain of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), in many
511
parts of the world, causing tremendous damage to the farmers as well as the seed companies who supplied the
512
virus-infected rootstock seeds for watermelon seedling production. Since the spread of these diseases is
513
phenomenal, the presence of a single infected plant can destroy the entire field. Two large seed companies in
514
515
CGMMV can be transmitted by seeds, contact, grafting, and some other means such as soil and water. Dry
516
heat treatment is the only practical way of eliminating this virus from infected or infection-suspected seeds and
517
has been used routinely for all the cucurbits seeds in Japan and Korea (Kim and Lee, 2000). Production of
518
organic vegetables using pesticide-free seeds can only be performed by using dry heat treatment in various
519
vegetables including lettuce and Brassica crops. However, production, supply, and use of healthy seeds should
520
be the first choice for the production of healthy seedlings, especially in cucurbits and solanaceous crops.
521
Overuse or misuse of bioregulators or chemical inhibitors to suppress the overgrowth of seedlings grown in
522
high-density cell trays (Fig. 12) is another problem to be minimized and replaced by other physical means.
523
524
Fig. 11. Quality determination of pepper seedlings raised by different nurseries by plotting of multiple parameters.
18
525
526
Fig. 12. Shape of Chinese cabbage seedlings ready for transplanting as affected by diniconazole or tebuconazole
treatment.
527
528
6.
529
530
For decades, vegetable grafting has been successfully practiced in many Asian countries, and is becoming
531
increasingly popular in Europe. Many multinational seed companies are eager to develop and distribute
532
rootstock seeds through their commercial seed catalogs. Identification of compatible multi-disease resistant
533
rootstocks with tolerance to abiotic stresses is a basic requirement for continued success. Watermelon and
534
tomato are the two major vegetables for grafting and worldwide distribution. Grafting in herbaceous plants is
535
routinely practiced in cucumber, melon, oriental melon, greenhouse squash, eggplant, capsicum peppers as well
536
as cactus.
537
machines including grafting robots will greatly encourage the extended use of grafted vegetables over the
538
world. There are many problems commonly associated with vegetable grafting and cultivating grafted seedlings
539
(Lee, 1994; Lee and Oda, 2003; Davis et al., 2008). These include the additional cost for rootstock seeds, labor
540
required for the grafting and raising grafted seedlings, lack of experience and technique for grafting and
541
cultivation of grafted plants, and incidence of possible physiological disorders associated with grafting.
542
However, there are enormous benefits from using grafted seedlings. These include income increase by high
543
yield and off-season growing, lower input of fertilizers and irrigation water due to the wide root systems of the
544
rootstocks, considerable saving in agrochemicals due to high resistance of the rootstocks, extension of the
545
harvest period, efficient maintenance of popular cultivars against diseases and other physiological disorders, no
546
need for long-term crop rotations, overcoming problems due to saline soils, reduced expense needed for soil
547
548
take of these benefits will depend upon various factors such as farm size and degree of mechanization,
549
cultivation practices such as crop rotation and transplanting, technology level, understanding the full benefits
550
and risks of grafted seedlings, and the uses of protected cultivation and hydroponics. Use of grafted seedlings is
551
strongly recommended for hydroponics culture of tomato, pepper, eggplant, and cucumber.
552
553
Introduction of excellent rootstocks possessing multiple disease resistance and efficient grafting
Partial or full
Growers can now purchase grafted seedlings of any specific combination from many commercial plug
seedling growers rather than doing the tedious grafting themselves although growers need to place orders in
19
554
advance in most cases. This is especially true in Japan, Korea, and the Netherlands. With the invention of more
555
efficient grafting robots and acclimatization facilities, the price of grafted seedlings could be considerably
556
reduced in the future to meet grower expectations (Lee and Oda, 2003). Positive use of grafted seedlings can
557
solve much of the problems arising from conventional cultivation such as use of methyl bromide for soil
558
sterilization, incidence as well as the rapid spread of diseases caused by successive cropping, low soil
559
temperature damage during the early stages, heavy use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and economic use
560
of irrigation water. For organic produces, the seeds of both scion and rootstock may be treated with dry heat to
561
eliminate seed-borne diseases such as Fusarium and viruses. Effective dry heat treatment method has been
562
developed (Lee, 2003) and rapid detection technique on the inactivation of some seed-borne virus, such as
563
cucumber green mottle mosaic virus, has also been established. Even though the benefits of using grafted
564
seedlings are now fully recognized over the world, production of uniform, healthy grafted seedlings at
565
reasonable prices is the key point for wider use, especially in those countries with limited experience. Visitors
566
were eager to learn the modern grafting technology as well as the labor-saving grafting practices here in Korea.
567
The demonstration of grafting technology as well as the grafting machines and robots during the exhibition
568
period of the International Horticultural Congress of the International Society for Horticultural Science, held at
569
COEX in August, 2006, was well participated by scientists from all over the world (Lee et al., 2007).
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
20
581
References
582
Ashita, E. (ed.), 1927. Grafting of watermelons. Korea (Chosun) Agricultural Newsletter 1, 9 (In Japanese).
583
Chung, H. D., Lee, J.M., 2007. Rootstocks for grafting. p. 162-167. Horticulture in Korea. Published by the
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
HortScience 29, 235-239.Lee, J.M., 2003. Advances in vegetable grafting. Chronica Hort. 43 (2), 13-19.
607
Lee, J.M., 2008. Vegetable grafting: A powerful aid for cultivation of environmentally-friendly produce. KAST
608
609
Rev. Modern Sci. Technol. 4, 68-85. The Korean Academy of Science & Technology.
Lee, J.M., Bang, H.J., Ham, H.S., 1998. Grafting of vegetables. J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 67, 1098-1114.
21
610
Lee, J.M., Kubota, C., Tsao, S.J., Vinh, N. Q., Huang, Y., Oda, M. 2008. Recent Progress in Vegetable
611
Grafting. International Workshop on Development and Adoptation of Green Technology for Sustainable
612
Agriculture and Enhancement of Rural Entrepreurship. 21 pp. IRRI, Los Baos, Laguna, Philippines.
613
614
ornamental crops. Hort. Rev. 28, 61-124.Lee, S. G., 2007. Production of high quality vegetable seedling
615
616
617
618
619
620
Morra, L., Bilotto, M., 2009. Mercato in fortissimo ascesa per I portinnen sti Orticoli. Edizioni Linformatore
Agrario S.p.A. 2009-1, 51-54.
Sakata, Y., Ohara, T., Sugiyama, M., 2007. The history and present state of the grafting of cucurbitaceous
vegetables in Japan.
Salehi-Mohammadi, R., Khasi, A., Lee, S.G., Huh, Y.C., Lee, J.M., Delshad, M., 2009. Assessing survival and
621
growth performance of Iranian melon to grafting onto Cucurbita rootstocks. Kor. J. Hort. Sci. Technol. 27
622
(1), 1-6.
623
624
625
626
Tachibana, S., 1982. Comparison of root temperature on the growth and mineral nutrition of cucumber cultivars
and figleaf gourd. J. Japan. Soc. Hort. Sci. 51, 299-308.
Yoshioka, H., 2001. Present status of vegetable production using grafted plants in Japan (in Japanese).
Hort. 76, 342-348. Oda, M., 2007. Vegetable seedling grafting in Japan. Acta Hort. 759, 175-180.
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
22
Agr. &
647
Table 1. Purpose of grafting in vegetables (Heo, 2003; Lee, 1994; Lee et. al., 1998; Lee and Oda, 2003).
Direct response or effect
Indirect response or effect
Shoot growth promotion
Juvenile and adult phase changes
Disease tolerance
Translocation studies or stimuli
Low temperature tolerance
Sex expression
High temperature tolerance
Hormonal regulation
Enhanced mineral uptake
Physiological changes or disorders
High salt tolerance
Organic substances; translocation & composition
Increasing fertilizer uptake efficiency
Propagation and transformation
Wet soil tolerance
Fruit yield and quality
Enhanced water uptake
Heritable changes or agent(s)
Root nodulation
Ornamental value
Winter hardiness
Earliness
Xylem sap composition
Fruit size control
Nematode tolerance/resistance
Extended harvest period
648
649
Table 2. Cytokinin composition in xylem sap collected from intact and grafted plants of cucumber, squash,
and figleaf gourd plants.
Cytokinin content (ng/ml sap)
Crop
Zeatin
Dihydozeatin
Isopentenyl
(Scion/rootstock)
Zeatin
riboside
riboside
adenine
Total
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
0.08
4.55
0.80
Trace
6.11
Squash A (Cucurbita moschata)
Trace
3.67
0.43
3.63
7.73
Squash B (Cucurbita maxima)
Trace
4.06
0.57
1.84
6.47
Figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia)
Trace
4.54
1.48
6.18
12.2
Cucumber/Cucumber
0.55
5.58
0.96
Trace
7.07
Cucumber/Squash A
1.65
4.29
0.20
Trace
6.14
Cucumber/Squash B
Trace
5.36
0.19
Trace
5.55
Cucumber/Figleaf gourd
1.49
5.08
0.65
Trace
7.22
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
23
Table 3. Rootstocks for cucurbitaceous crops and some related characteristics (Lee and Oda, 2003).
676
677
678
679
680
Scion/Rootstock
Watermelon
Bottle gourd
(Lagenaria siceraria)
Squash (Cucurbita
moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (Cucurbita
maxima x C. moschata)
Pumpkins
(Cucurbita pepo)
Wintermelon
(Benincasa hispida)
Watermelon
(Citrullus lanatus)
African horned (AH)
cucumber
(Cucumis metuliferus)
Cucumbers
Figleaf gourd
(Cucurbita ficifolia)
Squash
(C. moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (C. maxima x C.
moschata)
Bur cucumber
(Sicyos angulatus)
Cultivar a
Major characteristics
Possible disadvantage
FR Dantos, Dongjanggoon,
Bulrojangsaeng,
Chinkyo, No. 8, Keumkang
AH cucumber
(Cucumis metuliferus)
Melons-Oriental Melons
Squash (Cucurbita
moschata)
Interspecific hybrid
squash (Cucubita maxima
x C. moschata)
Pumpkin
(Cucurbita pepo)
NHRI-1
Reduced yield
Baekkukzwa, No. 8,
Keumkang, Hongtozwa
Shintozwa, Shintozwa #1,
Shintozwa #2
Affected by Phytophthora
Slight quality reduction
expected
Weak temperature
tolerance
Phytophthora infection
Phytophthora infection,
poor fruit quality
Phytophthora infection
Phytophthora problem
Weak temperature
tolerance
Table 4. Rootstock species and number of registered rootstock cultivars for cucurbitaceous crops in China (Bie, 2010,
Personal communication).
Crop
Watermelon
Cucumber
Melon
Bitter
Summer
Wax gourd
Sponge
Rootstock
melon
squash
gourd
Lagenaria siceraria
6
2
0
0
0
0
0
Cucurbita moschata
4
5
6
2
0
2
0
C. maxima x moschata
4
2
5
0
0
0
0
C. maxima
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
Citrullus lanatus
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Cucurbita ficifolia
0
7
1
1
1
1
1
Luffa acutangula
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
Luffa cylindria
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
24
Ia
II
III
IV
Nematode
M.
M.
incognita
halpa
Low
temp
tolerance
High
salt
tolerance
Graft compatibility
Watermelon
Cucumber
Oriental
melon
Rootstock b
Shintozwa
HRc HR
HR
HR
S
S
HR
HR
HCd
HC
HC
Hongtozwa
HR
HR
HR
SR
S
S
MR
MR
SC
HC
HC
Figleaf gourd
MR SR
MR SR
S
S
HR
HR
IC
HC
IC
Bottle gourd
MR HR
HR
SR
S
S
SR
MR
HC
HC
IC
Wax gourd
HR
MR
HR
HR
S
SR
SR
SR
HC
HC
Bur cucumber
HR
HR
HR
HR
S
HR
SR
SR
HC
MC
HC
AH cucumbere
HR
HR
HR
HR
S
MR
SR
?
HR
HC
HC
Scion
Watermelon
S
SR
HR
HR
HR
SR
S
SR
Cucumber
HR
SR
HR
HR
S
S
HR
SR
Oriental melon HR
HR
S
HR
S
S
S
S
a
I, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum; F. oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum; III, F. oxysporum f. sp. melonis; and IV, F. oxysporum f. sp. lagenariae.
b
Shintozwa (Cucurbita maxima x Cucurbita moschata), Hongtozwa (Cucurbita moschata), figleaf gourd (Cucurbita ficifolia), bottle gourd
(Lagenaria siceraria), wax gourd (Benincasa hispida), bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), and AH cucumber (Cucumis metuliferus).
c
HR, highly resistant; MR, moderately resistant; SR, slightly resistant; and S, susceptible.
d
HC, highly compatible; MC, moderately compatible; SC, slightly compatible; and IC, incompatible.
e
AH: African horned cucumber.
688
689
690
25
Table 6. Rootstocks for solanaceous crops (Lycopersicon, Solanum, Capsicum, and Datura) and their performances (Lee and Oda,
2003).
Rootstock
Scion
Performance
Reported by
L. esculentum
Tomato
Modify boron absorption
Brown et al. 1971
L. esculentum
Tobacco
Nicotine & alkaloid absorption affected
Dawson 1942
L. esculentum
Tomato
High temperature tolerance
Okimura et al. 1986
L. hirsutum
Tomato
Resistant to corky root disease
Harrison & Burgess 1962
Solanum spp.
Tomato
Resistant to bacterial wilt & nematode
Tikoo et al. 1979
Yield increase
Matsuzoe et al. 1993a
S. sodomaeum
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Shackleton 1965
S. auricularum
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Shackleton 1965
S. laciniatum
Tomato
Resistant to water-logging
Shackleton 1965
S. melongena
Tomato
Growth & yield reduction
Abdelhaffz et al. 1975
S. integrifolium
Tomato
Sugar content increase
Oda et al. 1996
S. sisymbrifolium
Tomato
Disease resistance, no effect on sugar content
Matsuzoe et al. 1996
S. torvum
S. toxicarium
S. melongena
L. hirsutum L.
esculentum
L. esculentum L.
hirsutum
S. torvum S.
sanitwongsei
S. integrifolium S.
melongena
Capsicum spp.
C. annuum C.
chinensis
Datura patula
Tomato
Tomato
Eggplant
Tomato
Tomato
Tomato
Bravendoer 1962
Tomato
Tomato
Eggplant
Eggplant
Sweet pepper
(green)
Green pepper
Beyries 1974
Tomato
Low yield
Kramer 1957
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
26
Table 7. Vegetable cultivation area, number of total seedlings, and number of grafted seedlings needed in
Korea and Japan. Approximate 40 million grafted seedlings are estimated to be used in North American
greenhouses (Kubota, 2008) a.
Vegetable
Cultivation Cultivation No. of
Maximum no. % use of
Maximum no.
area-2000
area-2005
seedlings
of seedlings a
grafted
of grafted
per ha
(million)
Seedlings a
seedlings a
(x1000)
2005
(million)
Republic of Korea a
Watermelon
30,451
23,179
6~ 9
208.6
95
198.2
Melon b
13,800
13,000
7~10
130.0
90
117.0
Cucumber
7,269
5,853
20~30
175.6
75
131.7
Tomato
4,916
6,749
20~30
202.5
25
50.6
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
Eggplant
1,100
933
10~20
Pepperx
80,130
67,023
20~40
Sub-Total
Japan
Watermelon
16,900
13,400
6~ 9
Melon b
13,800
10,400
7~10
Cucumber
15,200
13,400
20~30
Tomato
13,600
13,000
20~30
Eggplant
13,300
10,400
10~20
Pepper c
4,110
3,620
20~40
Sub-Total
a
75 ha of area belonging to 135 growers.
b
Including net melons, cantaloupes, oriental melons.
c
Including hot peppers for dry and fresh uses.
27
18.6
2681.9
20
10
3.7
268.2
766.3
120.6
104.0
402.0
390.0
208.0
144.8
92
30
75
40
55
5
111.0
31.2
301.5
156.0
114.4
7.2
721.3
Table 8. Current status of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in some Asian and other countries and regions
as of 2010 a.
Crop
Item
Japan
Korea
China
Taiwan
USA
Watermelon
Acreage (ha) a
13,000
20,756
2,162,456
13,431
50,810
Graft % b
92
95
20
35
NA c
d
Grafting method
HIG,S
HIG,TAG
HIG,TAG,SG HIG,TAG,SG
Rootstocks e
Ls,Cl
Ls,Cmm
Ls,Cl
Cmm, Ls
Cucumber
Acreage (ha)
12,800
5,630
1,702,777
2,666
59,480
Graft % b
75
75
30
11
NA c
d
Grafting method
TAG,SG
SG, TAG
HIG, TAG
TAG
Rootstocks e
Cmm,Cf
Cmm,Cf
Cm,Sa,Cf
A
Melons
Acreage (ha)
10,500
6,607
570,874
6,441
35,790
Graft % b
30
90
5
0.1
NA c
d
Grafting method
TAG,SG
SG, TAG
HIG
Rootstocks e
Cmm,Cm
Cmm
Cm,Cmm,Cl
Bitter melon Acreage (ha)
NA c
NA c
200,000
1,802
NA c
b
Graft %
2
30
Grafting method d
HIG, TAG
TAG,CG
Rootstocks e
Lc
La, Cm
Pickling melon Acreage (ha)
232
NA c
NA c
NA c
NA c
b
Graft %
Grafting method d
TAG
Rootstocks e
Tomato
Acreage (ha)
12,700
6,144
1,454,533
4,235
330 f
b
Graft %
40
25
1
25
70 f
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
HIG, SG
SG
Rootstocks e
Le, St
Le, Ss
Le
Ss, Le
Ss
Eggplant
Acreage (ha)
10,800
325
1,051,537
1,503
2,200
Graft % b
55
20
1
1.3
NA c
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
Rootstocksv
Ss
Ss
St
Pepper
Acreage (ha)
3,620
61,023
16,625
2,405
32,140
Graft % b
5
10
1
2.5
NA c
d
Grafting method
SG, TAG
SG
SG
Rootstocks e
Ca
Ca,Cs
Cf
Data supplied by
M. Oda
JM Lee
Z. Bie and
SJ Tsao
C. Kubota
Y. Huang
and M.
Bausher
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
Cultivation area was obtained from FAO Statistics 2008 except Taiwan. Other countries actively using grafted vegetable
seedlings include Vietnam (6,000 ha out of 20,000 ha tomato production area is planted with grafted plants in Vietnam)
and possibly many others.
b
Percentage of cultivation area with grafted plants.
c
Data not available (NA).
d
Major grafting methods are TAG:Tongue Approach Grafting, SG:Splice Grafting, HIG: Hole Insertion Grafting, and CG:
Cleft Grafting, respectively.
e
Rootstocks are Cf: Cucurbita ficifolia, Cm: Cucurbita moschata, Cmm: Cucurbita maxima x C. moschata, Cl: Citrullus
lanatus, La: Luffa aegyptiaca, Lc: Luffa cylindrica, Le: Lycopersicum esculentum, Ls: Lagernaria siceraria, Sa: Sicyos
angulatus, Sm: Solanum melongena, Ss: Solanum species including interspecific hybrids, and St: Solanum torvum,
respectively.
f
Greenhouse hydroponic tomato cultivation area only. Little or no grafting had been reported for field tomatoes of 162,580
ha in the USA.
28
Table 9. Current statusa of the estimated use of grafted vegetables in some European and other countries b as
of April 30, 2009.
Crop
Item
Spain
Italy
France
Netherlands
Watermelon
Acreage (ha)
16,100
11,091
186
NA a
No. of grafts (million)
48.2
10.0
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
RS-841
Macis
NA
NA
Shintoza
RS-841
Strongtosa
Shintoza
Melons
Acreage (ha)
38,600
28,199
14,747
3086
No. of grafts (million)
2.5
8.2
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
RH-841
Shintoza
RS-841
NA
Shintoza
Camelforce
TZ-148
Strongtosa
Dinero
Dinero
Cucumber
Acreage (ha)
7,000
2,065
631
NA
No. of grafts (million)
0.5
0.8
NA
NA
Rootstocks b
Azman
NA
NA
NA
Hercules
Titan
Tomato
Acreage (ha)
55,300
115,477
4,122
1,800
No. of grafts (million)
72.8
15.1
50%
75%
Rootstocks
Maxifort
Beaufort
Maxifort
NA
Beaufort
Maxifort
Beaufort
He-Man
Eggplant
Acreage (ha)
3,500
10,862
417
115
No. of grafts (million)
1.8
11.8
65%
75%
Rootstocks
Torvum Vigor Espina
Beaufort
NA
Beaufort
Salutum
Brigeor
STT3
Maxifort
Pepper
Acreage (ha)
24,100
11,721
NA
41
No. of grafts (million)
4.0
1.2
NA
NA
Rootstocks
Atlante
Tresor
Tresor
NA
Rocal
Galaxy
Atlante
Snooker
Other Note c,d
Price and Planting c,d
Information in this table was obtained by contacting seed companies, related horticultural agencies, seedling
producing nurseries, and personal communications. Acreage was obtained from FAO Statistics 2008.
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
Data not available as of April 2010 are marked NA in the cell. Other countries actively using grafted vegetable seedlings
include Turkey (50% of watermelons), Belgium (mostly tomatoes), Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, and UK (50% or
higher), and Morocco (also for export).
b
Seed companies supplying the rootstocks seeds are Seminis, Syngenta, Nunhems, Clause/Tezier, De Ruiter, Rijk Zwaan,
Ramiro Arnedo, and others.
c
The price of grafted seedlings varies from 0.6 to 1.0 euro depending upon the crops (Pedro Hoyos Echevarria, 2010).
d
Number of seedlings planted per hectare varies from 15,000 to 30,000 depending upon the kind of crops and planting
densities. Use of double-stemmed tomato grafted transplants may cut down the purchasing expense by half (Pedro Hoyos
Echevarria, 2010).
29
Table 10. Number of grafted seedlings produced by some major nurseries in Korea in 2008 (unit: thousand).
Nursery Watermelon Cucumber
Melon
Pumpkin
Tomato
Pepper
Eggplant
Total
Hoban
100
5,000
100
200
10,000
200
15,600
GreenTek
2,500
3,000
500
3,000
9,000
Nosung
4,000
300
700
300
5,300
Gongju
1,500
1,000
500
1,000
4,000
Yeoju
600
1,000
1,200
200
1,000
4,000
Pureun a
300
500
1,000
1,000
2,800
812
813
Table 11. Grafting seedlings produced by different grafting methods in Japan (revised from the survey data of
Yoshioka, 2001).
Area
Percent share of grafting methods a (%)
b
surveyed
Tongue
Split
Hole
Root-removed &
Splice
Others &
Crop
(ha)
approach
insertion
insertion
unknown
Grafted seedlings produced by farmers for their own use
Watermelon
9,244
7
1
53
38
Cucumber
6,648
89
1
5
4
1
0
Melons c
1,715
56
16
27
1
Tomato
2,412
36
13
6
45
0
Eggplant
2,034
3
79
7
10
1
Grafted seedlings produced by commercial nurseries for sale
Watermelon
4,455
1
5
35
55
3
1
Cucumber
3,171
14
2
18
26
39
1
Melons c
236
8
14
38
39
2
Tomato
2,081
4
4
1
90
1
Eggplant
3,436
2
18
8
71
1
Sub-total (own use + commercial)
Watermelon
13,699
5
3
47
44
1
0
Cucumber
9,819
65
1
9
11
13
1
Melons c
1,951
50
16
28
6
0
Tomato
4,493
21
9
4
66
0
Eggplant
5,470
2
41
8
48
1
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
30
836
Figures
Fig. 1. Adventitious rooting from the melon scion grafted onto squash rootstocks through the hypocotyl cavity
of the rootstock, thus counteracting the grafting effect in some cases (A: left) and rooting from the scion
of the TAG-grafted cucumber onto figleaf gourd (B: right).
837
Fig. 2. Hand grafting of high quality tomato seedlings at Hoban Nursery, Gangwon-do, Korea.
838
Fig. 3. Plug seedlings grown in Morocco for export to southern European countries.
839
840
841
842
843
844
31
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
33
Fig. 10. Variation of pepper seedlings as affected by different nurseries (A.B.C) and substrates [own(upper
case letters) and commercial (lower case)]. Same scion cultivar seeds were sown in the cell trays at the
same date and the seedlings were photographed 50 days after sowing. Note the great variation in seedling
vigor depending upon growers and substrate.
852
Fig. 11. Quality determination of pepper seedlings raised by different nurseries by plotting of multiple
parameters.
853
Fig. 12. Shape of Chinese cabbage seedlings ready for transplanting as affected by diniconazole or tebuconazole
treatment.
854
34