REPORT IN

ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

Submitted by:
John Wesley Salvoro
Francis Hiro Leduna
Submitted to:
ENGR. IRISMAY JUMAWAN
Instructor Engineering Hydrology

INFILTRATION AND PERCOLATION: PROCESSES AND MEASUREMENTS

 Infiltration - includes entry

of water into the soil
surface and its movement.
Percolation -the movement
of water under gravity.
These two phenomena are
as they are closely related,
but technically there is a
difference.
Percolation
starts after Infiltration.

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

A. RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS
- the duration as well as the intensity of rainfall influences infiltration. If the intensity of the rainfall is more
than the infiltration rate, then only surface runoff is noticed. On the contrary, if the intensity of the rainfall is
less than the infiltration rate, no surface flow is observed and all the rainfall is abstracted as infiltration.
The rate of infiltration is high in the beginning and goes on reducing and attains a steady state after some
time. At earlier stage the intensity of rainfall may be less than the rate of infiltration. Under this condition,
the ground will absorb all the rainfall and there will not be any surface flow.
When the infiltration rate reduces and becomes less than the intensity of precipitation, surface flow will be
noticed, which might increase till the infiltration rate stabilizes. In addition to these considerations, rainfall
has some additional effects as follows:
When rainwater strikes the bare soil, there is mechanical compaction of soil due to the impact, which
reduce the infiltration rate. Fine soil particles are carried down due to rain water resulting in choking of the
pores spaces in the soil, and consequently resulting in reducing the infiltration rate.
B. GROUND SURFACE CONDITIONS
- the land surface that receives rain may bare, vegetated or cover with mulch or litter. The bare ground
receiving rainfall may subjected to the effects of impact, and so on. If impervious materials is exposed at
the surface, naturally infiltration is small or negligible.

C. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
- have definite effect on infiltration. A uniformly graded material will have more pores and hence the
infiltration rate will be more than a well-graded material. In clayey soils, because of the removal of moisture
due to evaporation, some shrinkage cracks may be observed. These termed as Sun cracks. Because of
these cracks, infiltration rate may increase in the initial stage. Subsequently, when the soil gets wet, the
cracks get closed and may not affect the infiltration rate.
D. SOIL MOISTURE
- even if the soil contains some moisture, there is no effect, practically, on the rate of infiltration except that
the rate is reduced at the initial stage.
MEASUREMENT OF SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT
The direct measurement involves the determination of the weight loss from several oven-dried field
samples or Gravimetric method. Each sample is weighed before and after being dried at a Gravimetric
method temperature of 105C. The moisture content is the ratio of the weight of water loss to the weight of
the dry soil, as a percentage.

W=

M 1 M 2
x 100
M2

where:
W = moisture content %

M 1 = weight of wet soil

M 2 = weight of dry soil

INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS OF SOIL

1. TENSIOMETER

indirect measurement of soil moisture involves the use of

Tensiometer to measure the suction force with which water is
held in moist soil. When the tube is inserted in the soil, water
moves through the porous cup to the surrounding soil, causing
a pressure drop to register in the manometer or vacuum gage.
The drier the soil, the greater the amount of water leaving the
tube and, consequently, the greater the pressure decreases.

E. HUMAN ACTIVITIES
- cultivation of land disturbs the soil structure, closes the openings made by burrowing animals and insects
as well as decaying roots and thus reduces the rate of infiltration.
F. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
- the flow of water through the soil is laminar. Change in temperature may cause change in the viscosity of
water and consequently may cause change in velocity of water, and thus may affect the infiltration rate.
G. ENTRAPPED AIR
- if infiltration process covers a large area, there may not be an exit passage to the entrapped air in the soil.
Also, because of the downward passage of water, the air entrapped may get compressed and may offer
more resistance to the flow, which may result in reducing the infiltration rate.
MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION

The rate of infiltration is initially high. It goes on reducing with time and after some time it becomes steady.
The rate of infiltration for a soil is measured in the field as well as in the laboratory. These are known as
infiltrometers.
1. Tube type or single-ring - this is a simple instrument consisting essentially of a metal cylinder, 30
cm diameter and 60 cm long, open at both ends. The cylinder is driven to a ground to a depth of 50
cm.
2. Double-ring infiltrometer - this most commonly used infiltrometer is design to overcome the basic
objection of the tube infiltrometer. In this, two sets of concentrating rings with diameters of 30 cm
and 60 cm and of 25 cm. the two rings re inserted to the ground and water is applied into both the
rings to maintain a constant depth of about 5.0 cm. the outer ring provides water jacket to the

infiltering water from the inner ring and hence

prevents the spreading out of the infiltering
water of the inner ring.
3. Sprinkling-type infiltrometers or rain
stimulators - in a small plot of land, 2 m 4m
size, is provided with a series of nozzles on the
longer side with arrangements to collect and
measures the surface runoff rate. The specially
design nozzles produce raindrops falling from a
height of 2 m and are capable of producing
various intensities of rainfall
INFILTRATION FORMULAS
For a given storm, infiltration rates tend to vary in time. The initial infiltration rate is the rate prevailing at the
beginning of the storm. This rate is likely to be the maximum rate for the given storm, gradually decreasing
as the storm progresses in time. For storms of long duration, the infiltration rate eventually reaches a
constant value, referred to as final (or equilibrium) infiltration rate. This process led Horton to the following
formula to describe the variation of infiltration rate with time:
f

kt
) e

f =f c +
in which

f = instantaneous infiltration rate; f o

f c =final infiltration rate; k

= a constant; t

h1 . For t

= 0 , f =f o

And if you integrate the first equation between t

F=

=initial infiltration rate;

= time in hours. The unit of k
; and for
= 0 and t

is

, f =f c

= , leads to

(f of c )
k

in which

F=

the total infiltration depth above the

f =f c

line. The latter equaiton enables the

calculations of the infiltrations depth, assuming that the storm lasts long enough for the equilibrium rate to
be attained.

PERCOLATION

Percolation- is defined as the slow movement of water through the pores in soil or permeable rock. In dry
region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is high. Sandy soils have greater percolation than clayey soil.
Vegetation and high water table reduce the percolation loss.
Percolation is important for two reasons:
1. This is the only source of recharge of ground water which can be used through wells for irrigation
2. Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of plant roots (leaching)
Estimation of the Percolation Rate
1.

Lysimeters- a commonly used field method, may be used to determine percolation rates as they
provide direct and accurate measurement.

2. 12-inch-diameter percolation test method (Calif Test 749) is the preferred method, however, the 6inch-diameter test method can be used in cases where site location limits the use of a backhoe.
This method may involve hazardous materials, operations and equipment.
GROUNDWATER STORAGE and FLOW of WATER

In the saturated zone, essentially all of the pores are

filled with water. If a volume of saturated aquifer material
is completely dried, the water volume removed reflects
the total porosity of the material.
Porosity
-

the fraction of pore space within the total

volume of solids plus open spaces.

In the unsaturated, or vadose, zone there

can be significant amounts of water present,
but the voids are not completely filled.

A schematic illustration of an aquifer in which the total

porosity in the saturated zone is 30%, half of which is
tightly held in small pores or mineral associations, and
half of which is in large pores that drain relatively
easily.
The latter fraction can be pumped out, and is the
effective porosity or specific yield.

Specific yield of the aquifer

-

a characteristic closely related to effective porosity which is the volume of water per unit
volume of aquifer that can be extracted by pumping. It is clearly an important factor in water
availability, and is the factor that is used to convert saturated thickness (ST) to the actual
volume of groundwater available:
Volume = Area x ST x SY

GROUNDWATER FLOW AND HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Groundwater, like surface water, flows 'downhill' in the direction determined by the slope of the water table.
Its rate of flow is determined by the steepness of the slope and an aquifer characteristic called Hydraulic
Conductivity.
In a porous medium, flow is described by Darcy's Law, an equation that relates the rate of flow to the slope
(or gradient) of the water table and the characteristics of the aquifer. This law is illustrated in fig. 6, and is
written as:
Q=AxKxG
where Q is the volume flow of water (for example, in cubic
feet per day -- also called ), A is the vertical area of the
aquifer through which the horizontal flow is flux occurring,
G is the gradient or slope of the water table in the direction
of flow (difference in elevation divided by horizontal
distance), and K is the hydraulic conductivity -- a constant
of proportionality that describes how easily water flows
through the medium.

HYDROLOGIC INVESTIGATION in DETERMINING SUBSURFACE RESOURCE

Subsurface water comprises all water either in storage or flowing below the ground. There are two types of
subsurface water:
(1) interflow takes place in unsaturated zone, close to the ground surface, and
(2) groundwater flow takes place in the saturated zone, which may be either close to the ground surface
or deep in underground water bearing
formations. The surface separating the
unsaturated and saturated zones is referred to
as the groundwater table, or water table.
Subsurface water occurs by infiltration and/or
snowmelt into the ground. Once the water is
infiltrated, it can follow two paths:
(1) move in general lateral direction within
the unsaturated zone close to the ground
surface or
(2) move in a general downward direction
and join the saturated zone.
Saturated Zone is a system with two phases (solid and liquid) where all pores are filled with water
Unsaturated Zone is a system with three phases (solid, liquid and gas) where only a part of the ground is
filled with water.
Water from soil representing water from the unsaturated zone, and which is the transit bond between
matter and substances. These processes are part of a continuous cycle soil-plants-atmosphere.
Subsurface water level is influenced by rain percolation regime or irrigation water that crosses through the
unsaturated zone.
Suspended and phreatic groundwater tables - The boundary between the unsaturated zone and saturated
zone is water table.
Suspended formations appear in aeration zones above local impermeable lentils of clay or marl; these
groundwater tables are of shallow depth with volume variations depending on the air temperature and the
rainfall atmospheric regime.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GROUNDWATER TABLES
1.

a free groundwater table is that in which the superior limit is the free surface.

2.

a captive groundwater table (artesian) is created by rainfall infiltration into permeable rocks and
accumulation between two impermeable layers. Usually water is under pressure.

3. A semi-captive groundwater table has a semi-permeable coverage.

4. A karstic groundwater table is formed in a region composed of carbonated and soluble rocks
(CaCO3).

AQUIFER
An aquifer is a permeable geological pattern (soil or rock) with pores or communicating fissures large
enough to allow water to circulate under the effect of gravity (sand, gravel, gritstone).
The aquifer can be characterized by the following indexes:
1. Effective porosity is the ratio between the "mobile" water volume at saturation (liberated under
gravity effect) and total volume of environment. Generally, it varies between 0.1 and 30%. The
effective porosity is a parameter determined in the laboratory or on the field.
2. Storage coefficient is the ratio between the free or stored water volume of an aquifer and hydraulic
charge variations. The storage coefficient is used to characterize the exploited water volume, and
to regulate the groundwater storage in reservoir voids.
3. Hydraulic conductivity at saturation is a coefficient of Darcy's law and characterizes the effect of
flow resistance under friction forces. It is determined in the laboratory or on the field.
4. Transmissivity is the product between hydraulic conductivity at saturation and the groundwater
table's height.
HYDRAULICS OF FLOW of GROUNDWATER
Depending on whether the flow is steady or unsteady, and saturated or unsaturated, the equations of
groundwater flow can be formulated in one of the following three ways:
1. steady-state saturated flow,
2. transient (i.e., unsteady) saturated flow, and
3. transient unsaturated flow.

STEADY-STATE SATURATED FLOW

The law of conservation of mass for steady state flow through saturated porous media requires that
the net fluid mass flux through a control volume be equal to zero, i.e., the inflow must equal the outflow.
This leads to the equation of continuity:

In which the quantities v are specific discharges in three orthogonal directions x, y, and z, respectively.
Assuming fluid incompressibility, (x, y, z) is constant and consequently it can be eliminated from the
previous equation. Substitution of Darcys law in the said equation yields:

in which the quantities K and I are hydraulic conductivities and hydraulic gradients, respectively.
For an isotropic medium, Kx = Ky = Kz = K. For a homogeneous medium, K (x, y, z) is constant, and it can be
eliminated from the previous equation. Given ix = h /h, and iz = h /h, in which h = hydraulic head. It
reduces to

The above equation is the Laplace equation. The solution of this equation is a function h(x, y, z) is descriing
the value of hydraulic head at any point in a three-dimensional flow field. For two-dimensional flow the third
tem on the left side of that equation cancels out, and the solution is a function h(x,y)
Transient saturated flow
-The law of conservation of mass for transient flow through saturated porous media requires that the net
fluid mass flux through a control volume be equal to the time rate of change of fluid mass storage within the
control volume. Therefore, the equation of continuity, Eq. 11-15, is modified to

Assuming that the fluid is incompressible, (x, y, z) is constant, and it can be eliminated from the previous
equation. Substitution of Darcys law yields:

For an isotropic medium, Kx = Ky = Kz = K. For a homogeneous medium, K (x, y, z) is constant. The time rate
of chance of porosity can be related to time rate of change of hydraulic head by the following:

Therefore it reduces to:

This equation is a diffusion equation, with K/S s being the hydraulic diffusivity of the aquifer [L2T-1 units].
The solution of this equation is a function of h(x,y,z,t) describing the value of the hydraulic head in three
dimensions at any time. It requires the knowledge of Ss and K or, alternatively, the basic fluid and aquifer
properties , , a, n, k and .
For this special case of a horizontal confined aquifer of thickness b, the third term on the left side drops out,
with equations 11-13 and 11-14:

The solution of this equation is a function of h(x,y,t) describing the value of hydraulic head in two
dimensions at any time.
GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION AND OVER- EXPLOITATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Exploration a careful systematic search; the activity of looking thoroughly in order to find something.
Exploitation the act of employing to the greatest possible advantage
Overexploitation - exploitation to the point of diminishing returns

Groundwater is replenished or recharged by rain and seepage from rivers. It contributes 14 percent of the
total water resource potential of the Philippines. Region X has the lowest potential source of groundwater
compared to its surface water potential, while Regions I and VII have the highest potential.
Groundwater is used for drinking by about 50 percent of the people in the country. Based on the water
rights granted by the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) since 2002, 49 percent of groundwater is
consumed by the domestic sector, and the remaining shared by agriculture (32 percent), industry (15
percent), and other sectors (4 percent). About 60 percent of the groundwater extraction is without waterright permits, resulting in indiscriminate withdrawal. A high percentage (86 percent) of piped-water supply
systems uses groundwater as a source.
Pollution of groundwater may come from domestic wastewater, agricultural runoffs, and industrial effluents.
This occurs when contaminants reach the aquifer or water table in the form of leachate. Domestic
wastewater is the main contributor of bacterial contamination to the groundwater supplies. The presence of
coliform bacteria in drinking water supplies can cause water-borne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera,
dysentery, hepatitis A, and others. Limited data on the bacteriological content of groundwater from 129
wells indicated a high level of positive coliform bacteria in 75 wells (58 percent)8. Another problem is saline
water intrusion, which is caused by over-exploitation or excessive withdrawal of groundwater. This reduces
water availability for domestic usage, including drinking and agricultural usage (See Water Quality
Scorecard for groundwater).
At present, the large cities and coastal areas that have serious problems of saltwater intrusion are: Metro
Manila (from Malabon, Navotas, Manila, Paranaque), Cavite (from Noveleta, Rosario, Tanza, Naic), along
Laguna de Bay (from Muntinlupa to Binangonan), and Cebu, Iloilo, Zamboanga, Laoag, and Dagupan9.
One solution to arrest saltwater intrusion is groundwater recharge (see Box 3).
Article: Groundwater Recharge A Possible Solution to a Dwindling Resource?
Many major coastal cities in the Philippines, like Cebu, Iloilo, Dagupan, and coastal areas of Metro Manila
and Cavite, are encountering saltwater intrusion problems in their groundwater resources due to over
extraction of fresh water. This phenomenon is a consequence of: Over utilization of groundwater by water
service providers e.g., LGU, WD, Private-run, RWSA/ BWSA, among others; Exploitation of groundwater
in inland municipalities resulting in conflicts on water rights and allocation of water usage, and lack of an
inter-municipal integrated water supply concept in coastal cities. Countermeasures Groundwater recharge
in inland areas and usage of surface water are the most reliable countermeasures to limit the saltwater
intrusion. Surface water requires water treatment facilities and assurance of steady water intake throughout
the year. In addition, available surface water near coastal cities is usually limited. Groundwater recharge,

on the other hand, helps ensure a constant supply of fresh water to coastal cities. This low-cost option
needs exploration for the Philippines.
The issues and challenges on groundwater management are:
Over-extraction of groundwater resulting to lowering of water level, salt water intrusion and land
subsidence
Groundwater pollution limiting the source of water supply
Groundwater contamination- leaching of industrial, agrochemicals and animal wastes in agro-industrial
areas
Discharges from latrines & septic systems and infiltration of polluted runoff
Lack of reliable, updated and science-based groundwater information for well informed decision making
Freshwater resources have been classified as surface water and groundwater resources. Present
conditions suggest that groundwater resources grants occupy around 3.4 per cent of freshwater use. Of
these water resources grants, around 92 per cent is UNEP SCS/National report Philippines Page 17
consumed by the irrigation sector while the municipal (3.5 per cent), industrial (3.1 per cent) and others (1.5
per cent) occupy a small percentage (JICA 1997). 2.2.2.1
GROUNDWATER AQUIFERS AND CURRENT STATUS
In Luzon, groundwater is utilized in a greater proportion than surface water while in the Visayas and
Mindanao surface water is mainly utilized (JICA 1997). 2.2.2.2

DEMAND FOR ITS USE (BY SECTOR)

(a) For level III (water districts supply system), 85.9 per cent use groundwater. Most of this production
comes from wells rather than from springs. Around 560 Mecum/yr is produced from groundwater for
domestic use (Level III) (JICA 1997).
(b) Level I (areas outside level III with parts from rural and urban areas) groundwater production is around
159.3 Mecum/yr with Central Luzon (42.4 Mecum/yr) and Metro Manila (31.2 Mecum/yr) as the highest
consumers of domestic water (level I) (JICA 1977).

c) Level II water supply systems (communal faucet systems, barangay level water supply) produce a total
of groundwater production of 57.4 Mecum/yr with Metro Manila (11.3 Mecum/yr) and Central Luzon (7.0
Mecum/yr) as the highest consumers (JICA 1977).
IMPACT AREAS OF GROUNDWATER SHORTAGE AND LOW QUALITY GROUNDWATER
The groundwater potentials of the WRR have been calculated based on their relative surface area,
hydrogeology and the amount of precipitation they receive. Based on the land-use patterns in these areas
and a recharge rate based on around 5 per cent of their annual precipitation volume, the impacts of water
shortage have been estimated for the WRR/provinces. This is tabulated in table C5 - C7 of the JICA (1997)
report. It was also pointed out that urban development reduces groundwater recharge because of the
reduction in the porosity of surface areas owing to covering by concrete, asphalt and other non-porous
material.

GROUNDWATER AVAILABILITY MAP IN THE

I. ROCKS IN WHICH FLOW IS DOMINANTLY GRANULAR

PHILIPPINES

Executive
aquifers

and

highly

productive

Fairly executive and productive and

productive aquifers

Local and less productive aquifers

II. ROCKS IN WHICH FLOW IS

DOMINANTLY
THROUGH
FRACTTURES AND/OR SOLUTION
OPENINGS

Fairly excessive and productive

aquifers with high potential recharge

Fairly to less excessive and

productive aquifers with low to
moderate potential recharge

III. LOCAL GROUNDWATER

REGIONS UNDERLAIN BY
IMPERMEABLE ROCKS
GENERALLY WITHOUT
SIGNIFICANT GROUNDWATER,
EXCEPT IN RESIDUUM
SUFFICIENTLY LEACHED AND/OR
FRACTURED ZONE

Rocks with limited potential, low to

moderate permeability

Rocks without any known

significant groundwater obtainable
through drilled wells, largely unused.

PROBLEMS DUE TO OVEREXPLOITATION OF GROUNDWATER IN THE PHILIPPINES

CEBU CITY

Groundwater over-exploitation has caused

serious seawater intrusion in Cebu Metro.
Salinity
in
abstracted
groundwater
is
increasing. Control of groundwater abstraction,
especially non-Cebu Water District wells, is
urgent to stop the seawater intrusion.
Alternative water sources, for example,
artificial groundwater recharge in surrounding
river
valleys,
must
be
studied
and
implemented. This has also caused the
depletion of groundwater in the aquifer.

Figure: Groundwater salinity in Metro Cebu:

groundwater in the area between Cl contour
line of 250 ppm to shoreline has high salinity.

Sources:

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPHILIPPINES/Resources/PEM2003-pp1-6.pdf
http://www.unepscs.org/components/com_remository_files/downloads/National_Report_Philippines
_TDA.pdf
http://adb-knowledge-partnership.unesco-ihe.org/sites/adb-knowledge-partnership.unescoihe.org/files/summary_of_project_seminar_october_2014_0.pdf