Contents

Task 1.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1

Task (a)..............................................................................................................................1

1.2

Task (b):............................................................................................................................1

1.3

Task (c)..............................................................................................................................2

Task 2:......................................................................................................................................3
2.1

Part (a)...............................................................................................................................3

2.2

Part (b)...............................................................................................................................3

2.3

Part (c)...............................................................................................................................4

Task 3:......................................................................................................................................4
3.1

Part (a)...............................................................................................................................4

3.2

Part (b)...............................................................................................................................4

3.3

Part (c)...............................................................................................................................4

3.4

Part (d)...............................................................................................................................5

3.5

Part (e):..............................................................................................................................5

Task 4:......................................................................................................................................6
4.1

Part (a)...............................................................................................................................6

4.2

Part (b)...............................................................................................................................6

4.3

Part (c)...............................................................................................................................7

4.4

Part (d)...............................................................................................................................7

Task 5:......................................................................................................................................8
5.1

Part (a)...............................................................................................................................8

5.2

Part (b)...............................................................................................................................8

5.2.1

In diagram 1 the ideal fluid is plotted along the x axis what does

this say about the viscosity of the fluid. Relate this to the shear stress

within the fluid. Describe how the pressure of the fluid will vary within a
horizontal pipe due to this shear stress..................................................................8
5.2.2

In diagram 1 the Pseudo-Plastic fluid exhibits a feature called shear thinning.

Describe the effect of this and what feature within the diagram demonstrates this................9
5.2.3

In diagram 2 all of the fluids exhibit an offset from the zero in shear stress.

Describe what effects this has in the flow of such fluids.........................................................9

6

References:............................................................................................................................10

1 Task 1
1.1 Task (a)
The pressure to be measured is compared with the height of the manometer. If the pressure
exerted on the two surfaces of the confined liquid is not the same, there is a deflection and
consequently a difference in height. . The confined liquid continues to rise until the effect of the
force of the pressure differences and the weight of the liquid columns are identical. In
accordance with the laws of physics, the effect of the liquid column on the pressure in the liquid
is only dependent on height of the liquid column and on density of the liquid. One end is at
atmospheric pressure and the other end is at which the desired pressure is to be measured.
P=P 2P1=gh
(Kundu and Cohen, 2007)
Pressure can be measured directly from the manometer because the pressure which is to
measured will be due to direct effect of the change of height in the column and there will be no
involvement of other quantities.
(Kundu and Cohen, 2007)

1.2 Task (b):

Given Data:
Pressure Change= 500 Pa

= 800 kgm-3

Solution:
As we know the equation is as follows:
P=PPo= gh
We have to find h so by solving the above equation for h:
h= P/ g

By putting the values:

h=

500
800 X 9.8

h=0.063 m
(Kundu and Cohen, 2007)

1.3 Task (c)

Measuring pressure can only be done when you compare it against another known pressure. This
pressure is called the reference pressure. Depending on what the reference pressure is gives us
the three modes absolute, gauge, and differential.
If a vessel were to be completely empty, containing no molecules whatsoever the pressure would
be zero. When you are using this zero as the pressure reference point it is called
absolute pressure because there is no lower pressure than the absence of all molecules. An
example of something that is close to absolute zero would be outer space, but even there, there
are some molecules. It is important to note it is impossible to go below zero when measuring in
absolute pressure, so the concept of a negative absolute pressure is meaningless.
There are many applications were measuring pressure is not really dependent on the absolute
pressure but the difference between it and the pressure of the atmosphere. When using the
atmospheric pressure as the reference point we call the mode gauge pressure. The classic
example is a tire, on a typical tire the pressure to be 30 psi above atmospheric pressure as 0
gauge pressure would mean a flat tire, even though there is technically still atmospheric air
pressure in it. The difference between the absolute pressure and gauge pressure value is the
variable value of atmospheric pressure:
Absolute Pressure=Gauge Pressure + Atmosopheric Pressure

2 Task 2:
Given Data:
= 60o

Width = 25m
Height = 8.5m
= 1000kgm-3

2.1 Part (a)

Pressure at the bottom of the Dam wall.
Pbottom=gh
Pbottom=1000 ( 9.81 ) 8.5
Pbottom=8.35 Pa

2.2 Part (b)

The depth below the surface on which the resultant force acts:
L=h /sin

L=9.81 m
Force= pressure X Area

F=41.69 X 9.81 X 25
F=10224.47 N

2.3 Part (c)

Center of Pressure
h/3=2.84 m
(Lonely, 1894)

3 Task 3:
maccumulator = 100 tones = 100 x 1000 = 100000 kg
d piston = 350mm = .35m

r piston = 175mm = .175m

h= 15m
A piston = r 2 =3.14 0.1752 =0.096 m2

3.1 Part (a)

The energy stored in the accumulator.

E=mg h=100 1000 9.81 15

14716 kJ

3.2 Part (b)

The pressure in the oil within the accumulator.
The total number of cycles the piston could run for before the accumulator needs
recharging.

Pressure=

F Weight 100 1000 9.8

=
=
=10208.36 kPa
A
A1
0.096

If the accumulator is to be used to cycle a double acting piston of diameter 60mm with a
rod at one end of 15mm diameter and a stroke of 450mm.

3.3 Part (c)

The decrease in height of the accumulator for each cycle of the piston (out and in).

d piston = 60 mm
r piston = 30 mm = 0.03 m

l stroke = 450 mm = 0.45 m

As we know oil is an incompersible fuid . so ,
Energ y stroke =PV =P A piston l stroke
10208.33 3.14 0.03 2 0.45
12.98 kJ
Ecomplete cycle =12.98 2=25.98 kJ
Accumulator energy will definitely decreases due to energy dissipation
Eaccumulator =1471525.96=14689.04 kJ
Now as the energy changes new piston height will be available:

E=mgh
h=

E
mg

14689.04 1000
=
100 1000 9.8

14.9 m

hdecreased =1514.98=0.02 m
hdecreased =20 mm

3.4 Part (d)

The force exerted by the piston on both the in and out strokes.

F=PA

10208.33 3.14 0.03 2

F=28.86 kN

3.5 Part (e):

The total number of cycles the piston could run for before the accumulator needs
recharging.

Total cycles=

Energ y initial
14715
=
=567.8
Changeenrgy per cycle 25.96

Total Cycles=567 cycles

(White, 1986)

4 Task 4:
4.1 Part (a)
Principle of Operation:
1. A ball valve is used to close and open the orifice.
2. It involves of the erect tubular oil cup with an opening at the center of its base. Tubular
cup is placed in water bath. The temperature is maintained in the water bath.
3. A hook is used as an indicator for oil filling.

4. The oil is heated by heating the water by an electric

heater. Constant stirring is done and the temperature
is noted by thermometer.
5. Note:
6. Redwood viscometer is used to determine the
kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
(Barnes, 2002)

4.2 Part (b)

In one arm of the U is a vertical section of precise narrow
bore. Above this is a bulb, there is another bulb lower down
in the other arm. Liquid is drawn into the upper bulb by
suction, then allowed to flow down through the capillary
into the lower bulb. Two marks indicate a known volume.
The time taken for the level of the liquid to pass between
these marks is proportional to the kinematic viscosity.
The time it takes for the test liquid to flow through a
capillary of a known diameter of a certain factor between 2
marked points is measured. By multiplying the time taken
by the factor of the viscometer, the kinematic viscosity is
obtained.

Figure 1 Diagram of British Standard

Viscometer

v =ct
It may be noted that he viscometers are usually placed in a constant temperature water bath as
temperature affects viscosity.
These type of viscometers basically consist of a glass tube in the shape of a U held vertically in a
controlled temperature bath.
(Barnes, 2002) (Gupta, 2000)

4.3 Part (c)

This type of viscometers are based on the Stokes Law which can be given by the following
formula:
F=6 rv
In these type of viscometers the fluid is stationary in a glass tube. The working principale is
stated below:
A sphere of known dimensions and density is permitted to move down between liquid..During its
downward motion it reaches the terminal velocity. The velocity is measured by the dividing the
distance between the two points to the time taken by the sphere to move these two points. For
opaque fluids electronic sensing is used. Viscosity is measured by noting the time between the
two points. The terminal velocity of the sphere is given by the following relation.
2

Fg d ( p s pf )
=
18 u

(Barnes, 2002) (Gupta, 2000)

4.4 Part (d)

The viscosity of liquids is to be determined with a rotary
viscometer, in which a variable-speed motor drives a cylinder
immersed in the liquid to be investigated via a spiral spring.
The viscosity of the liquid generates a moment of rotation at
the cylinder which can be measured with the aid of the torsion
of the spiral spring and read on a scale.
(Gupta, 2000)

5 Task 5:
5.1 Part (a)
As an object moves through a fluid, or as a fluid moves past an object, the molecules of the fluid
near the object are disturbed and move around the object. Aerodynamic forces are generated

between the fluid and the object. The magnitude of these

forces depend on the shape of the object, the speed of the
object, the mass of the fluid going by the object and on
two other important properties of the fluid; the viscosity,
or stickiness, and the compressibility, or springiness, of
the fluid.
(White, 1986)
As the fluid moves past the object, the molecules right
next to the surface stick to the surface. The molecules just above the surface are slowed down in
their collisions with the molecules sticking to the surface. These molecules in turn slow down the
flow just above them. The farther one moves away from the surface, the fewer the collisions
affected by the object surface. This creates a thin layer of fluid near the surface in which the
velocity changes from zero at the surface to the free stream value away from the surface.
Engineers call this layer the boundary layer because it occurs on the boundary of the fluid.

(White, 1986)

5.2 Part (b)

5.2.1 In diagram 1 the ideal fluid is plotted along the x axis what does this say about the
viscosity of the fluid. Relate this to the shear stress within the fluid. Describe how the
pressure of the fluid will vary within a horizontal pipe due to this shear stress.

Line A in the figure shows the ideal fluid which shows zero viscosity and shear stress because
there is no force of attraction between liquid molecules. The formula between the shear stress
and dynamic velocity is given as follows:
=

dy
du

A fluid is inflowing a circular flat pipeline with a uniform velocity as of the no slip condition the
motion of the fluid molecules will seize near to pipe surface and thus a boundary layer is formed.

The boundary layer will slow down the motion of the fluid molecules due to force of friction of
the pipe wall and due to this the pressure is dropped in this area. At the pipe inlet the shear stress
has the maximum value where the width of the boundary layer is least and declines slowly to the
entirely developed value. Thats why the pressure drop is maximum in the entering area of the
pipe and lowers as the fluid moves.
(Kundu and Cohen, 2007) (White, 1986)
5.2.2 In diagram 1 the Pseudo-Plastic fluid exhibits a feature called shear
thinning. Describe the effect of this and what feature within the
diagram demonstrates this.
If a fluid decreases its viscosity when it is subjected to shear strain this phenomenon is called
shear thinning e.g. ketchup.
This is perhaps the most widely encountered type of time-independent non-Newtonian fluid
behavior in engineering practice. It is characterized by an apparent viscosity which gradually
decreases with increasing shear rate. In polymeric systems (melts and solutions), at low shear
rates, the apparent viscosity approaches a Newtonian plateau where the viscosity is independent
of shear rate.
(White, 1986)
5.2.3 In diagram 2 all of the fluids exhibit an offset from the zero in shear
stress. Describe what effects this has in the flow of such fluids.
Pressure drop due to shear stress offset is increased and thus the flow will move quickly. Shear
stress offset assists the fluid flow as it will increase the fluid motion. There will be small shear
force due to this offset and hence there will be less viscosity so this will increase the motion of
the fluid. Where the roughness is high shear offset will increase the fluidity of the flow.
(Kundu and Cohen, 2007) (White, 1986)

6 References:
Barnes, H. (2002). Viscosity. Aberystwyth: University of Wales, Institute of Non-Newtonian
Fluid Mechanics.
Loney, S. (1894). Mechanics and hydrostatics for beginners. Cambridge [England]: University
Press.
Kundu, P. and Cohen, I. (2007). Fluid Mechanics. Burlington: Elsevier.
Gupta, S. (2000). Viscometry for liquids.
Loney, S. (1894). Mechanics and hydrostatics for beginners. Cambridge [England]: University
Press.
White, F. (1986). Fluid mechanics. New York: McGraw-Hill.