Running head: NONTRADITIONAL ADULT STUDENTS AND TIME MANAGEMENT

Nontraditional Adult Students and Teaching Time Management as an Effective Tool in

Addressing their Challenges to Academic Achievement
Federico Lastra, Michelle Osborne, and Jennifer Sarria
Florida International University

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

Abstract
Nontraditional students compose a growing number of college students and are subject to face
time management challenges that lessen their chances to succeed academically. This research
paper explores the effects of time management as it relates to this underserved populations
college performance. To provide better focus to the study, the nontraditional student and the
concept of time management were defined according to the literature. We considered barriers to
succeed and persist that center around academic, psychological, and environmental factors.
Difficulties encountered by students ineffective use of time are discussed to identify best
practices in overcoming these challenges. The initiatives featured throughout are strategically
represented conceptually and practically. One such program is currently housed at FIUs Center
for Academic Success that facilitates time management strategies of nontraditional learners. This
enables students to have a fighting opportunity to complete a program of study which ultimately
can increase their earning potential, which translates into a better daily quality of life.

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

Nontraditional Adult Students and Teaching Time Management as an Effective Tool in

Addressing their Challenges to Academic Achievement
Background
According to the Advisory Committee on Student Financial Assistance (ACSFA) (2012),
an alarmingly increasing number of college students are failing to graduate, even more so among
young Americans; this is a trend that threatens to undermine the nations global competitiveness
and further exacerbate inequality in the nations income distribution (p. iii). This current trend
has alarmed the US government enough that it launched programs into action to increase
graduation rates. Florida International University (FIU) has benefited from such action when a
Title V grant from president Obama granted the university millions in 2010 to increase
graduation rates among what it has labeled generation 1.5rs. Generation 1.5rs are students who
grew up speaking Spanish at home and learned English in school; bilingual Spanish speaking
minorities currently making up about 67% of the FIU student population. One such program is
FIUs Title V Project Gateways (2014), which is focused on increasing academic support for
these students, and in just the last two years has successfully increased graduation rates by 13%
according to Dean Robertson, of Undergraduate Education, at a symposium given by The Center
for Academic Success at FIU in October 2014; and is expected to increase by three more points
by the end of Spring 2015. Dean Robertson additionally announced that FIUs mission is to
increase completion rates by 70% by the year 2020, which begins now, surprisingly shifting the
traditional four year graduation projector goals to six years, which is more reflective of our
nontraditional student population. At the federal level, the goal to have the worlds highest rate
of college completion is now front and center. Achieving this important goal by 2020 will require
a formidable effort to increase the nations college degrees and certificates (ACSFA, 2012, p.

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

iii). FIU has done so well that it has been nationally recognized: last fall, FIU was one of only
two public universities in the country recognized with a high profile national award from the
Association of Public and Land-grant Universities for making visible progress toward improving
graduation rates (ONeil, 2014).
Nationally achieving the 2020 goal among these students is an undertaking as daunting
as the population is large and diverse (ACSFA, 2012, p. iii). However, locally, at FIU with the
strides that it is making and if the trend continues the 70% graduation achievement rate is
conservatively a realistic and attainable expectation. However, nationally, the task is more
challenging because higher education is not structured to serve this population adequately nor
are most financial aid programs; and , additionally, data to track recent high school graduation
rates does not exist for nontraditional college enrollment, achievement, or much less graduation
rates (ACSFA, 2012, p. iii). According to Newbold, Mehta, and Forbus (2010) the sheer number
of nontraditional students has substantially grown; as such, diversified the characteristics of this
group which is older than 24, working fulltime, and most often has dependents to support (as
cited in Forbus, Newbold, & Mehta, 2011). According to Bye, Pushkar, and Conway (2007):
between 1996 and 2006, the number of non-traditional undergraduate college students increased
at a rate of 30% to 50% (as cited in Forbus, Newbold, & Mehta, 2011). Moreover, according to
Compton, Cox, and Laanan (2006): the National Center for Education reports that 73% of all
students have some characteristics of the non-traditional student (as cited in Forbus, Newbold,
& Mehta, 2011). These students bring with them aspirations and needs that are unlike those of
traditional students; and, as a result universities must adapt to this target population and provide
services to improve student academic achievement and satisfaction by developing innovative
programs to enhance their college experience and overcome their unique challenges, such as

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

balancing it all. One such program that helps nontraditional students overcome this challenge is
time management, the greatest obstacle this cohort faces towards degree attainment (Forbus,
Newbold, & Mehta, 2011).
According to Kearns and Gardiner (2007) helping nontraditional students cope with
stressors by learning to effectively manage them in a timely and efficient manner could help to
reduce negative attitudes about the university and help to raise grade point averages for
nontraditional students. Additionally, an effective time management program could serve to help
these students persevere on their academic quest toward a degree (as cited in Forbus, Newbold,
& Mehta, 2011). Foremost, according to Kearns and Gardiner (2007): time management skills
have been identified as one indication of higher performance and lower stress and anxiety (as
cited in Forbus, Newbold, & Mehta, 2011). Ultimately, improving degree attainment rates among
nontraditional students must start with innovative thinking and action that incorporates the
invaluable experience of those in higher education who have dedicated their professional lives
to better integrate higher learning with the life and work of these students (ACSFA, 2012).
Problem Statement
Time management has been acknowledged as a factor in determining student
performance (MacCann, Fogarty, & Roberts, 2012). Evidence has shown that lower levels of
academic achievement impede success, particularly in nontraditional students (U.S. Department
of Education, 2012). This under-served population faces challenges managing the demands of
their college education and their personal lives. This paper defines the non-traditional student as
a college student who either works full-time, commutes, and/or has dependents (ACSFA, 2012).
Purpose of the Paper
Nontraditional students have identified their greatest challenge to succeeding in college

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

to be managing their time effectively, because they often work long hours and have not only
themselves but compounding responsibilities of child care, family, and the home. Incorporating
college classroom goals into an already demanding life require a concentrated effort on applying
effective time management skills, in order to not only attend class and completing assignments,
but to study more effectively during allotted times, because on average to do well in college,
students need to study approximately two hours for every hour of lecture time. For example, a
fulltime student (12 credit semester), demands a weekly 24 hours of study to allow sufficient
time to read, write papers, and prepare for projects and exams. Difficulties for nontraditional
students in allocating the time to study and how to manage that time can be addressed by an
effective time management program. The purpose of this paper is to explore and identify the
relationship between time management and success for the nontraditional student at the college
and university levels, in addressing their particular challenges to degree attainment. Specifically,
it explores time management issues that create barriers preventing nontraditional students from
being successful in the completion of tasks in a timely manner. This further translates into grades
that help their academic records and enable them to successfully graduate, per the U.S.
Department of Education report 2012 (Bucks Community College, 2011; Center for Academic
Success [CfAS], 2012).
Organizational Description of the Paper
Overall, the paper will explore the effectiveness of time management and nontraditional
adult students by defining who are nontraditional students and their identifiers such as age,
background characteristics, at-risk characteristics, taxonomy of barriers to access and
persistence; situational, institutional, and barriers; academic performance and intent to leave;
academic variables and psychological factors; background and defining variables; environmental

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

variables; and, examples of subgroups that comprise the nontraditional student population.
Additionally, we will explore how these factors and characteristics manifest as challenges and
why an effective time management program, defined and its effectiveness, would serve as best
practice for these nontraditional students. Moreover, this research paper is organized firstly with
defining the nontraditional student and highlighting the characteristics of students that are
referenced as being nontraditional. It will also initially define and discuss the importance of time
management and its impact on successful learning. Then, there will be a discussion of barriers to
access time management skills and how to incorporate these skills in their daily lives for success
to take place. There will also be a discussion on challenges to overcome issues created by the
lack of time management. Next, we will use time management as a stepping stool for success for
the nontraditional student by highlighting simple guidelines to follow that creates intentional
pathways for success using effective time management techniques. In conclusion, the learned
techniques will be integrated to create a harmonious learning environment using time
management for successful completion of programs for nontraditional students (ACSFA, 2012).
Discussion
Non Traditional Student
Nontraditional students are those that fail to fit into the traditional student template.
Generally, the nontraditional student is not White and 25 years of age or older, attends college
fulltime and also works fulltime, and has dependents, additional characteristics include:
veterans, men and women on active duty, and first-generation college students (ACSFA, 2012,
p. 3). In the 20th century there has been a significant shift, making the nontraditional the majority
in higher education. Despite their prominence institutions of higher education are failing short in
adequately serving them by often providing classes at inconvenient times and less than stellar

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

financial aid services, on top of difficult to navigate campuses (ACSFA, 2012). Additionally,
nontraditional students are typically left out of national longitudinal data sets, preventing
researchers from conducting useful analyses on this large and diverse student populationa
serious obstacle to understanding this group in the present day ACSFA, 2012, p. 2). According
to Kim (2002), nontraditional students also possess a high risk of attrition, which is cause for
concern since their numbers are predicted to increase in the coming years, by 21% by 2020.
Some subgroups that make up the nontraditional student population includes: single parents,
adult learners, low-income students, underrepresented minorities such as African Americans and
Hispanics, distance or online learners, English as a Second Language (ESL), first-generation
students, students with disabilities, and underprepared students, to name a few (ACSFA, 2012).
Barriers to Success
Success for the nontraditional student is hindered by barriers to participation in the
learning environment. According to Cross (1981), who provides a framework to categorize
barriers, factors that fall into three categories affect barriers to persistence. Furthermore, factors
falling into the three stated categories can be accounted for the problems that hinder success of
nontraditional students. The three barriers referenced are situational, institutional, and
dispositional in nature. In situational barriers students refer to their present conditions that inhibit
them from accessing and pursuing higher education (Cross, 1981). There may not be the
resources to fund higher education due to a lack of funds. Nontraditional students are identified
as having commitments beyond themselves- such as having a family or are a single parent, lower
income earners, older, are a first generation attending college and may have dependents using
funds that are limited. These situations block many opportunities because they can only perform
in a limited scale if their resources are to be shared in other much needed for daily living.

NONTRADITIONAL STUDENST AND TIME MANAGEMENT

Consider also students who have a disability and are the main source of income for their homes.
These situations limit their ability to participate in higher education and many struggle to use
their time in a manner to place themselves at an advantage, so it is important to have resources
such as the Center for Academic Success at FIU to assist students in making Time Management
plans that are manageable for them to be successful students. Institutional barriers, Cross (1981)
stated, are placed to exclude or make it difficult for students to participate in postsecondary
education. Students can be excluded by the institution not facilitating programs that give
opportunity to build foundations to complete coursework. These barriers can also discourage
students and it includes the lack of transport, scheduling flexible class sessions to cater for
variations of employment duties, and lack of practicality. On another note, dispositional barriers
are placed by the students due to their perception of themselves. Some adults have low selfesteem because of a past experience and as such, created a barrier preventing success. Students
disposition translates into their attitude for success. With proper coaching and guidance many
students are open to changes that align them with success in their coursework. Sometimes
students are in college, and for instance because of their age and a prior bad experience cannot
see themselves being successful in some subject areas. Having a proper time management
program that allows sufficient engagement periods with quality tutoring ensures them success.
Some older students feel intimidated by the many forms of modern technology resources
available; and, all that may be needed is a facilitated orientation and guidance for achieving use
of devices and systems. Keep in mind that some factors can be communicated as belonging to
more than one barrier because it affects multiple areas to block success for the nontraditional
student. With reference to MacKeracher, Suart, and Potter (2006), they state that depending on
the origin of a barrier it may create problems on many areas of important support. An example

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10

noted, is the existence of a financial support barrier when students do not have access to funds to
pay for education. However, when the cost associated to attend school is above the income
threshold of attending students the financing of an education becomes situational, but when
students weigh their options and do not see the value of seeking higher education because they
view the cost of attending as much larger than the benefit.
Barriers to Persistence
The nontraditional student is stated above as individuals who are attending higher
educational institutions with the intention of completion of a program of study to enhance their
skills and knowledge to expand their employability circle. These individuals are mainly older,
have dependents and may be single parents; and, belong to the lower socioeconomic groups and
finances are difficult to fund their education. According to Bean and Metzners (1985) model for
barriers to persistence, activities such as social integration and extracurricular participation,
school friends, and faculty contact did not have a significant impact on the level of persistence
for nontraditional students. However, on the other hand, external environmental influences were
more important. The nontraditional student to Bean and Metzner (1985) indicated four sets of
variables as their sources of concern and hence made the decision for withdrawal from their
program. They are academic performance, intent to leave, background, and defining variables
and environmental variables. Students struggling with low grade point averages and an inability
to perform their best academically will eventually drop out of school. Students who are uncertain
of their capabilities, partnered with a lack of good study habits, and poor availability of courses
are most likely to leave. Academic advising may slow the need to drop out; however,
institutionally if the course selection available is limited the desire to drop out or transfer to
where there is a better schedule is persistent. Nontraditional students also may need assistance in

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11

the cultivation of strong time management skills, as some older students stated that they required
more time to study in relation to traditional students. With the inclusion of an effective time
management program and timely tutoring sessions students can be assured of success in school.
Another reason for dropping out is absenteeism, as it is necessary to attend classes to be
successful. When anyone does not attend classes, there are learning voids that may be difficult
to retrieve and when there is uncertainty and lack of knowledge regardless of age, students will
drop out. Sometimes psychologically, students do not place a value to attend school and also
drop out because academically there is not a strong reason to stay in school. In this context, both
academic and environmental variables are directly affected such as stress level, satisfaction, and
goal commitment to the decision to leave. An example being a student placing a value of future
employment attached to the completion and graduating from their program, will persist and stay
until their goal of completion is attained. On the other hand, stress from not completing
assignments and lack of engaging learning situations may negatively affect persistence and
completion of their course of study.
Other Factors
It is noted through research that nontraditional students, especially those that are older,
have faced barriers to successful completion of education (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).
These under- served students are identified as older, enrolled as part-time students, live off
campus with a family and are working with other main financial commitments. Another defining
variable is high school performance that helps determine major, intention to transfer to other
institutions can determine the desire to persist at a school. Environmental factors such as
finances, family responsibilities, work schedules, transfer opportunities at other institutions are
considerations towards decisions on whether a student will continue or stay and complete their

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course. Students who have a challenging work schedule, lack of finances, and heavy family
obligations are more inclined to leave. On the other hand, having a strong support system
ensures success such as an understanding employer; supportive family members and scheduled
study and tutoring time are positively associated with persistence. According to Bean and
Metzner (1985), the implication for nontraditional undergrad student attrition colleges must
consider the environmental factors that cause students to waver and move away from their desire
to complete their course of study. Students with strong family support and employers that place a
value on education are most likely to be successful. This suggests that the negative aspects of
academic performance can be overcome with support such as time management and effective
tutoring. On the other hand, performing positively in academics do not compensate for negative
variables such as family commitments because these normally take precedence over academic
achievement. Also, if a student performs well at work and is satisfied with their performance
there is a positive outcome that may compensate for a lower outcome such as a low GPA.
However, high stress levels at work will not compensate positively to the effect of a high GPA.
Even though there are models for barriers to access and barriers to persistence, the Advisory
Committee (ACSFA) (2012) understands that there is the need to further investigate because
each model will have flaws in this imperfect global environment we live. Cross highlights the
personal life of the learner and there is the need to expand the focus as the larger environment
such as governmental policy can determine the direction individuals may eventually follow.
Also, Bean and Metzners (1985) model focuses on older, part time commuter students. This is
limiting to the understanding of the larger population of nontraditional students. There is the
need for deeper discovery of the issues relating to nontraditional students in this present time.
The nontraditional student includes broad and overlapping subgroups such as married students,

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students with dependent children military personnel and dislocated workers.

Time Management Challenges
As research has shown, the primary barriers to access and persistence for nontraditional
students, center on financial, support services, and time management challenges. Financial
barriers to higher education are a primary cause of part-time and delayed enrollment (ACSFA,
2012, p. 1). Of major concern are insufficient financial resources, reliance on loans, and
decreasing tuition assistance from employers. Another point of contention is fragmented student
support services. While support programs may be available, some may lack the proper
accommodations needed for specific types of adult learners. Along the same rationale, students
frequently face insecurities from having to manage many trials and tribulations. Thus, Krause
and Coates (2008) make a case for the ability to manage ones time, study habits and strategies
for success as a student is foundational to success in the first year (p. 500).
Prioritizing time allocations is at the cornerstone of learners anxieties. In a study by Van
der Meer, Jansen, and Torenbeek (2010), students identified an array of issues tied to their time
management skills. Among their primary concerns were keeping up with the work, starting
assignments early, and organizing their time accordingly. Procrastinating seemed to be a source
of stress among the majority of students and many emphasized the negative effects of leaving
their workload for the last minute. Furthermore, the importance of revising assignments early on
and working consistently throughout the semester was stressed. The students experienced
difficulties when reviewing prior coursework, lessening their understanding of the academic
content.
Although the concept of time management has been broadly addressed in the literature,
for the purpose of this research paper, it will reference actions that accomplish an effective use of

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time aligned with task-oriented efforts (Claessens, Van Eerde, & Rutte, 2007). Adult learners
with the ability to develop adequate time management skills can gain from benefits beyond their
continuous academic productivity. First, per Trueman and Hartley (1996), building learners
confidence in long-term planning can positively impact study performance (as cited in Van der
Meer et al., 2010). If students feel more confident in their abilities to perform, then they are more
determined to stay on track with their studies. Second, managing time efficiently can
significantly reduce learners stress (Burt & Kemp, 1994). Allowing sufficient time for tasks to
be completed can help to alleviate the various psychological pressures that consume students.
Third, students time allocation skills have been correlated to discipline-specific and generic
competencies achievements (Meng & Heijke, 2005). Knowing that as a student you can obtain
specific academic proficiencies paves the way to successful completion of a program of study.
Best Practices
Despite the different terms used to describe time management, its conceptual
underpinnings still embrace relevant practices. Using Lakein (1973) as a frame of reference, time
management comprises the practice of procedures that are intended to aid individuals determine
their needs, set personal goals to achieve said needs, and organize and plan necessary activities to
attain said goals (as cited in Van der Meer et al., 2010). Anchored on these views, to keep abreast
of arising issues, a plethora of successful time management techniques have surfaced over the
years.
Using an assortment of goal-oriented strategies, Claessens et al. (2007) is a proponent of
three comprehensive categories for the effective use of time: time assessment behaviors,
planning behaviors, and mentoring behaviors. Time assessment behaviors sole purpose is to
make individuals self-aware of their time use of past, present, and future activities. This way, it

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helps to accept tasks and responsibilities that fit within the limit of ones capabilities (p. 262).
Following the same logic, Krause and Coates (2008) delineate consciousness and agency as
influential first steps for emerging self-managed learners.
On the other hand, planning behaviors constitute, asserting goals, developing and
organizing tasks, and making lists (Claessens et al., 2007) with the intent to improve time
management skills. Learners must adopt a more intentional approach to academic tasks in order
to manage their time effectively. These efforts can be aided by key teaching and support
personnel taking an active role in assisting students to internalize the expectations connected to
time management and self-study (Van der Meer, et al., 2010). In the same token, studies have
demonstrated that educational practices or structured curriculum that identifies time management
demands for first-year students can influence students time allocation. In fact, ACSFA (2012)
expands on this perspective by advocating for student support services that are comprehensive,
affordable, flexible, convenient, accessible, and geared towards the nontraditional student (p.
75). The advantages associated with time management can be perceived through various
institutional models supported by successful outcomes. Consistent with sound practice, constant
life coaching for at-risk students, can serve as stimuli to address time and money management
and study skill challenges. Western Governors University employs faculty as student mentors,
course advisers, and in student assessment to certify that learners are on a pathway to completion
through individualized connections and weekly interactions (ACSFA, 2012). Reinforcing this
approach, van der Meer, et al. (2010) highlighted an initiative by the University of Groningen
which consisted of an increase of the number of contact hours, developing motivational small
group teaching and incentives to foster regular study behaviors. Furthermore, Rio Salado College
promotes in-person bridge programs that target underserved populations by providing learners

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with basic adult education, developmental education, and training to aide in their advancement in
academic programs (ACSFA, 2012). Similarly, institutions should facilitate students use of time
by extending student services (i.e. library, tutoring, digital support, etc.) hours in diverse formats
(i.e. in-person, online, phone, etc.) thus, serving the needs of non-traditional students through
physical and virtual communities (ACSFA, 2012). In fact, Van der Meer, et al. (2010) presents
virtual learning environments (i.e. Blackboard) as a supportive platform vital for first-year
students academic journey and graduation goals.
Lastly, considering reiterative tools, monitoring behaviors aim at observing ones use of
time while performing activities, generating a feedback loop that allows a limit to the influence
of interruptions by others (Claessens et al., 2007, p. 263). In line with this approach, Krause and
Coates (2008) proposes the use of the Academic Engagement Scale (AES). The AES
encompasses factors concerning self-initiated study activities, class participation, and attendance
patterns to interpret time management challenges. The incorporation of student self-assessments
focused on strategic workload management is also encouraged given their influence on the
development of self-managing and independent learners. Overall, the success of the previous
mentioned practices lays in the implementation of intentional models introduced through
meaningful personalized relationships between the student and the institution.
Conclusion
The clarity to recognize that nontraditional students are a growing portion of college
students and are less likely to persist and complete degree programs than full-time traditional
students is critical (ACSFA, 2012, p. 1). As a result, the challenges that they face such as
procrastinating, keeping up with assignments, and stress driven factors, but ultimately addressing
the need to balance them all through an effective time management program is vital to retention

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and degree achievement. In response, the Center for Academic Success (CfAS) (2014) at FIU
developed such a program that addresses the varying aspects of time management, since 1996,
and has continued to modify it in order to address the current needs of the nontraditional student.
The CfASs Time Management program is offered by the Reading & Learning tutors as a study
skills workshop. The workshops instruction and application can last anywhere from two to four
hours when planning out an entire semester, making it an efficient investment. The Time
Management workshop employs various practices focused on teaching the participants several
practical means of gaining control of their time. It involves the use of a monthly calendar, a
master study schedule, a daily assignment schedule, and a to do list. Additionally, it teaches
helpful instruction in aiding time management, involving the principles of studying, studying on
the run, the backup system, and the study ratio. These tools employed in any combination,
accompanied by the will for academic success serve to reduce the disorder of everyday life. The
grounded belief is that through time planning, students achieve the consistency in their work that
is absolutely vital for success at FIU. Ultimately, the workshop strives to embed that the
management of time and steady concentration can lead to a successful command of life and
accomplishment of goals than achieved without it. Because, time management has been
identified as a prevailing factor to student success, especially for the nontraditional student, with
their particular obstacles to academic achievement, the adoption of such a comprehensive
program as a requirement after admission when beginning their initial enrollment will prove
beneficial towards any universitys desire of increasing retention rates and reinforcing degree
attainment, such as in 70% graduation rate 2020 goal of FIUs Undergraduate Education. Future
research should include number of students served at the CfAS at FIU, GPA increases, and
degree attainment, following completion of the time management program from 2014-2024.

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