Lecture 13.

Review

Prof. Sven Vanneste

The University of Texas at Dallas

School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences

Review sessions

Exam 2 (Oct. 20)

T.A. Neha Patel

Date: Oct. 16
Office hours: 6:00-7:00 pm
Office: SLC 2.304

T.A. Priya Thakar

Date: Oct. 16
Office hours: 7:00-8:00 pm
Office: SLC 2.304

T.A. Harsha Upadhya

Date: Oct. 16
Office hours: 6:00-7:00 pm
Office: SLC 2.304

T.A. Aisha Gillan

Date: Oct. 16
Office hours: 7:00-8:00 pm
Office: SLC 2.304

Hye:
Review sessions, Thursday
October 15th, 1:00 2:15p

Overview over Motor systems

Topographical Organization of Ventral Horn

Cervical (neck, arms), thoracic (abs), lumbar/sacral (legs, pelvis)

Medial to lateral topographical map of motor neuron pools
Medial = innervate proximal muscles
Lateral = innervate more distal muscles
Fingers and toes are most lateral to midline

2 Types of Lower Motor Neurons

motor neurons innervate the

extrafusal muscle fibers,
force-producing fibers
control posture and movement

motor neurons (30%) innervate

intrafusal muscle fibers (muscle
spindles)
control muscle tension

Sensory feedback affects motor control Golgi tendon organ

Proprioception:
While muscle spindles detect changes in muscle length,
mechanoreceptors in tendons predominantly signal
changes in muscle tension contraction of muscle by
detecting force on tendon

Ib afferents contact the

inhibitory local circuit
neurons to provide
negative feedback to
same muscles motor
unit
= monitors and
maintains muscle force

Overview over Motor systems

Pyramidal Tract (Corticospinal and Corticobulbar)

Upper motor neuron axons descend through the internal

capsule (forebrain)
Pass through cerebral peduncle (midbrain) and pontine
fiber bundles (pons)
Form medullary pyramids (medulla)
Along pathway, collaterals innervate:
Brainstem nuclei (trigeminal motor, facial motor, )
Reticular formation
Red nucleus

Pyramidal tract decussates (now just corticospinal axons)

lateral corticospinal tract = 90% cross midline
ventral (anterior) corticospinal tract = 10% terminate ipsior bilaterally in spinal cord

Lateral Corticospinal Tract

Forms direct pathway from cortex neurons to:

Local circuitry in ventral horn
Some synapse directly on motor neurons
that serve forearms and hands

Pathway more predominate in vertebrates that

are skilled with hands

Pathways Controlling Posture, Balance, Gaze

Vestibulospinal

medial: neck muscles (inputs

from semicircular canal)
lateral: proximal limbs (inputs
from otoliths); posture/balance
and gaze fixation

Reticulospinal

temporal and spatial

coordination of limb
and
trunk
movements
for
balance

Colliculospinal

pathway from superior

colliculus controls muscles
in neck orienting head
movements
Not involved sending vestibular
information to spinal cord

Tectospinal, reticulospinal and vestibulospinal pathways

Tectospinal
Tectum:
Inferior colliculus
Superior colliculus

Reticulospinal
Vestibulospinal

11 of 24

But what do motor maps really represent?

Is motor homunculus a map of

Muscles?
Movements
Intentions?

Primary Motor Cortex

Upper motor neurons = pyramidal

cells of cortical layer 5 (Betz and nonBetz cells)

Descending projections of the axon of

the upper motor neurons to the
brainstem and spinal cord via 2 tracts:
Corticobulbar tract to brainstem
nuclei
Corticospinal tract to spinal cord
lower motor neurons

Upper motor neurons primary motor cortex

layer 5 = upper motor neurons

Betz cells are largest neurons in

the human central nervous
system

Assumed to be the principal

upper motor neurons of the
motor cortex, there are far too
few of them to account (5%) for
the direct projection from the
motor cortex to the brainstem
and spincal cord
Although the small number, the
probably play an important role in
the activation of lower motor
neurorns that control activities in
the distal extermities

Premotor cortex

Premotor neurons vs. primary motor neurons

Receive multisensory input from somatosensory and prefrontal cortices = use
info to select appropriate movement in context

Encode intention of movement = premotor neurons fire to cue predicting

movement before primary motor neurons initiate movement
Also fire when observing others perform same action = mirror neurons

Mirror Neurons Encode Intentions of Self and Others

A) Neurons that fire while monkey
performs food grabbing task also fire
when observing similar action by
experimenters hand

B) Do not fire when experimenter uses

tool, but fire when monkey observes its
own action
tic = action potential
row = each trial

C) Fire even when action performed

behind a barrier

Upper motor neuron syndrome

Loss of cortical suppression of reflexes
or brainstem control
Babinski sign indicates loss of
descending control over control of the
reflex arc to suppress extensor
withdrawal
i.e. can indicate damage to descending
corticospinal pathway

Overview over Motor systems

Motor Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia

Corpus Striatum:
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus Pallidus (GP):
External segment
Internal segment

Substantia nigra (SN):

Pars reticulata (related to Globus pallidus)
Pars compacta (DA neurons)
Subthalamic nucleus
Major Role: permission for the initiation of
movement by the upper motor neurons

Medium Spiny Neurons (MSNs)

Receive excitatory glutamatergic synapses from cortical neurons

Have large dendritic trees = divergence of cortical input
Other inputs: local, thalamic, dopamine, other neuromodulators
Firing associated with impending movement (decision to move)
Caudate = eye movements
Putamen = limb and trunk movements

Striatum Projections: Globus Pallidus and Substantia Nigra

100 mil

700.000

Input from cerebral cortex

MSNs send converging inhibitory GABAergic

projections

Putamen globus pallidus thalamus

motor cortex = creates loops

Caudate substantia nigra superior colliulus

= main output of basal ganglia is inhibitory

Disinhibition in the Basal Ganglia

GLU
MSN

GLU

GABA

GABA

GLU

GLU

Tonically inhibit thalamus to

prevent unwanted movement
at rest
Tonic inhibition is inhibited
when striatum is activated =
thalamus disinhibited and can
signal to the upper motor
neurons

Direct Pathway via GPi

Direct pathway facilitates initiation of volitional movement
MSNs project to tonically active inhibitory neurons in the internal segment of GP (GPi)

Disinhibition allows activation of the upper motor neurons

Excitation

Inhibition
Inhibition

Disinhibition of inhibitory synapse on thalamus = movement

Dopamine Modulates Basal Ganglia Circuitry

Dopaminergic cells in substantia nigra pars compacta
1. MSNs in striatum projects to pars compacta
2. Pars compacta sends dopaminergic projections back to the MSNs
D1 receptors are excitatory
G-protein coupled = excites
direct pathway
D2 receptors are inhibitory
G-protein coupled = inhibit
indirect pathway
= BOTH decrease inhibitory
outflow to increase
excitability of upper motor
neurons
May contribute to reward
related
modulation
of
motor behavior (i.e. monkey
saccade towards target
faster with larger reward)

Parkinsons Disease

Loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic

neurons

Direct pathway has sustained

inhibition

Indirect pathway augments direct

pathways inhibition

Inhibitory outflow of basal ganglia

is abnormally high

Timely thalamic activation of

upper motor neurons less likely

Hypokinetic

Cause unknown

Treatment replace dopamine

function with L-DOPA

Huntingtons Disease

Loss of GABAergic MSNs

GP cells become abnormally active =

reduces the excitatory output of the
indirect pathway

Reduced inhibitory outflow of the

basal ganglia = upper motor neurons
activated by inappropriate signals

Hyperkinetic

Cause - mutation in either of two

copies of Huntingtin (50% chance of
inheriting)

Treatment can alleviate symptoms

alleviated by blocking DA transmission
with antipsychotic medication (e.g.
haloperidol) handol-shuffle'

No cure (gene therapy not succesful)

atrophy

Overview over Motor systems

Overview of the Cerebellum

Error correction = cerebellum detects the

difference, or motor error, between
intended movement and actual movement
influences upper motor neurons to
reduce the error and provide precision

Cortical areas project to both, deep

cerebellar nuclei are the main output with
input from cerebellar cortex

3 Major Subdivisions of the Cerebellum

Cerebrocerebellum
Lateral cerebellar hemispheres
Receives input indirectly from cortex
Regulation of highly skilled movements (planning,
execution of complex spatial and temporal
sequences of movement (e.g. speech))

Spinocerebellum
Medial (median and paramedian zone)
Receives direct input from spinal cord
Medial-lateral regulation of muscles
Lateral: distal muscles Medial: proximal muscles

Vestibulocerebellum

Caudal-inferior lobes
Receives input from vestibular nuclei
Regulation of posture and equilibrium

3 Major Cerebellar Pathways

Pathways are called the cerebellar peduncles

Middle cerebellar peduncle

Inferior cerebellar peduncle

Afferent pathway (input)

Cortical input via pontine nuclei

Afferent pathways from vestibular nuclei, spinal

cord, brainstem
Efferent pathways to vestibular nuclei and reticular
formation (sleep-awake, cardiovascular,)

Superior cerebellar peduncle

Efferent pathway (output)

Deep cerebellar nuclei projections to thalamus
(dorsal) and motor cortex and superior colliculus

Cerebellar Input
Pontine nuclei

Cerebral cortex and superior colliculus neurons

synapse on pontine nuclei
Traverse pontine fibers
Relay inputs via middle cerebellar peduncles

Inferior olive

Receives inputs from cortex, reticular formation,

spinal cord
Project to cerebellum via inferior cerebellar
peduncle
Participates in learning and memory

Circuits within Cerebellum

Cerebral cortex has 3 distinct layers: molecular, Purkinje, granule
Inputs from pontine nuclei to cerebellum via mossy fibers
Synapse on granule cells which give rise to parallel fibers that ascend to molecular
layer
Synapse (excitatory) on dendrites of Purkinje cells (output cells)

Molecular

Purkinje

Granule

Purkinje Neuron Input = Error Correction Signal

GABAergic inhibition from Purkinje neurons in cerebellar cortex shapes discharge patterns
generated by deep nuclei neurons being excited by mossy and climbing fiber input

cerebellar
cortex

GABA

deep nuclei

Modulation of Ongoing Movement

Cerebellum continually monitors and adjusts motor behavior = firing pattern closely
follows movement.

Red trace = flicking of the wrist

Both cell types are tonically active at rest

Leads to complex neuronal responses of both Purkinje cells and deep

cellular nuclei whose timing is associated with the motor function

Diseases / Lesions of the Cerebellum

Problem with error control (modulation) of ongoing
movements
Cerebellar ataxia
difficulty producing smooth, coordinated movements
instead: jerky, imprecise actions and staggering gait
Problems are on the same side as the lesion

Cerebellar ataxia
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5eBwn22Bnio
Cerebellar ataxic gait
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kAiIfulpYzU

Also caused by lesions:

Anterior spinocerebellum damage (alcohol abuse) = affects lower limbs
Vestibulocerebellum lesion = imbalance and nystagmus
Cerebrocerebellum lesion = impaired learned movements, i.e. playing an instrument

Eye movements

Cranial nerves

Lower motor neurons from 3 motor nuclei innervate the extraocular muscles

Axons form 3 cranial nerves

Abducens nerve (VI) exit brainstem from pons-medullary junction lateral rectus muscle

Trochlear nerve (IV) exit caudal portion of the midbrain and supplies the superior oblique muscle

Oculomotor nerve (III) exits the rostral midbrain just medial to the cerebral peduncle

Neural Control of Saccadic Eye Movements

Control direction of movement (which way)

Determined by which muscles are activated

Controlled by gaze centers (horizontal (Paramedian Pontine Reticular Formation) and vertical
(Rostral Interstitial Nucleus)
Innervate motor nuclei and eye muscles
Activation of gaze centers in concert result in oblique movements

reduction

Sensory/Motor Maps in Superior Colliculus

Orderly map of visual space established by retina and visual cortex input to superior colliculus

Sensory map integrated with eye movements motor map

Superior colliculus (and frontal eye field) neurons are activated by visual stimuli and firing
generates saccade
Amplitude and direction of saccade

Surface view of stimulation sites

Frontal Eye Fields

Project to superior colliculus and reticular

formation gaze centers

Essential for scanning visual field to locate

object of interest among distracting objects

Lateral inhibition in frontal eye fields to

enhance neural responses to object of
interest

Visceral motor system

Two branches of the ANS

sympathetic NS - mediates the 4 F responses

uses energy: increased peripheral motor activity

uses acetylcholine, epinephrine and norepinephrine as

neurotransmitters

4 F responses: fight or flight, fright, f__ (sexual activity)

parasympathetic NS
produces energy: increased internal motor activity

uses acetylcholine as neurotransmitter

Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic

preganglionic
neurons

sympathetic:
thoracic and lumbar
parasympathetic:
brainstem and sacral

Neurotransmission in the ANS

Sympathetic ganglion cells (mostly) release Norepinephrine on target cells
Parasympathetic ganglion cells use only Acetylcholine

Sensory-Motor Integration in the NTS

Central autonomic network

Coordinate integrative and voluntary

controls of viscera, i.e. urination and
defecation

Combo with emotions, i.e. blushing,

sexual function

NTS is relay center for visceral sensory

and motor integration

Provides input to:

Visceral motor nuclei

Reticular formation premotor centers
Integrative centers in amygdala and
hypothalamus

Exam October 20th

Scantron #229630

available at the UTD

bookstore for a small cost
(and might be found
elsewhere on campus).
Also available at "Off
Campus Books", a few
blocks east on Campbell Rd
(behind Fuzzy's taco stand).

Bring your Student-ID

Bring scantron and
pencil
Be on time