Topic

Science
& Mathematics

Understanding
Multivariable Calculus:
Problems, Solutions,
and Tips
Course Workbook
Professor Bruce H. Edwards
University of Florida

Subtopic
Mathematics

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Bruce H. Edwards, Ph.D.

Professor of Mathematics
University of Florida

rofessor Bruce H. Edwards has been a Professor of Mathematics

at the University of Florida since 1976. He received his B.S. in
Mathematics from Stanford University in 1968 and his Ph.D. in
Mathematics from Dartmouth College in 1976. From 1968 to 1972, he was
D3HDFH&RUSVYROXQWHHULQ&RORPELDZKHUHKHWDXJKWPDWKHPDWLFVin
Spanish at Universidad Pedaggica y Tecnolgica de Colombia.

Professor Edwardss early research interests were in the broad area of pure mathematics called algebra.
His dissertation in quadratic forms was titled Induction Techniques and Periodicity in Clifford Algebras.
Beginning in 1978, Professor Edwards became interested in applied mathematics while working summers for
NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia. This work led to his research in numerical analysis and the
solution of differential equations. During his sabbatical year, 1984 to 1985, he worked on two-point boundary
value problems with Professor Leo Xanthis at the Polytechnic of Central London. Professor Edwardss current
research is focused on the algorithm called CORDIC that is used in computers and graphing calculators for
calculating function values.
Professor Edwards has coauthored a number of mathematics textbooks with Professor Ron Larson of Penn
State Erie, The Behrend College. Together, they have published leading texts in calculus, applied calculus,
OLQHDUDOJHEUDQLWHPDWKHPDWLFVDOJHEUDWULJRQRPHWU\DQGSUHFDOFXOXV
Over the years, Professor Edwards has received many teaching awards at the University of Florida. He was
named Teacher of the Year in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences in 1979, 1981, and 1990. In addition, he
was named the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Student Council Teacher of the Year and the University of
Florida Honors Program Teacher of the Year in 1990. He also served as the Distinguished Alumni Professor for
the UF Alumni Association from 1991 to 1993. The winners of this two-year award are selected by graduates
of the university. The Florida Section of the Mathematical Association of America awarded Professor Edwards
the Distinguished Service Award in 1995 for his work in mathematics education for the state of Florida. His
textbooks have been honored with various awards from the Text and Academic Authors Association.
3URIHVVRU(GZDUGVKDVWDXJKWDZLGHUDQJHRIPDWKHPDWLFVFRXUVHVDWWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI)ORULGDIURPUVW\HDU
calculus to graduate-level classes in algebra and numerical analysis. He particularly enjoys teaching calculus to
freshmen because of the beauty of the subject and the enthusiasm of the students.

Professor Edwards has been a frequent speaker at both research conferences and meetings of the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. He has spoken on issues relating to the Advanced Placement calculus
examination, especially on the use of graphing calculators.
Professor Edwards has taught four other Great Courses:

ii

x

Mathematics Describing the Real World: Precalculus and Trigonometry;

x

Understanding Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips;

x

Understanding Calculus II: Problems, Solutions, and Tips; and

x

Prove It: The Art of Mathematical Argument.

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION
Professor Biography ................................................................................................................................i
Course Scope .........................................................................................................................................1
LESSON GUIDES
LESSON 1
A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus .....................................................................................................3
LESSON 2
Functions of Several Variables ...............................................................................................................7
LESSON 3
Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives ............................................................................................11
LESSON 4
Partial DerivativesOne Variable at a Time ........................................................................................15
LESSON 5
Total Differentials and Chain Rules ......................................................................................................19
LESSON 6
Extrema of Functions of Two Variables ................................................................................................22
LESSON 7
Applications to Optimization Problems .................................................................................................26
LESSON 8
Linear Models and Least Squares Regression.....................................................................................29
LESSON 9
Vectors and the Dot Product in Space..................................................................................................32
LESSON 10
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space ........................................................................................36
LESSON 11
Lines and Planes in Space ...................................................................................................................40
LESSON 12
Curved Surfaces in Space ....................................................................................................................44
LESSON 13
Vector-Valued Functions in Space........................................................................................................48
LESSON 14
Keplers LawsThe Calculus of Orbits ................................................................................................52
LESSON 15
Directional Derivatives and Gradients ..................................................................................................55

iii

Table of Contents

LESSON 16
Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface ................................................................................58
LESSON 17
Lagrange MultipliersConstrained Optimization .................................................................................61
LESSON 18
Applications of Lagrange Multipliers .....................................................................................................64
LESSON 19
Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane ...............................................................................................67
LESSON 20
Double Integrals and Volume ...............................................................................................................71
LESSON 21
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates ..................................................................................................75
LESSON 22
Centers of Mass for Variable Density ...................................................................................................79
LESSON 23
Surface Area of a Solid .........................................................................................................................83
LESSON 24
Triple Integrals and Applications ...........................................................................................................87
LESSON 25
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates ............................................................................................91
LESSON 26
Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates ..............................................................................................95
LESSON 27
Vector FieldsVelocity, Gravity, Electricity ..........................................................................................99
LESSON 28
Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals ........................................................................................................ 104
LESSON 29
More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field................................................................................. 108
LESSON 30
Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals.............................................................................................112
LESSON 31
Greens TheoremBoundaries and Regions.....................................................................................117
LESSON 32
Applications of Greens Theorem ...................................................................................................... 122
LESSON 33
Parametric Surfaces in Space ........................................................................................................... 126

iv

Table of Contents

LESSON 34
Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals .................................................................................................. 130
LESSON 35
Divergence TheoremBoundaries and Solids ................................................................................. 136
LESSON 36
Stokess Theorem and Maxwells Equations ..................................................................................... 140
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
Solutions ............................................................................................................................................ 144
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 193
Summary of Differentiation Formulas ................................................................................................ 214
Summary of Integration Formulas ..................................................................................................... 216
Quadric Surfaces ............................................................................................................................... 218
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................... 221

vi

Understanding Multivariable Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips

Scope:

he goal of this course is to complete your understanding and appreciation of calculus by seeing
how calculus is extended to three dimensions. Many of the ideas of elementary calculus in the plane
generalize naturally to space, whereas other concepts will be brand new. Most concepts will be
introduced using illustrative examples, and you will see how multivariable calculus plays a fundamental role
in all of science and engineering. You will also gain a new appreciation for the achievements of
higher mathematics.
<RXZLOOEHJLQE\VHHLQJKRZIXQFWLRQVRIDVLQJOHYDULDEOHDUHJHQHUDOL]HGWRIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUH
variables. In particular, the graphs of such functions are surfaces in space. After a brief look at limits, you
will generalize elementary derivatives to partial derivatives. You will learn how to generalize the differential
WRWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOVZRUNZLWKDPRUHJHQHUDOFKDLQUXOHDQGQGH[WUHPDIRUIXQFWLRQVRIPRUHWKDQRQH
variable. This leads to optimization applications and linear modeling of data.
You will then study vectors in space, a natural extension of vectors in the plane. Lines and planes are studied
in depth, as well as other surfaces in space. You will use vector-valued functions to understand Keplers laws
and prove one of them using calculus.
Your study then takes you to the world of multivariable integration, which is far more powerful than its
VLQJOHYDULDEOHFRXQWHUSDUW<RXZLOOVHHKRZWRGHQHDQGXVHGRXEOHDQGWULSOHLQWHJUDOVZKLFKKDYH
applications to volume, surface area, mass, and far more. You will study additional kinds of integrals that
EHFRPHSRVVLEOHLQVSDFHOLQHLQWHJUDOVDQGVXUIDFHLQWHJUDOVLQFOXGLQJLQWHJUDOVIRUX[WKURXJKDVXUIDFH
GHQHGXVLQJYHFWRUHOGV
One of the recurring themes throughout these lessons is the fundamental theorem of calculus. Recall from
elementary calculus how the fundamental theorem relates integration and differentiation:

F c  x  dx

F  b   F  a .

This theorem will appear in other forms in multivariable calculus, including in the famous fundamental
theorem of line integrals, which allows you to integrate over a piecewise smooth curve to make sense of such
topics as gravitation and conservation of energy.
/LQHLQWHJUDOVZKLFKFDQEHXVHGZLWKDQ\FXUY\OLQHDQGPLJKWWKHUHIRUHEHEHWWHUFDOOHGFXUYHLQWHJUDOV
combine with double, triple, and surface integrals to form three of the crowning theorems in all of calculus,
each of which generalizes the ability of the fundamental theorem of calculus to extract maximum information
IURPUHODWLYHO\OLPLWHGLQSXWVLQIDUPRUHSRZHUIXOZD\V7KHVHDUH*UHHQVWKHRUHPZKLFKUHODWHVWKHGRXEOH
LQWHJUDORIDUHJLRQWRDOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJERXQGDU\WKHGLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHPZKLFK

UHODWHVWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDORIDVROLGWRWKHVXUIDFHLQWHJUDORYHUWKHVXUIDFHRIWKDWVROLGDQG6WRNHVVWKHRUHP
ZKLFKUHODWHVWKHVXUIDFHLQWHJUDORYHUDVXUIDFHWRWKHOLQHLQWHJUDORYHUWKHERXQGDU\RIDVXUIDFH6WRNHV
was a colleague and friend of James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge University, and the course concludes by
touching on mathematical connections between our capstone generalizations of the fundamental theorem of
calculus and Maxwells famous equations of electromagnetism.
This course presents essentially the same topics as a typical university-level, third-semester calculus course.
The material is based on the 10th edition of the bestselling textbook Calculus by Ron Larson and Bruce H.
(GZDUGV%URRNV&ROH+RZHYHUDQ\VWDQGDUGFDOFXOXVWH[WERRNFDQEHXVHGIRUUHIHUHQFHDQGVXSSRUW
throughout the course.
The study of multivariable calculus has surprisingly few prerequisites. For a high school student who has
completed the equivalent of the Advanced Placement Calculus AB and Calculus BC courses, this course is a
very logical next step. And although some university programs teach multivariable calculus only after linear
DOJHEUDDQGRUGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQVQRVXFKSUHSDUDWLRQLVDVVXPHGRUQHHGHGIRUWKLVFRXUVH,QGHHGDJRRG
JUDVSRISUHFDOFXOXVDQGUVWVHPHVWHUFDOFXOXVLVRIWHQWKHRQO\HVVHQWLDOSUHSDUDWLRQ
Thats because calculus II and multivariable calculus start from a shared foundation but proceed in
substantially different directions. For example, while Understanding Calculus II: Problems, Solutions,
and Tips, a natural predecessor for this course, does introduce some topics in preparation for multivariable
calculusconics, vectors, parametric equations, polar coordinates, and vector-valued functionsthe bulk of
WKDWFRXUVHLVFRQFHUQHGZLWKWRSLFVVXFKDVLQQLWHVHULHVWKDWDUHLPSRUWDQWIRUKLJKHUIRUPVRIPDWKHPDWLFDO
analysis but are not featured in multivariable calculus. Moreover, in this course, any preparatory topics from
FDOFXOXV,,DUHEULH\UHLQWURGXFHGEXWLQWHUPVRIWKUHHGLPHQVLRQVPDNLQJWKHWZRFRXUVHVHYHQPRUH
distinct and self-contained.
Graphing calculators and computers are playing an increasing role in the mathematics classroom.
Without a doubt, graphing technology can enhance the understanding of calculus, so some instances where
JUDSKLQJFDOFXODWRUVDUHXVHGWRYHULI\DQGFRQUPFDOFXOXVUHVXOWVKDYHEHHQLQFOXGHG)RUWKHYLGHROHVVRQV
many of the graphs of surfaces were produced using Mathematica softwarea more limited online version
of which can even be explored on your own, at little or no cost, using the website Wolfram|Alpha
Z ZZZROIUDPDOSKDFRP

Scope

By the end of this course, you will have covered all the important theoretical ideas and theorems of a threesemester university calculus sequence, without dwelling on their technical proofs. You will be prepared for
courses in engineering, physics, and other subjects that use calculus.
6WXGHQWVDUHHQFRXUDJHGWRXVHDOOFRXUVHPDWHULDOVWRWKHLUPD[LPXPEHQHWLQFOXGLQJWKHYLGHROHVVRQV
which you can review as many times as you wish; the individual lesson summaries and accompanying problems
in the workbook; and the supporting materials in the back of the workbook, including the solutions to all
problems and various review items.

A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus

Lesson 1

Topics
x

Introduction to multivariable calculus.

x

Generalizing elementary calculus to three dimensions.

x

The three-dimensional coordinate system.

x

Distance and midpoint formulas.

x

Introduction to functions of two variables.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

In the three-dimensional coordinate systemSRLQWVDUHUHSUHVHQWHGE\RUGHUHGWULSOHVx, y, z)RU

H[DPSOHWKHRULJLQLV

x

The distanceEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVx1, y1, z1DQGx2, y2, z2LVJLYHQE\WKHIRUPXOD

d

x

 x2  x1    y2  y1    z 2  z1 

A sphereZLWKFHQWHUx0, y0, z0DQGUDGLXVrLVWKHVHWRIDOOSRLQWVx, y, zVXFKWKDWWKHGLVWDQFH

EHWZHHQx, y, zDQGx0, y0, z0LVr. That is,
d

 x  x0    y  y 0    z  z 0 

r.

7KLVVLPSOLHVWRWKHHTXDWLRQRIDVSKHUHxx02yy02zz02 = r2.
x

The midpointEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVx1, y1, z1DQGx2, y2, z2LVJLYHQE\WKHIRUPXOD

x1  x2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2
2 , 2 , 2

x

If z = f x, yLVDfunction of two variables, then x and y are called the independent variables, and z
is the dependent variable.

Summary
Welcome to Understanding Multivariable Calculus: Problems, Solution, and Tips,QRXUUVWOHVVRQZHVKRZ
how many of the fundamental ideas of elementary calculus can be extended to multivariable calculus. That
is, we look at how calculus in the two-dimensional plane is generalized to three-dimensional space. After
these introductory remarks, we develop the three-dimensional coordinate system as well as the distance and
midpoint formulas. We end the lesson with a brief look at functions of two variables.
Elementary Calculus Compared to Multivariable Calculus
In these lessons, we will see how elementary calculus, the calculus of two dimensions, can be extended to
PXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVWKHFDOFXOXVRIWKUHHGLPHQVLRQVRUVSDFH/HWVEULH\QRWHVRPHRIWKHLGHDVZH
will develop.
You know about the xyFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPLQZKLFKSRLQWVDUHUHSUHVHQWHGE\RUGHUHGSDLUVx, y
<RXZLOOOHDUQKRZWRUHSUHVHQWSRLQWVLQVSDFHDVRUGHUHGWULSOHVx, y, z
You know about functions of a single variable, such as
f x  VLQ x<RXZLOOOHDUQDERXWIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUH
variables, z = f x, yVXFKDVz = x2 + y2.

You know about the graph of a function of a single variable

VHHFigure 1.1<RXZLOOOHDUQWRJUDSKIXQFWLRQVRIWZR
YDULDEOHVLQVSDFHVHHFigure 1.2

y = x2

Lesson 1: A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus

You know about derivatives of functions of a single

variable, such as the derivative d >sin x @ cos x . You will
dx
learn about partial derivatives of functions of two or more
wf wf
.
variables, ,
wx wy

Figure 1.1

You know about integrals in elementary calculus,

z = x2 + y2

f  x  dx and f  x  dx. You will learn about double

integrals, f  x , y  dy dx ; triple integrals; line integrals;
a

and more.
1

You know about the fundamental theorem of calculus: If

b
F is an antiderivative of f, then f  x  dx F (b )  F ( a ).
a
You will learn about many generalizations of this theorem,
including Greens theorem, the divergence theorem, and
Stokess theorem.
4


1
2

1
2

x
Figure 1.2

v1 , v2 . You will learn about vectors in space, v

You know about vectors in the plane, v

v1 , v2 , v3 .

You know about vector-valued functions in the plane, such as rt FRVti + sin tj. You will learn about vectorvalued functions in space, such as the helix given by rt FRVti + sin tj + tk.
<RXNQRZDERXWQGLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVRIIXQFWLRQVLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV<RXZLOOOHDUQ
more advanced optimization techniques for functions of two variables.
Example 1
)LQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVDQG
Solution
Using the distance formula, we have
d

1  2    0  1   2  3

1  1  25

27

3 3.

Example 2
)LQGWKHHTXDWLRQRIWKHVSKHUHKDYLQJDQGDVHQGSRLQWVRIDGLDPHWHU
Solution
The center of the sphere is the midpoint, 4  0 , 2  4 , 3  3
2
2
2

 2, 1, 0  .

By the distance formula, the radius is

r

 0  2  2   4  1 2   3  0  2

499 =

22 .





7KHHTXDWLRQRIWKHVSKHUHLVx2y2z2 =  22  2,
ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWRx2y2 + z2 = 22. See Figure 1.3.



Example 3

Figure 1.3

For the function of two variables z = f x, y x2 + xy, we have f  DQGf  2 
Study Tips
x

We will use a right-handed coordinate system in space. That is, if the x-axis is your right hand and the
y-axis is your left hand, then the z-axis points upward.

x

The formulas for distance, midpoint, and sphere are immediate generalizations for the familiar
formulas for distance, midpoint, and circle in elementary calculus.

x

*LYHQx, yLQWKHGRPDLQRIDIXQFWLRQf of two variables, the value in the range is z = f x, y

Pitfall
x

Just as in elementary calculus, you cannot divide by zero or take square roots of negative numbers.
For instance, if f x, y  y  1 , then f DQGf DUHXQGHQHG
x y

Problems
1. Calculate the derivative of the function f x OQx + e3x.
S

2. Calculate the integral

cos x dx .

3. Determine the vector with initial point PDQGWHUPLQDOSRLQWQ

4. Eliminate the parameter to demonstrate that the graph of the vector-value function rt  FRV ti + 3 sin tj
is a circle.

5. Find the critical numbers and relative extrema of the function f x x3 + 3x2 12x.
6. )LQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVDQG
7. )LQGWKHPLGSRLQWRIWKHOLQHVHJPHQWMRLQLQJWKHSRLQWVDQG

Lesson 1: A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus

8. )LQGWKHHTXDWLRQRIWKHVSKHUHZLWKFHQWHUDQGUDGLXV
9. Calculate f LIf x, y OQy + ex+y.
10. Calculate g LIg x, y  FRV x + yVLQ x y

Functions of Several Variables

Lesson 2

Topics
x

Functions of two or more independent variables.

x

Graphs of functions of two variables.

x

Traces.

x

Level curves and level surfaces.

x

Applications of functions of two variables.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let DEHDVHWRIRUGHUHGSDLUVRIUHDOQXPEHUV,IWRHDFKRUGHUHGSDLUx, yLQD there corresponds a

unique real number z = f x, yWKHQf is called a function of x and y. The set D is the domain of f, and
the corresponding set of values f x, yLVWKHrange of f.

x

The graph of a function of two variables z = f x, yFRQVLVWVRIDOOSRLQWVx, y, zVXFKWKDWz = f x, y

x

A trace is the intersection of a surface with a plane.

x

Let z = f x, yDQGc be a constant. A level curve or contour line is the set of all points in the plane
satisfying f x, y c.

Summary
In this lesson, we continue our study of functions of two or more independent variables. We will formally
GHQHIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHVLQFOXGLQJWKHLUGRPDLQVDQGUDQJHV:HZLOOVHHWKDWLWLVHDV\WRFRPELQH
such functions and also extend these ideas to functions of three or more variables. Perhaps the most important
and interesting theme of this lesson is the graph of a function of two variables. To this end, we look at traces
and level curves for functions of two variables. Typical applications of level curves are topographic maps.
Finally, we will set up an application involving the minimal cost of construction of a box.

Example 1
2

Find the domain of the function f  x , y 

4  x2  y2 .
1

Solution




The expression inside the radical must be nonnegative, so the domain

FRQVLVWVRIDOORUGHUHGSDLUVVDWLVI\LQJx2y2

Figure 2.1

So, we have D

^ x, y  : x

 y d 4` .
2

The domain is a circle of radius 2. Notice that the graph of the function is a hemisphere of radius 2 centered at
the origin, x2 + y2 + z2 z6HHFigure 2.1
z

Example 2
Find the largest possible value of the function of two variables
z = f x, y x + 4yx2y2.
y

Solution
f(x, y x2y2

By completing the square, we see that z = f x, y x y .

2

Figure 2.2

Therefore, the largest possible value is 5, which is obtained when x = 1 and y = 2. Notice that there is no
VPDOOHVWYDOXH6HHFigure 2.2
Example 3

z
4

Lesson 2: Functions of Several Variables

Let f  x , y 
16  4 x 2  y 2 . Describe the level curve for c = 0.
6HHFigure 2.3

3
2




Solution


Setting f x, y c, we have

16  4 x  y

0.

Figure 2.3

7KLVVLPSOLHVWRWKHHOOLSVH 16  4 x 2  y 2

y2
0 x 
4 16
2

1.

,QWKHJXUHVHHFigure 2.4ZHKDYHGUDZQWKLVHOOLSVHDORQJZLWKVRPHRWKHUOHYHOFXUYHV

Example 4

A rectangular box with an open top has a length of x feet, a width of y

feet, and a height of zIHHWVHHFigure 2.5,WFRVWVSHUVTXDUHIRRWWR
EXLOGWKHEDVHDQGSHUVTXDUHIRRWWREXLOGWKHVLGHV:ULWHWKHFRVWC of
constructing the box as a function of x, y, and z.

c=0

c=2

c=4

Solution

The cost depends on the cost of the base and the four sides.

Figure 2.4

C = 3.00xyyzxz xy + 4yz + 4xz.

Later in this course, we will determine the minimum cost of the box,
JLYHQD[HGYROXPH
Study Tips

z
y
x

x

If z = f x, yWKHQx and y are called the independent variables,

and z is the dependent variable.

x

,QJHQHUDOWKHUDQJHRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVLVPRUHGLIFXOWWRGHWHUPLQHWKDQWKHGRPDLQ
Often, a graph can help determine the range.

x

<RXFDQGHQHIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHHRUPRUHYDULDEOHVLQDVLPLODUPDQQHU)RUH[DPSOH
f x, y, z x2y2 + sin z is a function of three variables.

x

You can add, subtract, and multiply functions of two or more variables. For example, if f x, y xy2
and g x, y VLQxyWKHQWKHVXPRIWKHWZRIXQFWLRQVLVf + gx, y f x, yg x, y 
2xy2VLQxy

x

Level curves extend naturally to level surfaces. For example, consider the function of three variables,
f x, y, z x2 + y2 + z2. Each level surface is of the form 4x2 + y2 + z2 = c, which are ellipsoids.

x

You will often see different letters used for the independent and dependent variables, as well as the
names of the functions.

Figure 2.5

Pitfalls
x

You cannot form the composition of two functions, each of two variables. However, if g is a function
of a single variable and f is a function of two variables, then the following composition makes sense:
 g D f  x, y  g  f  x, y   .
9

x

Make sure you understand if you are working in the plane or in space. For example, the graph of the
equation y = x is a line in the plane, but a plane in space.

x

The graph of a function of two variables is a surface in space, whereas its level curves are graphs in
the xy-plane.

x

Keep in mind that for a surface in space, its level curves lie in the xy-plane. On the other hand, a trace
is the intersection of the surface with a plane.

Problems
1. Calculate f LIf x, y, z  x  y  z .
2. Describe the domain of the function f x, y 

x y
.
xy

3. Describe the domain of the function f x, y OQxy

4. Describe the graph of the function f x, y 
5. Describe the graph of the function f x, y  1  x 2  y 2 .
6. Describe the level curves of the function f x, y xy for c = 0, 2, 4.
7. Describe the level curves of the function f x, y xy for c = 1, 3.
8. Describe the level surface of the function f x, y, z x2 + y2 + z2 at c = 9.
9. Complete the square for the function z = f x, y x + 4yx2y2WRFRQUPWKDWWKHODUJHVWYDOXHRIWKH

Lesson 2: Functions of Several Variables

function is z = 5.

10. A propane tank is constructed by welding hemispheres to the ends of a right circular cylinder. Write the
volume of the tank as a function of r and x, where r is the radius of the cylinder and hemispheres and x is
the length of the cylinder.

10

Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives

Lesson 3

Topics
x

Limits of functions of two variables.

x

Disks in the plane.

x

7KHIRUPDOGHQLWLRQRIOLPLW

x

Continuity of functions of two variables.

x

Partial derivatives.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

/HWx0 , y0EHDSRLQWLQWKHSODQH

(x0, y0 )

7KHRSHQGLVNFHQWHUHGDWx0 , y0ZLWKUDGLXV is the set of points

^ x, y  :
x

 x  x0    y  y 0  2

 .6HHFigure 3.1

Figure 3.1

Let fEHDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVGHQHGH[FHSWSRVVLEO\DWx0 , y0RQDQRSHQGLVNFHQWHUHGDW

x0 , y0DQGOHWL be a real number.
Then,

lim

 x , y  o x0 , y0 

f ( x, y )

if, for every > 0, there exists > 0 such that

f  x , y   L < whenever 0 
x

 x  x0    y  y 0 

< .

A function of two variables is continuousDWDSRLQWx0, y0LIf x0, y0LVGHQHGDQG

lim
f ( x , y ) f  x0 , y 0  .
 x , y  o x0 , y0 

11

x

'HQLWLRQRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
lim

f  x  'x , y   f  x , y 
.
'x

lim

f  x , y  'y   f  x , y 
.
'y

wf
wx

f x  x, y 

'x o 0

wf
wy

f y  x, y 

'y o 0

Summary
In this lesson, we continue to study the fundamental concepts of limits and continuity for functions of two
variables. We will see that limits in multivariable calculus are more complicated, but we wont dwell on the
theoretical aspects. We then present partial derivatives, the generalization of derivatives from elementary
FDOFXOXV:HZLOOOHDUQKRZWRFDOFXODWHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDQGGLVFRYHUWKHLUJHRPHWULFVLJQLFDQFH
Example 1
Calculate the limit

5x2 y
.
 x , y  o1,2  x 2  y 2
lim

Solution
The limit is easy to evaluate:

5x2 y
 x , y  o1,2  x 2  y 2
lim

5(1) 2 2
12  2 2

10
5

2.

:HZHUHDEOHWRMXVWSOXJLQWKHSRLQWLQWKLVH[DPSOH7KHQH[WH[DPSOHLVPRUHLQWHUHVWLQJ
Example 2

Lesson 3: Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives

x2  y2
Show that the limit lim 2
does not exist.
 x , y  o 0,0  x  y 2
Solution
:HDSSURDFKWKHSRLQWDORQJWZRGLIIHUHQWSDWKV
Along the path y = 0,

x 2  02

 x ,0  o 0,0  x 2  0 2
lim

1. And along the path y = x,

Because these values do not agree, the limit does not exist.
Example 3
Calculate the partial derivatives of the function f x, y x3 + sin y.

12

x2  x2

 x , x  o 0,0  x 2  x 2
lim

0.

Solution
We calculate the partial derivative with respect to x by holding the variable y constant and differentiating with
wf
respect to x:
3x 2.
wx
Similarly, the partial derivative with respect to y is calculated by holding the variable x constant:

wf
wy

cos y .

Study Tips
x

Open disks are circles without boundaries. Closed disks contain the boundary.

x

In elementary calculus, you can approach the point c in only two directionsfrom the left and from
WKHULJKW7KHNH\GLIIHUHQFHLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVLVWKDW\RXFDQDSSURDFKWKHSRLQWx0, y0IURP
any direction and along any path.

x

<RXFDQGHQHOLPLWVDQGFRQWLQXLW\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHHRUPRUHYDULDEOHVLQDVLPLODUPDQQHU

x

7KHGHQLWLRQRIFRQWLQXLW\LVVLPLODUWRWKDWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV7KHIXQFWLRQLVFRQWLQXRXV
DWDSRLQWLILWLVGHQHGDWWKHSRLQWLWVOLPLWH[LVWVDWWKHSRLQWDQGWKHOLPLWHTXDOVWKHYDOXHRI
the function.

x

Partial derivatives are rates of change with respect to one of the independent variables.

Pitfalls
x

,Q([DPSOH\RXFDQQRWMXVWSOXJLQWKHYDOXH$OZD\VEHRQWKHORRNRXWIRUGLYLVLRQE\]HUR
In fact, there is a nonremovable discontinuity at this point.

x

There are lots of notations for partial derivatives. For instance, if z = f x, yWKHQWKHSDUWLDO
derivative with respect to x might be written as
f x  x, y 

wf
wx

w f  x, y 
wx

wz
wx

z x.

Problems
1. Find the limit
2. Find the limit
3. Find the limit

 x , y  o 2, 1

lim

2x

lim

e xy .

lim

xy  1
.
1  xy

 x , y  o1, 2 

 x , y  o1, 1

 y .

4. Discuss the continuity of the function f  x, y 

y
.
x  y2
2

13

5. Discuss the continuity of the function f  x, y 

6. Show that the limit
7. Show that the limit

1
.
x2  y2  4

lim

xy
does not exist.
x  y2

lim

 xy 2
does not exist.
x2  y 4

 x , y  o 0, 0 

 x , y  o 0, 0 

wf
wf
and
for f x, y xy + 3.
wy
wx

9. Calculate the partial derivatives

wf
wf
and
for f x, y  x y .
wy
wx

10. Calculate the partial derivatives

wf
wf
and
for f x, y FRVxy.
wy
wx

Lesson 3: Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives

8. Calculate the partial derivatives

14

Partial DerivativesOne Variable at a Time

Lesson 4

Topics
x

Partial derivatives of functions of two variables.

x

The geometric interpretation of partial derivatives.

x

Partial derivatives of functions of three or more variables.

x

Higher-order partial derivatives.

x

Equality of mixed partial derivatives.

x

Partial differential equations and Laplaces equation.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

x

x

'HQLWLRQRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
wf
wx

f x  x, y 

'x o 0

lim

f  x  'x , y   f  x , y  .
'x

wf
wy

f y  x, y 

lim

f  x , y  'y   f  x , y  .
'y

'y o 0

Higher-order partial derivatives:

w wf
wx wx

w2f
wx 2

w wf
wy wx

w2f
wywx

f xx ;

f xy ;

w wf
wy wy

w2f
wy 2

w wf
wx wy

w2f
wxwy

f yy .

f yx .

2
2
Laplaces partial differential equation: w z2  w z2
wx
wy
be harmonic.

0$IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLVHVWKLVHTXDWLRQLVVDLGWR

15

Summary
In this lesson, we continue our study of partial derivatives. After reviewing how to calculate partial
GHULYDWLYHVZHUHFDOOWKHLUJHRPHWULFVLJQLFDQFHDVUDWHVRIFKDQJH:HWKHQWXUQWRKLJKHURUGHUSDUWLDO
derivatives and observe a surprising property of so-called mixed partial derivatives. Finally, we generalize
differential equations to partial differential equations and look at Laplaces equation as an example.
Example 1
)LQGWKHUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ z

f  x, y 

x 3  y 4  sin xy.

Solution
wz
The partial derivative with respect to x is
w
x
wz wf
y is
4 y 3  cos  xy  x.
wy wy

wf
wx

3 x 2  cos  xy  y , and the partial derivative with respect to

Example 2
Find the slopes in the x-direction and in the y-direction of the surface given by the function
f x, y x2y2DWWKHSRLQW
Solution
The partial derivative with respect to x is
fx x, y xDQGfx  

Lesson 4: Partial DerivativesOne Variable at a Time

2
3


1

The partial derivative with respect to y is

f y x, y yDQG f y  

(1, 2, 1)
2

Example 3
wf
for the function f x, y, z xy + yz2 + xz.
wx

Solution
Calculating partial derivatives for functions of three or more variables is no different. We consider the
wf
variables y and z as constants and differentiate with respect to x :
y  z.
wx
16

Notice that the slopes are zero at the maximum

point on the surface. Later, we will expand on the
LGHDRIXVLQJSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVWRQGPD[LPXP
DQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVRIIXQFWLRQV6HHFigure 4.1

Find

Figure 4.1

Example 4
Calculate the four second-order partial derivatives for the function f x, y VLQx + ey + xy.
Solution
:HEHJLQE\FDOFXODWLQJWKHWZRUVWRUGHUSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ

wf
wx

cos x  y and

wf
wy

e y  x.

7KHIRXUVHFRQGRUGHUSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUHREWDLQHGE\GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJWKHUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
f xx

w wf
wx wx

w  cos x  y 
wx

f yy

w wf
wy wy

w ey  x


wy

f yx

w wf
wx wy

w e y  x 1.


wx

f xy

w wf
wy wx

w  cos x  y  1.
wy

 sin x.

ey.

Notice that the two mixed partial derivatives are equal. Under suitable hypotheses, this is always true for
mixed partial derivatives.
Example 5
Show that z

f  x, y 

e x sin y is a solution to Laplaces equation.

Solution
We have wz
wx

2
e x sin y , w z2
wx

2
2
Therefore, w z2  w z2
wx
wy

e x sin y , wz
wy

e x sin y    e x sin y 

2
e x cos y , and w z2
wy

 e x sin y .

0.

Study Tips
x

To calculate a partial derivative, hold one variable constant and differentiate with respect to the
other variable.

x

The partial derivative with respect to x is the slope of the graph in the x-direction. Similarly, the
partial derivative with respect to y is the slope in the y-direction.

x

Under suitable hypotheses, the mixed partial derivatives are equal: fxy = f yx.

17

Pitfalls
x

The notation for partial derivatives can be confusing. Notice that for mixed second-order partials, you
do the derivative closest to f UVW
w wf
wx wy

x

w2 f
wxwy

f 
y

f yx .

Although the mixed partial derivatives are equal for most common functions, there exist examples for
which this is not true. For instance, they are not equal for the function

f  x, y 

xy  x 2  y 2 

,  x , y  z  0, 0 
.
x2  y2

 x, y   0, 0 
0,

Problems
1. )LQGERWKUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVfx and f y for f x, y VLQ5x cos5y.
y

2. )LQGERWKUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVfx and f y for f x, y  ye .

x

3. Find the slope of the surface g x, y x2y2 in the x- and yGLUHFWLRQVDWWKHSRLQW

4. )LQGWKHUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVf[, f \, and fz for f x, y, z x3yz2DWWKHSRLQWx, y, z 

Lesson 4: Partial DerivativesOne Variable at a Time

5. Find the four second partial derivatives for the function f x, y x2xy + 3y2.
6. Find the four second partial derivatives for the function f x, y ex tan y.
7. For the function f x, y x2xy + y2x + yQGDOOYDOXHVRIx and y such that fx x, y DQG
f y x, y 

8. For the function fx x, y  1  1  xy , QGDOOYDOXHVRIx and y such that fx x, y DQGf y x, y 

x

9. Show that the function z = arctan

2
2
y
VDWLVHV/DSODFHVHTXDWLRQ w z2  w z2
x
wx
wy

2
10. Show that the function z VLQ xctVDWLVHVWKHZDYHHTXDWLRQ w 2z

wt

18

0.

2
c 2 w z2 .
wx

Total Differentials and Chain Rules

Lesson 5

Topics
x

The total differential of a function of two variables.

x

Differentiability for functions of two variables.

x

The total differential and error analysis.

x

Chain rules.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let z = f x, ydx x, and dy y. The total differential of z is the expression
dz wz dx  wz dy = fxx, ydx + f yx, ydy.
wx
wy

x

A function z = f x, yLVdifferentiableDWWKHSRLQWx0, y0LIz can be written in the form

z = fxx0, y0x + f yx0, y0y + 1x + 2y, where 1 and 2WHQGWR]HURDV xy

x

Let w be a function of x and y, and assume that x and y are both functions of t. Then, w is a function of
t, and the chain rule says that
dw
dt

ww dx  ww dy .
wx dt wy dt

Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV:HUVWJHQHUDOL]H
GLIIHUHQWLDOVIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVWRGHQHWKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDORIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHV:HWKHQ
GHQHGLIIHUHQWLDELOLW\RIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVDQGQRWHWKDWWKHGHQLWLRQORRNVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH
FRUUHVSRQGLQJGHQLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV:HDSSO\WKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOWRHUURUDQDO\VLV)LQDOO\ZH
present one of the many chain rules in multivariable calculus.
Example 1
Find the total differential of the function z = 2x sin yx2y2.
Solution
We have dz

wz dx  wz dy  VLQyxy2dxx cos yx2ydy.

wx
wy
19

Example 2

z
2

Use the total differential to approximate the change in the function

z = f x, y  4  x 2  y 2 DVx, yFKDQJHVIURPWR
6HHFigure 5.1

(1.01, 0.97,

2.0
039 )

(1, 1,

2)


Solution

(1.01, 0.97 ) (1, 1)

:HKDYHx, y dx x = 0.01, and dy y 

The partial derivatives are wz
wx
So, 'z | dz

wz 'x  wz 'y
wx
wy

1 4  x 2  y 2  1 2  2 x 


2

Figure 5.1

x
and wz
wy
4  x2  y2

y
.
4  x2  y2

y
'y.
4  x2  y2

x
'x 
4  x2  y2

When x = y = 1, 'z | 1  0.01  1  0.03 | 0.0141.

2
2
This compares favorably with the exact change:
z = f f 

4  1.01   0.97   4  12  12 

Example 3
8VHWKHFKDLQUXOHWRQG dw if w = x2yy2, x = sin t, and y = et.
dt

Lesson 5: Total Differentials and Chain Rules

Solution
We have the following:
dw
dt

ww dx  ww dy = 2xyFRV tx2yet VLQ tetFRV tVLQ2 tetet.

wx dt wy dt

Study Tips
x

The total differential extends naturally to functions of three

or more variables. For example, if w = x2 + y3 + z4, then
dw = 2x dx + 3y2 dy + 4z3 dz.

3
2



1

x

20

We will see later that differentiability at a point implies that the surface
can be approximated by a tangent plane at that point. This is similar to
elementary calculus, where differentiability at a point implies that the
JUDSKFDQEHDSSUR[LPDWHGE\DWDQJHQWOLQH6HHFigure 5.2



2

x
Figure 5.2

x

There are many other chain rules in multivariable calculus, but we will not need them in this course.

x

It is possible to solve Example 3 without the chain rule. First, express w as a function of t, and
then differentiate:
w

x2 y  y2

 sin t  e   e 
2

1H[WQG dw to verify that you obtain the same answer.

dt
Pitfalls
x

7KHGHQLWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWLDELOLW\ORRNVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHGHQLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV

x

Notice in the chain rule that some of the derivatives are ordinary derivatives, and others are
partial derivatives.

Problems
1. Find the total differential if z = 2x2y3.
2. Find the total differential if z = ex sin y.
3. Find the total differential if w

x y
.
z  3y

4. 8VHWKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOWRDSSUR[LPDWHWKHTXDQWLW\22
2
2
5. Use the total differential to approximate the quantity sin 1.05    0.95   sin 12  12  .

6. The radius r and height h of a right circular cylinder are measured with possible errors of 4% and 2%,
respectively. Approximate the maximum possible percent error in measuring the volume.

7. Use the chain rule from elementary calculus to calculate the derivative of the function h  x  sin e 3 x .
8. 8VHWKHFKDLQUXOHWRQG dw if w = xy, x = et, and y = et.
dt

9. 8VHWKHFKDLQUXOHWRQG dw if w FRV xyx = t2, and y = 1.

dt

10. 8VHWKHFKDLQUXOHWRQG dw at t = 1 if w = exy, x = t2, and y = t.

dt

21

Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

Lesson 6

Topics
x

Maximum and minimum values of functions of two variables.

x

The extreme value theorem.

x

Relative extrema and critical points.

x

The second partials test for relative extrema.

x

Applications.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let z = f x, yEHFRQWLQXRXVRQWKHFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQR in the plane. The values f a, bDQG

f c, dVDWLVI\LQJf a, bf x, yf c, dDUHWKHmaximum and minimum values of f on R.

x

The extreme value theorem says that if z = f x, yLVFRQWLQXRXVRQWKHFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQR

in the plane, then there is at least one point in R at which f takes on a minimum value and at least one
point in R at which f takes on a maximum value.

x

Let fEHDIXQFWLRQGHQHGRQWKHUHJLRQRFRQWDLQLQJWKHSRLQWx0, y07KHIXQFWLRQf has a relative

Lesson 6: Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

minimumDWx0, y0LIf x, yf x0, y0IRUDOOx, yLQVRPHRSHQGLVNFRQWDLQLQJx0, y07KH

GHQLWLRQRIrelative maximum is similar.
x

Let fEHGHQHGRQDQRSHQUHJLRQRFRQWDLQLQJx0, y07KHSRLQWx0, y0LVDcritical point if either

 fx x0, y0 DQG f y x0, y0 RUfx x0, y0RU f y x0, y0GRQRWH[LVW

x

Relative extrema occur at critical points. In other words, the critical points are the candidates for
relative maxima and relative minima.

x

Second partials test/HWa, bEHDFULWLFDOSRLQWRIf.

'HQHWKHTXDQWLW\ d

1. d > 0, fxx a, b! relative minimum.

2. d > 0, fxx a, b relative maximum.

22

f xx  a , b  f yy  a , b   f xy  a , b  . Then, we have the following.

3. d < 0, saddle point.

4. d = 0: Test is inconclusive.
Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHGHYHORSWHFKQLTXHVIRUQGLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHV
We will see that the critical points of a function are the candidates for relative extrema, just as in elementary
calculus. The second partials test can be used to determine the exact nature of these critical points. Finally, we
close with an application from a previous lesson.
Example 1
z
,ISRVVLEOHQGWKHKLJKHVWDQGORZHVWSRLQWVRQWKHJUDSKRIWKH
function f x, y x + 4yx2y2.

(1, 2, 5)

Solution

wf
wf
2  2 x and
wy
wx
]HURDQGREWDLQWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWx, y 
We set the partial derivatives

4  2 y equal to


2

By completing the square, we see that this point is a maximum and that
WKHUHLVQRPLQLPXPYDOXH6HHFigure 6.1
f  x, y 

2x  4 y  x2  y2
  x 2  2 x  1   y 2  4 y  4   5
2




5   x  1   y  2  .
Figure 6.1

Example 2
Determine the relative extrema of f x, y x2 + y2 + 8xy + 20.
Solution
:HVHWWKHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVHTXDOWR]HURWRGHWHUPLQHWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWV f x
and f y 2 y  6 0 y 36RWKHRQO\FULWLFDOSRLQWLV

4x  8

0 x

2

By completing the square, f x, y x2y2+HQFHLVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXP

DQGDEVROXWHPLQLPXPDQGWKHUHLVQRUHODWLYHPD[LPXP
Example 3
8VHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWRQ([DPSOHJLYHQWKHFULWLFDOSRLQW
23

Solution
:HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVfx = 4x + 8, fxx = 4, f y = 2yf yy = 2, and fxy = 0. So, we have
d

f xx  a , b  f yy  a , b   f xy  a , b 

4(2)  0 8 ! 0,

and fxx > 0. Thus, by the second partials test, the point is a relative minimum.
Study Tips
x

7KHGHQLWLRQRIFULWLFDOSRLQWLVVLPLODUWRWKHGHQLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVH[FHSWWKDWQRZZH
use partial derivatives.

x

The critical points are the candidates for relative extrema. It is possible that none of the critical points
are relative extrema. For instance, the critical point of the function f x, y y2x2LVZKLFKLV
neither a relative minimum nor relative maximum. Such points are called saddle points.

Lesson 6: Extrema of Functions of Two Variables

Pitfalls
x

When using the extreme value theorem, make sure that the region R is closed and bounded.
Otherwise, there might not be a maximum or minimum value. For instance, there was no minimum
value in Example 1.

x

5HPHPEHUWKDWERWKSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVPXVWEHHTXDOWR]HURRURQHRIWKHPXQGHQHGIRUWKHUHWR
be a critical point.

x

Keep in mind that the relative extrema are not necessarily absolute extrema.

x

7KHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWFDQIDLOLQWZRZD\V7KHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVPLJKWQRWH[LVWRUWKH
discriminant d = 0.

Problems
1. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f  x, y 

x 2  y 2  1.

2. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f  x, y   x 2  y 2  10 x  12 y  64.
3. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f  x, y 

 y2  .
3

4. Complete the square to determine the relative minimum of the function f x, y x2 + y2 + 8xy + 20.

24

5. Determine the relative extrema of f x, y xy.

6. Use the second partials test to determine the relative extrema of the function
f x, y x2 + 2y2xy + 16.

7. Use the second partials test to determine the relative extrema of the function
f x, y x2 + 4xyy2 + 16x + 10.

8. Examine the function f  x, y  2 xy  1  x 4  y 4   1 for relative extrema.

2

9. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f  x, y  x  y and determine the relative extrema.

2

10. An open box is to be constructed with 2 square meters of material. Determine the dimensions
of the box so that the volume is a maximum.

11. Verify that that the partial derivative with respect to x for V
Vx

y2
C  3 x 2  6 xy  .
2 
4 x  y

12. Verify that Vx

x = y = 12.

y2
C  3 x 2  6 xy 
2 
4 x  y

0 and V y

C  3 xy
xy
is
4( x  y )

x2
C  3 y 2  6 xy 
2 
4 x  y

0 gives the solution

25

Applications to Optimization Problems

Lesson 7

Topics
x

Applications of functions of two variables.

x

Maximum and minimum values on closed and bounded regions.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let z = f x, yEHFRQWLQXRXVRQWKHFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQR in the plane. The values f a, bDQG

f c, dVDWLVI\LQJf a, bf x, yf c, dDUHWKHmaximum and minimum values of f on R.

x

The extreme value theorem says that if z = f x, yLVFRQWLQXRXVRQWKHFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQR

in the plane, then there is at least one point in R at which f takes on a minimum value and at least one
point in R at which f takes on a maximum value.

Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIRSWLPL]DWLRQDSSOLFDWLRQVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHV:HUVWORRN
DWPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVIRUIXQFWLRQVGHQHGRQFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQV:HWKHQORRNDWWZR
UHDOOLIHDSSOLFDWLRQV7KHUVWRQHLQYROYHVPD[LPL]LQJWKHYROXPHRIDSDFNDJHDQGWKHVHFRQGLQYROYHVWKH
construction of a water line through three different regions.

Lesson 7: Applications to Optimization Problems

Example 1
Find the absolute extrema of the function f x, y x2 + 2y2y
on the closed region bounded below by the parabola y = x2 and
above by the line y 6HHFigure 7.1




3

Solution
:HUVWQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVLQWKHUHJLRQE\VHWWLQJWKHSDUWLDO
derivatives equal to zero: fx = 6x = 0, f y = 4y 
+HQFHWKHRQO\FULWLFDOSRLQWLQWKHUHJLRQLVDW
and f  

26

Figure 7.1

Next, we analyze the boundary of the region.

Along the line segment y xZHKDYHf x x2 x2 + 16 = g x
Because gx x, we evaluate g  g  DQGg  
Along the parabola y = x2xf x, x2 h x x2 + 2  x 2  x2 = 2x4x2x
We have Kx x3x = 2xx2DQGKHQFHKx  x = 0, r 1 .
2
2

We evaluate these points to obtain h   h r 1

2

 1 , and h  
8

)LQDOO\ZHVHHWKDWWKHDEVROXWHPD[LPXPLVDWDQGWKHDEVROXWHPLQLPXPLVDW
Example 2
A water line is to be built from point P to point S and must pass
through regions where construction costs differ. The cost is
3 million dollars per kilometer from P to Q, 2 million dollars per
kilometer from Q to R, and 1 million dollars from R to S. Find
x and yVRWKDWWKHWRWDOFRVWLVDPLQLPXP6HHFigure 7.2

y

Figure 7.2

Solution
)URPWKHJXUHZHVHHWKDWWKHWRWDOFRVWLQPLOOLRQVRIGROODUVLVC  x , y 

3 x2  4  2

 y  x

 1  (10  y ).

The partial derivatives are

Cx

Cy

3x 
x2  4

2( y  x )

 y  x 2  1

2( y  x )

 y  x 2  1

 1.

6HWWLQJWKHVHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVHTXDOWR]HUR\LHOGVVHH3UREOHPIRUDGHULYDWLRQ

2 1.414,
|
y
2

3
2 1.284.

|
3
2

3
These values yield the minimum cost C 2 ,
 2
3
2
2

| 17.39.

You can verify that this is a minimum by the second partials test or by analyzing the values
on the boundary. It is instructive to compare this minimum with other values for x and y:
C  C  104 DQGC  5 
27

Study Tips
x

$VLOOXVWUDWHGLQ([DPSOHWKHWHFKQLTXHIRUQGLQJDEVROXWHH[WUHPDIRUIXQFWLRQVGHQHGRQFORVHG
DQGERXQGHGUHJLRQVUHTXLUHVWZRVWHSV<RXPXVWQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVLQVLGHWKHUHJLRQDQGDOVR
analyze the function values on the boundary of the region.

x

When solving an applied optimization problem, make sure that your answer is indeed a maximum
RUPLQLPXP7KHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWFDQRIWHQEHXVHG

Pitfalls
x

:KHQQGLQJWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVIRUDIXQFWLRQGHQHGRQDFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQPDNHVXUHWKDW
the points are indeed in the region.

x

Calculating partial derivatives is a calculus skill. But setting those derivatives equal to zero and
VROYLQJWKHUHVXOWLQJHTXDWLRQVLVDOJHEUD7KHDOJHEUDSRUWLRQLVRIWHQWKHPRVWGLIFXOW

Problems
1. Find the absolute extrema of the function f x, y x2xy + 5 on the region R ^x, yx
y`

2. Find the absolute extrema of the function f x, y xy on the triangular region in the xy-plane
ZLWKYHUWLFHVDQG

3. )LQGWKHPLQLPXPGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWWRWKHSODQHxy + z = 3. Hint: To simplify the

Lesson 7: Applications to Optimization Problems

computations, minimize the square of the distance.

4. Find three positive integers such that their product is 27 and their sum is a minimum.
5. Show that a rectangular box of given volume and minimum surface area is a cube.
6. If Vx = 108yxyy2 and Vy = 108xx2xyx, yVKRZWKDWVx = Vy = 0 implies that x = y = 18.
7. If C x

3x

x2  4

2 y  x

 y  x

Cx = Cy = 0 implies that x

28

1

and C y

2 and
y
2

2 y  x

 y  x

3
 2.
3
2

1

 1, xxyVKRZWKDW

Linear Models and Least Squares Regression

Lesson 8

Topics
x

The least squares regression line.

x

Application to systolic blood pressure.

x

Nearly vertical data.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

*LYHQDVHWRIGDWDx1, y1x2, y2xn, ynWKHleast squares regression line f x ax + b is

given by
n

i 1

i 1

i 1

n xi yi  xi yi
a

n
n
n xi 2  xi
i 1
i 1

n
n
1 y  a x .
i
i

n i 1
i 1

,b

Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHDSSO\RXURSWLPL]DWLRQWHFKQLTXHWRFXUYHWWLQJ*LYHQDVHWRIGDWDSRLQWVLQWKHSODQH
ZHVKRZKRZWRQGWKHOLQHWKDWEHVWWVWKHGDWD7KLVOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHLVXVHGH[WHQVLYHO\LQ
real-life models of data sets that are nearly linear. After we show an application to systolic blood pressure, we
ORRNEULH\DWWKHVXUSULVLQJVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKWKHGDWDLVQHDUO\YHUWLFDO
Example 1
)LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHIRXUSRLQWVLQWKHSODQH
Solution
For this example, n = 4, and we have the following sums.
4

3  1  0  2

i 1

i 1

0  1  2  3 6.

i 1

x y

2, yi
4

0 1 0  6

5,  xi 

9  1  0  4 14.

i 1

29

So, the slope is

n

n xi yi  xi yi
i 1

i 1

4(5)  ( 2)(6)
4(14)  ( 2) 2

i 1

n xi 2  xi
i 1
i 1

20  12
56  4

32
52

8,
13

and the y-intercept is

b

n
n
1 y a x
i
i

n i 1
i 1

1 6  8  2 
4
13

The least squares regression line is f  x 

ax  b

6HHFigure 8.1

1 6(13)  16

4
13

1 94
4 13

47 .
26

8 x  47 .
13
26


3



Example 2

y = f ( x)



The ages xLQ\HDUVDQGV\VWROLFEORRGSUHVVXUHVy of a man

are shown in the graph. Find the least squares regression line
for this data. Then, use the line to approximate the change in
systolic blood pressure for each 1-year increase in age.
6HHFigure 8.2

= 8 x + 47
13
26




Figure 8.1

Solution
(70, 199)
(64, 183)

Using a graphing utility, you obtain the line y = 1.6x + 84.

From the slope, you see that the systolic blood pressure
changes by approximately 1.6 for each 1-year increase in age.
Study Tips
x

The formula for the least squares regression line is

derived by minimizing the sum of the squares of the
differences between the data and the line:
n

f  x   y
i

i 1

30

> ax

(45, 165)
(39, 150)

Blood Pressure

Lesson 8: Linear Models and Least Squares Regression

200

(49, 159)
(25, 122)
(16, 109)
100

y = 1.6x + 84

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Figure 8.2

 b  yi @ .

i 1

x

Most graphing utilities have built-in capabilities for calculating the least squares regression line. For
Example 1, your calculator will give the very accurate approximation y = 0.61538x + 1.80769.

x

<RXFDQDOVRWPDQ\RWKHUFXUYHVWRVHWVRIGDWDLQFOXGLQJSRO\QRPLDOH[SRQHQWLDOORJDULWKPLFDQG
trigonometric functions.

Pitfalls
x

The least squares regression line is not a good approximation for nearly vertical data. For example, for
WKHWKUHHSRLQWVDQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHLVKRUL]RQWDOy = 1.5.

x

If your data is not nearly linear, you might want to use a different least squares model. For instance, if
the data seems quadratic, you might use a second-degree polynomial to approximate the data.

Problems
1. )LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVDQG
2. )LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVDQG
3. 8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWRQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWV
DQG

4. 8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWRQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWV
DQG

5. An agronomist used four test plots to determine the relationship between the wheat yield yLQEXVKHOVSHU
DFUHDQGWKHDPRXQWRIIHUWLOL]HUxLQKXQGUHGVRISRXQGVSHUDFUH7KHUHVXOWVDUHDVIROORZV
x, y
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWRQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHGDWDDQGXVHWKHPRGHO
to estimate the yield for a fertilizer application of 160 pounds per acre.

6. A store manager wants to know the demand y for an energy bar as a function of price x. The daily sales for
three different prices of the energy bar are as follows.
x, y
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWRQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHGDWDDQGXVHWKHPRGHO
WRHVWLPDWHWKHGHPDQGZKHQWKHSULFHLV

31

Vectors and the Dot Product in Space

Lesson 9

Topics
x

Vectors in space.

x

The dot product of two vectors.

x

The angle between two nonzero vectors.

x

Lines in space.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Lesson 9: Vectors and the Dot Product in Space

vector. The zero vector is 0

k 0, 0, 1 .

v12  v2 2  v3 2 .

x

The length or magnitude of the vector v is v

x

Two vectors are equal if they have the same componentsthat is, if they have the same length
and direction.

x

Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if u = cv for some nonzero scalar c.

x

The dot product of u

x

Two vectors are orthogonalSHUSHQGLFXODULIWKHLUGRWSURGXFWLV]HUR

x

If is the angle between the two nonzero vectors u and v, then cos T

x

Lines in space: Consider the line L through the point Px1, y1, z1DQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHdirection
JJJG
vector v a , b, c . The line L consists of all points Qx, y, zIRUZKLFK PQ is parallel to v,
JJJG
PQ x  x1 , y  y1 , z  z1 t a , b, c tv . The parametric equations for the line are
x = x1 + at
y = y1 + bt
z = z1 + ct.

32

v1 , v2 , v3 , where v1, v2, and v3 are the components of the

0, 0, 0 , and the standard unit vectors are i 1, 0, 0 , j 0, 1, 0 ,

Vectors in space are denoted by v

u1 , u 2 , u3 and v

v1 , v2 , v3 is u < v u1 v1  u 2 v2  u3 v3 .

u< v .
u v

Summary
We extend our knowledge of vectors in the plane to vectors in space. The formulas for length, dot product, and
DQJOHDUHHDV\JHQHUDOL]DWLRQVRIWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJGHQLWLRQVIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV:HWKHQVKRZKRZ
WRGHQHOLQHVLQVSDFHXVLQJYHFWRUV:HGHYHORSWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUOLQHVLQVSDFHDQGLOOXVWUDWHWKLV
new idea with examples.
Example 1
Determine if the points PQDQGRDUHFROOLQHDU
Solution
JJJG
JJJG
There are at least two ways to solve this problem. You could form the vectors PQ and PR and see if they are
parallel. Or, you could see if the sum of the distances between two points equals the distance between the third
pair. To this end, notice that
2

d ( P, Q )

 2  1  1  2    0  3

d  P, R 

 4  1   7  2    6  3

d  Q, R 

 4  2    7  1   6  0 

So, we have PQ  QR
are collinear.

19

19  76

19  2 19

171
76.

3 19

171

PR, which implies that the points

Example 2
Consider the three vectors u 3,  1, 2 , v 4, 0, 2 , and w 1,  1,  2 . We have
uv  DQGuw  7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWWKHYHFWRUV
u and w are orthogonal.
Example 3
Find the angle between the vectors u

3, 1, 2 and v

4, 0, 2 .

Solution
The cosine of the angle is cos = u < v
u v

8
14 20

4 .
70

4
Using a graphing utility and the inverse cosine button, you obtain = arccos
| 2.069 | 118.56q.
70

33

Example 4
)LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGLVSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v 2, 4,  4 .
Solution
Using the formula for parametric equations, we have x = x1 + at = 1 + 2t, y = y1 + bt t, and
z = z1 + ct t.
Study Tips
x

Lines in space are described using a point and a direction vector. This is quite different from lines in
the plane, for which we use slope and y-intercept.

x

The parametric equations in Example 4 are x = 1 + 2t, y t, and z t. Notice that for
t WKHHTXDWLRQV\LHOGWKHRULJLQDOSRLQW$VtYDULHVRQWKHLQWHUYDOWKHSRLQW
x, y, zPRYHVXSDQGGRZQWKHOLQH

Pitfall
x

7KHGRWSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUVLVDVFDODUUHDOQXPEHU,QWKHQH[WOHVVRQZHZLOOGHQHWKHFURVV
product of two vectors, which is a vector.

Problems
1. )LQGWKHFRPSRQHQWIRUPDQGPDJQLWXGHRIWKHYHFWRUKDYLQJLQLWLDOSRLQWDQGWHUPLQDOSRLQW
Lesson 9: Vectors and the Dot Product in Space



2. Find the length of the vector v

1, 3, 4 .

3. 'HWHUPLQHLIWKHSRLQWVDQGDUHFROOLQHDU
4. Find the dot product of the vectors u

2,  1, 1 and v

5. Find a unit vector in the direction of the vector v

1, 0,  1 .

2, 1,  2 .

6. Find the angle between the vectors u = 3i + 2j + k and v = 2ij.

7. Find the angle between the vectors u = 3i + 4j and v = 2j + 3k.

34

8. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v

3, 1, 5 .

9. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v

0, 6, 3 .

10. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWVDQG

35

The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space

Lesson 10

Topics
x

The cross product of two vectors in space.

x

Properties of the cross product.

x

The triple scalar product.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

The FURVVSURGXFW of the vectors u

uu v

x

i
j
u1 u 2
v1 v2

Lesson 10: The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space

u1 , u 2 , u3 and v

v1i  v2 j  v3k

v1 , v2 , v3 is

 u2 v3  u3v2  i   u1v3  u3v1  j   u1v2  u2 v1  k .

The cross product X v is orthogonal to X and to v. That is,

 u u v  <u
x

k
u3
v3

u1i  u 2 j  u3k

0 and  u u v < v

0.

Additional properties of the cross product:

X X = 0, X v v XDQGXv + w X vX w

x

The area of the parallelogram having the vectorsX and v as adjacent sides is u u v
u1
v1
w1

u2
v2
w2

u v sin .

u3
v3 .
w3

x

The WULSOHVFDODUSURGXFW is the scalar u < v u w 

x

The volume of the parallelepiped with X, v, and w as adjacent sides is V

u < v u w  .

6XPPDU\
The cross product of two vectors in space is a vector, not a scalar. We calculate cross products using a
determinant formula. One of the most important properties states that the cross product of two nonzero vectors

36

LVDYHFWRURUWKRJRQDOSHUSHQGLFXODUWRERWKRIWKHRULJLQDOYHFWRUV,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHFURVVSURGXFWLV
RUWKRJRQDOWRWKHSODQHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHRULJLQDOYHFWRUV:HSUHVHQWVRPHRIWKHEDVLFSURSHUWLHVRIWKHFURVV
SURGXFWDQGFORVHZLWKWKHWULSOHVFDODUSURGXFWZKLFKFRPELQHVWKHGRWSURGXFWDQGFURVVSURGXFW
([DPSOH
Calculate the cross product of the vectors X = ij + k and v = 3i + jk.
6ROXWLRQ
:HHYDOXDWHWKHFURVVSURGXFWE\H[SDQGLQJWKHGHWHUPLQDQWDORQJWKHUVWURZ

uu v

i j k
1 2 1
3 1 2

2 1
1 1
1 2
i
j
k
1 2
3 2
3 1

ijk = 3i + 5j + 7k.
z

Notice that the cross product is orthogonal to each of the original vectors.

([DPSOH

Find the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides X = i + j + k and

v = j + k6HH)LJXUH
y

Figure 10.1

6ROXWLRQ
The cross product of the two vectors is X v j + k, and the area is
therefore the length of this vector, u u v
2.
([DPSOH
Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides
X = i + j, v = j + k, and w = i + k6HH)LJXUH
6ROXWLRQ
The triple scalar product is u < v u w 
WKDWWKHYROXPHLV

1 1 0
0 1 1
1 0 1

w
2, which implies

v
Figure 10.2

37

6WXG\7LSV
x

Keep in mind that the cross product of two vectors is orthogonal to the original vectors. You can use
WKLVIDFWWRFKHFN\RXUFDOFXODWLRQV

x

The words orthogonal and perpendicular mean the same thing. Another term that we will use is
normal in the sense that a vector is normal to a plane.

x

7KHGHQLWLRQRIWKHFURVVSURGXFWLVEDVHGRQDGHWHUPLQDQWFDOFXODWLRQ<RXPLJKWEHIDPLOLDUZLWK
GHWHUPLQDQWV
a

ad  bc.

)RUH[DPSOH

1 2
3 4

1(4)  2(3)

2.

x

,QWKHIRUPXODIRUWKHYROXPHRIDSDUDOOHOHSLSHGQRWLFHWKDWZHDUHXVLQJWKHXVXDODEVROXWHYDOXH

x

,Q([DPSOHZHREVHUYHGWKDWWKHFURVVSURGXFWZDVX v = 3i + 5j + 7k5HYHUVLQJWKHRUGHU\RX
REWDLQWKHQHJDWLYHRIWKHRULJLQDOFURVVSURGXFWY X i + 5j + 7k ijk X v

Lesson 10: The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space

3LWIDOOV
x

7KHFURVVSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUVLQVSDFHLVQRWFRPPXWDWLYH,QIDFWX v Y X

x

Dont forget the minus sign in front of the jWHUPZKHQQGLQJWKHFURVVSURGXFW

x

7KHFURVVSURGXFWLVRQO\GHQHGIRUYHFWRUVLQVSDFHWXSOHV7KDWVDLG\RXFDQQGWKHFURVV
SURGXFWRIDQG7KHDQVZHULVk.

x

7KHGRWSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUVLVDVFDODUUHDOQXPEHUZKHUHDVWKHFURVVSURGXFWLVDYHFWRU

3UREOHPV
 Find the cross products k i and i k:KDWGR\RXREVHUYH"
 Find the cross product of the vectors u

7, 3, 2 and v

 Find the cross product of the vectors u

3, 1,  2 and v

1,  1, 5 .
1,  2, 1 .

 6KRZWKDWWKHFURVVSURGXFWRIi + j + k and j + k is orthogonal to each of these vectors.

38

 Find a vector orthogonal to the vectors iDQGj + k.

 Let v

1, 0,  2 and calculate v v:KDWGR\RXREVHUYH"

 Find a unit vector orthogonal to the vectors 1, 2, 0 and 3,  4, 0 .

 Find the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides 3, 2,  1 and 1, 2, 3 .
 Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent edges 1, 3, 1 , 0, 6, 6 , and 4, 0,  4 .
 )LQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHSDUDOOHOHSLSHGZLWKYHUWLFHV


 )LQGDYHFWRURUWKRJRQDOWRWKHWULDQJOHIRUPHGE\WKHSRLQWVABDQGC

39

Lines and Planes in Space

Lesson 11

Topics
x

7KHGHQLWLRQRIDSODQHLQVSDFH

x

7KHDQJOHEHWZHHQWZRSODQHV

x

Projections of vectors onto vectors.

x

7KHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSRLQWDQGDSODQH

Lesson 11: Lines and Planes in Space

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Planes in space: Let Px, y, zEHDSRLQWRQWKHSODQHDQGOHW n

a , b, c EHDQRQ]HURYHFWRU
JJJG
orthogonal to the plane. The SODQHconsists of all points Qx, y, zIRUZKLFKWKHYHFWRU PQ is
JJJG
orthogonal to Q. That is, the dot product is zero: n < PQ a , b, c < x  x1 , y  y1 , z  z1 0.
6LPSOLI\LQJZHREWDLQWKHVWDQGDUGIRUP of the equation of the plane, axxbyy
czz 

x

The JHQHUDOIRUP of the equation of the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0.

x

The SURMHFWLRQ of the vector X onto the vector v is projv u

x

The DQJOHEHWZHHQWZRSODQHVLVWKHVDPHDVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUV

x

The GLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSODQHDQGDSRLQWQ not in the plane is

JJJG
projn PQ

JJJG
PQ <n

n
n2

u< v
2
v

v.

JJJG
PQ <n
,
n

where PLVDQ\SRLQWLQWKHSODQH
6XPPDU\
:HGHQHSODQHVLQVSDFHXVLQJDSRLQWLQWKHSODQHDQGDQRUPDOSHUSHQGLFXODUYHFWRUWRWKHSODQH7KLV
DQDO\VLVJLYHVULVHWRWKHVWDQGDUGHTXDWLRQDQGJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQRIDSODQHLQVSDFH7KHFURVVSURGXFWSOD\VD
PDMRUUROHLQWKHGLVFXVVLRQ7KHSURMHFWLRQRIRQHYHFWRURQWRDQRWKHUZDVVWXGLHGLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVDQG
ZHH[WHQGWKLVLGHDWRYHFWRUVLQVSDFH7KLVOHDGVWRDEHDXWLIXOIRUPXODIRUWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSRLQW
and a plane.


z C

([DPSOH
Find the general form of the equation of the plane containing the three
points ABC6HH)LJXUH
x

6ROXWLRQ

A

B

7RQGWKHHTXDWLRQZHQHHGDSRLQWLQWKHSODQHWKHUHDUHWKUHHWR
FKRRVHIURPDQGDQRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHSODQH7RQGWKHQRUPDOYHFWRU
ZHFRPSXWHWKHFURVVSURGXFWRIWKHYHFWRUVIRUPHGE\MRLQLQJWKHSRLQWV
JJJG
AB

0  2, 4  1, 1  1

JJJG
AC

2  2, 1  1, 4  1

Figure 11.1

2, 3, 0
4, 0, 3 .

Their cross product is

JJJG JJJG
AB u AC

i j k
2 3 0
4 0 3

9i  6 j  12k

9, 6, 12 .

Using this normal vector and the point AZHKDYHWKHVWDQGDUGIRUPRIWKHSODQH

axxbyyczz xyz 7KLVVLPSOLHVWRWKHJHQHUDOIRUP
3xyz <RXFDQFKHFNWKDWHDFKRIWKHRULJLQDOWKUHHSRLQWVVDWLVHVWKLVHTXDWLRQ
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHWZRSODQHVxy + 3z DQGx + 3yz = 0.
6ROXWLRQ
7KHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHSODQHVLVWKHVDPHDVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUV n1
and n 2
2, 3,  1 .
7KHFRVLQHRIWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHVHYHFWRUVLV cos T
which implies that 

n1 < n 2
n1 n 2

1, 2, 3 < 2, 3,  1
14 14

1, 2, 3

263
14

5,
14

([DPSOH
Find the projection of the vector u

5, 10 onto the vector v

4, 3 .



6ROXWLRQ
The formula for projection gives

projv u

u < v2
v

5, 10 < 4, 3

4, 3

4, 3

50 4, 3
25

2 4, 3

6HH)LJXUH

8, 6 .

10

5, 10

([DPSOH

proj

)LQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWQDQGWKHSODQH
x + 3y + z 

8, 6

4, 3

6ROXWLRQ
2

The normal vector to the plane is n

The distance is D

6, 0, 0 < 2, 3, 1
4  9 1

10
Figure 11.2

JJJG
6HWWLQJy = z ZHREWDLQWKHSRLQWPLQWKHSODQH+HQFH PQ
JJJG
PQ <n

2, 3, 1 .

12
14

12
14

0  6, 0  0, 0  0

6, 0, 0 .

Lesson 11: Lines and Planes in Space

6WXG\7LSV



x

For the plane ax + by + cz + d WKHFRHIFLHQWVDUHWKHFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHQRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKH

plane, n a , b, c .

x

7KHZRUGVRUWKRJRQDOSHUSHQGLFXODUDQGQRUPDOSUHWW\PXFKPHDQWKHVDPHWKLQJ

x

,Q([DPSOHZHFRXOGKDYHXVHGWKHQRUPDOYHFWRU 3, 2, 4 , which is a scalar multiple of 9, 6, 12 .

x

Two distinct planes are parallel if their normal vectors are scalar multiples of each other. For instance,
the planes 3xy + z = 6 and 6xyz DUHSDUDOOHOEHFDXVHWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUVn1 3,  2, 1
and n 2 6,  4, 2 VDWLVI\Q Q.

x

7ZRSODQHVDUHSHUSHQGLFXODURUWKRJRQDOLIWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUVDUHSHUSHQGLFXODUWKDWLVLIWKH
dot product of the normal vectors is zero.

x

,QWKHIRUPXODIRUWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSRLQWQ and a plane, the choice of the point P in the plane is

DUELWUDU\)RULQVWDQFH\RXZRXOGKDYHREWDLQHGWKHVDPHDQVZHULQ([DPSOHLI\RXKDGFKRVHQWKH
point P

3LWIDOO
x

7KUHHSRLQWVLQVSDFHGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\GHWHUPLQHDSODQH,IWKHSRLQWVDUHFROOLQHDUWKHQWKHUHLVDQ
LQQLWHQXPEHURISODQHVFRQWDLQLQJWKHWKUHHSRLQWV

3UREOHPV
 )LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHYHFWRUQ = j.
 )LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHOLQH
x t, y t, z t.

 )LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHWKUHHSRLQWVDQG
 )LQGWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHWZRSODQHVxyz = 7 and xyz = 0.
 Determine whether the planes 5xy + z DQGxy + 7z DUHSDUDOOHORUWKRJRQDORUQHLWKHU
 Determine whether the planes 3x + yz DQGxyz DUHSDUDOOHORUWKRJRQDORUQHLWKHU
 )LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGLVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKH
SODQHJLYHQE\xyz = 6.

 )LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWDQGLVSDUDOOHOWRWKHxz
plane and the yzSODQH

 )LQGWKHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWWRWKHSODQHx + yz = 9.
 )LQGWKHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWWRWKHSODQHxy + 5z = 6.



Curved Surfaces in Space

Lesson 12

Topics
x

6SKHUHVDQGSODQHV

x

&\OLQGULFDOVXUIDFHV

x

Quadric surfaces.

x

6XUIDFHVRIUHYROXWLRQ

x

7KH0|ELXVVWULS

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

6SKHUHRIFHQWHUx0, y0, z0DQGUDGLXVrxx0yy0zz0 = r.

x

3ODQH in space: ax + by + cz + d = 0.

x

Let CEHDFXUYHLQDSODQHDQGOHWLEHDOLQHQRWLQDSDUDOOHOSODQH7KHVHWRIDOOOLQHVSDUDOOHO
to L and intersecting C is called a F\OLQGHU. C is theJHQHUDWLQJ FXUYH, and the parallel lines are
the UXOLQJV.

x

The general equation of a TXDGULFVXUIDFH is

Ax + By + Cz + Dxy + Exz + Fyz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0.

Lesson 12: Curved Surfaces in Space

6XPPDU\
:HKDYHDOUHDG\VHHQPDQ\JUDSKVRIVXUIDFHVLQVSDFHLQFOXGLQJSODQHVDQGVSKHUHV,QWKLVOHVVRQZHIRFXV
RQYDULRXVW\SHVRIVXUIDFHVWKDWSOD\DUROHLQRXUVWXG\RIPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXV:HUVWORRNDWF\OLQGULFDO
VXUIDFHVDJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHIDPLOLDUF\OLQGHU7KHQZHSUHVHQWWKHFODVVRIVXUIDFHVFDOOHGTXDGULF
VXUIDFHV:HKDYHDOUHDG\VHHQVRPHRIWKHVHLQFOXGLQJSDUDERORLGVDQGHOOLSVRLGV:HEULH\PHQWLRQ
VXUIDFHVRIUHYROXWLRQZKLFKZLOOVHHPIDPLOLDUIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV)LQDOO\ZHVKRZWKHIDPRXV
0|ELXVVWULSDVXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH
([DPSOH
6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHz = y.


6ROXWLRQ

7KHJUDSKLVDF\OLQGHUZKRVHJHQHUDWLQJFXUYH z = yLVDSDUDEROD
in the yzSODQH7KHUXOLQJVRIWKHF\OLQGHUDUHSDUDOOHOWRWKHxD[LV
6HH)LJXUH
([DPSOH

6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHJLYHQE\xyz 
6ROXWLRQ


4

We rewrite the equation as follows:

x
Figure 12.1

4 x  3 y  12 z
2
x2  y  z 2
3 4

12

1
4

y2 x2 z 2


4
3
1

1.

7KLVLVDK\SHUERORLGRIWZRVKHHWV7KHWUDFHVLQWKHxySODQH
z DQGLQWKHyzSODQHx DUHK\SHUERODV7KHUHDUHQR
traces in the xzSODQHy 6HH)LJXUH




4

([DPSOH
6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHJLYHQE\xy + zxyz + 3 = 0.


Figure 12.2

6ROXWLRQ
%\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUH\RXREWDLQWKHHTXDWLRQRIDQHOOLSVRLG
FHQWHUHGDWWKHSRLQW

 x  2
4

 y  1
2

 z  1
4

1.



6HH)LJXUH

2
y
4
x
Figure 12.3



([DPSOH

1 , z ! 0, DERXWWKHzD[LV\RXREWDLQWKHVXUIDFHRI
z
2
revolution x 2  y 2 1 . 6HH)LJXUH
z

,I\RXURWDWH y

6WXG\7LSV
x

&RPSXWHUVDQGJUDSKLQJFDOFXODWRUVDUHYHU\XVHIXOLQ
producing graphs of surfaces in space.

x

4XDGULFVXUIDFHVDUHWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDODQDORJVRIFRQLFVHFWLRQV

x

7KH0|ELXVVWULSLVDQH[DPSOHRIDVXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH

Figure 12.4

3LWIDOOV
x

7KHZRUGF\OLQGHUFDQEHPLVOHDGLQJ,QFDOFXOXVDF\OLQGHUGRHVQRWKDYHWRORRNOLNHWKHXVXDO
WLQFDQDVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ([DPSOH

x

7KHJUDSKRIDQHTXDWLRQGHSHQGVRQZKHWKHU\RXDUHZRUNLQJLQDSODQHRUVSDFH)RULQVWDQFHWKH
equation z = xLVDSDUDERODLQWKHxzSODQHEXWLWLVDF\OLQGHULQVSDFH

3UREOHPV
 'HVFULEHWKHVXUIDFHy = 5.
 'HVFULEHWKHVXUIDFHy + z = 9.

Lesson 12: Curved Surfaces in Space

 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFH

x2 y 2 z 2


16 25 25

1.

 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxyz 
 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxyz 
 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxy + z = 0.
 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHx + 9yzxy + 36 = 0.
 ,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHx + yzxyz 



 )LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHVXUIDFHRIUHYROXWLRQJHQHUDWHGE\UHYROYLQJWKHFXUYHz y in the yzSODQHDERXW

the yD[LV

 )LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHVXUIDFHRIUHYROXWLRQJHQHUDWHGE\UHYROYLQJWKHFXUYHz y in the yzSODQHDERXW

the zD[LV



Vector-Valued Functions in Space

Lesson 13

Topics
x

9HFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV

x

7KHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ

x

,QWHJUDOVRIYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV

x

Particle motion.

x

The unit tangent vector.

x

Arc length and the differential of arc length.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

9HFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV r  t 

x

The GHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ r c  t 

x

The derivative of the cross product: d >r u u @ r u uc  r c u u .

dt

x

Particle motion

Lesson 13: Vector-Valued Functions in Space

f t  , g t  , h t  .

lim

't o 0

r  t  't   r  t 
.
't

Ut xti + ytj + ztk.

vt Ut xti + ytj + ztk.
Dt Ut xti + ytj + ztk.

Position:
9HORFLW\
Acceleration:

v t 

6SHHG



f t  i  g t  j  h t  k

rc t 

rc t 

x

The XQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRU: T  t 

x

$UFOHQJWK: s

x

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIDUFOHQJWK: ds

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  .

rc t 

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt

r c  t  dt .

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt

r c  t  dt .

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHH[WHQGRXUNQRZOHGJHRIYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQVLQWKHSODQHWRIXQFWLRQVLQVSDFH:HUHFDOO
WKHGHQLWLRQRIWKHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQDQGGHYHORSVRPHRILWVSURSHUWLHV:HWKHQIRFXV
RQRQHRIWKHPDLQWKHPHVRIFDOFXOXVSDUWLFOHPRWLRQ:HGHQHWKHSRVLWLRQYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQ
IXQFWLRQV7KHXQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRULVLQWURGXFHGDQGZLOOSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQXSFRPLQJOHVVRQV)LQDOO\
ZHUHFDOOWKHGHQLWLRQRIDUFOHQJWKRIDFXUYH
([DPSOH
&DOFXODWHWKHUVWDQGVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQIRUWKHKHOL[Ut FRVti + sin tjtk.
6ROXWLRQ
:HGLIIHUHQWLDWHWKHFRPSRQHQWVWRREWDLQUt VLQti + cos tjtk and Ut FRVtiVLQtj.
([DPSOH
&DOFXODWHWKHGHULYDWLYHRIWKHGRWSURGXFWRIWKHYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV r  t 
u  t  t 2 i  2 tj  k .

1 i  j  ln tk and
t

6ROXWLRQ
:HFDQGRWKLVSUREOHPWZRZD\V:HFRXOGUVWWDNHWKHGRWSURGXFWDQGGLIIHUHQWLDWHWKHUHVXOW
UtXt  1 ttOQt ttOQt = 3tOQt.
t
The derivative is therefore d r  t <u  t 
dt

d 3t  ln t 3  1 .
>
@
dt
t

Or, we could use the product rule for the dot product, r  t <u  t  c
RIFRXUVHREWDLQWKHVDPHDQVZHU

r  t <uc  t   r c  t <u  t  . We will,

([DPSOH
Find the antiderivative of the function r c  t 

cos 2ti  2sin tj 

1 k.
1 t 2

6ROXWLRQ
:HLQWHJUDWHWHUPE\WHUP r  t 
vector, not a scalar.

1 sin 2ti  2 cos tj  arctan tk  C . Notice that the constant of integration is a

2



([DPSOH
$QREMHFWLVPRYLQJZLWKSRVLWLRQIXQFWLRQ r  t 
and speed.

4 cos ti  4sin tj  3tk)LQGLWVYHORFLW\DFFHOHUDWLRQ

6ROXWLRQ
:HFDOFXODWHWKHUVWDQGVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHVWRREWDLQWKHYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQ
vt Ut VLQ ti FRV tj + 3k and Dt Ut  FRV ti VLQ tj.
7KHVSHHGLVJLYHQE\
v t 

rc t 

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t 

16sin 2 t  16 cos 2 t  9

16  9

5.

6HH)LJXUH

([DPSOH

)LQGWKHDUFOHQJWKRIRQHWXUQRIWKHKHOL[
8

Ut  FRV ti VLQ tj +3tkt.

6ROXWLRQ


Lesson 13: Vector-Valued Functions in Space

7KHDUFOHQJWKLVJLYHQE\
s

2S

2S

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt
2

> 4sin t @  > 4 cos t @  >3@

dt

 
x

5 dt 10S .

y
Figure 13.1

6WXG\7LSV

50

x

<RXFDQHYDOXDWHWKHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQE\GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJWKHLQGLYLGXDO
components. That is, if Ut f ti + g tj + htk, then the derivative is Ut f ti + gtj + htk.

x

The derivative vector is tangent to the curve and points in the direction of motion.

x

7KHXQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRULQ([DPSOHLVDXQLWYHFWRUSRLQWLQJLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ
T t 

x

rc t 
rc t 

1 4sin ti  4 cos tj  3k .


5

<RXFDQLQWHJUDWHDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQE\LQWHJUDWLQJWKHLQGLYLGXDOFRPSRQHQWV)XUWKHUPRUH
\RXFDQFRPELQHWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQLQWRRQHFRQVWDQWC, which is a vector.

3LWIDOO
x

The constant of integration CIRUDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQLVDYHFWRUQRWDVFDODU

3UREOHPV
2
 Calculate the derivative of the function r  t  1 i  16tj  t k .

 Calculate the derivative of the function r  t 

t 3 , cos 3t ,sin 3t .

1 t 2 ,  t, 1 t 3 .
2
6

 Calculate r c  t <r cc  t  if r  t 

 )LQGWKHLQGHQLWHLQWHJUDO  2ti  j  k  dt .
S

 (YDOXDWHWKHGHQLWHLQWHJUDO 0 4  sec t tan t  i   tan t  j   2sin t cos t  k dt .

 )LQGWKHYHORFLW\VSHHGDQGDFFHOHUDWLRQRIDSDUWLFOHPRYLQJZLWKSRVLWLRQIXQFWLRQUt titjtk.
 Find the unit tangent vector to the curve r  t 

2 cos t , 2sin t , 4 .

 Find the unit tangent vector to the curve Ut ti + tj + tkDWWKHSRLQW
 Find the arc length of the space curve Ut titj + 3tkRYHUWKHLQWHUYDOt
 Find the arc length of the space curve r  t 

2sin t ,5t , 2 cos t RYHUWKHLQWHUYDOt.



Keplers LawsThe Calculus of Orbits

Lesson 14

Topic
x

Keplers laws.

Lesson 14: Keplers LawsThe Calculus of Orbits

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

.HSOHUVUVWODZ7KHRUELWRIHDFKSODQHWLVDQHOOLSVHZLWKWKH6XQDWRQHRIWKHWZRIRFL
6HH)LJXUH

x

Keplers second law: A line joining a planet and the

6XQVZHHSVRXWHTXDODUHDVGXULQJHTXDOLQWHUYDOVRI
WLPH6HH)LJXUH

x

.HSOHUVWKLUGODZ7KHVTXDUHRIWKHRUELWDOSHULRG
RIDSODQHWLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFXEHRIWKH
VHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHRUELW

x

Newtons second law of motion: F = mD.

x

Newtons law of gravitation: F

planet
Sun
Figure 14.1

 GMm
r.
r3

+HUHF is the gravitational force on the planet,

MLVWKHPDVVRIWKH6XQm is the mass of the planet,
G is a constant, and r r is the length of the
position vector.

Figure 14.2

6XPPDU\
.HSOHUVIDPRXVODZVRISODQHWDU\PRWLRQZHUHDQQRXQFHGE\WKH*HUPDQDVWURQRPHUDQGPDWKHPDWLFLDQ
-RKDQQHV.HSOHU+LVWKUHHODZVZHUHEDVHGRQD\HDUVWXG\RIDVWURQRPLFDOGDWDFRPSLOHGE\
WKH'DQLVKDVWURQRPHU7\FKR%UDKH,VDDF1HZWRQODWHUXVHGFDOFXOXVWRGHULYHWKHVHODZVIURPEDVLFODZVRI
SK\VLFV,QWKLVOHVVRQZHZLOOVWXG\WKHVHWKUHHODZVDQGXVHRXUFDOFXOXVVNLOOVWRSURYHWKHVHFRQGODZ



([DPSOH
6KRZWKDWDJLYHQSODQHWDOZD\VPRYHVLQDSODQH
6ROXWLRQ
5HFDOOWKDWWKHFURVVSURGXFWRIDYHFWRUZLWKLWVHOILV]HUR,QIDFWWKHFURVVSURGXFWRISDUDOOHOYHFWRUVLV]HUR
,IX = ui + uj + u3k and v = cX = cui + cuj + cu3k are parallel vectors, then
i
u1
cu1

u u cu

j
u2
cu 2

k
u3
cu3

 u2 cu3  u3 cu2  i   u1cu3  u3 cu1  j   u1cu2  u2 cu1  k

0.

From Newtons second law of motion and the law of gravitation,

F

 GMm
ra
r3

ma

 GM
r.
r3

This means that D and U are parallel, so their cross product is zero, r u r cc r u a 0.
1H[WFRQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJGHULYDWLYH d >r u r c@ r c u r c  r u r cc 0.
dt
Because the derivative is zero, U ULVDFRQVWDQWIRUH[DPSOHU U L6RWKHSODQHWPRYHVLQDSODQH
orthogonal to this constant vector L. That is, the vector U lies in a plane orthogonal to L.
([DPSOH
Prove Keplers second law.
6ROXWLRQ
%HJLQE\ZULWLQJWKHSRVLWLRQIXQFWLRQLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV r
Then, we have r
its derivative:

r u rc

dr
dt

r and r c

r cos T
 r sin T

r sin T
r cos T

r  cos T i  sin T j .

r   sin T i  cos T j dT . We calculate the cross product of U and

dt

k
0 dT
dt
0

r 2  cos 2 T  sin 2 T  dT k
dt

r 2 dT k .
dt

53

6RQRZZHKDYH r u r c

r 2 dT k and U U L, which implies that r u r c

dt

r 2 dT .
dt

&RQVLGHUWKHDUHDVZHSWRXWEHWZHHQ and  ,QSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWKHDUHDLV

1 E r 2 dT
2 D

1 t1 r 2 dT dt
dt
2 t0

1 t1 L dt
2 t0

1 L t t .
 1 0
2

6RIRUWKHWLPHLQWHUYDO>t0, t@WKHDUHDVZHSWRXWLVFRQVWDQW,QRWKHUZRUGVIRUWLPHLQWHUYDOVRIHTXDOOHQJWK
the areas swept out are the same, which proves Keplers second law.
([DPSOH
)RUWKHSODQHW0HUFXU\a DQGP .HSOHUVWKLUGODZLVYHULHGEHFDXVHa3 = 0.05800 and
P ZKLFKDUHYHU\FORVH
6WXG\7LSV
x

7KHRUELWDOSHULRGIRU(DUWKLVP \HDU

x

2
y2
7KHVHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHHOOLSVH x 2  2
a
b

x

Recall the formula for area in polar coordinates: A

1, a ! b , is a,QDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWV$8a 
1 E r 2 dT .
2 D

3UREOHPV

Lesson 14: Keplers LawsThe Calculus of Orbits

 +DOOH\V&RPHWKDVDQHOOLSWLFDORUELWZLWKWKH6XQDWRQHIRFXVDQGKDVDQHFFHQWULFLW\RIe
7KHOHQJWKaRIWKHPDMRUD[LVRIWKHRUELWLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\DVWURQRPLFDOXQLWV$8
$ QDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWLVGHQHGDVWKHPHDQGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQ(DUWKDQGWKH6XQPLOOLRQPLOHV
$SRODUHTXDWLRQIRUWKHRUELWLV
r

ed
.
1  e sin T

Find the value of d. Then, use the fact that c = eaLVWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHIRFXVDQGWKHFHQWHUWR

GHWHUPLQHKRZFORVHWKHFRPHWFRPHVWRWKH6XQ

 7KHDVWHURLG$SROORKDVDSHULRGRI(DUWKGD\VDQGLWVRUELWLVDSSUR[LPDWHGE\WKHHOOLSVH
r

 9  cosT

1 5

9  5cos T

where rLVPHDVXUHGLQDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWV7KHDUHDRIWKLVHOOLSVHLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\WRDSSUR[LPDWHWKHWLPHLWWDNHV$SROORWRPRYHIURPWKHSRVLWLRQJLYHQE\
 WR = 



Directional Derivatives and Gradients

Lesson 15

Topics
x

Directional derivatives.

x

7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRRUPRUHYDULDEOHV

x

Properties of the gradient.

x

*UDGLHQWVDQGOHYHOFXUYHV

x

*UDGLHQWVDQGOHYHOVXUIDFHV

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let X = cos i + sin jEHDXQLWYHFWRULQWKHSODQHDQGOHWfEHDGLIIHUHQWLDEOHIXQFWLRQRIx and y.

The GLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYH of f in the direction of X is
Du f  x , y 

f x  x , y  cos T  f y  x , y  sin T .

x

Let z = f x, yEHDIXQFWLRQZKRVHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVH[LVW7KHJUDGLHQW of f is the vector

grad f  x , y  f  x , y  f x  x , y  i  f y  x , y  j .

x

Theorem: Du f  x, y  f  x , y <u.

x

Theorem: Du f  x , y  f  x , y  cos I , where LVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHJUDGLHQWDQGWKHXQLW

vector X7KHGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHLVDPD[LPXPZKHQFRV DQGDPLQLPXPZKHQFRV 

x

7KHRUHP,IfLVGLIIHUHQWLDEOHDWWKHSRLQWx0, y0DQG f  x0 , y0  z 0, then f  x0 , y0  is orthogonal

WRWKHOHYHOFXUYHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWx0, y0,QDVLPLODUPDQQHUJUDGLHQWVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHH
YDULDEOHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV:HUVWJHQHUDOL]HWKH
FRQFHSWRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHWRWKHVRFDOOHGGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYH7KLVOHDGVWRWKHGHQLWLRQRIWKHJUDGLHQW
RIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRRUPRUHYDULDEOHV:HZLOOVHHWKDWWKHJUDGLHQWLVDYHFWRUWKDWSRLQWVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI

55

PD[LPXPLQFUHDVHVWHHSHVWDVFHQW)LQDOO\ZHGLVFRYHUWKDWWKHJUDGLHQWYHFWRULQWKHSODQHLVRUWKRJRQDO
WROHYHOFXUYHV$QGLQVSDFHWKHJUDGLHQWLVRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV7KLVZLOOEHDNH\UHVXOWZKHQZH
GHYHORSWDQJHQWSODQHVWRVXUIDFHVLQWKHQH[WOHVVRQ
([DPSOH
Find the directional derivative of f ( x , y )
u cos S i  sin S j.
3
3

4  x 2  1 y 2 DWWKHSRLQWLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
4

6ROXWLRQ
y

Du f  x , y 

f x  x , y  cos T  f y  x , y  sin T

 2 x  cos T   2 sin T .

We have T

S , x y VR D f 1, 2
 
u

 2  12   1

1 

3
| 1.866.
2

([DPSOH
Find the gradient of the function f x, y yOQx + xyDWWKHSRLQW
6ROXWLRQ
The partial derivatives are f x  x , y 
6RZHKDYH f  x , y 

ln x  2 xy.

f x  x , y  i  f y  x , y  j  y 2 i   ln x  2 xy  j.
x

$WWKHSRLQW f 1, 2 

Lesson 15: Directional Derivatives and Gradients

y
 y 2 and f y  x , y 
x

2  2 2 i  ln1  2(1)(2) j 6i  4 j.


([DPSOH
7KHJUDGLHQWRIWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKUHHYDULDEOHV f ( x , y , z )
f  x , y , z 

x 2  y 2  4 z is

f x ( x , y , z ) i  f y ( x , y , z ) j  f z ( x , y , z )k

$WWKHSRLQW f  2,  1, 1

4 i  2 j  4k .

Consider a level surface through this point

f   7KHJUDGLHQWYHFWRU
is orthogonal to the level surface through the point
x 2  y 2  4 z 1 z 1  x 2  y 2  1 .
4
,QWKLVFDVHWKHJUDGLHQWLVSRLQWLQJGRZQZDUGDWWKHSRLQW
RQWKHSDUDERORLG6HH)LJXUH
56

2 xi  2 yj  4k .




x4

2
4

Figure 15.1

6WXG\7LSV
x

7KHGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHLVDQXPEHU,I = 0, then the directional derivative is just the partial

derivative fx x, y6LPLODUO\LI  WKHQWKHGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHLVf y x, y

x

7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRRUPRUHYDULDEOHVLVDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ

x

*UDGLHQWVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOFXUYHVDQGJUDGLHQWVRIIXQFWLRQVRI
WKUHHYDULDEOHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV

3LWIDOOV
x

,QWKHGHQLWLRQRIGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHWKHGLUHFWLRQYHFWRUXPXVWEHDXQLWYHFWRU

x

Furthermore, the function fPXVWEHGLIIHUHQWLDEOH<RXFDQFRQVXOWDFDOFXOXVWH[WERRNIRUDPRUH

JHQHUDOGHQLWLRQRIGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHLQYROYLQJOLPLWV

3UREOHPV
 Find the directional derivative of the function f x, y xxy + 9y at the point PLQWKHGLUHFWLRQ
of v

3 i  4 j.
5
5

 Find the directional derivative of the function f x, y ex sin y at the point PLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
v i.

 Find the directional derivative of the function f x, y, z x + y + z at the point PLQWKHGLUHFWLRQ
of v = ij + k.

 Find the gradient of the function f x, y x + 5yDWWKHSRLQW

 Find the gradient of the function z OQxyDWWKHSRLQW
 Find the gradient of the function f x, y, z xyzDWWKHSRLQW
 )LQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHRIWKHIXQFWLRQf x, y xxyDWWKHSRLQW
 )LQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHRIWKHIXQFWLRQf x, y, z xyzDWWKHSRLQW
 Find a normal vector to the level curve f x, y xy = 6 at the point P
 7KHWHPSHUDWXUHDWWKHSRLQWx, yRQDPHWDOSODWHLV T
LQKHDWIURPWKHSRLQW

x . Find the direction of greatest increase

x2  y 2

57

Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface

Lesson 16

Topics
x

Normal vectors to surfaces.

x

Tangent planes to surfaces.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

&RQVLGHUDVXUIDFHJLYHQE\F x, y, z 7KLVLVDOHYHOVXUIDFHVRWKHJUDGLHQWYHFWRU n

a , b, c
LVQRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFHDWDQ\SRLQWx0, y0, z0RQWKHVXUIDFH7KLVYHFWRUWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHSRLQW
determines the WDQJHQWSODQH to the surface. The equation of the tangent plane is
axx0byy0czz0 

x

7KHHTXDWLRQRIWKHWDQJHQWSODQHFDQEHZULWWHQDV
Fx  x0 , y0 , z 0  x  x0   Fy  x0 , y0 , z 0  y  y0   Fz  x0 , y0 , z 0  z  z 0 

0.

Lesson 16: Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHVKRZKRZWRQGWKHHTXDWLRQRIDWDQJHQWSODQHWRDVXUIDFH7KHVHFUHWLVWRXVHWKHIDFW
IURPWKHSUHYLRXVOHVVRQWKDWJUDGLHQWVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV:HDOVRVKRZWKDWDSSUR[LPDWLRQVE\
WKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDODUHHTXLYDOHQWWRXVLQJWKHWDQJHQWSODQHWRDSSUR[LPDWHWKHVXUIDFH
([DPSOH

z
2

The level surface F x, y, z IRUWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKUHH

YDULDEOHVF x, y, z x + y + zLVDVSKHUHRIUDGLXV
F x, y, z x + y + z RUx + y + z = 9.

The gradient of the function is F  x , y , z  2 xi  2 yj  2 zk ,

ZKLFKLVQRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW
F 1, 2, 2  2i  4 j  4k . 6HH)LJXUH
([DPSOH
Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface z = x + y at
WKHSRLQW

58

x


Figure 16.1

6ROXWLRQ
'HQHWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKUHHYDULDEOHVF x, y, z f x, yz = x + yz and consider the level surface
F x, y, z x + yz = 0.
The gradient is F  x , y , z 
WKHSRLQW

2 x , 2 y ,  1 , and F 1, 1, 2 

2, 2,  1 . This vector is normal to the surface at

Using this normal vector and the given point, we have

xyz 6RWKHHTXDWLRQRIWKHWDQJHQW
SODQHLVxyz 6HH)LJXUH

([DPSOH

(1, 1, 2)

6KRZWKDWDSSUR[LPDWLRQVE\WKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDODUHHTXLYDOHQWWR
DSSUR[LPDWLQJDVXUIDFHE\LWVWDQJHQWSODQH




6ROXWLRQ

Figure 16.2

Consider the surface] I x, yDQGIRUPWKHIXQFWLRQF x, y, z f x, yz.

7KHWDQJHQWSODQHDWWKHSRLQWx0, y0, z0LVJLYHQE\
Fx  x  x0   Fy  y  y0   Fz  z  z 0 

f x  x0  y0  x  x0   f y  x0  y0  y  y0    z  z 0 
z  z0

f x  x0  y0  x  x0   f y  x0  y0  y  y0  .

&RPSDUHWKLVWRWKHHUURUIRUPXODJLYHQE\WKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDO
'z | f x  x0 , y0  'x  f y  x0 , y0  'y .
6WXG\7LSV
x

)RUIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHHYDULDEOHVWKHJUDGLHQWYHFWRU F  x0 , y0 , z 0  LVQRUPDORUWKRJRQDOWRWKH
OHYHOVXUIDFHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWx0, y0, z0

x

7KHNH\WRQGLQJWKHWDQJHQWSODQHWRDVXUIDFHz = f x, yLVWRH[SUHVVWKHHTXDWLRQDVWKHOHYHO
VXUIDFHRIDIXQFWLRQRIWKUHHYDULDEOHVF x, y, z f x, yz DVZHGLGLQ([DPSOH

x

$VPHQWLRQHGLQDSUHYLRXVOHVVRQWKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOLVDWDQJHQWSODQHDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRDVXUIDFH
7KLVLVVLPLODUWRWKHWDQJHQWOLQHDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRDFXUYHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV

59

3LWIDOO
x

A function F x, y, zKDVWREHQLFHLQRUGHUWRKDYHDWDQJHQWSODQHDWDSRLQW)RUH[DPSOHWKHUHLV
QRWDQJHQWSODQHGHQHGDWWKHYHUWH[RIDFRQH

3UREOHPV
 Find a unit normal vector to the surface 3xyz DWWKHSRLQW
 Find a unit normal vector to the surface x + y + z DWWKHSRLQW
 Find a normal vector to the surface zx sin y DWWKHSRLQW
 Find a normal vector to the surface z = x3DWWKHSRLQW
 Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface z = x + yDWWKHSRLQW
 Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface f x, y 

y
DWWKHSRLQW
x

 Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface xz = yDWWKHSRLQW

 Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface xy + z DWWKHSRLQW

Lesson 16: Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface

 )LQGWKHSRLQWVRQWKHVXUIDFHz xy + 6y at which the tangent plane is horizontal.

 )LQGWKHSRLQWVRQWKHVXUIDFH z

60

xy  1  1 at which the tangent plane is horizontal.

x y

Lagrange MultipliersConstrained Optimization

Lesson 17

Topics
x

Lagrange multipliers.

x

$SSOLFDWLRQVWRRSWLPL]DWLRQSUREOHPVZLWKFRQVWUDLQWV

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Lagranges theorem: Let f and gKDYHFRQWLQXRXVUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVVXFKWKDWfKDVDQH[WUHPXP

DWx0, y0RQWKHVPRRWKFRQVWUDLQWFXUYHg x, y k,I g  x0 , y0  z 0, WKHQWKHUHLVDUHDOQXPEHU
such that f  x0 , y0 

Og  x0 , y0  . 7KHQXPEHU is called a /DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHU.

6XPPDU\
7KHPHWKRGRI/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVLVDSRZHUIXOWHFKQLTXHIRUVROYLQJRSWLPL]DWLRQSUREOHPVWKDWKDYH
FRQVWUDLQWV)RULQVWDQFH\RXPLJKWZDQWWRQGWKHPD[LPXPYROXPHRIDER[ZLWKWKHFRQVWUDLQWWKDWWKH
FRVWRIWKHPDWHULDOIRUWKHER[LV[HG:HEHJLQWKLVOHVVRQZLWKDVLPSOHH[DPSOHRIPD[LPL]LQJWKHYDOXHRI
DIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVJLYHQDFHUWDLQFRQVWUDLQWRQWKRVHYDULDEOHV7KHQZHVROYHWKHVDPHER[SUREOHP
ZHVDZLQRXUSUHYLRXVOHVVRQRQPD[LPXPPLQLPXPDSSOLFDWLRQV
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIWKHIXQFWLRQf x, y xy, where x, y!VXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW
g ( x, y )

2
x2  y
2
2
3
4

1.

6ROXWLRQ
The gradients are f  x , y 

4 y i  4 x j and g  x , y 

We solve the equation f  x , y 

2x i  y j .
9
8

O g  x, y  , which implies that 4 y i  4 x j O 2 x i  O

+HQFHZHKDYHWKHWKUHHHTXDWLRQV 4 y

O 2x , 4x O
9

y
y
, and x 2  2
8
3
4
2

y
j.
8

1.



:HQRZXVHRXUDOJHEUDVNLOOVWRVROYHWKHVHHTXDWLRQV)URPWKHUVWHTXDWLRQ O
6XEVWLWXWHWKLVLQWRWKHVHFRQGHTXDWLRQ 4 x
2
y2
1H[WXVHWKHFRQVWUDLQWHTXDWLRQ x 2  2
3
4

Thus, we have y

2 2 and x 2

9 y2
16

18 y
.
x

2
9 y2
18 y y
x2 y
x 8 4 x 4 x 9 16 .

2
2
y
y
1

1 2 y 2 16 y 2 8.
16 16

y
8

9 8
 
16

9x
2

3 2.
2

With these values of x and yWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHLV f 3 2 , 2 2

2

4 3 2 2 2 
2

24.

([DPSOH
7KHPDWHULDOIRUFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHEDVHRIDQRSHQER[FRVWVSHUVTXDUHIRRWDQGWKHPDWHULDOIRU
FRQVWUXFWLQJWKHVLGHVFRVWVSHUVTXDUHIRRW)RUD[HGDPRXQWRIPRQH\C 
QGWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHER[RIODUJHVWYROXPHWKDWFDQEHPDGH6HH)LJXUH
6ROXWLRQ
:HZDQWWRPD[LPL]HWKHYROXPHRIWKHER[f x, y, z xyz,
VXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQWg x, y, z xyxzyz 
Using Lagrange multipliers, we have
f  x , y , z 

O g  x , y , z 

Lesson 17: Lagrange MultipliersConstrained Optimization

yzi  xzj  xyk

z
y

O  3 y  4 z  i   3 x  4 z  j   4 x  4 y  k .
x

Figure 17.1

6RZHPXVWVROYHWKHIROORZLQJIRXUHTXDWLRQVLQIRXUXQNQRZQV
yz = yz
xz = xz
xy = xy
3xyxzyz 
7KLVUHTXLUHVDORWRIDOJHEUDDQGWKHQDOVROXWLRQLVx = y z = 9, and O
xyz  FXELFIHHW

3 . 7KHPD[LPXPYROXPHLV
2

6WXG\7LSV



x

/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVDUHSDUWLFXODUO\XVHIXOIRURSWLPL]DWLRQDSSOLFDWLRQVKDYLQJVLGHFRQGLWLRQV
or constraints.

x

<RXFDQH[WHQG/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRSUREOHPVZLWKPRUHWKDQRQHFRQVWUDLQW

x

:KHQXVLQJ/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWKHDOJHEUDFDQEHTXLWHGLIFXOW

x

<RXFDQZULWHWKHFRQVWUDLQWLQGLIIHUHQWZD\VEXWWKHJUDGLHQWZLOOEHWKHVDPH)RULQVWDQFHLQ
x2 y2
x2 y2
([DPSOHZHXVHG g  x , y 
 2 1, EXWZHFRXOGKDYHXVHG g  x , y 

 1 0.
2
3
4
32 4 2

x

1RWLFHWKDWWKHDQVZHUWR([DPSOHLVWKHVDPHDVWKHRQHZHREWDLQHGLQ/HVVRQ:KLFKPHWKRG
GR\RXSUHIHU"

3LWIDOOV
x

The technique of Lagrange multipliers can fail g  x0 , y0 

x

7KHJUHDWHVWGLIFXOW\ZLWK/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVLVLQVROYLQJWKHV\VWHPRIHTXDWLRQV0DNHVXUHWKDW
\RXFKHFN\RXUDQVZHUZLWKWKHRULJLQDOHTXDWLRQV

0.

3UREOHPV
 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPLQLPXPYDOXHRIf x, y x + yVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW
xy $VVXPHWKDWx and y are positive.

 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIf x, y xyVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW
yx = 0. Assume that x and y are positive.

 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIf x, y xxy + yVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW

x + y $VVXPHWKDWx and y are positive.

 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPLQLPXPYDOXHRIf x, y, z x + y + zVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW

x + y + z $VVXPHWKDWx, y, and z are positive.

 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHRIf x, y, z xyzVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQW
x + y + z $VVXPHWKDWx, y, and z are positive.

 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPLQLPXPGLVWDQFHIURPWKHOLQHx + y WRWKHSRLQW
 8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHPLQLPXPGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSDUDERODy = xWRWKHSRLQW
 $FDUJRFRQWDLQHULQWKHVKDSHRIDUHFWDQJXODUVROLGPXVWKDYHDYROXPHRIFXELFIHHW7KHERWWRP
ZLOOFRVWSHUVTXDUHIRRWWRFRQVWUXFWDQGWKHVLGHVDQGWKHWRSZLOOFRVWSHUVTXDUHIRRWWRFRQVWUXFW
8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHFRQWDLQHURIWKLVVL]HWKDWKDVPLQLPXPFRVW

63

Applications of Lagrange Multipliers

Lesson 18

Topics
x

Applications of Lagrange multipliers.

x

0D[LPL]LQJWKHYROXPHRIDSDFNDJH

x

6QHOOVODZRIUHIUDFWLRQ

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Lagranges theorem: Let f and gKDYHFRQWLQXRXVUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVVXFKWKDWfKDVDQH[WUHPXP

DWx0, y0RQWKHVPRRWKFRQVWUDLQWFXUYHg x, y k,I g  x0 , y0  z 0 WKHQWKHUHLVDUHDOQXPEHU
such that f  x0 , y0  Og  x0 , y0  7KHQXPEHU is called a /DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHU.

x

When light waves traveling in a transparent medium strike the surface of a second transparent
PHGLXPWKH\WHQGWREHQGLQRUGHUWRIROORZWKHSDWKRIPLQLPXPWLPH7KLVWHQGHQF\LVFDOOHG
UHIUDFWLRQDQGLWLVGHVFULEHGE\6QHOOVODZ RIUHIUDFWLRQ.
Let v and vEHWKHYHORFLWLHVRIOLJKWLQWKHWZRPHGLD
DQGOHWWKHDQJOHVEHDVLQGLFDWHGLQWKHJXUH7KHQ

Medium 1
d1

sin T1
v1

sin T 2
.
v2

Lesson 18: Applications of Lagrange Multipliers

6HH)LJXUH

1
x

Medium 2

y
2
a=x+y

6XPPDU\

d2
Q
Figure 18.1

:HFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIFRQVWUDLQHGRSWLPL]DWLRQDSSOLFDWLRQVXVLQJ/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUV:HUVWXVHWKHP
WRPD[LPL]HWKHYROXPHRIDSDFNDJHJLYHQDFHUWDLQFRQVWUDLQWRQWKHGLPHQVLRQV:HVDZWKLVSUREOHPLQ
/HVVRQEXWLWZLOOEHHDVLHUZLWK/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUV7KHQZHGHULYH6QHOOVODZRIUHIUDFWLRQ
([DPSOH
7KHVXPRIWKHOHQJWKDQGJLUWKSHULPHWHURIDFURVVVHFWLRQRIDSDFNDJHFDUULHGE\DGHOLYHU\VHUYLFH
FDQQRWH[FHHGLQFKHV)LQGWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHUHFWDQJXODUSDFNDJHRIODUJHVWYROXPHWKDWFDQEHVHQW
6HH)LJXUH



6ROXWLRQ
:HZDQWWRPD[LPL]HWKHYROXPHRIWKHER[Vx, y, z xyzVXEMHFW
to the constraint g x, y, z xyz 8VLQJ/DJUDQJH
multipliers, we have

z
y
x

V yz i  xz j  xy k
g i  2 j  2 k
V ( x , y , z ) O g  x , y , z  .
Figure 18.2

+HQFHZHPXVWVROYHWKHIROORZLQJIRXUHTXDWLRQVLQIRXUXQNQRZQV
yz =
xz 
xy 
xyz 
7KHFDOFXOXVSRUWLRQRIWKHSUREOHPLVRYHUDQGQH[WZHQHHGWRXVHDORWRIDOJHEUD)URPWKHVHFRQGDQG
third equations, xz  and xy , we have xz = xy z = y)URPWKHUVWDQGWKLUGHTXDWLRQVyz = and
xy ZHKDYHyz  = xy x z6RZHKDYHy = z, x y z1H[WXVHWKHFRQVWUDLQWHTXDWLRQ
xyz 
yyy = 6y 
6RZHKDYHy x = 36, z 7KHGLPHQVLRQVDUHLQFKHV
([DPSOH

Medium 1

8VH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRGHULYH6QHOOVODZRIUHIUDFWLRQ

d1
1

6ROXWLRQ

Medium 2

Consider the )LJXUH.

a=x+y

The distance from P to Q is

d2

d1 2  x 2  d 2 2  y 2 .

Q
Figure 18.3

Because speed = distance/time, we have time = distance/speed, which is what we want to minimize.
+HQFHZHZDQWWRPLQLPL]H T  x , y 

d1 2  x 2

v1

d22  y 2
VXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQWg x, y x + y = a.
v2

65

Using Lagrange multipliers,

T  x , y 

O g  x , y 

y
x
i
j Oi  O j .
v1 d12  x 2
v2 d 2 2  x 2
6RZHQHHGWRVROYHWKHWKUHHHTXDWLRQV
x
v1 d12  x 2
y
v2 d 2 2  y 2
x y
+HQFH

O
O

a.
y

x
2

v1 d1  x

)URPWKHJXUH sin T1

v2 d 2 2  y 2

x
and sin T 2
d1 2  x 2

y
sin T1
, ZKLFKJLYHV6QHOOVODZ
v1
d22  y 2

sin T 2
.
v2

6WXG\7LS
x

,WVZRUWKUHSHDWLQJWKDWRIWHQWKHPRVWGLIFXOWVWHSLQVROYLQJD/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUSUREOHPLV
WKHDOJHEUD

3LWIDOO

Lesson 18: Applications of Lagrange Multipliers

x

The technique of Lagrange multipliers can fail if g  x0 , y0 

0.

3UREOHPV
 7KH&REE'RXJODVSURGXFWLRQIXQFWLRQIRUDVRIWZDUHPDQXIDFWXUHULVJLYHQE\ f  x, y  100 x y ,
3

where xUHSUHVHQWVWKHXQLWVRIODERUDWSHUXQLWDQGyUHSUHVHQWVWKHXQLWVRIFDSLWDODWSHU
XQLW7KHWRWDOFRVWRIODERUDQGFDSLWDOLVOLPLWHGWR)LQGWKHPD[LPXPSURGXFWLRQOHYHOIRU
this manufacturer.

 )LQGWKHH[WUHPHYDOXHVRIf x, y xyxVXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQWx + y

2
2
2
 The volume of an ellipsoid x 2  y 2  z 2

a
b
RIPD[LPXPYROXPHLVDVSKHUH

1 is 4S abc. )RUD[HGVXPa + b + c, show that the ellipsoid

3

 )LQGWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIDULJKWFLUFXODUF\OLQGHUZLWKYROXPHV0FXELFXQLWVDQGPLQLPXPVXUIDFHDUHD
 )LQGWKHPLQLPXPGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWWRWKHSODQHx + y + z 
66

Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane

Lesson 19

Topics
x

Iterated integrals.

x

Iterated integrals and area.

x

Reversing the order of integration.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Iterated integrals are of the form

h2  y 

h1  y 

f  x , y  dx dy and

g2  x
g1  x 

f  x , y  dy dx .

6XPPDU\
We now turn to the theory of integration for multivariable calculus. We begin with iterated integrals, which
are nothing more than repeated simple integrals. We show how an iterated integral can be used to calculate the
area of a planar region. We end the lesson by studying how you can reverse the order of integration. In fact, for
some iterated integrals, you must reverse the order of integration.
([DPSOH
Calculate the iterated integral

2 xy dy dx .

6ROXWLRQ
First, we evaluate the integral in the brackets with respect to y, and then we integrate the result with respect to x.

x 2 xy dy dx
1

xy 2 dx
1

x
2

 x  dx

([DPSOH

x4 x2
4  2
2

 64  8   4  2 

54 .

f (x) = sin x

8VHDQLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDOWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQ
bounded by the graphs of f x VLQ x and g xFRV x
between x S and x 5S . 6HH)LJXUH
4
4

5
4

g (x) = cos x
Figure 19.1

67

6ROXWLRQ
We have the following:
5S

S
4

5S

sin x

cos x

sin x

S > y @
4

5S

dy dx

cos x

dx

S >sin x  cos x @ dx
4

5S

>  cos x  sin x @S 44

2 2.

([DPSOH
2

6NHWFKWKHUHJLRQZKRVHDUHDLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDO

4
y2

dx dy.

6ROXWLRQ
We know that y2x6RWKHUHJLRQLV
bounded on the left by x y 2 y
x
and on the right by x 

)XUWKHUPRUHyVRWKHUHJLRQLVDV
shown in )LJXUH.

4
Figure 19.2

Lesson 19: Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane

([DPSOH
6NHWFKWKHUHJLRQRILQWHJUDWLRQUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDO

2
x

e  y dy dx. Then, evaluate the integral

by reversing the order of integration.

4

6ROXWLRQ

y=x
The region of integration is shown in )LJXUH.
Reversing the order, we have

e  y dy dx

e  y dx dy.

Although the original integral could not be evaluated using the

fundamental theorem of calculus, the new integral can easily be
evaluated using substitution.
2

The answer is 1 1  14
2 e

68

Figure 19.3

6WXG\7LSV
x

Iterated integrals are similar to partial derivatives in that you integrate with respect to one variable
ZKLOHKROGLQJWKHRWKHUYDULDEOH[HG)RUH[DPSOHLI
f x  x, y 

2 xy , then f  x , y 

f  x, y  dx 2 xy dx
x

x2 y  C  y .

Notice that the constant of integration is a function of y.

x

Iterated integrals are usually written without brackets or parentheses. For instance, the iterated
LQWHJUDOLQ([DPSOHLVXVXDOO\ZULWWHQDVIROORZV
4

x

2 xy dy dx

2 xy dy dx.

Representative rectangles can be very useful in describing the region of integration.

3LWIDOOV
x

For area computations, the outer limits of integration must be constants. For instance, the following
x 4
iterated integral is incorrect: 2 dx dy.
0

x

.HHSLQPLQGWKDWWKHYDULDEOHRILQWHJUDWLRQFDQQHYHUDSSHDUDVDOLPLWRILQWHJUDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOH
x
the following integral is incorrect: y dx.
0

3UREOHPV
x

 Evaluate the integral

 x  2 y  dy.

 Evaluate the integral

2y

y
dx.
x

 Evaluate the iterated integral

 x  y  dy dx.
S

 Evaluate the iterated integral

 Evaluate the iterated integral

y cos x dy dx.
4 dx dy.
x2  y 2

 8VHDQLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDOWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\ x  y

2, x DQGy 

69

 Evaluate the iterated integral

1 y 2

 1 y 2

dx dy.

Then, reverse the order of integration and evaluate the resulting iterated integral.

 Evaluate the iterated integral

1
x

dy dx.

Then, reverse the order of integration and evaluate the resulting iterated integral.
1

2x

 Evaluate the iterated integral

Lesson 19: Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane

 Evaluate the iterated integral

70

y2

4e y dy dx.
x sin x dx dy.

Double Integrals and Volume

Lesson 20

Topics
x

Double integrals and volume.

x

Properties of double integrals.

x

Average value.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Properties of double integrals:

cf  x, y  dA
R

c f  x , y  dA
R

f  x, y   g  x, y  dA f  x, y  dA  g  x, y  dA.
R

x

Let f be integrable over the plane region R of area A. The DYHUDJHYDOXH of f over R is
1 f x , y dA.
 
A
R

6XPPDU\
We continue our study of integration of functions of two variables. We show that the volume of a solid
can be represented by a double integral. These double integrals have many of the same properties as
single integrals. Although the motivation for double integrals was area and volume, we will see in upcoming
lessons that there are many more applications of such integrals. We end the lesson with the familiar topic of
average value.
([DPSOH
Calculate the volume below the surface z y and above the rectangle given by 0 d x dd y d 2.



6ROXWLRQ
The volume is given by the double integral

f ( x, y ) dA  6  2 y  dy dx.

z = xy

We evaluate the integral as follows:

4

 6  2 y  dy dx

6 y  y 2 dx
0

8 dx

>8 x @0

32 .
y

6HH)LJXUH
([DPSOH

x
Figure 20.1

The double integral for the volume under the surface z VLQ y2 VLQ y2DQGDERYHWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\
2 1
y x , x DQGy LV V x sin y 2 dy dx. Reverse the order of integration.
0
2
2
6ROXWLRQ
y

The region of integration is a triangle, and the given integral uses

YHUWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLYHUHFWDQJOHV6HH)LJXUH

y
x

If instead we use horizontal representative rectangles, we obtain

the integral
V

1
x

sin y 2 dy dx

2y

x
2
2y
(2, 1)

sin y 2 dx dy.

x
2

1RWLFHWKDWWKHUVWLQWHJUDOFDQQRWEHGRQHHDVLO\ZKHUHDVWKH
second integral is straightforward. The answer is  cos1  1 | 0.4597.

Figure 20.2

Lesson 20: Double Integrals and Volume

([DPSOH
Find the average value of f  x , y 
DQG

1 xy over the rectangular region RZLWKYHUWLFHV

2

6ROXWLRQ
7KHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQLV 7KHDYHUDJHYDOXHLV
1 f x , y dA
 
A
R

1 4 3 1 xy dy dx .
12 0 0 2

7KLVLQWHJUDOLVHDV\WRHYDOXDWHDQGWKHQDODQVZHULV 3 .
2

72

6WXG\7LSV
x

Double integrals do not only represent areas and volumes. We will see many other applications in
upcoming lessons.

x

It is very helpful to draw the region of integration together with a representative rectangle.

x

&RPSXWHUVDQGJUDSKLQJFDOFXODWRUVFDQHYDOXDWHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOV6RPHWLPHVWKHDQVZHUPLJKWEHDQ
DSSUR[LPDWLRQ7KHIROORZLQJDUHWZRUHVXOWVIURPDFDOFXODWRU
1

2y

1
x

sin y 2 dx dy

cos(1)  1

sin y 2 dy dx

0.4596976941.

3LWIDOOV
x

Remember that the outer limits of integration must be constants, and the variable of integration can
QHYHUDSSHDUDVDOLPLWRILQWHJUDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLVLQFRUUHFWIRUWZR
2 1
reasons: x sin y 2 dx dy.
y

x

,Q([DPSOHWKHJLYHQLQWHJUDOFDQQRWEHHYDOXDWHGE\WKHIXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIFDOFXOXVEHFDXVH
the integrand, sin y2, does not have an elementary antiderivative.

3UREOHPV
 Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface z

y
DQGDERYHWKHUHFWDQJOHxy
2

 Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface z xy and above the triangle bounded by
y x, y DQGx 

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKHUVWRFWDQWERXQGHGE\z xy, z y x,

and x 

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\x2 + y2 + z2 r2.

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKHUVWRFWDQWERXQGHGE\y x2
and z x2.

 Evaluate the iterated integral

 Evaluate the iterated integral

e  x dx dy by switching the order of integration.

x2

y cos y dy dx by switching the order of integration.

2



 Find the average value of the function f x, y xRYHUWKHUHFWDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHV

DQG

 Find the average value of the function f x, y VLQx + yRYHUWKHUHFWDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHV

, DQG
2

Lesson 20: Double Integrals and Volume

 :K\LVWKHH[SUHVVLRQ 0 0  x  y  dy dx invalid?



Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

Lesson 21

Topics
x

Polar coordinates.

x

Double integrals in polar coordinates.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Conversion formulas:
x r cos , y r sin
x2  y2

x

y
.
x

r 2 , tan T

Double integrals in polar coordinates: Let R be a planar region consisting of all points
 x, y   r cos T , r sin T  satisfying grg2DQG.
Then,

f  x, y  dA D
R

g 2 T 
g1 T 

f  r cos T , r sin T  r dr dT .

6XPPDU\
In this lesson, we develop double integrals in polar coordinates. This conversion is especially useful if the
UHJLRQRILQWHJUDWLRQRUWKHLQWHJUDQGLVHDVLO\H[SUHVVHGLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV:HEHJLQZLWKDUHYLHZRI
polar coordinates and then develop the formula for a double integral in polar coordinates. In this case, the
differential of area, dA, becomes r dr G'RQWIRUJHWWKHH[WUDr factor. We illustrate these ideas with area and
YROXPHH[DPSOHV
y

([DPSOH
2

Use polar coordinates to describe the region in )LJXUH.

6ROXWLRQ
The region is a quarter circle of radius 2:

^ r, T  : 0 d r d 2, 0 d T d S2 `.

x
1

2
Figure 21.1

75

([DPSOH
2

Evaluate the double integral

4 y2

y dx dy by converting to polar coordinates.

6ROXWLRQ
The region is a quarter circle of radius 2.
In polar coordinates, the integral becomes

4 y2

y dx dy

 r sin T  r dr dT .
2

This integral is easy to evaluate because the limits of integration are constants:
S

2r
0 0  r sin T  r dr dT 0 3 sin T 0 dT
2

8 S 2 sinT dT
3 0
8 0  1
 
3

8  cos T S 2
>
@0
3
8.
3

([DPSOH

6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKH
area of the region bounded by the polar graph r  FRV .
6HH)LJXUH

r = 3 cos 3

=
6

Lesson 21: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

6ROXWLRQ
7KHJUDSKLVDURVHFXUYHZLWKSHWDOV

=
6

2QHSHWDOLVGHQHGE\  S d T d S ,
6
6
where 0 d r d 3cos 3T .
6RWKHWRWDODUHDLV A 3

S

3cos 3T

r dr dT

9S .
4
Figure 21.2

([DPSOH
6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHERXQGHGDERYHE\WKHKHPLVSKHUH
z

76

2  x 2  y 2 and bounded below by the cone z

x2  y2 .

6ROXWLRQ
:HUVWGHWHUPLQHZKHUHWKHVXUIDFHVLQWHUVHFWE\HTXDWLQJ
the equations:
2  x2  y2
2  x2  y2
2
x2  y2

z=

x2  y2

z=

x2  y2

2 x2 y2

x2 + y2

x2 + y2 = 1

2x2  2 y2
1.

y
x

6HH)LJXUH

Figure 21.3

In polar coordinates, the equations are

2  x2  y2

2  r 2 and z

x2  y2

r.

The volume is therefore

2S

2  r 2  r r dr dT .

The evaluation requires substitution, and you obtain

4  2  1
3

S.

6WXG\7LSV
x

The area of a polar sector is A rr. Hence, the differential of area in rectangular coordinates,
dA dy dx dx dy becomes r dr G in polar coordinates.

x

In polar coordinates, area is given by

dA r dr dT .
R

x

The r value can be negative in polar coordinates.

3LWIDOO
x

Remember that the differential of area in polar coordinates is dA r dr G. Dont forget the r.

77

3UREOHPV
9 x2

 Evaluate the iterated integral

 Evaluate the iterated integral

 Evaluate the iterated integral

x dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.

4 x2

2 0
2

2 x  x2

 y 2  dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.

xy dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHGE\WKHJUDSKRIWKH
equation r  FRV .

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHGE\WKHJUDSKVRIWKH
equations r DQGr 

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHDUHDERXQGHGE\WKHWKUHHOHDYHGURVHFXUYH
r  VLQ .

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKHUVWRFWDQWERXQGHG
by z xy and x2 + y2 

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\ z

x 2  y 2 , z 

and x2 + y2 

 8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWRQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQVLGHWKHKHPLVSKHUH
z

16  x 2  y 2 and outside the cylinder x2 + y2 

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHDUHDLQVLGHWKHFLUFOHr  FRV and outside the

Lesson 21: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

circle r 

78

Centers of Mass for Variable Density

Lesson 22

Topics
x

Mass.

x

Moments.

x

Centers of mass for variable density.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

If the planar lamina given by the region R has variable density x, yWKHQWKHPDVV is

U  x, y  dA .
R

x

The PRPHQWVRIPDVV with respect to the xDQGyD[HVDUH

Mx

y U  x, y  dA, M
R

x

x U  x, y  dA .
R

My Mx
If m is the mass of the lamina, the FHQWHURIPDVVLVx y  
,
.
m m

6XPPDU\
In this lesson, we apply our knowledge of double integrals to the calculation of mass and centers of mass.
The formula for mass is the double integral of the density function. The formulas for the moments with
UHVSHFWWRWKHD[HVDUHPXFKVLPSOHUWKDQWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUPXODVLQ
y
HOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV,QVRPHH[DPSOHVSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV\LHOGHDVLHU
y=3
integrals than Cartesian coordinates.
(0, 3)

(2, 3)

([DPSOH
2

)LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHV
DQGLIWKHGHQVLW\DWWKHSRLQWx, yLVx, y x + y.
6HH)LJXUH

R
2y
3

x
1

(0, 0) 1

x
2

3
Figure 22.1

79

6ROXWLRQ
The boundaries of the triangular region are x y DQGx 

2y
.
3

Using a horizontal representative rectangle, the mass is

m

2y

3
 2 x  y  dA 0 0  2 x  y  dx dy

10.

([DPSOH
)LQGWKHFHQWHURIPDVVRIWKHODPLQDFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHSDUDEROLFUHJLRQyx2 if the density at the
SRLQWx, yLVFRQVWDQWx, y 
6ROXWLRQ
The mass is
m

4 x2

2 0

x3
4 x  3
2

4 x2

2

> y@

1 dy dx

 4  x  dx

dx

2

8
8
8  3  8  3

32 .
3

By symmetry, the center of mass lies on the yD[LVVRMy 

The moment about the xD[LVLV M x

Lesson 22: Centers of Mass for Variable Density

6RZHKDYH y 

256

Mx
m

32

15

4 x2

2 0

y dy dx

256 .
15

8 , DQGWKHFHQWHURIPDVVLVx y   0, 8 .

5
5

([DPSOH
6ROYHWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHGHQVLW\LVQRWFRQVWDQWEXWUDWKHUJLYHQE\x, y y.
6ROXWLRQ
7KHFRPSXWDWLRQVDUHYHU\VLPLODUWRWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOH
The mass is m

4 x2

2 0

2 y dy dx

The moment about the xD[LVLV M x

80

512 . By symmetry, M  

y
15
2

4 x2

2 0

y  2 y  dy dx

8192 .
105

6R y 

Mx
=
m

8192

105
512
15

= 16 .
7

)LQDOO\WKHFHQWHURIPDVVLV x y   0, 16 .
7

16
7
8
5

Notice that the balancing point has moved up a bit from the previous
H[DPSOH6HH)LJXUH

x


6WXG\7LSV

2
Figure 22.2

x

Usually, density is mass per unit of volume. But for planar laminas, density is mass per unit of
surface area.

x

The formulas for center of mass are equivalent to those studied in elementary calculus.

x

The setup of the problem is the most important step. Calculating the resulting integrals can be
done by hand or by using computers and graphing calculators.

x

1RWLFHKRZZHWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIV\PPHWU\LQ([DPSOHVDQG

3LWIDOO
x

The formula for Mx involves y, and the formula for My involves x6LPLODUO\WKHIRUPXODIRU x
involves yDQGWKHIRUPXODIRU y involves x.

3UREOHPV
 )LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHVTXDUHODPLQDERXQGHGE\xDQGyLIWKHGHQVLW\LVx, y xy.
 )LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHODPLQDERXQGHGE\xDQGy 1  x 2 if the density is x, y xy.
 )LQGWKHPDVVDQGFHQWHURIPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHVDQGLIWKH
density is x, y y.

 )LQGWKHPDVVDQGFHQWHURIPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHVDQGLIWKH
density is x, y x.

 Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by y  x , y DQGx LIWKHGHQVLW\LV
x, y y.



 Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by y x2, y DQGx LIWKHGHQVLW\LV
x, y xy.

 Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by x2 + y2 xDQGy if the density is

Lesson 22: Centers of Mass for Variable Density

x, y x2 + y2

82

Surface Area of a Solid

Lesson 23

Topics
x

6XUIDFHDUHDRIVROLGVLQVSDFH

x

The differential of arc length and the differential of surface area.

x

6XUIDFHDUHDLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let the function f represent a smooth curve on the interval > a , b @ . The DUFOHQJWK between a and b is
s

x

2S f  x  1  f c  x  dx.
a

2S x 1  f c  x  dx .
a

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIDUFOHQJWK is
2

1  f c  x  dx .

ds
x

1  f c  x  dx.

If a piece of arc length is rotated about the yD[LVWKHVXUIDFHDUHD of the resulting surface of
revolution is
A

x

If a piece of arc length is rotated about the xD[LVWKHVXUIDFHDUHD of the resulting surface of
revolution is
A

x

For a surface given by z f x, yGHQHGRYHUDUHJLRQR in the xySODQHWKHVXUIDFHDUHD is

S

1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA.

x

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD is
dS

1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA.



6XPPDU\
The formula for surface area is similar to that of arc length. Both involve an important differential: the
differential of arc length and the differential of surface area. After a brief review of arc length and surfaces
of revolution, we present the general formula for surface area of graphs of functions of two variables.
,QVRPHH[DPSOHVZHZLOOVHHWKDWSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVDUHXVHIXOLQVLPSOLI\LQJWKHFRPSXWDWLRQV
([DPSOH
2

Find the surface area of the plane z xyLQWKHUVWRFWDQW

6HH)LJXUH

z
(0, 0, 2)

z xy
1

6ROXWLRQ
We have fx x, y f y x, y DQG

(2, 0, 0)
x2

1   f x    f y  dA

dS

1  1  1 dA

1
1

(0, 2, 0)
y

(1, 1, 0)

Figure 23.1

3 dA .

6RWKHVXUIDFHDUHDLV
S

1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA

3 dA

Using a vertical representative rectangle, S

2 x

3 dA.
R

dy dx 2 3.

([DPSOH

Lesson 23: Surface Area of a Solid

6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHSRUWLRQRIWKHVXUIDFHf x, y x2 + y that lies above

WKHWULDQJXODUUHJLRQZLWKYHUWLFHVDQG
6ROXWLRQ
The partial derivatives are fx x, y x and f y x, y +HQFH
S

1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA

1  4 x 2  1 dA

2  4 x 2 dA.



:HQRZQHHGWRQGWKHERXQGVIRUWKHUHJLRQGHWHUPLQHGE\WKH
WKUHHSRLQWV6HH)LJXUH
:HVHHWKDWxxyx. Hence, the integral for
surface area becomes
S

2  4 x 2 dA

1 x

x 1

ln  3  2  

y x
Rx
x yx
x

2  4 x 2 dy dx.

7KLVLQWHJUDOLVGLIFXOWWRHYDOXDWH$FDOFXODWRUJLYHV
S

y = x

2 | 1.618.
3

([DPSOH

Figure 23.2

x 2  y 2 that lies above the circular region x2 + y2

)LQGWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQH z
6ROXWLRQ
x
and f y
x  y2

The partial derivatives are f x

1

dS

1

x
x2  y2

y
. The differential of surface area is
x  y2
2

y
x2  y2

dA

2
x2  y
dA
x2  y2 x2  y2

2x2  2 y2
dA
x2  y2

2( x 2  y 2 )
dA
x2  y2

2 dA.

+HQFHWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHLV
S

dS
R

2 dA

2 dA

2  Area of circle 

2 S  S 2.

6WXG\7LSV
x

Notice the similarity between the differential of arc length and the differential of surface area:
2

ds  1  f c  x  dx differential of arc length

2

dS  1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA differential of surface area.

85

x

6XUIDFHDUHDLVWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIWKHGLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD S

dS .
R

x

<RXFRXOGKDYHXVHGHOHPHQWDU\JHRPHWU\WRVROYH([DPSOH7KHVXUIDFHDUHDRIDULJKWFLUFXODU
cone of height h and radius r is S S r r 2  h 2 . ,Q([DPSOHr h DQGKHQFH S S 2.

3LWIDOOV
x

,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVPDQ\RIWKHLQWHJUDQGVIRUDUFOHQJWKDQGVXUIDFHDUHGLIFXOWWRLQWHJUDWH
7KLVLVDOVRWUXHLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVDVZHVDZLQ([DPSOH

x

'RQWIRUJHWWKHH[WUDr when using polar coordinates: dA r dr G.

3UREOHPV
 Find the area of the surface given by f x, y x + 2y over the triangular region RZLWKYHUWLFHV
DQG

 Find the area of the surface given by f x, y xy over the square region RZLWKYHUWLFHV
DQG

 Find the area of the surface given by f x, y xy over the circular region R given by
R

^ x, y : x

 y 2 d 9` .

 Find the area of the portion of the plane z xyLQWKHUVWRFWDQW

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHDUHDRIWKHSRUWLRQRIWKHSDUDERORLGz x2y2LQWKHUVWRFWDQW
 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHDUHDRIWKHVXUIDFHf x, y y + x2 over the triangular region R with
YHUWLFHVDQG

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHDUHDRIWKHVXUIDFHf x, y x2y2 over the

Lesson 23: Surface Area of a Solid

region R given by R

^ x, y : 0 d f  x, y `.

 6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHDUHDRIWKHVXUIDFHf x, y ex over the region R given by

R

^ x, y : 0 d x d 1, 0 d y d 1`.

 6KRZWKDWWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHFRQHz  k x 2  y 2 , k > 0, over the circular region x2 + y2r2 in

the xySODQHLV S r 2 k 2  1.

86

Triple Integrals and Applications

Lesson 24

Topics
x

Triple integrals.

x

Changing the order of integration.

x

Triple integrals and mass.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Mass in triple integrals: m

U  x, y , z  dV .
Q

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHH[WHQGRXUNQRZOHGJHRIGRXEOHLQWHJUDOVWRWULSOHLQWHJUDOV:HEHJLQE\XVLQJWULSOH
LQWHJUDOVWRFDOFXODWHYROXPHLQZKLFKWKHLQWHJUDQGLV/DWHULQWKHOHVVRQZHXVHWULSOHLQWHJUDOVWR
calculate the mass of a solid. An important skill with triple integrals is changing the order of integration.
,QJHQHUDOWKHUHDUHVL[SRVVLEOHRUGHUVRILQWHJUDWLRQ
([DPSOH
Evaluate the triple integral

1 dz dy dx.

6ROXWLRQ
7KLVWULSOHLQWHJUDOUHSUHVHQWVWKHYROXPHRIDER[:HHYDOXDWHWKHLQWHJUDOLQWKHVDPHPDQQHUDVZH
evaluated double integrals,
z
4

dz dy dx

> z @ dy dx
2 dy dx
> 2 y @ dx
6 dx
4

> 6 x @0
6HH)LJXUH

24.
x

3
y

Figure 24.1

87

([DPSOH

6NHWFKWKHVROLGZKRVHYROXPHLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHWULSOHLQWHJUDO
1 2 1 y
dz dx dy. Then, rewrite the integral in the order dy dz dx.
0

z y

6ROXWLRQ

The limits of integration determine the shape of the solid.

6HH)LJXUH
1

1 y

Because z y y z,

dz dx dy
0 0 0
%RWKLQWHJUDOVJLYHWKHVDPHYROXPHRI

1 z

dy dz dx.

x
Figure 24.2

([DPSOH
6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGUHJLRQERXQGHG
below by the surface z x2 + y2 and above by z x2y2.
6HH)LJXUH

6ROXWLRQ

:HPXVWUVWQGWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHWZRSDUDERORLGVE\VHWWLQJ
the equations equal to each other:

2  x2  y2

x2  y2 2

2x2  2 y2 x2  y2

1.

The region of integration is the unit circle. The volume is

Lesson 24: Triple Integrals and Applications

1 x 2

1  1 x

2 x2  y2
x2  y2

Figure 24.3

dz dy dx.

7KLVLQWHJUDOLVGLIFXOWDQGWKHDQVZHULV,QWKHQH[WOHVVRQZHZLOOVHHKRZWRVROYHWKHSUREOHPXVLQJ
cylindrical coordinates.
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHXQLWFXEHLQWKHUVWRFWDQWJLYHQWKDWWKHGHQVLW\DWWKHSRLQWx, y, zLVWKHVTXDUHRILWV
distance to the origin.

88

6ROXWLRQ
The density is x, y, z kx2 + y2 + z2+HQFHWKHPDVVLVJLYHQE\
1

U  x, y , z  dV k  x

 y 2  z 2  dz dy dx.

7KLVLQWHJUDOLVQRWGLIFXOWWRHYDOXDWHDQGWKHQDODQVZHULVk.
6WXG\7LSV
x

-XVWDVZLWKGRXEOHLQWHJUDOVZHRIWHQRPLWLQWHJUDQGVRI)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH
4 3 2
4 3 2
1 dz dy dx dz dy dx.
0

x

7KHUHDUHVL[RUGHUVRILQWHJUDWLRQIRUWULSOHLQWHJUDOVLQ&DUWHVLDQFRRUGLQDWHVdz dy dx, dz dx dy,

dy dz dx, dy dx dz, dx dy dz, dx dz dy.

x

It is worth repeating that the setup of a problem is more important than the actual integrations.

3LWIDOO
x

Remember that the variable of integration cannot appear as a limit of integration. The following triple
1 2 1 z
integral is incorrect:
dz dx dy.
0

3UREOHPV
5

 Evaluate the triple integral

dy dx dz. What does this represent?

 Evaluate the triple integral

 x  y  z  dx dz dy.

 Evaluate the triple integral

1 1 1

x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz.

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKHUVWRFWDQWERXQGHGE\WKHFRRUGLQDWHSODQHV
and the plane z xy.

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\z x2, z y DQGy x.

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\z x2y2 and z 
 6HWXSWKHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHPDVVRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\xy + 6z x y DQGz LIWKH
density is x, y, z 

89

 6HWXSWKHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHPDVVRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\xy + 5z x y DQGz LIWKH

density is x, y, z y.

 Rewrite the iterated integral

Lesson 24: Triple Integrals and Applications

 Rewrite the iterated integral

90

y2

1 0

 4 x 

dz dy dx using the order dy dz dx.

 12 3x  6y 

dz dy dx using the order dy dx dz.

Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

Lesson 25

Topics
x

Cylindrical coordinates.

x

Conversion formulas.

x

Triple integrals in cylindrical coordinates.

x

The differential of volume in cylindrical coordinates.

x

Applications of triple integrals in cylindrical coordinates.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let P x, y, zEHDSRLQWLQVSDFH,WVF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHr, , zZKHUHr, DUHWKHSRODU

coordinates of the projection of the point onto the xySODQH7KHz coordinate is the same.

x

Conversion formulas:
x r cos , y r sin , z z
r2 x2 + y2, tan  

x

y
, z z.
x

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIYROXPH in cylindrical coordinates is dV UG]GUG.

6XPPDU\
7KHF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPLVWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRISRODUFRRUGLQDWHV
These coordinates are especially useful for representing cylindrical surfaces and surfaces of revolution.
The conversion formulas are similar to the conversion formulas between polar coordinates and Cartesian
FRRUGLQDWHV:HOOVWXG\H[DPSOHVRIWULSOHLQWHJUDOVLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDQGQRWHWKDWWKHGLIIHUHQWLDO
RIYROXPHKDVWKHH[WUDr factor, dV UG]GUG.
([DPSOH
Convert the point  r , T , z 

 4, 56S , 3 to Cartesian coordinates.



6ROXWLRQ
r cosT

We use the conversion formulas: x

and z 

4cos 5S
6

3
4 

 2

The Cartesian coordinates of the point are  x , y , z 

2 3, y

4sin 5S
6

r sin T

4 1
2

2,

3, 2, 3 .

([DPSOH
Convert the point  x , y , z 

1,

3, 2  to cylindrical coordinates.

6ROXWLRQ
We have r2 x2 + y2   r DQG tan T
Of course, z 

y
x

3
1

7KHUHDUHPDQ\SRVVLEOHF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV)RUH[DPSOH  r , T , z 
or  r , T , z  2, 4S , 2 .
3

S  nS .

3, which gives T

 2, S3 , 2
z

([DPSOH
The surface  cLVDYHUWLFDOSODQH6HH)LJXUH
([DPSOH

=c

Find the volume of the solid bounded below by z x + y and above

by z x2y26HH)LJXUH
2

Lesson 25: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

x
2

Figure 25.1

6ROXWLRQ
2

The intersection of the two paraboloids is obtained by setting the

equations equal to each other:

z x2y2 x2 + y2  x2 + 2y2 x2 + y2 

1

Converting to cylindrical coordinates, z x2y2 r2 and

z x2 + y2 r2.
The volume is V

dV
Q

2S

2 r 2

r2

r dz dr dT .

y
1

x
Figure 25.2

92

This integral is easy to evaluate:

V

2S

2 r 2

r2

> rz @
0

2S

dr dT

r  2  r
2S

2r  2r

2S

2S

 r 2  dr dT

dr dT

2 r4
r  2 dT
0
1 dT
2

2S

1T
2 0

S.

6WXG\7LSV
x

1RWLFHWKDWF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHWKHQDWXUDOH[WHQVLRQRI&DUWHVLDQFRRUGLQDWHVWR
three dimensions.

x

When converting from one coordinate system to another, you can always check your answer by
converting back to the original coordinates.

x

,WLVKHOSIXOWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPUHSUHVHQWLQJDJLYHQSRLQW)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH
write  r , T , z  4, 5S , 3 and  x , y , z   2 3, 2, 3 .
6

3LWIDOOV
x

The cylindrical coordinates of a point are not unique. In particular, the rYDOXHFDQEHSRVLWLYHRU
QHJDWLYH$QGWKHUHDUHLQQLWHO\PDQ\FKRLFHVIRUWKHDQJOH.

x

'RQWIRUJHWWKHH[WUDr in the differential of volume, dV UG]GUG.

3UREOHPV
 &RQYHUWWKHSRLQWr, , z WRUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHV
 &RQYHUWWKHSRLQWr, , z  S , WRUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHV
4

 &RQYHUWWKHSRLQWx, y, z   2 2 ,  2 2 , 4  to cylindrical coordinates.

 Find an equation in cylindrical coordinates for the rectangular equation x 
 Find an equation in rectangular coordinates for the cylindrical equation r2 + z2 


 Find an equation in rectangular coordinates for the cylindrical equation r VLQ.
 Verify that V

2S

 Convert the integral

R1

R2
2

R12  r 2

0
4 x2

2  4  x

r dz dr dT

4
x2  y 2

4S R 2  R 2 2 .
 1 2
3

x dz dy dx to cylindrical coordinates.

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGDERYH
by z x and below by z x2 + 2y2.

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQVLGHWKHVSKHUH

Lesson 25: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

x2 + y2 + z2 DQGDERYHWKHXSSHUQDSSHRIWKHFRQHz2 x2 + y2.



Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

Lesson 26

Topics
x

6SKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV

x

Conversion formulas.

x

Triple integrals in spherical coordinates.

x

The differential of volume in spherical coordinates.

x

Applications of triple integrals in spherical coordinates.

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let P x, y, zEHDSRLQWLQVSDFH,WVVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUH, , ZKHUH is the distance

from P to the origin, is the same angle as used in cylindrical coordinates, and is the angle between
the positive zD[LVDQGWKHOLQHVHJPHQW OP .

x

Conversion formulas:
r  sin , z  cos
x r cos   sin cos
y r sin   sin sin
2 x2 + y2 + z2  
tan  

y
x

cos  z

x

x2  y 2  z 2

z
.
x2  y2  z 2

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIYROXPH in spherical coordinates is dV 2 sin GGG.

95

6XPPDU\
6SKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHVLPLODUWRWKHORQJLWXGHDQGODWLWXGHFRRUGLQDWHVRQ(DUWK7KHUVWFRRUGLQDWHLVD
GLVWDQFHDQGWKHRWKHUWZRFRRUGLQDWHVDUHDQJOHV:HEHJLQE\GHQLQJVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVLQVSDFHDQG
GHYHORSWKHLUFRQYHUVLRQIRUPXODV$IWHUORRNLQJDWVRPHH[DPSOHVRIVXUIDFHVLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVZH
apply them to the calculation of volumes and mass. For spherical coordinates, the differential of volume is a bit
complicated: dV 2 sin GGG.
([DPSOH
4, S , S to Cartesian coordinates.

6 4

Convert the point  U , T , I 

6ROXWLRQ

We use the conversion formulas:

U sin I cos T

4sin S cos S
4
6

3
4 2

2 2

U sin I sin T

4sin S sin S
4
6

4 2 1
2

U cos I

4 cos S
4

4 2
2

2 2.

Hence, the Cartesian coordinates are  x , y , z 

2 , 2 2 .

6,

Lesson 26: Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

([DPSOH
&RQYHUWWKHSRLQWx, y, z WRVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV
z

6ROXWLRQ
x2  y2  z 2

We have U
and cos I

0I

Therefore,  U , T , I 

42  0  0

4, tan T

S.

y
x

0
4

0 T

0,

4, 0, S 6HH)LJXUH

( x , y , z ) = ( 4, 0, 0 )
x

( e, , ) = 4, 0, 2

Figure 26.1

96

([DPSOH
The surface  cLVDVSKHUHFHQWHUHGDWWKHRULJLQ6HH)LJXUH
([DPSOH

c
)LQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHERXQGHGDERYHE\WKHXSSHUKDOIRI
the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 DQGEHORZE\ z
x 2  y 2 6HH)LJXUH

x
Figure 26.2

6ROXWLRQ
z

The intersection of the two surfaces is obtained by setting the

equations equal to each other:

x2  y2
2

x y z

z z2
2

x2  y2

z=

x2  y2

x  y x  y
2

2 x2 y2

z=

x2 + y2

x2 + y2 = 1

1 z 1.

y
x

Converting to spherical coordinates,

x2  y2  z 2

U2 U

Figure 26.3

2 and z

U cos I 1

$OVR7KHLFHFUHDPFRQHLVJLYHQE\ 0 d U d

2S

dV

U 2 sin I d U dI dT

2 cos I cos I

1 I
2

S.
4

2 ,0 d I d S ,0 d T d 2S . The volume is
4

4S 2  1 .

You are asked to verify this integration in Problem 7.

6WXG\7LSV
x

6SKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHHVSHFLDOO\XVHIXOIRUVSKHUHVZKLFKKDYHDFHQWHURIV\PPHWU\

x

,WLVKHOSIXOWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPUHSUHVHQWLQJDJLYHQSRLQW)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH
write  U , T , I  4, S , S and  x , y , z   6 , 2 , 2 2  .
6 4

97

3LWIDOOV
x

)RUVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV and )XUWKHUPRUH is the same angle as in polar

coordinates for r

x

7KHUHFDQEHFRQIXVLRQLIWKHFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPLVQRWPDGHH[SOLFLW)RULQVWDQFHLVWKH
origin in spherical coordinates, but it is a point on the yD[LVLQUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHV

x

Dont forget the complicated differential of volume in spherical coordinates, dV 2 sin GGG.

3UREOHPV
 Convert the point  U , T , I  12,  S , 0 to rectangular coordinates.
4

 Convert the point  U , T , I  5, S , 3S to rectangular coordinates.

4 4

 Convert the point  x, y , z 

 2, 2

3, 4  to spherical coordinates.

 Find an equation in spherical coordinates for the rectangular equation z 

 Find an equation in rectangular coordinates for the spherical equation  S .
6

 Convert the integral

 Verify that V

4 x

2  4  x 2

2S

2 4 x  y

dV

x dz dy dx to spherical coordinates.

U 2 sin I dU dI dT

Lesson 26: Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates

4S 2  1 .

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQVLGHWKHVSKHUH
x2 + y2 + z2 RXWVLGH z

x 2  y 2 , and above the xySODQH

 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHWRUXVJLYHQE\  VLQ .
 6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHPDVVRIWKHVSKHUHRIUDGLXVLIWKHGHQVLW\LV
proportional to the distance of the point to the zD[LV

98

Vector FieldsVelocity, Gravity, Electricity

Lesson 27

Topics
x

9HFWRUHOGV

x

5RWDWLRQDQGUDGLDOYHFWRUHOGV

x

7KHJUDGLHQWDVDYHFWRUHOG

x

*UDYLWDWLRQDOHOGV

x

(OHFWULFIRUFHHOGV

x

&RQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGV

x

&DOFXODWLQJWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUDFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGLQWKHSODQH

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

A YHFWRUHOG over a planar region R is a function F that assigns a vector )x, yWRHDFKSRLQWLQR.

x

A YHFWRUHOG over a solid region Q is a function F that assigns a vector )x, y, zWRHDFKSRLQWLQQ.

x

1HZWRQVVODZRIJUDYLWDWLRQVWDWHVWKDWWKHIRUFHRIDWWUDFWLRQH[HUWHGRQDSDUWLFOHRIPDVVm
ORFDWHGDWx, y, zE\DSDUWLFOHRIPDVV m2ORFDWHGDWLV
F  x, y , z 

Gm1m2
u.
x2  y2  z 2

Here, G is the gravitational constant, and uLVWKHXQLWYHFWRUIURPWKHRULJLQWRx, y, z

x

&RXORPEVODZVWDWHVWKDWWKHIRUFHH[HUWHGRQDSDUWLFOHZLWKHOHFWULFFKDUJHqORFDWHGDWx, y, zE\
c q1 q2
a particle of charge q2ORFDWHGDWLV F  x , y , z 
u.
2
r

x

$YHFWRUHOGF is FRQVHUYDWLYHLIWKHUHH[LVWVDGLIIHUHQWLDEOHIXQFWLRQfWKHSRWHQWLDOVXFKWKDW
F f .

x

Theorem: Let M and NKDYHFRQWLQXRXVUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVRQDQRSHQGLVNR7KHYHFWRUHOG

given by ) x, y Mi + Nj is conservative if and only if wN wM .
wx
wy

99

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHGHYHORSWKHFRQFHSWRIDYHFWRUHOG,QWKHSODQHDYHFWRUHOGLVDIXQFWLRQWKDWDVVLJQVD
YHFWRUWRHDFKSRLQWLQWKHSODQH6LPLODUO\LQVSDFHDYHFWRUHOGDVVLJQVDYHFWRUWRHDFKSRLQWLQVSDFH:H
EHJLQE\GHVFULELQJW\SLFDOYHFWRUHOGVLQFOXGLQJURWDWLRQDOHOGVJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOGVDQGHOHFWULFHOGV,Q
IDFWWKHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQLVDYHFWRUHOG:HGHQHZKDWLVPHDQWE\DFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGRQHWKDW
LVWKHJUDGLHQWRIDSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQ0RVWRIWKHLPSRUWDQWHOGVLQDSSOLFDWLRQVDUHFRQVHUYDWLYH:HGHYHORS
DWHVWIRUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGVLQWKHSODQHDQGVKRZKRZWRQGWKHSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQ
([DPSOH
6NHWFKVRPHYHFWRUVLQWKHYHFWRUHOGJLYHQE\) x, y yi + xj.
6ROXWLRQ

y
:HUVWFRPSXWHVRPHSRLQWVWRJHWDQLGHDRIWKHHOG
) x, y
) 
) 
) 

Vector field:
F(x, y) = yi + xj

yi + xj
ij j
i + 0j i
i + 2j.

%\SORWWLQJWKHVHYHFWRUVZHREWDLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHRID
URWDWLRQYHFWRUHOG6HH)LJXUH
Figure 27.1

Lesson 27: Vector FieldsVelocity, Gravity, Electricity

([DPSOH
6NHWFKVRPHYHFWRUVLQWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y xi + yj.

6ROXWLRQ
:HUVWFRPSXWHVRPHSRLQWVWRJHWDQLGHDRIWKHHOG


) x, y xi + yj
)  i + j
)  ij
)  i + 2j.
%\SORWWLQJWKHVHYHFWRUVZHREWDLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHRID
UDGLDOYHFWRUHOG6HH)LJXUH





x


Figure 27.2

([DPSOH
Thegradient of a function fLVDYHFWRUHOG
)RUH[DPSOHLI f  x , y 

x2 y 

y2
, then f  x , y 
2

f x  x , y  i  f y  x , y  j 2 xyi   x 2  y  jLVDYHFWRUHOG

$WHDFKSRLQWx, yLQWKHSODQHWKHJUDGLHQWDVVLJQVDYHFWRU
([DPSOH
7KHYHFWRUHOG)x, y xyix + 2yj is conservative with potential f x, y x2xy + y2
because F f .
([DPSOH
7KHYHFWRUHOG)x, y x2yi + xyj is not conservative because M

x 2 y , wM
wy

x2 , N

xy , wN
wx

y , and x2y.

([DPSOH
)LQGDSRWHQWLDOIRUWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOG)x, y xyix2yj.
6ROXWLRQ
1RWHWKDWWKHHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVH wM
wy

2 x and wN
wx

2 x.

:HQHHGWRQGDIXQFWLRQf x, yVXFKWKDWf  x , y  2 xyi   x 2  y  j. That is, fxx, y xy and

f yx, y x2y.
,QWHJUDWLQJWKHUVWHTXDWLRQ

f  x, y 

f  x, y  dx 2 xy dx
x

x 2 y  g  y .

Integrating the second equation,

f  x, y 

f  x, y  dy  x
y

 y  dy

x2 y 

y2
 h ( x ).
2

From these two versions of the function f, we have

f  x, y 

x2 y 

y2
 K.
2


6WXG\7LSV
x

$YHFWRUHOGDVVLJQVDvector to each point in the domain.

x

*UDYLWDWLRQDOHOGVDQGHOHFWULFHOGVKDYHWKHVDPHIRUPDQGDUHH[DPSOHVRILQYHUVHVTXDUHHOGV.
k u.
Given U xi + yj + zkWKHYHFWRUHOGFLVDQLQYHUVHVTXDUHHOGLI F  x , y , z 
2
r

x

(YHU\LQYHUVHVTXDUHHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH+HQFHJUDYLWDWLRQDOHOGVDQGHOHFWULFIRUFHHOGV
are conservative.

x

$IWHUFDOFXODWLQJWKHSRWHQWLDOIRUDFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOG\RXFDQFKHFN\RXUDQVZHUE\WDNLQJ
the gradient of the potential.

y2
)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH f  x , y  x 2 y 
K
2

YHFWRUHOG

2 xyi   x 2  y  j, which is the original

3LWIDOOV
x

)RUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGV F f , keep in mind that f is a function of two or three variables,

whereas FLVDYHFWRUHOG

x

1RWLFHLQ([DPSOHWKDWWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQDUHIXQFWLRQVRIWKHRWKHUYDULDEOH7KHQDO
answer has a true constant.

Lesson 27: Vector FieldsVelocity, Gravity, Electricity

3UREOHPV
 'HVFULEHWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y i + j and compute F .
 'HVFULEHWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y, z i + j + k and compute F .
 'HWHUPLQHZKHWKHURUQRWWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y y2yixjLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
 'HWHUPLQHZKHWKHURUQRWWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y 

1
 i  j is conservative.
x2  y 2

 )LQGWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGIRUWKHSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQf x, y  x 2  1 y 2 .
4

 )LQGWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGIRUWKHSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQf x, y, z xyz.
2

 )LQGWKHFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGIRUWKHSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQ f x, y, z  z  ye x .



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Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals

Lesson 28

Topics
x

7KHFXUORIDYHFWRUHOG

x

7KHGLYHUJHQFHRIDYHFWRUHOG

x

/LQHLQWHJUDOVRIIXQFWLRQVGHQHGRQFXUYHV

x

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x

TheFXUORIWKHYHFWRUHOG)x, y, zLV

curl F  x , y , z  wP  wN
wy wz

u F  x, y , z 

Lesson 28: Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals

wN wM
wP wM
i  wx  wz j  wx  wy

i
w
wx
M

j
w
wy
N

k
w .
wz
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x

TheGLYHUJHQFHRIWKHHOG) x, y, zLV div F  x , y , z  <F

x

Let CEHDSODQDUFXUYHJLYHQE\Ut xti + ytj, atb

7KHOLQHLQWHJUDORIfLV f  x , y  ds
C

f  x t  , y t 
a

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wx
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x

104

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xc  t   y c  t  dt .

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt .

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5HFDOOWKDWPRVWRIWKHLPSRUWDQWYHFWRUHOGVLQDSSOLFDWLRQVDUHFRQVHUYDWLYH+HQFHZHEHJLQWKLVOHVVRQ
ZLWKDWHVWIRUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGVLQVSDFH7KLVWHVWLQYROYHVWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHFXUORIDYHFWRUHOGDQ
RSHUDWLRQUHODWHGWRWKHFURVVSURGXFW7KHFXUORIDYHORFLW\HOGLVUHODWHGWRLWVWHQGHQF\WRURWDWH$QRWKHU
LPSRUWDQWRSHUDWLRQRQDYHFWRUHOGLVWKHGLYHUJHQFHZKLFKLVUHODWHGWRVRXUFHVDQGVLQNVIRUYHORFLW\HOGV
)LQDOO\ZHLQWURGXFHOLQHLQWHJUDOVIRUIXQFWLRQVRIWZRDQGWKUHHYDULDEOHV7KHVHLQWHJUDOVDUHPRWLYDWHGE\
WKHFDOFXODWLRQRIPDVVIRUDWKLQZLUH
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&DOFXODWHWKHFXUORIWKHYHFWRUHOG)x, y, z xyix + zjyzk
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curl F ( x , y , z ) =
x
M

y
N

y
=
2
x + z2

k
i
=
z
x
2 xy
P

y
2
x + z2

z
2 yz

z i x
z j + x
2 xy 2 yz
2 yz
2 xy

y k
x2 + z 2

= ( 2 z 2 z ) i ( 0 0 ) j + ( 2 x 2 x ) k = 0.
1RWLFHWKDWWKHFXUOLV]HURVRWKHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
([DPSOH
&DOFXODWHWKHGLYHUJHQFHRI)x, y, z x3y zi + x zj + xyk
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We have div F  x , y , z 

wM  wN  wP
wx
wy wz

w x3 y 2 z  w x 2 z  w x 2 y .
wy wz

wx

+HQFH div F 3 x 2 y 2 z  0  0 3 x 2 y 2 z.

105

([DPSOH
(YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO  x 2  y  3 z  ds , ZKHUHCLVWKHOLQHVHJPHQWJLYHQE\Ut titj + tkt
C

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We UVWFRPSXWHds%HFDXVH xc  t  1, y c  t  2, z c  t  1,
2

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt

ds

12  2 2  12 dt

6 dt 
z

7KHOLQHLQWHJUDOEHFRPHV

x
C

 y  3 z  ds

 2t  3t  6 dt

5 6

6

([DPSOH
&DOFXODWHWKHPDVVRIDVSULQJLQWKHVKDSHRIWKHFLUFXODUKHOL[
Ut FRV tiVLQ tj + tktLIWKHGHQVLW\RIWKHVSULQJLV
x, y, z z6HH)LJXUH
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Figure 28.1

We have Ut VLQ tiFRV tj + kDQG ds

6RWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOLV 1  z  ds
C

6S

1  t 
0

sin t  cos t  1 dt
2 dt

2 dt .

6S 2  3S  1 .

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Lesson 28: Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals

6WXG\7LSV

106

x

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u F.

x

7KHYHFWRUHOGLQ([DPSOHLVFRQVHUYDWLYH7KHSRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQLVf x, y, z xy + yz + K

x

/RRVHO\VSHDNLQJFXUOLVDPHDVXUHRIDHOGVWHQGHQF\WRURWDWH,I curl F 0, ZHVD\WKDWWKH

HOGLVLUURWDWLRQDO)RUH[DPSOHWKHUDGLDOHOG) x, y xi + yjLVLUURWDWLRQDOZKHUHDVWKHHOG
) x, y yixjLVQRW

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DSRLQW,IWKHGLYHUJHQFHRIWKHHOGLVSRVLWLYHZHKDYHDVRXUFH,ILWLVQHJDWLYHZHKDYHDVLQN
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 )LQGWKHFXUORIWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y, z xyzi + xyzj + xyzk
 )LQGWKHFXUORIWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y, z ex VLQ yiex FRV yj
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 )LQGWKHGLYHUJHQFHRIWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y xiyj
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2

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107

More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field

Lesson 29

Topics
x

/LQHLQWHJUDOVRIYHFWRUHOGV

x

:RUN

x

/LQHLQWHJUDOVLQGLIIHUHQWLDOIRUP

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

Let CEHDSODQDUFXUYHJLYHQE\Ut xti + ytj, a d t d b,IFLVDYHFWRUHOGZLWKXQLWWDQJHQW

vector TWKHQWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO of FLV

F < dr

F < T ds

F  x  t  , y  t   <rc  t  dt.
a

Lesson 29: More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field

$VLPLODUGHQLWLRQKROGVIRUFXUYHVLQVSDFH
x

The LQFUHPHQWRIZRUNLV dW | F < T ds

F < dr.

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C

M dx  N dy.

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108

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 sin ti  cos tj.

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F < dr

t=
2

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a

r ( t ) = cos t i + sin t j
0t
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2

> 3cos t sin t  4sin t cos t @ dt

2

sin 2 t 2
2
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sin t cos t dt

1.
2

t=0

x
Figure 29.1

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 1 cos ti  1 sin tj  1 k .
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2
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7KHZRUNLV

F < dr

3S

3S

3S

F <r c  t  dt

  12 cos ti  12 sin tj  14 k  <  sin ti  cos tj  k  dt

 12 sin t cos t  12 sin t cos t  14  dt
1 dt
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3S

1 t
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109

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y dx  x 2 dy

 4 x  x  dx  x  4  2 x  dx
2

4 x  3 x 2  2 x 3 dx.

7KLVLQWHJUDOLVHDV\WRHYDOXDWHDQGWKHQDODQVZHULV 69 .
2

Lesson 29: More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field

6WXG\7LSV
x

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110

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Ut ti + tjt

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Ut ti +

4  t 2 j,t

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Ut ti + tjtkt

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Ut  FRV ti VLQ tj + tkt

 )LQGWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHIRUFHHOG) x, y xiyjRQDSDUWLFOHPRYLQJDORQJWKHSDWK
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 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C  3 y  x  dx  y 2 dy ,ZKHUHCLVWKHSDWKJLYHQE\x t, y = 10tt

 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C  x  3 y 2  dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHSDWKJLYHQE\x t, y = 10tt
 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOC F < dr ,ZKHUH) x, y xi + xyjDQGCLVWKHFXUYHJLYHQE\Ut titj,
t

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t:KDWGR\RXREVHUYH"

111

Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

Lesson 30

Topics
x

7KHIXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIOLQHLQWHJUDOV

x

6PRRWKFXUYHVSLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFXUYHVVLPSOHFXUYHVDQGFORVHGFXUYHV

x

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x

TheIXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIOLQHLQWHJUDOV/HWCEHDSLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFXUYHLQWKHRSHQUHJLRQR
JLYHQE\Ut xti + ytj, a d t d b/HWF = Mi + NjEHFRQVHUYDWLYHMDQGNFRQWLQXRXVDQGf a
SRWHQWLDOIRUF7KHQ

F < dr

f < dr

f  x b  , y b   f  x  a  , y  a .

Lesson 30: Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

$VLPLODUSURSHUW\KROGVIRUOLQHLQWHJUDOVLQVSDFH
x

The curve Ut xti + ytj + ztk, a d t d bLVVPRRWKLIWKHGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHFRPSRQHQW

IXQFWLRQVDUHFRQWLQXRXVDQGDUHQRWVLPXOWDQHRXVO\]HUR7KHFXUYHLVSLHFHZLVHVPRRWKLILWFDQEH
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x

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x

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x

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f  x b  , y b   f  x  a  , y  a 
f 1, 2   f  1, 4 
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2

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113

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IXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIOLQHLQWHJUDOV

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f < dr

f  0, 2, 3  f 1, 1, 0 

0 2 2  2 3 2  12 1  1 0 2 17.
           

([DPSOH
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C
6HH)LJXUH
2

6ROXWLRQ

C1: r ( t ) = (1 cos t ) i + sin t j

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(0, 0) C2

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Lesson 30: Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

7KHQ r c  t  sin t i  cos t j DQG

F < dr

 sin

 sin
0

Figure 30.1

t  1 i   3 1  cos t  sin 2 t  1 j <>sin ti  cos tj@ dt

t  sin t  3 1  cos t  sin 2 t cos t  cos t  dt .

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114

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f 1, 1  f  0, 0  (12 )(1)  0 1  0 1.

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f ( x ) dx
F < dr

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f < dr

F (b )  F ( a )

f  x b  , y b   f  x  a  , y  a .

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\RXFRXOGXVH f  x , y  x 2 y  1 y 2  K IRUDQ\FRQVWDQWK
2
3LWIDOO
x

:KHQXVLQJWKHIXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIOLQHLQWHJUDOV\RXPXVWPDNHVXUHWKDWWKHYHFWRUHOG
LVFRQVHUYDWLYH

3UREOHPV
 'HWHUPLQHZKHWKHUWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y ex VLQ yi + ex FRV yjLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
 'HWHUPLQHZKHWKHUWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y  1 i  x2 j LVFRQVHUYDWLYH
y

 'HWHUPLQHZKHWKHUWKHYHFWRUHOG) x, y, z yOQz ixOQzj +

xy
k LVFRQVHUYDWLYH
z

115

2
y2
1 IURPWR
 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOC 2 xy dx   x 2  y 2  dy ,ZKHUHCLVWKHHOOLSVH x 

25

16

 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C 2 xy dx   x 2  y 2  dy ,ZKHUHCLVWKHSDUDERODy xIURPWR

 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOC yz dx  xz dy  xy dz ,ZKHUHCLVWKHFXUYHUt tij + tkt
 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOC yz dx  xz dy  xy dz ,ZKHUHCLVWKHFXUYHUt ti + tj + tkt
 (YDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOC cos x sin y dx  sin x cos y dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHOLQHVHJPHQWIURP
to 3S , S .

 2 2

2
 )LQGWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHIRUFHHOG)x, y  2x i  x 2 j LQPRYLQJDQREMHFWIURPWKHSRLQWWR

WKHSRLQW

 9HULI\WKDW)x, y 

Lesson 30: Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

116

y
i  2 x 2 j LVFRQVHUYDWLYH
x  y2
x y
2

:KDWLVWKHYDOXHRIWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO F < drLICLVWKHFLUFOHxy "

C

Greens TheoremBoundaries and Regions

Lesson 31

Topics
x

*UHHQVWKHRUHP

x

&RQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGVDQG*UHHQVWKHRUHP

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

*UHHQVWKHRUHP/HWCEHDSLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFORVHGFXUYHRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVH7KHFXUYHLV
WUDYHUVHGRQFHZLWKWKHVLPSO\FRQQHFWHGUHJLRQRRQLWVOHIW7KHQ

M dx  N dy

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA.

6XPPDU\
*UHHQVWKHRUHPUHODWHVDOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGWKHERXQGDU\RIDUHJLRQZLWKDGRXEOHLQWHJUDORYHUWKH
HQWLUHUHJLRQ:HEHJLQE\LOOXVWUDWLQJWKHWKHRUHPZLWKDQH[DPSOHDQGWKHQZHVWDWHWKHJHQHUDOWKHRUHP
*UHHQVWKHRUHPLPSOLHVWKDWIRUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGVWKHOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGDQ\FORVHGFXUYHLV]HUR
)LQDOO\ZHVKRZKRZ*UHHQVWKHRUHPLVUHODWHGWRWKHURWDWLRQDOWHQGHQF\RIDYHORFLW\HOG
([DPSOH

y
(1, 1)

Let REHWKHUHJLRQLQWKHUVWTXDGUDQWERXQGHGE\WKHJUDSKVRI
y = xDQGy = x

y=x
y = x2

Let CEHWKHERXQGDU\RULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVH

Calculate

C1

y 2 dx  x 2 dy. 6HH)LJXUH
(0, 0)

6ROXWLRQ

C2

R
x
1
Figure 31.1

1RWLFHWKDWZHDUHXVLQJGLIIHUHQWLDOQRWDWLRQKHUH
7KDWLV y 2 dx  x 2 dy
C

M dx  N dy , ZKHUH) x, y Mi + Nj = yi + xj

$OVRWKHIRUFHHOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVH wN
wx

2 x z wM
wy

2 y.

117

:HFDQSDUDPHWHUL]HWKHERXQGDU\DV
2
0 d t d1
ti  t j,
r t 
.
2

t
i

2

t
j
,
1
   dt d2


+HQFHWKHUHDUHWZRLQWHJUDOVWRHYDOXDWH7KHUVWRQHJRHVDORQJWKHSDUDERODC1IURPWR
r  t  ti  t 2 j , 0 d t d 1, r c  t  i  2tj.
%HFDXVHx = t, dx = dt, y = t, dy tdtWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOLV

C1

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

 t 
2

t
0

dt  t 2  2t dt 

 2t 3  dt
1

t5 t4
5  2
0

11
5 2

7.
10

7KHVHFRQGSDWKCLVWKHOLQHIURPWRUt titjt r c  t   i  j

%HFDXVHx t, dx dt, y t, dy dtZHKDYH

C2

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

22  t 
1

Lesson 31: Greens TheoremBoundaries and Regions

 2  t    dt    2  t    dt 
2

(  dt )
2

2  2  t 3

0 2
3

 2.
3

&RPELQLQJWKHVHUHVXOWV

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

7 2
10 3

1 
30

*UHHQVWKHRUHPVD\VWKDWWKHOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGWKHERXQGDU\HTXDOVDFHUWDLQGRXEOHLQWHJUDORYHUWKH
HQFORVHGUHJLRQ
wN

wx 
R

118

wM
wy

dA.

y 2 , wM
wy

+HUH M

wN

wM
wy

wx 
R

x 2 , wN
wx

2 y , DQG N

dA

x2

2 x. 6RZHKDYH

 2 x  2 y  dy dx

2 xy  y 2 2 dx
x

 2 x

x
0

 x 2    2 x 3  x 4  dx

 2 x 3  x 4  dx
1

x3 x 4 x5
3  2  5
0

111
3 2 5

:HKDYHYHULHGLQWKLVH[DPSOHWKDW M dx  N dy
C

1 .
30

wN

wx 
R

wM dA.
wy

([DPSOH
$SDUWLFOHWUDYHOVRQFHFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHDURXQGWKHFLUFOHRIUDGLXVFHQWHUHGDWWKHRULJLQVXEMHFWWRWKH
force )x, y y3ix3 + 3xyj8VH*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRQGWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHIRUFHHOG
6ROXWLRQ
1RWLFHKRZZHFRQYHUWWRSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV
W

y 3 dx   x 3  3 xy 2  dy
wN

wx 
R

 3 x

wM
wy

dA

 3 y 2  3 y 2  dA

2S

3 x

dA

3  r cos T 

r dr dT .

:HFDQHYDOXDWHWKLVLQWHJUDOXVLQJDKDOIDQJOHIRUPXOD
W

2S

3  r cos T  r dr dT

3 81
4

2S

cos 2 T dT
2S

243 T  sin 2T
8
2 0

2S

r4

2
4 cos T dT
0

243 2S 1  cos 2T dT
4 0
2
243 (2S )
8

243S .
4
119

([DPSOH
Calculate

3
2
y dx  3 xy dyZKHUHCLVWKHFXUYHLQ)LJXUH

6ROXWLRQ
7KHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH wM
wy

wN .
wx

3y2

+HQFHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOLV]HUR y 3 dx  3 xy 2 dy
C

x
0.
Figure 31.2

6WXG\7LSV
x

*UHHQVWKHRUHPFDQEHH[WHQGHGWRUHJLRQVWKDWDUHQRWQHFHVVDULO\VLPSO\FRQQHFWHG

x

*UHHQVWKHRUHPLVDSODQDUWKHRUHP*HQHUDOL]DWLRQVWRVSDFHZLOOFRPHLQODWHUOHVVRQVWKH
GLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHPDQG6WRNHVVWKHRUHP

x

6RPHWH[WVXVHWKHQRWDWLRQ v F < dr IRUDOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGDFORVHGFXUYHC

x

5HFDOOWKDWIRUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGV wN wM , WKHYDOXHRIDOLQHLQWHJUDORYHUDFORVHGFXUYHLV
wx
wy
]HUR7KLVLVHDVLO\VHHQIURP*UHHQVWKHRUHP

M dx  N dy

wN

wx 
R

wM dA 0.
wy

Lesson 31: Greens TheoremBoundaries and Regions

3LWIDOO
x

:KHQXVLQJ*UHHQVWKHRUHP\RXPXVWPDNHVXUHWKDWWKHERXQGDU\FXUYHCLVWUDYHUVHGRQFHVRWKDW
WKHUHJLRQRLVRQWKHOHIW

3UREOHPV
 9HULI\*UHHQVWKHRUHPIRUWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C y 2 dx  x 2 dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHERXQGDU\RIWKHUHJLRQO\LQJ
EHWZHHQWKHJUDSKVRIy = xDQG y

x.

 8VH*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C  y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy ,ZKHUHCLVWKHUHJLRQO\LQJ
LQVLGHWKHVHPLFLUFOH y

25  x 2 DQGRXWVLGHWKHVHPLFLUFOH y

9  x2 .

 8VH*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C  y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHHOOLSVH
x  FRV , y VLQ 



 8VH*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C e x cos 2 y dx  2e x sin 2 y dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHFLUFOH

x + y 

 )LQGWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHIRUFH)x, y xyix + yjWKDWLVPRYLQJDSDUWLFOHFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHRQFH

DURXQGWKHXQLWFLUFOHx + y 

 3 y i   6 x  5 y  j WKDWLVPRYLQJDSDUWLFOH
FRXQWHUFORFNZLVHRQFHDURXQGWKHWULDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHVDQG

 )LQGWKHZRUNGRQHE\WKHIRUFH F  x, y 



Applications of Greens Theorem

Lesson 32

Topics
x

*UHHQVWKHRUHP

x

$SSOLFDWLRQVRI*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRDUHD

x

7KHDUHDHQFORVHGE\DSRO\JRQ

x

$QDOWHUQDWHIRUPRI*UHHQVWKHRUHP

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

*UHHQVWKHRUHP/HWCEHDSLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFORVHGFXUYHRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVH7KHFXUYHLV
WUDYHUVHGRQFHZLWKWKHVLPSO\FRQQHFWHGUHJLRQRRQLWVOHIW7KHQ

x

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA.

*UHHQVWKHRUHPDQGDUHD6HOHFWIXQFWLRQVMDQGNVXFKWKDW wN  wM
wx wy

Lesson 32: Applications of Greens Theorem

M dx  N dy

M dx  N dy

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA

1. 7KHQ

1 dA = area of R
R

x

,IRLVDSODQDUUHJLRQERXQGHGE\WKHFORVHGFXUYHCRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHWKHQWKHDUHD
HQFORVHGLV A 1 x dy  y dx.
2 C

x

7KHDUHDRIDSRO\JRQZLWKYHUWLFHVx1, y1x, yxn, ynLV

A

x

1 x y  x y  x y  x y } x y  x y

 n1 n n n1    xn y1  x1 yn  .
2 1  2 3
3 2
2 1 2

$OWHUQDWHIRUPRI*UHHQVWKHRUHP

F < dr

M dx  N dy

wN

wx 
R

wM dA
wy

 curl F <k dA.

R

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RI*UHHQVWKHRUHP:HEHJLQZLWKDQH[DPSOHRIKRZ*UHHQVWKHRUHP
SHUPLWVXVWRHYDOXDWHDOLQHLQWHJUDOE\FDOFXODWLQJDFRUUHVSRQGLQJGRXEOHLQWHJUDO:HWKHQVKRZKRZ
*UHHQVWKHRUHPFDQEHXVHGWRFDOFXODWHWKHDUHDRIDSODQDUUHJLRQ:HHQGWKHOHVVRQZLWKDEULHIORRNDWDQ
DOWHUQDWHIRUPRI*UHHQVWKHRUHPRQHWKDWZHZLOOODWHUJHQHUDOL]HWR6WRNHVVWKHRUHP


([DPSOH
8VH*UHHQVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHLQWHJUDO  y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy , ZKHUHCLVWKHERXQGDU\RIWKHUHJLRQ
C
EHWZHHQWKHJUDSKVRIy = xDQGy = xx
6ROXWLRQ

:HFDQGHWHUPLQHWKHUHJLRQE\QGLQJWKHSRLQWVZKHUHWKH
JUDSKVLQWHUVHFW
x = xx 3xx = 0 xx  x 
(3, 3)

6RWKHJUDSKVLQWHUVHFWDWDQG6HH)LJXUH

x
y = x2 2x

<RXZLOOQHHGWZROLQHLQWHJUDOVRQHIURPWRDORQJ
WKHSDUDERODDQGRQHIURPEDFNWRWKHRULJLQDORQJWKHOLQH
7KHVROXWLRQE\*UHHQVWKHRUHPLVPXFKHDVLHU
2 x  y wN
wx

We have N

y  x wM
wy

2 DQG M

7KXVWKHLQWHJUDQGIRU*UHHQVWKHRUHPLV wN  wM
wx wy

1.

Figure 32.1

2  1 1.
y

)LQDOO\WKHOLQHLQWHJUDOLV

x2 y2
+
=1
a2 b2

 y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy 1 dA

x2 2 x

x  x
0

dy dx
2

0 > y @x 2 x dx

 2 x  dx

3x 2 x3
2  3
0

(0, 0)

 3 x  x  dx
2

27  9
2

9.
2
Figure 32.2

([DPSOH
8VHDOLQHLQWHJUDOWRQGWKHDUHDHQFORVHGE\WKHHOOLSVH

x2 y2

a 2 b2

1. 6HH)LJXUH

6ROXWLRQ
:HFDQSDUDPHWHUL]HWKHHOOLSVHDV x

a cos t , y

b sin t , 0 d t d 2S . 7KHQ dx

 a sin t dt DQG dy

b cos t dt .



6RWKHDUHDRIWKHHOOLSVHLV



1 x dy  y dx
2 C

1 2S a cos t b cos t  b sin t  a sin t dt



 


2 0




ab 2S cos 2 t  sin 2 t dt


2 0
ab 2S 1 dt

2 0

ab t 2S
>@
2 0





S ab.

([DPSOH

Figure 32.3

)LQGWKHDUHDRIWKHSHQWDJRQZLWKYHUWLFHV6HH)LJXUH
6ROXWLRQ
8VLQJWKHIRUPXODIRUDUHDRIDSRO\JRQWZLFHWKHDUHDLV

>0(0)  0(2)@  > 2(2)  3(0)@  >3(4)  1(2)@  >1(1)  ( 1)(4)@  >( 1)(0)  0(1)@
0  4  10  5  0 19.
'LYLGLQJE\WKHWRWDODUHDLV 19 .
2

Lesson 32: Applications of Greens Theorem

6WXG\7LSV
x

,Q([DPSOHZHDFWXDOO\IRXQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQ

x

7KHDUHDRIDQHOOLSVHLVDE,IWKHHOOLSVHLVDFLUFOHWKHQa = bDQGZHJHWWKHDUHDRIDFLUFOHD

x

$SODQLPHWHULVDQHQJLQHHULQJGHYLFHIRUFDOFXODWLQJWKHDUHDRIDUHJLRQE\WUDFLQJRXWLWVERXQGDU\
,WLVEDVHGRQ*UHHQVWKHRUHP

x

7KHNH\WRWKHIRUPXODIRUWKHDUHDRIDSRO\JRQLVWKHYDOXHRIWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO

x dy  y dx

x1 y2  x2 y1,

ZKHUHCLVWKHOLQHVHJPHQWMRLQLQJx1, y1DQGx, y<RXDUHDVNHGWRGHULYHWKLVIRUPXODLQ

3UREOHP



3LWIDOO
x

:KHQXVLQJ*UHHQVWKHRUHPWKHFXUYHPXVWEHRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHDURXQGWKHUHJLRQ

3UREOHPV
 9HULI\WKDWWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C  y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy DORQJWKHSDUDERODy = xx, 0 d x dLV
 8VHDOLQHLQWHJUDOWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHFLUFOHx + y = a
 8VHDOLQHLQWHJUDOWRQGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\WKHJUDSKVRIy = 5xDQGy = x
 Calculate

y dx  x dy
LICLVDFLUFOHRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVHWKDWGRHVQRWFRQWDLQWKHRULJLQ
x2  y2

 Let CEHWKHOLQHVHJPHQWMRLQLQJWKHSRLQWVx1, y1DQGx, y

9HULI\WKHIRUPXOD x dy  y dx
C

x1 y2  x2 y1 .

 )LQGWKHDUHDHQFORVHGE\WKHKH[DJRQZLWKYHUWLFHV
 3URYHthat

f  x  dx  g  y  dy
C

0 LIfDQGgDUHGLIIHUHQWLDEOHIXQFWLRQVDQGCLVDSLHFHZLVHVPRRWK

VLPSOHFORVHGSDWK



Parametric Surfaces in Space

Lesson 33

Topics
x

3DUDPHWULFFXUYHV

x

3DUDPHWULFVXUIDFHVLQVSDFH

x

1RUPDOYHFWRUVWRSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHV

x

6XUIDFHDUHDDQGWKHGLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD

'HQLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x

$VWKHUHDOQXPEHUVuDQGvYDU\DFURVVWKHLUGRPDLQVWKHIXQFWLRQ
Uu, v xu, vi + yu, vj + zu, vk

WUDFHVRXWDSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFH
x

&RQVLGHUDSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHDQGLWVSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV

Lesson 33: Parametric Surfaces in Space

r u, v 

x u, v  i  y u, v  j  z u, v  k

ru  u , v 

wx i  wy j  wz k
wu
wu
wu

rv  u , v 

wx i  wy j  wz k .
wv
wv
wv

A QRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHVXUIDFHLVWKHFURVVSURGXFWN = Uv Uu
x

The VXUIDFHDUHDRIDSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHLV A

u rv dA.

x

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFH DUHDLV dS

ru u rv dA.

6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHH[WHQGRXUNQRZOHGJHRISDUDPHWULFFXUYHVWRSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHV$SDUDPHWULFVXUIDFH
LVJLYHQE\DYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQKDYLQJWZRSDUDPHWHUV$VWKHSDUDPHWHUVYDU\RYHUWKHLUGRPDLQVWKH
IXQFWLRQWUDFHVRXWDVXUIDFHLQVSDFH:HZLOOXVHWKHFURVVSURGXFWRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVWRFRQVWUXFWQRUPDO



YHFWRUVWRSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHV:HFORVHWKHOHVVRQZLWKWKHLQWHJUDOIRUVXUIDFHDUHDDQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
GLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD
([DPSOH

6NHWFKWKHSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHJLYHQE\


Uu, v  FRV ui VLQ uj + vkZKHUHuv

6ROXWLRQ




)RUHDFKSRLQWx, y, zRQWKHVXUIDFHZHKDYHx  FRV u, y  VLQ u

7KLVPHDQVWKDWx + y ZKLFKWHOOVXVWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVDULJKW
FLUFXODUF\OLQGHURIUDGLXVDQGKHLJKW6HH)LJXUH

Figure 33.1

([DPSOH
1

z
r ( u , v ) = uuii + vvjj + v k
2

'HVFULEHWKHVXUIDFH r  u , v  ui  vj  v k .
2

y = 2z

6ROXWLRQ
1

%HFDXVHyz WKLVVXUIDFHLVDSODQHLQVSDFH
6HH)LJXUH

x2

([DPSOH

Figure 33.2

7KHSDUDERORLGz = x + yFDQEHGHVFULEHGDVDSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFH
Uu, v ui + vju + vk)LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIDQRUPDOYHFWRU
WRWKLVVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW7KHQQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKH
WDQJHQWSODQHWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW

6ROXWLRQ

7KHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUHUu = iuk, Uv = jvk7KHLUFURVV

SURGXFWLVUv Uu uivjk$WWKHSRLQWWKHQRUPDO
YHFWRULVN i + 4jk
1RWLFHWKDWWKLVYHFWRULVDQRXWZDUGQRUPDOYHFWRUEHFDXVHWKHWKLUG
FRPSRQHQWLVQHJDWLYH
7KHWDQJHQWSODQHLVxyz ZKLFK
VLPSOLHVWRx + 4yz 6HH)LJXUH










Figure 33.3



([DPSOH
)LQGWKHDUHDRIWKHXQLWVSKHUHUu, v VLQuFRVviVLQuVLQvjFRVukZKHUHuv
6ROXWLRQ
:HNQRZWKDWWKHDQVZHUVKRXOGEHU = 4,Q3UREOHP\RXDUHDVNHGWRXVHWULJRQRPHWULFLGHQWLWLHV
WRYHULI\WKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVLQGHHGDXQLWVSKHUH7RXVHWKHIRUPXODIRUVXUIDFHDUHDUVWFDOFXODWHWKH
SDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
Uu FRVuFRVviFRVuVLQvjVLQuk
Uv VLQuVLQviVLQuFRVvj

$VVKRZQLQ3UREOHPWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWKHFURVVSURGXFWLV ru u rv
)LQDOO\WKHVXUIDFHDUHDLV ru u rv dA
D

2S

sin u du dv

sin u 

4S .

Lesson 33: Parametric Surfaces in Space

6WXG\7LSV
x

3DUDPHWULFFXUYHVLQWKHSODQHDQGVSDFHVXFKDVUt FRVtiVLQtj + tkKDYHRQHSDUDPHWHUt

3DUDPHWULFVXUIDFHVVXFKDVUu, v ui + vju + vkKDYHWZRSDUDPHWHUVuDQGv

x

<RXFDQDOZD\VGHVFULEHDVXUIDFHz = f x, yDVDSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHE\VLPSO\ZULWLQJ
Ux, y xi + yj + f x, yk

x

,IWKHVXUIDFHLVJLYHQE\WKHIXQFWLRQ z = f x, yWKHQWKHVXUIDFHFDQEHGHVFULEHGE\WKHSDUDPHWULF
HTXDWLRQUx, y xi + yj + f x, yk

7KHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUH rx

7KHFURVVSURGXFWLV rx u ry

wf
wf
i  k DQG ry j  k .
x
w

wy
2
2
wf
wf
wf wf
 i
j  k DQG rx u ry
  1.

wx
wy
wx wy

3LWIDOOV



x

7KH0|ELXVVWULSLVDQH[DPSOHRIDVXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH:HZLOOVHHODWHUWKDWWKH0|ELXV
VWULSLVQRWRULHQWDEOH

x

1RWLFHWKDWWKHQRUPDOYHFWRUVWRDVXUIDFHN1 = Uv UuDQGN = Uu Uv N1SRLQWLQRSSRVLWH

GLUHFWLRQV)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOHWKHWZRQRUPDOYHFWRUVDUHUv Uu uivjkDQG
Uu Uv uivj + k

3UREOHPV
 'HVFULEHWKHSDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHUu, v uiu + vj + vk
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Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals

Lesson 34

Topics
x

6XUIDFHLQWHJUDOV

x

6XUIDFHLQWHJUDOVDQGPDVV

x

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x

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f  x, y, z  dS f  x, y, g  x, y  
S

The GLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFH DUHDLV dS

Lesson 34: Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals

x

1   g x    g y  dA.
2

1   g x    g y  dA.

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S

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ru  u , v  u rv  u , v  dA LVWKHGLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD

x

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x

Let z = g x, yEHDQRULHQWDEOHVXUIDFHDQGOHWG x, y, z zg x, y7KHJUDGLHQWRIGLVQRUPDOWR

WKHVXUIDFH
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130

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x

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S

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Lesson 34: Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals

y
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Lesson 34: Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals

3UREOHPV
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135

Divergence TheoremBoundaries and Solids

Lesson 35

Topics
x

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x

7KHGLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHPDQG*UHHQVWKHRUHP

x

6RXUFHVDQGVLQNV

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x

Let QEHDVROLGUHJLRQLQVSDFHERXQGHGE\WKHVXUIDFHSRULHQWHGRXWZDUGE\DXQLWQRUPDON
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The GLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHPVWDWHVWKDW

F < N dS divF dV .

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x

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136

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Lesson 35: Divergence TheoremBoundaries and Solids

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139

Stokess Theorem and Maxwells Equations

Lesson 36

Topics
x

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x

6WRNHVVWKHRUHP

x

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b

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x
x

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f < dr

f  x b , y b , z b  f  x  a  , y  a  , z  a .

*UHHQVWKHRUHP F < dr

M dx  N dy

Lesson 36: Stokess Theorem and Maxwells Equations

dA .

div F dV <F dV .
Q

F < dr

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S

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140

wM
wy

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x

w
wz
y2

2 yi  2 j  k .

)LQDOO\

 curl F < N dS  2 yi  2 j  k < 2 xi  2 yj  k  dA

S

 4 xy  4 y  1 dA

4S .

141

:HQH[WFDOFXODWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO
7KHERXQGDU\CFDQEHSDUDPHWHUL]HGDVr  t  2 cos ti  2sin tj  0k , 0 d t d 2S 6Rr c  t  2sin ti  2 cos tj 
We have x

2 cos t , dx
F < dr

2sin t dt , y

2sin t , dy

M dx  N dy  P dz

2 z dx  x dy  y 2 dz

2 cos t dt DQGz %HFDXVH)x, y, z zi + xj + yk,

2S

>0  2 cos t (2 cos t )  0@ dt

0

2S

4 cos 2 t dt

4S .

 curl F < N dS

7KHUHIRUHZHKDYHYHULHG6WRNHVVWKHRUHP F < dr
C

4S .

([DPSOH
Let )x, y, z yzexi + zexj + yexkDQGFRQVLGHUDVXUIDFHZLWKERXQGDU\C6KRZWKDW F < dr

0

6ROXWLRQ
i
w
wx
yze x

:HVHHWKDWWKHFXUORIFLV]HUR curl F

Lesson 36: Stokess Theorem and Maxwells Equations

([DPSOH

j
w
wy
ze x

k
w
wz
ye x

0. Therefore,

 curl F < N dS

F < dr

0.

6KRZWKDWWKHLQWHJUDODQGGLIIHUHQWLDOIRUPVRI*DXVVVODZDUHHTXLYDOHQW
6ROXWLRQ
8VLQJWKHGLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHP

E< N dS divE dV H
S

dV

H0

1 Q.

U dV

H0

6WXG\7LSV

 2 xi  2 yj  k  dA LVWKHVDPHDVLQ/HVVRQ

,Q([DPSOHWKHYDOXH N dS

x

,Q([DPSOHZHXVHGDKDOIDQJOHIRUPXODWRFDOFXODWHWKHQDOLQWHJUDO

2S



G  x , y , z  dA

x

4 cos 2 t dt

2S
4 1  cos 2t dt
0
2

2S

2 t  sin 2t
2 0

4S .

x

6WRNHVVWKHRUHPUHODWHVWKHFLUFXODWLRQDURXQGWKHERXQGDU\RIDVXUIDFHWRWKHVXUIDFHLQWHJUDORIWKH
FXUORIWKHYHFWRUHOG

x

5HFDOOWKDWLIWKHFXUORIDYHFWRUHOGLV]HURWKHQWKHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
)XUWKHUPRUHOLQHLQWHJUDOVRQFORVHGFXUYHVHTXDO]HUR6WRNHVVWKHRUHPUHHFWVWKLVSURSHUW\

F < dr

 curl F < N dS

0.

x

1RWLFHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLQWHJUDOLQ6WRNHVVWKHRUHPRQO\GHSHQGVRQWKHYDOXHVRIWKHYHFWRUHOGRQ
WKHERXQGDU\C7KXVLIWZRVXUIDFHVKDYHWKHVDPHERXQGDU\WKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJVXUIDFHLQWHJUDOV
ZLOOEHWKHVDPH

x

$OORI0D[ZHOOVHTXDWLRQVKDYHFRUUHVSRQGLQJLQWHJUDOIRUPV

x

0D[ZHOOVWKLUGHTXDWLRQLVRIWHQFDOOHG)DUDGD\VODZ

3LWIDOO
x

0DNHVXUHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHDQGERXQGDU\DUHRULHQWHGFRUUHFWO\)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOHWKH
QRUPDOLVXSZDUGRXWZDUGDQGWKHERXQGDU\LVRULHQWHGFRXQWHUFORFNZLVH

3UREOHPV
 9HULI\6WRNHVVWKHRUHPIRU) x, y, z y + zixzjxykZKHUHSLVWKHVXUIDFH
z xy, z7KDWLVFDOFXODWH (curl F ) < N dS DQGWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJOLQHLQWHJUDO
S

 8VH6WRNHVVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C F < dr , ZKHUH F  x, y , z  arctan x i  ln x 2  y 2 j  k

DQGCLVWKHWULDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHVDQG

 8VH6WRNHVVWKHRUHPWRHYDOXDWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO C F < dr , ZKHUH) x, y, z xyzi + yj + zkDQGSLVWKH

VXUIDFHz = xxy$VVXPHWKDWNLVWKHGRZQZDUGXQLWQRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFH

 $VVXPHWKDWWKHPRWLRQRIDOLTXLGLQDF\OLQGULFDOFRQWDLQHURIUDGLXVLVGHVFULEHGE\WKHYHORFLW\HOG
) x, y, z i + jk)LQG (curl F ) < N dS , ZKHUHSLVWKHXSSHUVXUIDFHRIWKHF\OLQGULFDOFRQWDLQHU
S

 $VVXPHWKDWWKHPRWLRQRIDOLTXLGLQDF\OLQGULFDOFRQWDLQHURIUDGLXVLVGHVFULEHGE\WKHYHORFLW\
HOG F  x , y , z   y x 2  y 2 i  x x 2  y 2 j. )LQG (curl F ) < N dS , ZKHUHSLVWKHXSSHUVXUIDFHRIWKH
S
F\OLQGULFDOFRQWDLQHU

143

Solutions

Lesson 1
1 2  e3 x 3
 
 
2x

1. By the chain rule, f c  x 

S

3.

4  1, 0  2

4.

3cos t and y

cos x dx

sin S  sin 0 1.
2

>sin x @0 2

2.

1  3e 3 x .
x

5,  2

5i  2 j.

x and sin t
3

3sin t implies cos t

y
.
3

By the fundamental trigonometric identity, we have cos 2 t  sin 2 t

equation of a circle of radius 3 centered at the origin.

5.

 6  1   2   2     2  4 
2

7. The midpoint is 4  8 , 0  8 , 6  20
2

Solutions

1 x2  y2

9. This is the

f c  x  6 x 2  6 x  12 6  x 2  x  2  6  x  2  x  1 . Setting this derivative equal to zero yields the

critical numbers x = 1 and x $QDO\]LQJWKHGHULYDWLYHLQWKHRSHQLQWHUYDOVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFULWLFDO
QXPEHUVZHVHHWKDWWKHJUDSKLVLQFUHDVLQJRQDQGDQGGHFUHDVLQJRQ. Hence,
WKHUHLVDUHODWLYHPD[LPXPDWDQGDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPDW.

6. The distance is

8.

 x  0    y  2    z  5

9.

f 1, 3

ln 3  e1 3

25  0  36

 6, 4, 7  .
2

22 x 2   y  2    z  5

ln 3  e 4 .

10. g S , 0  3cos S  0   sin S  0  3  1  0 3.

144

2
x2  y
9
9

4.

61.

Lesson 2

1.

f  0, 5, 4 

2. The domain is

05 4

3.

^ x, y : x z 0 and y z 0`. That is, the domain consists of all points in the plane that do not

lie on either axis.

3. We must have 4  x  y ! 0 x  y  4. So, the domain is the set

^ x, y : y   x  4`.

4. The graph is a plane 4 units above, and parallel to, the xy-plane.

5. The graph is a hemisphere of radius 1 above the xy-plane.

6. 6HWWLQJxy = cZHVHHWKDWx + 3y c. Hence, the level curves are lines of slope  2 .
3

7. The level curves are hyperbolas of the form xy = c.

8. The level surface is the sphere of radius 3, x + y + z = 9.

9. We complete the square as follows:

z

  x 2  2 x  1   y 2  4 y  4   5

2x  4 y  x2  y2

5   x  1   y  2  .

Hence, the largest value of z is 5, when x = 1 and y 

10. The volume consists of the cylinder and two hemispheres. Hence, we have
V

S r2x  4 S r3
3

S r 2 3 x  4r .


3

145

Lesson 3

1.

2.

3.

 x , y  o 2, 1

lim

2x

lim

e xy

 x , y  o1, 2 

 y

2  2   1 9.

e1 2

e2 .

11  1

xy  1
 x , y o1, 1 1  xy
lim

1  11

0
2

0.

4. 7KHIXQFWLRQLVFRQWLQXRXVH[FHSWDWWKHSRLQW. This point is not in the domain of the function.

5. 7KHFRQWLQXRXVIRUDOOx, y satisfying x + y7KHVHSRLQWVDUHQRWLQWKHGRPDLQRIWKHIXQFWLRQ

6. $SSURDFKLQJWKHRULJLQDORQJWKHSDWKy WKHIXQFWLRQHTXDOV
$SSURDFKLQJWKHRULJLQDORQJWKHSDWKy = x, the function equals

x2
x  x2
2

1.
2

)RUDQ\RSHQGLVNDERXWWKHRULJLQWKHUHDUHYDOXHVRIWKHIXQFWLRQHTXDOWRDQGRWKHUYDOXHVHTXDOWR 1 .
2
Hence, the limit does not exist.

7. $SSURDFKLQJWKHRULJLQDORQJWKHSDWKx = y, the function equals

$SSURDFKLQJWKHRULJLQDORQJWKHSDWKx y, the function equals

 xy 2
x2  y4
 xy 2
x2  y4

 y2 y2
y4  y4
y2 y2
y4  y4

1.
2
1.
2

Solutions

1
For any open disk about the origin, there are values of the function equal to  and other values equal to
2
1 . Hence, the limit does not exist.
2

8.

wf
wx

9.

wf
wx

10.

wf
wx

146

2,

wf
wy

y,

5.

wf
wy

1 xy 1 2
2

 sin xy ( y )

x .
2 y

 y sin xy ,

wf
wy

 sin xy ( x )

 x sin xy.

Lesson 4

1.

fx

5cos 5 x cos 5 y , f y

2.

fx

ye

3.

4.

  yx 
2

5sin 5 x sin 5 y.

 y2 y x
e , fy
x2

y
x

1  x .

g x 2 x , g y 2 y. $WWKHJLYHQSRLQWWKHVORSHLQWKHxGLUHFWLRQLV DQGWKHVORSHLQWKH
yGLUHFWLRQLV 

fx

3 x 2 yz 2 , f x 1, 1, 1

x 3 z 2 , f y 1, 1, 1 1, f z

3, f y

5. 7KHUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUH f x
f xx

2, f yy

2, f yx

6, f xy

f xx

e x tan x , f yy

7. We have f x

2.

2 x  2 y, f y

2 x  6 y. Differentiating again,

e x tan y , f y

e x sec 2 y. Differentiating again,

2e x sec 2 y tan y , f xy

2x  y  5

2 x 3 yz , f z 1, 1, 1

2.

6. 7KHUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUH f x

8.

 1 ye
x

0 y

e x sec 2 y , f yx

e x sec 2 y.

2 x  5. Next, substitute into the partial with respect to y:

0. Hence, x = 3 and y = 1.

fy

 x  2 y  1  x  2  2 x  5  1 3 x  9

fx

 12  y , f y
x

 12  x. Setting these partial derivatives equal to zero gives y

y

1 and x
x2

1 .
y2

Hence, y = y4 y = 1 and x = 1. Notice that xDQGy

9. :HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
zx

y
, z xx
x  y2

2 xy

2
2
Hence, w z2  w z2
wx
wy

y

2 xy

 y2 

, zy

x ,z
yy
x  y2
2

2 xy

 y2 

2 xy

 y2 

0.



10. :HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
 c cos  x  ct  , ztt

zt

2
Hence, w 2z
wt

 c 2 sin  x  ct 

 c 2 sin  x  ct  , z x

cos  x  ct  , z xx

 sin  x  ct  .

2
c 2 w z2 .
wx

Lesson 5

1.

dz

4 xy 3 dx  6 x 2 y 2 dy.

2.

dz

e x sin y dx  e x cos y dy.

3.

dw

1 dx  3 x  z dy  x  y dz.
2
2
z  3y
 z  3y
 z  3y

x 2 y, x

4. Let z

Then, dz

2, y

9, dx

0.01, dy

0.02.

2 xy dx  x 2 dy and  2.01  9.02   2 2  9  | 2  2  9  0.01  2 2  0.02 

5. Let z sin  x 2  y 2  , x

0.44.

y 1, dx 0.05, dy 0.05. Then, dz 2 x cos  x 2  y 2  dx  2 y cos  x 2  y 2  dy ,

2
2
and we have sin 1.05    0.95   sin 12  12  | 2 1 cos 12  12   0.05   2 1 cos 12  12   0.05  0.

6. The volume is V
dV
V

S r 2 h, which implies that dV

2S rh dr  S r 2 dh
S r 2h

2 dr  dh
r
h

 2S rh  dr  S r 2  dh.

2  0.04   0.02

0.10.

6RWKHSHUFHQWDJHHUURULV

hc  x 

8.

dw
dt

Solutions

7.

148

  dxd  e 

cos e 3 x

ww dx  ww dy
wx dt wy dt

3 x2

cos e 3 x e 3 x (6 x )

y  e t   x  2e 2 t 

6 xe 3 x cos e 3 x .

e 2 t e t  e t  2e 2 t 

e  t .

Hence,

dw
dt

ww dx  ww dy
wx dt wy dt

 sin  x  y  (2t )  sin  x  y  (0)

10. dw

ww dx  ww dy
wx dt wy dt

ye xy  2t   xe xy 1 . $Wt = 1, x = 1 and y = 1. Hence, dw

dt

9.

dt

2t sin  t 2  1 .

e  2  e

3e.

Lesson 6

1.

fx

2.

fx

x
x2  y2  1

2 x  10

0 x

0 x

5, f y

3. The partial derivatives f x

SRLQWLV.

4.

5.

0, f y

3 x2  y2 

0 y

0 y

0. 7KHFULWLFDOSRLQWLV.

6. 7KHFULWLFDOSRLQWLV.

4y

, fy

3 x2  y2 

DUHQRWGHQHGDWx = y 7KHFULWLFDO
3

2 x 2  y 2  8 x  6 y  20 2  x 2  4 x  4    y 2  6 y  9   20  8  9 f  x , y 
KDVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPDW.

fx

y, f y

fx

x  0, 0  is the only critical point. f xx

6 x  6, f y

Hence, d

7.

2 y  12

4x

By the second partials test, d

6.

y
x2  y2  1

f xx f yy   f xy 

f yy

0, f xy

1.

0  1  0, DQGKHQFH is a saddle point.

4 y  4 1, 1 is the only critical point. f xx

f xx f yy   f xy 

2  x  2    y  3  3

6, f yy

4, f xy

0.

6(4)  0 ! 0, DQGE\WKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVW is a relative minimum.

f x 10 x  4 y  16 0, f y 4 x  2 y 0. 6ROYLQJWKHVHHTXDWLRQVZHVHHWKDW is the only

critical point. f xx 10, f yy 2, f xy 4.
Hence, d f xx f yy   f xy 
relative maximum.

( 10)( 2)  4 2 ! 0, DQGE\WKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVW is a

149

8.

fx

2 y  2 x3

0, f y

2x  2 y3

DQG. f xx

6 x 2 , f yy

6 y 2 , f xy

2.

$W, d

f xx f yy   f xy   0  0, 0, 1 is a saddle point.

$W, d

f xx f yy   f xy  ! 0 and f xx  0, VR is a relative maximum.

f xx f yy   f xy  ! 0 and f xx  0, VR is a relative maximum.

)LQDOO\DW, d

9.

0. Solving these equations, we see that there are three critical points:

fx

2 , f
y
1
3x 3

2 , ZKLFKLPSOLHVWKDW is the only critical point.

1
3y 3

Clearly, f  x , y  t 0, VR is a relative minimum.

10. Let x and y be the dimensions of the base and z the height.
The amount of material is 2

xy  2 xz  2 yz z

The volume of the box is therefore V

xyz

2  xy
.
2x  2 y

2  xy
xy
.
2x  2 y

Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero, you obtain x = y and the nontrivial critical point
 x, y  36 , 36 .

6
By the second partials test, this is a maximum. The corresponding z value is
, and the maximum
6
6
volume is
.
9

11. We have V

Vx

xy

C  3 xy
4( x  y )

4  x  y   Cy  6 xy 2    Cxy  3 x 2 y 2   4 

7KLVVLPSOLHVWR Vx

Solutions

Cxy  3 x 2 y 2
So, by the quotient rule,
4( x  y )

4  x  y 

4 x  y

y 2  C  3 x 2  6 xy 
4 x  y

Cxy  6 x 2 y 2  Cy 2  6 xy 3  Cxy  3 x 2 y 2

12. The numerators both equal zero: C  3 x 2  6 xy C  3 y 2  6 xy , which implies that x = y. Using the value
C  1296  3 x 2  6 x 2



0 9x2

1296 x 12. Hence, the solution is x = y 

Lesson 7

1.

f x 2 x  4 y 0, f y 4 x 0  0, 0  is the only critical point, and it lies outside the rectangular region.
We now analyze the function along its boundaries.
$ORQJ y

0, 1 d x d 4: f

x 2  5, f 1, 0  6, f  4, 0 

$ORQJ y

2, 1 d x d 4, f

x 2  8 x  5, f c 2 x  8 0, f 1, 2 

$ORQJ x 1, 0 d y d 2, f

4 y  6, f 1, 0  6, f 1, 2 

$ORQJ x

21  16 y , f (4, 0)

4, 0 d y d 2, f

21.
2, f  4, 2 

11.

2.

11.

21, f (4, 2)

6XPPDUL]LQJWKHPD[LPXPLVDQGWKHPLQLPXPLV.

2. The function has no critical points. We analyze the function along its boundary.
$ORQJWKHOLQH y
is 5.

x  1, 0 d x d 1, f

$ORQJ y

2 x  4, 1 d x d 2, f

$ORQJ y

 1 x  1, 0 d x d 2, f
2

12  3 x  2  x  1

12  3 x  2( 2 x  4)

5 x  10. 7KHPD[LPXPLVDQGWKHPLQLPXP

x  4. The maximum is 6, and the minimum is 5.

2 x  10 7KHPD[LPXPLVDQGWKHPLQLPXPLV

)LQDOO\WKHDEVROXWHPD[LPXPLVDQGWKHDEVROXWHPLQLPXPLV.

3. $SRLQWRQWKHSODQHLVJLYHQE\  x, y , z 

 x, y , 3  x  y  .

7KHVTXDUHRIWKHGLVWDQFHIURP to this point is S

The partial derivatives are S x
From the equations S x

Sy

2 x  2 3  x  y  , S y

x2  y 2  3  x  y  .

2 y  2 3  x  y .

0, ZHREWDLQWKHFULWLFDOSRLQW.

The corresponding z-value is 1, and the minimum distance is

12   1  12

3.

151

4. Let x, y, and z be the three numbers. Because xyz 27, z

The sum is S

27 .
xy

x  y  27 , and the partial derivatives are S x

xy

1  27
, Sy
x2 y

1  272 .
xy

Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero yields x = 3, y = 3.

Finally, we have z = 3, and the three numbers are equal, x = y = z = 3.

5. Let x, y, and z be the length, width, and height, respectively, and let VEHWKH[HGYROXPH
Hence, V

xyz z

V . The surface area is given by S

xy

2 y  V2 0, S y
x

Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero, S x

x y z 3 V.

2 xy  V  V .
x
y

2 x  V2 0, you obtain
y

2 xy  2 yz  2 xz

6. We have
108 y  4 xy  2 y 2

y 108  4 x  2 y 

0 108  4 x  2 y

108 x  2 x 2  4 xy

x 108  2 x  4 y  0 108  2 x  4 y

0.

and

Setting these two equations equal to each other, you have 4xy x + 4y, which implies that x = y.
Finally, 108  4 x  2 y 108  4 x  2 x

7. Because C y

2 y  x

 y  x

 1 0,

1

Solving this equation for x, 3 x

Solutions

Knowing this value, you obtain y



0 x

y 18.

2 y  x

 y  x

1. So, C x

1

x2  4 9x2
3
2

.
3
2

x2  4 x2

3 x  1 0.
x2  4
1x
2

2
.
2

Lesson 8

1.

9, yi

9, xi yi

3,

n xi yi  xi yi

n xi   xi 
2

39, xi 2

3  39   9  9 
3  35    9 

1 9  3 9
 

3
2

1
 y  a xi 
n i

The least squares regression line is y

2.

13, yi

12, xi yi

5,

n xi yi  xi yi

n xi   xi 
2

1
 y  a xi 
n i

36
24

9
6

3.
2

 3.
2

3 x 3.
2
2

46, xi 2

5  46   13 12 
5  51  13

1 12  37 13
 

5
43

The least squares regression line is y

35.

51.

74
86

37 .
43

7 .
43

37 x  7 .
43
43

3. You obtain y  175 x  945 | 1.1824 x  6.3851.

148

4. You obtain y

148

29 x  425 | 0.5472 x  1.3365.

53
318

5. You obtain y 14 x  19. When x 1.6, y 14(1.6)  19 41.4 bushels per acre.

6. You obtain y 300 x  832. When x 1.59, y 300(1.59)  832 355.

153

Lesson 9

1. The component form is 4  3, 1  2, 6  0

2

1   1  6
2

1, 1, 6

2. The length is

1, 1, 6 . The magnitude is

38.

12  32  4 2

26.

3. 7KHYHFWRUMRLQLQJWKHUVWWZRSRLQWVLV 1, 3,  4 , DQGWKHYHFWRUMRLQLQJWKHUVWDQGWKLUGSRLQWVLV
1,  1, 1 . Because these vectors are not parallel, the points are not collinear.

4.

u< v

2, 1,1 < 1, 0, 1

2(1)  ( 1)(0)  1( 1) 1.

4 1 4

5. The length of the vector is

3.

The unit vector in the same direction is 1 v

3

6.

cos T

u< v
u v

3(2)  2( 3)  1(0)

u v

1 2, 1,  2
3

2, 1, 2 .
3 3 3

0, which implies that the angle is S

2

90q.

The vectors are orthogonal.

7.

cos T

u< v
u v

3(0)  4(2)  0(3)

9  16

8 .
5 13

49

Using a calculator, we have T

arccos 8 | 1.111 | 63.7q.

5
13

8. The point is P, and the direction vector is v

9.

0  3t , y

3  0t , y

0  t, z

0  5t x

0  6t , z

3t , y

2  3t x

t, z

3, y

6t , z

3  7, 0   2  , 6  6
x t, y t, z = 6.

Solutions

10. The direction vector is v

154

3, 1, 5 . The parametric equations are

5t .

2  3t .

10, 2, 0 . 8VLQJWKHUVWSRLQWZHREWDLQ

Lesson 10
i

1.

k ui

j k

i
0 i    j   0k

0 0 1

j and i u k

1 0 0

1 0 0

2.

uu v

uu v

uu v

3 1
1 2

 j.

 i u k .

3 2
7 2
7 3
i
j
k
1 5
1 5
1 1

3 2
1 1 5

4.

3.

0 i   j   0k

0 0 1

The vectors i and k are orthogonal, and k u i

j k

k
2
1

j k

1 2
3 2
3 1
i
j
k
2 1
1 1
1 2

1 1
1 1
1 1
i
j
k
1 1
0 1
0 1

1 1 1
0 1 1

17 i  33 j  10k .

3i  5 j  7k .

 j  k.

The dot product of this vector with the original vectors is zero, showing orthogonality.

 i  j  k  <  j  k 

1  1 0,  j  k <  j  k 

1  1 0.

5. The cross product of the given vectors will be orthogonal to the two vectors.
i
i u 2j  k 

6.

vu v

i j k
1 0 2
1 0 2

j k

1 0 0
0 2 1

0 0
1 0
1 0
i
j
k
2 1
0 1
0 2

0 2
1 2
1 0
i
j
k
0 2
1 2
1 0

 j  2k .

0.

The cross product of a vector with itself is always the zero vector.

155

7. 2QHZD\WRVROYHWKLVSUREOHPLVWRQGWKHFURVVSURGXFWDQGWKHQGLYLGHE\LWVOHQJWKWRJHQHUDWHDXQLW
YHFWRU$QRWKHUZD\LVWRREVHUYHWKDWWKHVHYHFWRUVOLHLQWKHxy-plane, so an orthogonal unit vector is k
RUN.

8. The area is the magnitude of the cross product.

i
3, 2,  1 u 1, 2, 3

3 2 1
1 2 3

$UHD  8i  10 j  4k

2 1
3 1
3 2
i
j
k
2 3
1 3
1 2

64  100  16

180

8i  10 j  4k .

6 5.

9. The volume is the absolute value of the triple scalar product.

u < v u w 

1 3 1
0 6 6
4 0 4

6
0
6
0 6
1 
 3 
1
4 4
4 0
0 4

24  24(3)  24

72.

+HQFHWKHYROXPHLV

10. The following three vectors form adjacent sides of the parallelepiped:
3  0, 0  0, 0  0

3, 0, 0 , 0  0, 5  0, 1  0

0, 5, 1 , 2  0, 0  0, 5  0

2, 0, 5 .

We next form the triple scalar product of these three vectors:

3 0 0
0 5 1
2 0 5

5 1
0 5

 3 

0 1
2 5

 0 

0 5
2 0

75.

+HQFHWKHYROXPHLV

JJJK

11. Form the vectors AC

Solutions

to the triangle.

156

JJJK
3, 8, 2 and AB

1, 1, 3 . Their cross product 22, 7, 5 is orthogonal

Lesson 11

1. The normal vector is n j 0i  j  0k .

So, an equation of the plane is 0  x  1  1 y  3  0  z  ( 7)  0 y  3 0.

2. The normal vector is n 2i  j  2k .

So, an equation of the plane is 2  x  1  1 y  4   2  z  0  0 2 x  y  2 z  6 0.

2, 0, 3 EHWKHYHFWRUIURPWKHSRLQWWR, and let v

IURPWKHSRLQWWR.

3. Let u

3, 1, 5 be the vector

The normal vector to the plane is their cross product, n = u v = 3, 19, 2 .

So, the equation of the plane is 3  x  0   19  y  0   2  z  0  0 3 x  19 y  2 z

4. The angle between the two planes is the angle between their normal vectors, n1
and n 2

0.

3, 2, 1

1, 4, 2 .

cos T

n1 < n 2

38 2

n1 n 2

14 21

7
7 6

5. The dot product of the normal vectors n1

6
T | 1.1503 | 65.91q.
6

5, 3, 1 and n 2

1, 4, 7 is zero, so the planes

are orthogonal.

6. The normal vectors n1

3, 1, 4 and n 2

9, 3, 12 DUHSDUDOOHOPXOWLSOHVRIHDFKRWKHU, so the

planes are parallel.

7. The direction vector of the line is v = 3ijk. The parametric equations of the line are
x

2  3t , y

3  2t , z

4  t.

8. The direction vector of the line is v = k. The parametric equations of the line are x 2, y 3, z 4  t .



5, 1, 1 . The given point is Q, a point in the plane is P,

JJJG
and the vector PQ is 0, 9, 0 .
JJJG
PQ <n
9
9
Therefore, the distance is D
3.
n
27 3 3

9. The normal to the plane is n

3, 4, 5 . The given point is Q, a point in the plane is P,

JJJG

1,
3,

1
.
and the vector PQ is
JJJG
PQ <n
20
20
2 2.
Therefore, the distance is D
n
50 5 2

10. The normal to the plane is n

Lesson 12

1. The surface is a plane parallel to the xz-plane.

2. The x-coordinate is missing, so you have a right circular cylinder with rulings parallel to the x-axis.
The radius of the cylinder is 3.

3. The surface is an ellipsoid centered at the origin.

4. Rewriting the equation, 4 x 2 

at the origin.

y2
 4z2
4

1, we see that this is a hyperboloid of one sheet centered

5. The surface is a hyperboloid of two sheets centered at the origin.

6. We have y = x + z, so the surface is an elliptic paraboloid.

7. %\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUHZHVHHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVDQHOOLSVRLGZLWKFHQWHUDW.
16  x 2  2 x  1  9  y 2  4 y  4   16 z 2
2

Solutions

16  x  1  9  y  2   16 z 2

 x  1
1

158

 y  2
16 9

36  16  36
16

 z2

1.

8. %\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUHZHVHHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVDQHOOLSWLFFRQHZLWKFHQWHUDW.
9  x 2  6 x  9   y 2  4 y  4  9  z 2  6 z  9
2

9  x  3   y  2   9  z  3

4  81  4  81
0.

9. One equation is x + z = 4y.

10. One equation is x 2  y 2

z , or 4x + 4y = z.

2

Lesson 13

1.

rc t 

1 i  16 j  tk .
t2

2.

rc t 

3t 2 , 3sin 3t , 3cos 3t .

3.

rc t 

t , 1, 1 t 2 , r cc  t 
2

4.

 2ti  j  k  dt
S

5.

t 2 i  tj  tk  C.

 sec t tan t  i   tan t  j   2sin t cos t  k dt

4


6.

1, 0, t r c  t <r cc  t  t (1)  ( 1)0  1 t 2 (t ) t  t .

2
2

2
 0 j  1  0 k
2  1 i  ln
2

sec ti  ln cos t j  sin 2 tk 4

0

2  1 i  ln 2 j  1 k .
2

r  t  4 ti  4 tj  2 tk , v  t  r c  t  4 i  4 j  2 k , a  t 
v t 

42  42  22

36

v c  t  DQGWKHVSHHGLV
,

6.

7. We calculate the derivative and then divide by its length, as follows:

r c t 

2sin t , 2 cos t , 0 T  t 

rc t 

2sin t , 2 cos t , 0

rc t 

 sin t , cos t , 0 .

159

8. $WWKHSRLQW, t +HQFH r c  t  i  2tj  k , r c  0  i  k , r c  0 

The unit tangent is T  0 

9.

r c  0
r c  0

ik
2

2.

2
2
i
k.
2
2

x c  t  1, y c  t  4, z c  t  3. Hence, the arc length is given by

s

b
a

x c  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt

1
0

1  16  9 dt

26t
0

26.

10. xc  t  2 cos t , y c  t  5, z c  t  2sin t . Hence, the arc length is given by

s

b
a

S
0

x c  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt
S

4  25 dt 29t
0

S
0

4 cos 2 t  25  4sin 2 dt

29S .

Lesson 14

S and T

1. The vertices of the ellipse occur when T

2 a 35.88

3S . So, the length of the major axis is

2

0.967 d  0.967 d | 29.79 d .

1  0.967 1  0.967

So, d and ed7KHHTXDWLRQIRUWKHRUELWLVQRZ

r

1.164
.
1  0.967 sin T

7RQGWKHFORVHVWSRLQWWRWKH6XQWKHIRFXV, use c = ea  7KHFORVHVWSRLQWLV

therefore ac $8RUPLOHV

2. The area swept out from T

A

1 E r 2 dT
2 D

 S to T
2

S is given by the integral

2

1 S2
9
dT | 0.90429.

2 S 2 9  5cos T

We next apply Keplers second law. The time t required to move from position T
is given by

Solutions

t
661



area of elliptical segment

area of ellipse

0.90429 t | 109 days.

5.46507

 S to position T
2

S
2

Lesson 15

1.

f  x , y 

 3  4 y  i   9  4 x  j f 1, 2 

5i  5 j.

The vector v is a unit vector, so Du f 1, 2  f 1, 2 < v

2.

 5i  5 j< 53 i  54 j

3  4 1.

f  x , y  e x sin y i  e x cos y j f 1, S ei .
2
The vector v is a unit vector, so Du f 1, S f 1, S < v
2
2

3.

ei <  i   e.

f  x , y , z  2 x i  2 y j  2 z k f 1, 1, 1 2i  2 j  2k .
The vector v is a not a unit vector, so u

3
3
3
i
j
k.
3
3
3

v
v

Finally, the directional derivative is

Du f 1, 1, 1 f 1, 1, 1<u

 2i  2 j  2k <

3
3
3
i
j
k
3
3
3

4.

f  x , y  3i  10 yj f  2, 1 3i  10 j.

5.

f  x , y 

6.

f  x , y , z  6 xi  10 yj  4 zk f 1, 1,  2  6i  10 j  8k .

2 3
.
3

2 x i  1 j f 2, 3 4i  j.
 
x2  y
x2  y

7. The maximum value is the magnitude of the gradient. So, we have

f  x , y 

 2 x  2 y  i  2 xj f 1, 0 

2i  2 j and f 1, 0 

44

2 2.

8. The maximum value is the magnitude of the gradient. So, we have

f  x , y , z 

y 2 z 2 i  2 xyz 2 j  2 xy 2 zk f  2, 1, 1 i  4 j  4k

and, thus,
f  2, 1, 1

1  16  16

33.
161

9. The gradient is f  x, y  2i  3 j. 7KHOHYHOFXUYHLVx + 3y $W, the gradient

f  0, 0  2i  3 j is normal to this line.

10. The gradient points in the direction of maximum increase in heat.

Therefore, T

y2  x2

x  y
2

i

2 xy

 x  y2 
2

j T  3, 4 

7 i  24 j is the direction.
625 625

Lesson 16

1. Let F  x, y , z  3 x  4 y  12 z and, hence, F 3i  4 j  12k .

We have F

9  16  144

169 13.

So, a unit normal vector to this plane is n

F
F

3 i  4 j  12 k .
13 13 13

2. Let F  x, y , z  x 2  y 2  z 2  6 and, hence, F

2 xi  2 yj  2 zk .

We have F 1, 1, 2  2i  2 j  4k and F 1, 1, 2 
So, a unit normal vector to this surface is n

F
F

3. Let F  x, y , z   x sin y  z  4 and, hence, F

4  4  16

24

2 6.

1 i  1 j 2 k.
6
6
6

 sin yi  x cos yj  k .

$QRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW 6, S , 7 is F 6, S , 7
6
6

 1 i  3 3j  k .
2

4. Let F  x, y , z  x 3  z and, hence, F 3 x 2 i  k .

+HQFHDQRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW is F  2, 1, 8  12i  k .

5. Let F  x, y , z  x 2  y 2  3  z. We have Fx

2 x , Fy

2 y , Fz

1.

Solutions

$WWKHSRLQW, Fy  2, 1, 8  2, Fy  2, 1, 8  2, and Fz  2, 1, 8  1.

So, the tangent plane is 4  x  2   2  y  1  1 z  8  0, ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWRxyz 



6. Let F  x, y , z 

y
 z. We have Fx
x

y
, Fy
x2

1,F
x z

1.

$WWKHSRLQW, Fx 1, 2, 2  2, Fy 1, 2, 2  1, and Fz 1, 2, 2  1.

So, the tangent plane is 2  x  1   y  2   1 z  2  0, ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWRxy + z 

7. Let F  x, y , z  x 2  y 2  2 z 2 . We have Fx

2 x , Fy

2 y , Fz

4 z.

$WWKHSRLQW, Fx 1, 3, 2  2, Fy 1, 3, 2  6, and Fz 1, 3, 2  8.

So, the tangent plane is 2  x  1  6  y  3  8  z  2  0, ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWRxyz 

8. Let F  x, y , z  x 2  4 y 2  z 2  36. We have Fx

2 x , Fy

8 y , Fz

2 z.

$WWKHSRLQW, Fx  2, 2, 4  4, Fy  2, 2, 4  16, and Fz  2, 2, 4  8.

So, the tangent plane is 4  x  2   16  y  2   8  z  4  0, ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWRxyz = 18.

9. Let F  x, y , z  3  x 2  y 2  6 y  z. We have F

2 xi   2 y  6  j  k .

7KHWDQJHQWSODQHZLOOEHKRUL]RQWDOLIx DQGy 7KXVx y = 3, and

z 3  0 2  32  6(3) 12. 7KHSRLQWLV, which is the vertex of the paraboloid.

10. Let F  x, y , z  xy  1  1  z. We have F y  12 i  x  12 j  k .

x y

The tangent plane will be horizontal if y

7KHSRLQWLV.

1 and x
x2

1 . Thus, x
y2

1
y2

x 4 x 1, y 1, z

3.

Lesson 17

1. The constraint is g  x, y  x  2 y  5 0. f
We solve the equations 2 x
is f 1, 2  12  2 2 5.

Og 2 xi  2 yj O  i  2 j .

O , 2 y 2O , x  2 y  5 0 and obtain O

2, x 1, y

2. The minimum value

163

2. The constraint is g  x, y  2 y  x 2

Og 2 xi  2 yj O  2 xi  2 j .

0. f

We solve the equations 2 x 2O x , 2 y 2O , 2 y  x 2

The maximum value is f  2 , 1 2  1 1.

3.

g  x , y  2 x  y 100. f

0 and obtain O

g  x, y 

x yz

9. f

g  x, y 

x yz

3. f

51, x

25, y

50.

Og gives rise to the equations 2 x O , 2 y O , 2 z O , x  y  z 9.

Solving these equations, we obtain O

5.

2 , y 1.

Og (2  2 y ) i  (2 x  1) j O  2i  j .

We solve the equations 2  2 y 2O , 2 x  1 O , 2 x  y 100 and obtain O

The maximum value is f  25, 50  2(25)  2(25)(50)  50 2600.

4.

1, x

6, x 3, y

3. The minimum value is f  3, 3, 3

3, z

27.

Og gives rise to the equations yz O , xz O , xy O , x  y  z 3.

Solving these equations, we obtain O 1, x 1, y 1, z 1 . The maximum value is f 1, 1, 1 1.

6. We minimize the square of the distance. f  x, y  x 2  y 2 with the constraint g  x, y  x  y  1 0.

f Og gives rise to the equations 2 x O , 2 y O , x  y 1.
Solving these equations, O 1, x

1, y
2

1 . The minimum distance is therefore

2

1  1

2 2

7. We minimize the square of the distance. f  x, y  x 2   y  3 with the constraint g  x, y  y  x 2

f Og gives rise to the equations 2 x O  2 x  , 2( y  3) O , y x 2 .
If x y WKHQf  = 9. If x z 0, O
The minimum distance is therefore

1, y

5, x
2

r 5 . f r 5 , 5
2
2
2

5  1

2 2

11 .
4

11 .
2

Solutions

8. Minimize C  x, y , z  5 xy  3  2 xz  2 yz  xy  subject to the constraint g  x, y , z  xyz 480.

C Og gives rise to the equations 8 y  6 z O yz , 8 x  6 z O xz , 6 x  6 y O xy , xyz 480.
Solving these equations, you obtain x
The dimensions are
164

360 , z

360 u 3 360 u 4 3 360 feet.

3

4 3 360.
3

2
.
2

0.

Lesson 18

1. The gradient is f  x, y  75 x

1

3

y 4 i  25 x 4 y 4 j. The constraint is g  x , y  150 x  250 y

150i  250 j. Setting f Og produces the system of equations

So, g  x , y 
75 x

1

25 x 4 y

3

150O

250O

150 x  250 y

500,000.

50, 000.
3

Solving these equations, you obtain x

level is therefore
f  250, 50  100  250 

 50 

50, and O

250, y

5000  5 

5 4 | 0.334. The maximum production

10

| 16, 719 units.

2. There are two cases. For points on the circle x 2  y 2 10, \RXFDQXVH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWRQGWKH
maximum and minimum values. If yWKHQ\RXREWDLQx y = 3, and  +HQFHWKHPD[LPXP
value of fLVZKLFKRFFXUVDWDQG. If y \RXREWDLQWKHPLQLPXPYDOXHRIf,
DSSUR[LPDWHO\DQGWKLVYDOXHRFFXUVDW  10 , 0  . For points inside the circle, you can use partial
GHULYDWLYHVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHIXQFWLRQKDVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPRIDWWKHSRLQW. Combining these
results, fKDVDPD[LPXPRIDWDQGDPLQLPXPRIDW.

3. We want to maximize f  a , b, c  4S abc subject to the constraint g  a , b, c  a  b  c K .

3
Setting f Og produces the equations
4S bc
3

O , 4S ac
3

O , 4S ab
3

O, a  b  c

Solving these equations, you obtain a b c

K.
K . So, the ellipse is a sphere.
3

4. We want to minimize A  h, r  2S rh  2S r 2 subject to the constraint g  h, r  S r 2 h V0 . Setting

A Og produces the equations
2S h  4S r

O 2S rh, 2S r OS r 2 , S r 2 h V0 .

Solving these equations, you obtain h r and V U3. The dimensions are r

V0
and h
2S

23

V0
.
2S

165

5. Minimize the square of the distance f  x, y , z   x  2    y  1   z  1 subject to the constraint

g  x , y , z  x  y  z 1. Setting f Og produces
2  x  2  O , 2  y  1 O , 2  z  1 O , x  y  z 1.
Solving these equations, you obtain x = 1, y = z DQG 7KHSRLQWRQWKHSODQHLV, and the
2
2
2
desired distance is d
3.
1  2    0  1   0  1

Lesson 19
x

1.

 x  2 y  dy

2.

3.

1 2

0 0  x  y  dy dx 0 xy  2 y 0 dx 0  2 x  2  dx

y
dx
x

2y

4.

xy  y 2
0

2y

y ln x
1

x2  x2  0 2x2 .

y ln 2 y  0

y cos x dy dx

y ln 2 y , y ! 0.

y2

2 cos x dx

S
0

1 cos x dx
2

5.

6.

7.

4 dx dy
x2  y2

 2 x 

1 y 2

 1 y 2

dy dx

2
1

dx dy

4
x
y arctan y dy
0


0 > y @0

2 x 

1  y 2 dy

Reversing the order of integration,

8.

1  2 3.
S

1 sin x 2
2
0

4 S dy

y 4

S dy
y

1.
2

>S ln y @1

S ln 3.
4

x  x  dx 4 x  8 x x  x
3
2 0

8.
3

S (area of semicircle).
2

1 y 2

 1 y

dx dy

1 x 2

dy dx

1 0

1
1

1  x 2 dx

S.
2

Reversing the order of integration,

Solutions

4  4

x2
x


4 0

0 1  2 dx
2

dy dx

dx

x 2  2 x
0

1.

2y

dx dy

1
0

2 y dy

y 2
0

1.

9. We must reverse the order of integration.

1

2x

166

4e y dy dx

y
2
0

4e y dx dy

2
0

y
2

4 xe y 2 dy

2
0

2 ye y dy

e y
0

e 4  1.

10. We must reverse the order of integration.

2

y2

x sin x dx dy

x sin x dy dx

4
0

y x sin x dx
0
4

Next, use integration by parts to obtain >sin x  x cos x @0

4
0

x sin x dx.

sin 4  4 cos 4 | 1.858.

Lesson 20

1. V

y
dy dx
2

4
0

y2
4 dx
0
1

3. V

4
0

dx

4.

0 0 1  xy  dx dy 0 x 

2. V

x2 y
dy
2 0

y3
0 y  2 dy
1

y2 y4
2  8

3.
8

xy dy dx 1 .
8

4. :HFDOFXODWHWKHYROXPHRIWKHVSKHUHLQWKHUVWRFWDQWDQGPXOWLSO\WKHDQVZHUE\
8

4 x 2

5. V

r 2 x2
0

r 2  x 2  y 2 dy dx

 4  x  dy dx

4 S r 3 .

256 .

15

6. Notice that we use integration by parts in the solution.

1

7.

x2

e  x dx dy

2x

2y

y cos y dy dx

2
2

2 > cos y  y sin y @0

e  x dy dx

2 xe  x dx

y cos y dx dy

2
0

e  x 2

2y

y cos y dy

1 e

1

2 y cos y dy
0

2 > cos 2  2sin 2  1@ .

8. The area of the region is 8. The average value is therefore

Average

1 4 2 x dy dx
8 0 0

1 4 2 x dx
8 0

1 x2 4
8 0

2.



9. The area of the region is . The average value is

1

Average

S2

sin  x  y  dy dx

S2

S
0

S2

  cos  x  S   cos x  dx

 cos  x  y  dx
0
1 S 2 cos x dx 1 2sin x S
@0
2
2 >

0.

10. The limits of integration for the inside integral cannot contain the variable of integration, in this case, y.

Lesson 21

1.

2.

9 x 2

4 x 2

2 0

y

x dy dx

( r cos T ) r dr dT

 dy dx

r r dr dT

2 x x 2

xy dy dx

S
0

r3

3 cos T dT
0
2

r4
4 dT
0

The region is the semicircle given by r

2

1   x  1  x  1  y 2

2x  x2

3. Note that y

2cosT
0

S
0

4 dT

9.

4S .

1.

2 cos T , 0 d T d S . So, we have

2

 r cos T  r sin T  r dr dT
r 3 cos T sin T dr dT
2cosT

2cosT
0

9 >sin T @0 2

r4

4 cos T sin T
0
2

dT

cos 5 T sin T dT
S

 4 cos 6 T 2
6
0

2.
3

4. The graph is a circle of radius 3. We have

Solutions

168

6cosT

r dr dT

S
0

18cos 2 T dT

9 1  cos 2T  dT
0

9 T  sin 2T
2 0

9S .

5.

2S

r dr dT

2S
0

r2
2 dT
2

2S
0

6 dT

12S .

6. We will calculate the area of one leaf and multiply the answer by 3.
A 3

2sin 3T
0

r dr dT

3 S 3 4sin 2 3T dT
2 0

S
0

1  cos 6T  dT

3 T  sin 6T

6 0

S.

7. The volume is
S

 r cos T  r sin T  r dr dT

1 S 2 sin 2T dT
8 0

8. V

9.

2S

2S

r 2 dr dT

2S
0

125 dT
3

16  r 2 r dr dT

10. r 1 2 cos T T
A 2

 cos 2T 2

16 0

S
0

2cosT

2S
0

1 S 2 1 r 3 sin 2T dr dT
2 0 0
1.
8

250S .
3

16  r 2 3 2

 

dT

2S
0

5 15 dT

10 15S .

r S . :HGRXEOHWKHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHDUHDLQWKHUVWTXDGUDQW
3

3
r dr dT S 
.
3
2

Lesson 22

1.

2.

xy dy dx

2
0

xy 2
2 dx

2
0

2 x dx

x 2
0

4.

r
2
0 0  r cos T  r sin T  r dr dT 0 cos T sin T 4 0 dT
2

1 sin 2 T 2
4 2
0

1.
8

169

3. We have the following results:

m=

3
0

Mx =

4 y dx dy = 36

My =
x=

y
0

y
0

4 y 2 dx dy = 81
4 xy dx dy = 81
2

( )

My 9
M
= , y = x = 9 , x, y = 9 , 9 .
m
m
8
4
8 4

4. We have the following results:

m=

3
0

Mx =

4 x dx dy = 18

My =
x=

y
0

y
0

y
0

4 xy dx dy = 81
2
4 x 2 dx dy = 27

( )

My 3
M
= , y = x = 9 , x, y = 3 , 9 .
m
2
m
4
2 4

5. We have the following results:

m=

1
0

Mx =

1
0

My =
x=

5 y dy dx = 5
4

x
0

1
0

5 y 2 dy dx = 2
3

5 xy dy dx = 5
6

( )

My 2
M
= , y = x = 8 , x , y = 2 , 8 .
m
m 15
3
3 15

6. We have the following results:

m=

2
0

Mx =

Solutions


2
0

3 xy dy dx = 16

My =
x=

x2

x2
0

x2
0

3 xy 2 dy dx = 32
3 x 2 y dy dx = 192
7

( )

M y 12
M
= , y = x = 2, x, y = 12 , 2 .
m
7
m
7

7. We use polar coordinates, as follows:

m=

4
0

Mx =

16 x 2
0

4
0

3 ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx =

16 x 2
0

3 ( x 2 + y 2 ) y dy dx

4
0

3r 3 dr d =96
4

3r 4 sin dr d = 3072
5

M y = M x by symmetry
x= y=

( )

M x 32
=
, x, y = 32 , 32 .
m
5
5 5

Lesson 23

1.

fx

2, f y

2, 1   f x    f y 

The surface area is S

2.

fx

2, f y

4.

fx

2, f y

1 4  9

14 dy dx 3

3, 1   f x    f y 

2S

3, f y

2, 1   f x    f y 

fx

123 x

2 x, f y

We have S

4
0

14.

2S
0

9 14
dT
2

9 14S .

14 .

48 14.

1  4x2  4 y2 .

1  4 r 2 r dr dT

2, 1   f x    f y 

14.

1 9  4

24.

14 dx 9 14.

14 r dr dT

14 dy dx

2 y , 1   f x    f y 

2 x , f y

fx

3
0

1 4  9

In polar coordinates, S

6.

We use polar coordinates. S

fx

3.

2
4

3 dy dx 3  4  x  dx 3 4 x  x
0
2 0

The surface area is S

5.

4 x

1 4  4

3, 1   f x    f y 

The surface area is S

3.

S 65 65  1 .



24

1  4x2  4

5  4x2 .

5  4 x 2 dy dx 1  27  5 5  .
12



7.

2 y , 1   f x    f y 

2 x , f y

fx

8.

3
0

1  e2 x .
1

The surface area is given by S

1  4x2  4 y2 .

1  4 r 2 r dr dT S  37 37  1 .
6

0, 1   f x    f y 

ex , f y

fx

2S

In polar coordinates, S

1  e 2 x dy dx  | 2.0035  .

9. We calculate the surface area as follows.

2
2
ky
, 1  fx    f y 
x  y2

kx
, fy
x  y2

fx

1  k 2 dA

1

1  k 2  area of circle 

1  k 2 dA

k 2 x2
k 2 y2
 2
2
2
x y
x  y2
1 k 2S r 2

S r2 1 k 2 .

Lesson 24

1.

dy dx dz

> y@

dx dz

dx dz

> x@

dz

2 dz

> 2 z @0

10.

7KLVLVWKHYROXPHRIWKHER[RIGLPHQVLRQV

2. We have the following:

2

x
0 0 0  x  y  z  dx dz dy 0 0 2
3

z
z 2 dy
yz


0 2
2 0
3

 yx  zx dz dy
0

1  2 y  2  dy
0

3 y  y 2
0

1  y  z dz dy

18.

3. We have the following:

1

1 1 1

x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz

2 1 y 3 z 2 1 dz
1
9 1

Solutions

4. V



5 x

5 x  y

1 1 1 x 3 y 2 z 2 1 dy dz
1
3 1 1

4 1 z 2 dz
9 1

4 z 3 1
27 1

1 k 2 .

2 1 1 y 2 z 2 dy dz
3 1 1

8 .
27

dz dy dx 125 . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.

6

2x

9 x2

5. V

6. V

7.

8.

9.

10.

6 x2

 6

dz dy dx 81 . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.

2

 6 x

4   2 x 3

6 x2  y2

2   y 2    x 3

5 x

15  3 x  3 y 

y2

1 0

4 x

12  3 x  6 y 

18S  . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.

3 dz dy dx

3 y dz dy dx

 z

1

dz dy dx

dz dy dx

24  .

375 .

dy dz dx 1 .
3

dz dy dx

12  4 z 

12  4 z  3 x 

dy dx dz  4  .

Lesson 25

1.

1cos  S 

r cos T

1, y

r sin T

1sin  S 

0, z

4.

7KHUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHVDUHx, y, z .

2.

3cos S
4

r cos T

3 2,y
2

r sin T

The rectangular coordinates are  x , y , z 

3.

r2

 2 2    2 2 

r cos T

5.

r2  z2

8  8 16 r

3 2 , z 1.
2

3 2 3 2
2 , 2 , 1 .

4. tan T

y
x

2 2
2 2

 S and the cylindrical coordinates are  r , T , z 

4

Hence, T

4.

3sin S
4

9r

x2  y2  z 2

1.

4,  S , 4 .

9sec T .

5, a sphere of radius

5.



6.

r 2sin T r 2 2 r sin T x 2  y 2
2
x 2   y  1 1.

2 y. Completing the square, you obtain the cylinder

7. We have the following:

2

2S

R1

R2

R12  r 2

r dz dr dT

2S

2S

R1

R > rz @0

R12  r 2

dr dT

R1

R2

r R12  r 2 dr dT
R1

3
2S
 2  R12  r 2  2 dT
3 0
R2

2 2 S R 2  R 2 3 2 dT
 1 2
3 0
4S R 2  R 2 3 2 .
 1 2
3

8.

4 x2

2  4  x 2

4
x2  y2

x dz dy dx

2S

2S

r2

r2

 r cos T  r dz dr dT

9. In the xy-plane, 2 x 2 x 2  2 y 2 x 2  x  y 2

0.
2

2
Completing the square, you have the circle x   y
2

In polar coordinates, the circle is r

r 2 cos T dz dr dT .

cos T . Hence, V

1 .

2
S

cos T

2 r cos T

2r2

10. The two surfaces intersect when x + y + z = x + yx + y = 4.

Hence, x + y DQGWKHLQWHJUDOLV V

2S

4r 2

r dz dr dT .

Lesson 26

1.

x 12sin 0 cos  S
4

0, y 12sin 0sin  S
4

0, z 12 cos 0 12.

Solutions

7KHUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHVDUHx, y, z .



r dz dr dT .

2.

5sin 3S
4

cos S

5sin 3S
4

5, y
2

sin S

4

 2    2

3   42

2S . Finally, cos I
3

So, T

2 I
2

4
4 2

U cos I

5.

cos I

6 U

cos S
6

2 3
2

 3.

S.
4

4 2 , 2S , S .

2 4

The spherical coordinates are  U , T , I 

4.

y
x

4 2. tan T

32

5 2.
2

5 5 5 2
2 , 2 ,  2 .

The rectangular coordinates are  x , y , z 

3.

5cos 3S
4

5, z
2

6sec I .

3
2

z
.
x  y2  z2
2

z2
3x 2  3 y 2  z 2
x  y2  z2

Squaring both sides, we have 3

4
of a cone.

0, z t 0 , which is the upper nappe

6. By sketching the solid, you see that 0 d I d S and 0 d T d 2S .

4

U cos I U

For z ZHKDYH 2
So, x 2  y 2  z 2
2

4 x2

2  4  x

4z U 2
2 4 x2  y2

ZKLFKVLPSOLHVWR

2  4  x 2  y 2 ,  z  2

2sec I . Finally, for z

4 U cos I , and the upper limit is U

S

x dz dy dx
2S

4 cos I

2 sec I

2S

4 cos I

2 sec I

4  x2  y2 .

4 cos I . The integral is

 U sin I cos T  U 2 sin I dU dT dI ,

U 3 sin 2 I cos T dU dT dI .

7. We have the following:

2S

2S

dV

U sin I dU dI dT

2S

2 2 sin I dI dT
3

2 2  2  1 dT

3 2

2S

2S

U3

3 sin I dI dT

0
S

2 2
4
(

cos
I
)
3
dT
0

2 2 2
 3  3  2S 

4S
3

2  1 .



8. V

9.

2S

S
0

U 2 sin I dU dI dT .

2S

4sin I

U 2 sin I dU dI dT  16S 2  .

x2  y2

10. The distance from a point to the z-axis is r

U sin I . We set up the integral for the mass in the

UVWRFWDQWDQGPXOWLSO\E\
m

8k

 U sin I  U
2

sin I dU dI dT

8k

U 3 sin 2 I dU dI dT .

Lesson 27
12  12

1. The vectors make a 45 angle with the x-axis. They have constant length F

2.

2. 7KHYHFWRUVSRLQWLQWKHGLUHFWLRQIURPWKHRULJLQWRWKHSRLQW. They have constant length

F

3.

12  12  12

5 y3 , N

3.

15 xy 2 wN
wx

15 y 2

wM .
wy

+HQFHWKHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH

4.

1
wN
wx
x  y2

1
,N
x  y2
2

x

 y2 

z wM
wy

y

 y2 

.
2

+HQFHWKHYHFWRUHOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYH

 1 y F  x, y 
2

fx

2 x, f y

6.

fx

6 yz , f y

7.

fx

2 xye x , f y

Solutions

5.



6 xz , f z

ex , fz

2 xi  1 yj. Note that f

2

6 xy F  x , y , z 

1 F  x, y , z 

F.

6 yzi  6 xzj  6 xyk . Note that f

2 xye x i  e x j  k . Note that f

F.

F.

8.

f x  x, y 

y f  x, y 

xy  g  y  . f y  x , y 

x f  x, y 

xy  h  x  .

Hence, f x, y = xy + K is the potential function.

9. We have
f x  x, y 

x
f  x, y 
x2  y2

1 ln x 2  y 2  g y

  
2

f y  x, y 

y
f  x, y 
x  y2

1 ln x 2  y 2  h x .

  
2

1 ln x 2  y 2  K is the potential function.



2

Hence, f  x , y 

10. We have
f x  x, y 

3 x 2 y 2 f  x, y 

f y  x, y 

2 x 3 y f  x, y 

x3 y 2  g  y 
x3 y 2  h  x .

Hence, f x, y = x3y + K is the potential function.

Lesson 28

1.

curl F

w
wx
xyz

w
wy
xyz

w
wz
xyz

2.

3.

curl F

curl F

 xz  xy  i   yz  xy  j   yz  xz  k .

w
w
wx
wy
e x sin y  e x cos y
i

w
wx
y

w
wy
x

w
wz
0

w
wz
0

 e

1   1  k

cos y  e x cos y  k

2e x cos yk .

2k .



4. 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHLWVFXUOLVQRQ]HUR
i
curl F

w
w
w
wx
wy
wz
sin z sin x sin y

 cos y  i    cos z  j  cos xk z 0.

5. 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HUR
fx

xy 2 z 2 f

1 x 2 y 2 z 2  g y, z
 
2

fy

x 2 yz 2 f

1 x 2 y 2 z 2  h x, z
 
2

fz

x2 y2 z f

1 x 2 y 2 z 2  k x, y .
 
2

Hence, the potential function is f  x , y , z 

6.

div F  x , y 

7.

div F  x , y , z 

8.

rc t 

9.

wM  wN
wx
wy

2 x  4 y.

wM  wN  wP
wx
wy wz

4i  3 j ds

Solutions


cos x  sin y  2 z.

4 2  32 dt

5 dt .
1

 4t  3t  5 dt 60t

So, the line integral becomes

rc t 

cos 2 t  sin 2 t dt dt .

cos ti  sin tj ds

So, the line integral becomes

10.

1 x2 y2 z 2  K.
2

6S

x
C

6S

1  t  2 dt

xy ds

2 t  t
2

 y 2  z 2  ds

2  6S  18S 2 

 sin
0

dt

20t 3
0

t  cos 2 t  4  dt

6S 2  3S  1 .

20.

5 dt

>5t @0 2

5S .
2

Lesson 29

1.

F  x, y 

xi  yj ti  tj, r c  t 

So, the line integral becomes

i  j.
1

F < dr  ti  tj< i  j dt

t 2
0

2t dt

1.

2.

F  x, y 

F < dr

3.

3 xi  4 yj 3ti  4 4  t 2 j, r c  t 

4.

F  x, y , z 

 t i  2t
3

j  2t 3k < i  2tj  2k  dt

t
0

2S

So, the work done is W

F < dr

9t 4
4
0

9.
4

2S

10S 2 .

i  3t 2 j.

5t 2
 2
0

xi  2 yj ti  2t 3 j, r c  t 

 9t  dt

2sin ti  2 cos tj  k .

2S

F  x, y 

 4t 3  4t 3  dt

F < dr  2 cos ti  2sin tj  5tk < 2sin ti  2 cos tj  k  dt  5t  dt

5.

0.

i  2 tj  2 k .

2 cos ti  2sin tj  5tk , r c  t 

xi  yj  5 zk

t
2  3t  4t  dt 2  t  dt  2 2
2

t 3 i  2t 2 j  2t 3 k , r c  t 

xyi  xzj  yzk

F < dr

j dt

t
4 t2

2

F  x, y , z 
We have

4  t 2 j < i 

 3ti  4
2

t
j. So, the line integral is
4 t2

i

 ti  2t 3 j< i  3t 2 j dt

t2 6
t
2
0

 t  6t 5  dt

2  64

66.

6. The line joining the two points is r  t  5ti  3tj  2tk , 0 d t d 1.

Hence, F  x , y , z 

yzi  xzj  xyk

1

F < dr  6 t

The work done is W

6t 2 i  10t 2 j  15t 2 k , r c  t 
2

i  10t 2 j  15t 2 k < 5i  3 j  2k  dt

7.

5 x , dy

 90t  dt
0

30t 3 dt
0

30.

5 dx , 0 d x d 2. So, we have

 3 y  x  dx  y

5i  3 j  2k .

dy

15 x  x  dx   5 x   5 dx 
0

14 x  125 x  dx
2

2
x3
7 x  125 3
0

28  125 8
3

1084 .
3



8.

5 dx , 0 d x d 2 . So, we have

5 x , dy

 x  3 y  dy
2

 x  3 5 x   5 dx
2

 5 x  375 x  dx
2

x2
3
5 2  125 x
0

9.

F  x, y 

x 2 i  xyj

So, we have

F < dr

10  125  8  1010.

4t 2 i  2t (t  1) j, r c  t 
3

2i  j.

 4t 2 i  2t  t  1 j< 2i  j dt

8t 2  2t 2  2t  dt

10t 3 2
3  t
1

236 .
3

10. F  x, y  x 2 i  xyj 4  3  t  i  2  3  t  (2  t ) j, r c  t  2i  j.

So, we have

F < dr

 4 3  t  i  2(3  t )(2  t ) j< 2i  j dt

2

8  3  t  2  2  3  t  (2  t ) dt .

7KLVLQWHJUDOVLPSOLHVWRWKHQHJDWLYHRIWKHDQVZHUWR3UREOHP

F < dr

 84  58t  10t  dt

2

t3
2
84t  29t  10 3
0

168  116  80
3

 236 .
3

Lesson 30

1.

e x sin y , N

2.

1,N
y

e x cos y wN
wx

x wN
wx
y2

e x cos y

1 z 1
y2
y2

wM . 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
wy

wM . 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYH
wy

3. 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHWKHFXUOLVQRQ]HUR

curl F

w
wx

w
wy

w
wz
xy
z

Solutions

y ln z  x ln z



x x y y
  i   j    ln z  ln z  k z 0.
z z z z

4. Because wN
wx

2x

wM , WKHYHFWRUHOG F x , y
 
wy

The potential function is f  x , y 

x2 y 

2 xyi   x 2  y 2  j is conservative.

y3
 K.
3
 0, 4 

Hence, we have

2
2
2 xy dx   x  y  dy

5. Because wN
wx

2x

2
y3
x y  3

5, 0

wM , WKHYHFWRUHOG F x , y
 
wy

The potential function is f  x , y 

x2 y 

64 .
3

2 xyi   x 2  y 2  j is conservative.

y3
 K.
3
 0, 4 

Hence, we have

2 xy dx   x

y

 dy

2
y3
x y  3

 2, 0

64 .
3

6. %HFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HURWKHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
The potential function is f x, y, z = xyz + K. Hence,


yz dx  xz dy  xy dz > xyz @

4, 2, 4 
0, 2, 0 

32.

7. %HFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HURWKHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
The potential is f x, y, z = xyz + K. Hence,


yz dx  xz dy  xy dz > xyz @

4, 2, 4 
0, 0, 0 

32.

8. $SRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQLV f  x, y  sin x sin y.

Hence, the line integral is


cos x sin y dx  sin x cos y dy >sin x sin y @

 3, 2 

x2
y
 1, 1

9 1
2

10. 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVH wN
wx

1.

x2  K.
y

9. 7KHYHFWRUHOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHZLWKSRWHQWLDO f  x, y 
The work is therefore W

3S , S
2 2
0, S 

7.
2
x2  y2

 x2  y2 

wM .
wy

Because the curve does not contain the origin, the line integral is zero.

181

Lesson 31

1. :HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO)RUWKHSDWKC1IURPWR, we have r  t  ti  tj, 0 d t d 1.

Because x = y = t,

C1

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

 t 2  dt   t 2  dt

For the path CIURPWR, we have r  t 

Here, x

2  t , dx

So, we have

C2

 dt , y

t3
2 3
0

2t 2 dt

2.
3

(2  t ) i  2  t j, 1 d t d 2.

1 dt .
2 2t

2  t , dy
2

 t  2  dt   2  t 

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

Evaluating this integral, you obtain  7 . Finally,

10

1
2 2  t dt .

y 2 dx  x 2 dy

2 7
3 10

Next, we calculate the double integral:

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA

 2 x  2 y  dy dx
x

2x

2 xy  y 2
x

4 52 x 2 x3
5 x  2  3
0

2. Notice that wN  wM
wx

wy

2  1 1. Hence,

 x  x 2 dx

411
5 2 3

 1 .
30

 y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy 1 dA.
C

This is the area between the two semicircles, 1 S  25  9  8S .

2

3. Notice that wN  wM
wx

wy

2  1 1. Hence,

 y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy 1 dA.
C

This is the area of the ellipse having a b = 1. So, the answer is DE .

4. We have wM

Solutions

wy



2e x sin 2 y

wN . Hence,
wx

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA

0.

 1 .
30

5. By Greens theorem, we have the following:

W

wN

xy dx   x  y dy  wx 

2S

2S

0 0 1  r cos T  r dr dT 0

2S

1  1 cos T dT

2 3

wM dA
wy

1  x  dA
R

r2 r3

2  3 cos T dT
0
2S

1 T  1 sin T
3
2
0

S.

6. By Greens theorem, we have the following:

W

 3 y dx   6 x  5 y dy 

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA

 6  3 dA.
R

9 1  5  5 
2

So, the work is 9 times the area of the triangle: W

225 .
2

Lesson 32

1.

x 2  2 x , dy

(2 x  2) dx. So, the line integral becomes

3

 y  x  dx   2 x  y  dy  x
C

 2 x  x  dx   2 x  x 2  2 x   2 x  2  dx

 2 x
0

 11x 2  11x  dx
3

x4
x3
x2
 2  11 3  11 2
0
 81  99  99
2
2

9.

2. Let the circle be x a cos t , y a sin t , 0 d t d 2S . Then, the area is

A

3.

1 x dy  y dx
2 C

x 2  1, dy
A

2 x dx; y

1 2S a cos t ( a cos t )  a sin t (  a sin t ) dt

>
@
2 0

5 x  3, dy

1 2S a 2 dt
2 0

S a2 .

5 dx. The area is therefore

1 4 x 2 x  x 2  1 dx  1 1 x 5  5 x  3 dx
  

 2 4   
2 1
4

1 x3  x  1 3x 1
> @4

2 3
2
1

1 18  1 9
  2 
2

9.
2

183

4. 7KHYHFWRUHOG F  x, y 

y
i  2 x 2 j is conservative because wN
wx
x  y2
x y
2

By Greens theorem, the line integral is zero because

5. The line joining the points is y

 y dx  x dy

x2
x1

x2
x1

y dx  x dy
x2  y2

y 2  y1
 x  x1   y1 . So, dy
x2  x1

wN

wx 
R

x2  y2

wM
wy

y

dA

wM .
wy

0.

y 2  y1
dx.
x2  x1

y 2  y1
y 2  y1
 x  x  x  x1   y1  x x  x dx
2 1
2 1
y 2  y1

x1 x  x  y1 dx
2 1

x2

y 2  y1

 y1 x
x1

x1
x2  x1

y 2  y1

x1 x  x  y1  x2  x1 
2 1

x1  y 2  y1   y1  x2  x1 

x1 y 2  x2 y1 .

6. We have A

7.

1 0  0  4  0  12  4  6  0  0  3  0  0
    
      
2

w
f  x  dx  g  y  dy wx g  y   wy f  x  dA >0  0@ dA

21 .
2

0.

Lesson 33

1. This is the plane y = x + z.

2. Because x 2  y 2

3.

ru  u , v 

 u cos v    u sin v 

i  j, rv  u , v 

u 2, this is the cone x + y = z.

i  j  k.

$WWKHSRLQW, u DQGv = 1. ru  0, 1

Solutions

The normal vector is the cross product, N

184

i  j, rv  0, 1

ru u rv

i  j  k.

i  j  2k . Note that the surface is the plane x y z.

4.

ru  u , v 

2 cos vi  3sin vj  2uk , rv  u , v 

2u sin vi  3u cos vj.

S . r 2, S 3 j  4k , r 2, S 4i .

u
v

$WWKHSRLQW, u DQG v

ru u rv

16 j  12k .

The normal vector is the cross product, N

5. We know the point and the normal vector.

So, the tangent plane is  x  1   y  1  2  z  1

0 x  y  2z

0. This is the original plane.

6. We know the point and the normal vector.

So, the tangent plane is 16  y  6   12  z  4 

7.

ru  u , v 

4i , rv  u , v 

0 4 y  3 z 12.

 j  k . The cross product is ru u rv

The magnitude of the cross product is ru u rv

Finally, the area is A

8.

ru  u , v 

ru u rv dA

2sin ui  2 cos uj, rv

We have ru u rv
Finally, A

16  16

4 2 du dv

2S

2S

ru u rv dA

4 2.
4 2 (2)(1)

8 2.

k.

2 cos ui  2sin uj and ru u rv

4 j  4k .

2.
2(2S )(3) 12S .

2 du dv

9. We will show that x + y + z = 1.

x2  y2  z 2

 sin u cos v    sin u sin v    cos u 

sin 2 u cos 2 v  sin 2 u sin 2 v  cos 2 u

sin 2 u  cos 2 v  sin 2 v   cos 2 u
sin 2 u  cos 2 u 1.

185

10. :HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHFURVVSURGXFW
i
j
k
cos u cos v cos u sin v  sin u
 sin u sin v sin u cos v
0

ru u rv

sin 2 u cos vi  sin 2 u sin vj  (cos u sin u cos 2 v  cos u sin u sin 2 v )k
sin 2 u cos vi  sin 2 u sin vj  cos u sin uk .
The magnitude of the cross product is

 sin

ru u rv

u cos v    sin 2 u sin v    sin u cos u 

sin 4 u  cos 2 v  sin 2 v   sin 2 u cos 2 u

sin 4 u  sin 2 u cos 2 u
sin 2 u  sin 2 u  cos 2 u 
sin 2 u

sin u.

Lesson 34

1.

wz
wx

1, wz
wy

1   1  0 dA

0. dS

2 dA. So, we have the following.

 x  2 y  z  dS  x  2 y  (4  x ) 

2 dy dx

 4  2 y  dy dx
0

2 4 y  y 2 dx
0
0
4

2 3 dx 12 2.
0

2.

wz
wx

wz
wy

xy dS
Solutions

186

1  0  0 dA

0. dS
2

4 x2

xy dy dx

dA. So, we have the following.

1 2 x 4  x 2 dx


2 0

1 2 x 2  x 4
2
4 0

2.

3. We have the following.

2 3 x 

y  3  x  dy dx

2 3 x 

y2

3  3  x 
0
2

0
3

dx

3  2   3  x  dx
0

3  x 4
6

4.

ru  u , v 
Hence,

i , rv  u , v 

j  2k . ru u rv
2

 y  5 dS 0 0  v  5

2 j  k , ru u rv

5 du dv

5.

2x  2 y

dS

xy
dS
z

2S

6.

G  x, y , z 

5.

5  v  5  dv
0

5 v  5v
2

12 5.

 1 dA . So, we have

xy
 y2

2S

243 .
2

1  4 x 2  4 y 2 dy dx

r 2 cos T sin T 1  4 r 2 r dr dT
r2
r 1  4 r 2 cos T sin T dr dT .

x  y  z  1, G

i  j  k . So, we have

F < N dS F <G dA
S

1 x

 3 z  4  y  dy dx
1

1 x

 3 1  x  y   4  y  dy dx
1

1 x

 1  3 x  2 y  dy dx.



7.

G  x, y , z 

F<G

y2
z
36  x 2  y 2

x2

36  x 2  y 2

y
j  k.
36  x 2  y 2

x
i
36  x 2  y 2

z  36  x 2  y 2 , G

x2  y2
 36  x 2  y 2
36  x 2  y 2

36
.
36  x 2  y 2

So, we have the following.

36
dA
36  x 2  y 2

F < N dS F <G dA
S

36
r dr dT .
36  r 2

Lesson 35

1. There are six surfaces to the cube, each with dS

 z 2 , 0 dA

0, N

k , F < N

2, N

k , F<N

z 2 , 4 dA

0, N

i, F <N

2 x , 0 dA

2, N

i, F<N

0, N

 j, F < N

2, N

j, F < N

4 dx dy 16

2 x , 4 dA

1 dA .

2 y , 0 dA

4 dx dy 16

2 y ,  4  dA

 4  dx dy

16.

$GGLQJWKHVHXS F < N dS

16  16  16 16. The divergence of F is div F

So, we have the same result:

div F

2  2  2z

2 z dz dy dx

4  2  2  16.

4 dy dx

2. There are two surfaces.

For the bottom, z

0, N

k , F < N

2 z 2. So,

F < N dS 2 z
S

dA

0 dA
R

For the side, the outward unit normal is

Solutions

188

2 xi  2 yj  k
and F < N
4x2  4 y2 1

1
2 x 2 z  2 y 2 z  2 z 2 .
4x2  4 y2 1

0.

2 z.

So, we have

F < N dS 2  x
S

2S

2S

2S

 y 2  z  2 z 2 dA

2 r 2 1  r 2   2 1  r 2  2 r dr dT

2 r  2 r 3 dr dT

1 dT
2

S.
z  z  4z

The divergence of F is div F

2S

1 r 2

div F

6 z. The triple integral of the divergence is

6 z r dz dr dT

2S

 3  6r

2S

2S

 3r 4  r dr dT
1

r2
r 4  3 r 6 dT

3
6
2
4
6 0
3  3  1 dT
2 2 2

S.

3. We have the following.

2

4 y2

2  4  y

 4 xz  2 xy  y  dx dy
2

4 y2

2  4  y 2
2

4 y2

2  4  y 2

4x 4  x
16 x  4 x

 y 2   2 xy  y 2 dx dy

 4 xy 2  2 xy  y 2  dx dy

2
4
2 2
2
2
2 8 x  x  2 x y  x y  xy 

2

4 y2
4 y2

dy

2 y 2 4  y 2 dy.

Using a graphing utility, or a table of integrals, you obtain 4.

4. The divergence is div F 2 x  2 y  2 z. So, we have

1

div F  2 x  2 y  2 z  dz dy dx
Q

 2 x  2 y  1 dy dx
1

 2 x  2  dx
0

1 2

3.
189

5. The divergence is div F 1  2 y  1 2 y. So, we have

25  y 2

5  25  y 2

div F
Q

5

2 y dx dy dz

4 y 25  y 2 dy dz
5

 4 25  y 2 3 2 dz


3
5

0.

6. If F  x, y , z  ai  bj  ck , then div F 0. So, by the divergence theorem,

F < N dS div F
S

0.

Lesson 36

1. :HUVWFDOFXODWHWKHOLQHLQWHJUDO/HW x 3cos t , dx 3sin t dt and y 3sin t , dy 3cos t dt .

Because z  F < dr
C

F < dr

 y dx  x dy. So, we have

2S

2S

 3sin t  3sin t    3cos t  3cos t  dt

 y dx  x dy

For the double integral, let G  x , y , z 

The curl of F is

curl F

i
w
wx
y  z

So, curl F < NdS

j
w
wy
xz

k
w
wz
x y

2 dA. Hence,

z  (9  x 2  y 2 ), G

9 dt 18S .

2 xi  2 yj  k and N dS

 2 xi  2 yj  k  dA.

2k .

 curl F < N dS 2 dA
S

2  area of circle  18S .

2. Let u i  j  k and v 2k be the vectors forming the triangle.

Their cross product is u u v

Solutions



2i  2 j and N dS

i j k
1 1 1
0 0 2

 2i  2 j dA.

2i  2 j. The surface is the plane is G

2x  2 y

0.

Next, we calculate the curl of F:

curl F

w
wx

w
wy

w
wz

x2  y2

arctan x
y

ln

Because the curl is orthogonal to N dS

F < dr  curl F < N dS

2 x k.
x2  y2

 2i  2 j dA,

the line integral equals zero:

0.

3. The curl is curl F

Let G  x , y , z 

w
wx
xyz

w
wy
y

w
wz
z

x 2  z , G

xyj  xzk .

2 xi  k , N dS

 2 xi  k  dA.

Then, we have

F < dr (curl F )<N dS  xyj  xzk < 2 xi  k  dA xz dA

4.

curl F

x  x 2  dy dx

w
wx
1

w
wy
1

w
wz
2

3 x 3 dx

x4
3 4
0

243 .
4

0.

6RWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLVDOVR]HUR7KHUHLVEDVLFDOO\QRFLUFXODUPRWLRQWRWKHOLTXLG

191

5.

curl F

i
w
wx

j
w
wy

k
w
wz

 y x2  y2

x x2  y2

3 x 2  y 2 k.

Letting N = k,

(curl F )< N dS 3
S

Solutions

7KHUHLVFLUFXODUPRWLRQ



x 2  y 2 dA

2S

2S

 3r  r dr dT

r 3 dT
0

2S

8 dT

16S .

Glossary

Note: The number in parentheses indicates the lesson in which the concept or term is introduced.
Some concepts from beginning calculus, and even precalculus, have also been included that were introduced
in Understanding Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips Calculus or in Understanding Calculus II:
Problems, Solutions, and TipsCalculus II.

absolute value function: 7KHDEVROXWHYDOXHIXQFWLRQLVGHQHGE\

f  x

x, x t 0
.

 x, x  0

It is continuous, but not differentiable, at x = 0. Its graph appears in the shape of the letter V. Reviewed in
Calculus, Lesson 1.

DFFHOHUDWLRQ,QFDOFXOXVDFFHOHUDWLRQLVWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIYHORFLW\DQGKDVWZRFRPSRQHQWVWKH
rate of change in speed and the rate of change in direction. See particle motion. Introduced for two
dimensions in Calculus, Lessons 3435.

DUFOHQJWK: In three dimensions, arc length is

s

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  dt

r c  t  dt .

The differential of arc length in three dimensions is

ds

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t 

r c  t  dt .

For arc length in two dimensions, see Calculus II, Lesson 8.

area of a region in the plane: Let fEHFRQWLQXRXVDQGQRQQHJDWLYHRQWKHLQWHUYDO>a, b@3DUWLWLRQWKHLQWHUYDO

into n equal subintervals of length
'x

ba, x
0
n

a , x1 , x2 ,! , xn 1 , xn

b.

193

The area RIWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is
n

lim f  ci  'x , xi 1 d ci d xi ,

n of

i 1

provided that this limit exists. See Calculus II, Lesson 7.

axis of revolution: If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution,
and the line is called the axis of revolution. See Calculus II, Lesson 30.

cardioid: 3RODUHTXDWLRQVRIWKHIRUP r
See Calculus II, Lesson 29.

a 1  cos T  and r

a 1  sin T  are called cardioids.

center of mass: &DOFXODWHGE\GLYLGLQJPRPHQWDERXWWKHRULJLQ E\WKHWRWDOPDVVHLWKHU

 x, y 

My Mx
m , m or x

M0
,
m

where m m1  m2  "  mn and the moment about the originLVJLYHQE\ M 0 m1 x1  ...  mn xn .

)RUDUHJLRQRIXQLIRUPGHQVLW\covered in Calculus II, Lesson 9, the center of mass is often called the
centroid of the region. See moment.

centroid7KHJHRPHWULFFHQWHURIDSODQDUODPLQDRUKLJKHUGLPHQVLRQDOREMHFW:KHQPDVVLVXQLIRUPO\
distributed, the centroid is equivalent to the center of mass. See Calculus II, Lesson 9.

FKDLQUXOH: 8QOLNHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVKDVDYDULHW\RIFKDLQUXOHV7KHRQH
covered in this course is
dw
dt

ww dx  ww dy ,
wx dt wy dt

ZKHUHVRPHRIWKHGHULYDWLYHVDUHRUGLQDU\GHULYDWLYHVZKLOHRWKHUVDUHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV

compound interest formula: Let P be the amount of a deposit at an annual interest rate of ras a decimal
compounded nWLPHVSHU\HDU7KHDPRXQWDIWHUt\HDUVLV
Glossary

nt

P 1  r .
n

,IWKHLQWHUHVWLVFRPSRXQGHGFRQWLQXRXVO\WKHDPRXQWLV A
194

Pe rt . See Calculus, Lesson 27.

concavity: Let f be differentiable on an open interval I. The graph of f is concave upward on I if f c is

increasing on I and concave downward on I if f c is decreasing on I. A graph is concave upward if the
graph is above its tangent lines and concave downward if the graph is below its tangent lines.
See Calculus II, Lesson 2.

FRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOG: $YHFWRUHOGF that can be represented as the gradient of a differentiable

function f, known as the potential functionLQVKRUWDYHFWRUHOGIRUZKLFK F f . *UDYLWDWLRQDOHOGV
DQGHOHFWULFIRUFHHOGVDUHFRQVHUYDWLYH,QDFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGWKHYDOXHRIDOLQHLQWHJUDORYHUD
closed curve is zero.

FRQWLQXRXVIXQFWLRQ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVDIXQFWLRQf is continuous at c if the following three

conditions are met:
f  c  LVGHQHG lim f  x  exists, and lim f  x 
x oc

x oc

f c.

In multivariable calculus, a function of two variables is continuous at a point if 1WKHIXQFWLRQLVGHQHG

at the point, 2 the limit exists at the point, and 3 the function value equals the limit.

Coulombs law : The force exerted on a particle with electric charge q1ORFDWHGDWx, y, zE\DSDUWLFOHRI
charge q2ORFDWHGDW0, 0, 0 is
F  x, y , z 

c q1 q2
r

u.

critical point : For a function fGHQHGRQDQRSHQUHJLRQRFRQWDLQLQJx0, y0WKHSRLQWx0, y0 is a critical

point if the partial derivatives of the function at that point fx x0, y0 and f y x0, y0 are both equal to zero, or
one of them does not exist. These critical points are the candidates for relative extrema.

FURVVSURGXFW: 7KHFURVVSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUValso known as the vector productDOORZV\RX

WRQGDWKLUGYHFWRULQVSDFHWKDWLVRUWKRJRQDOWRWZRJLYHQQRQ]HURYHFWRUV7KHFURVVSURGXFWLVD
vector and is not commutative: Instead, u u v   v u u  . The cross product equals zero for identical
or parallel vectors. We calculate using a determinant formula: u u1i  u 2 j  u3k u1 , u 2 , u3 and
v v1i  v2 j  v3k v1 , v2 , v3 is

uu v

i
j
u1 u 2
v1 v2

k
u3
v3

 u2 v3  u3v2  i   u1v3  u3v1  j   u1v2  u2 v1  k .

195

The magnitude of the cross product is a scalar, which equals u u v

u v sin T .

The derivative of the cross product is d >r u u @ r u uc  r c u u.

dt

FXUORIDYHFWRUHOG $YHFWRUHOGWKDWPHDVXUHVDQRWKHUYHFWRUHOGVWHQGHQF\WRURWDWHwhen curl = 0,

DHOGLVLUURWDWLRQDO8VHGDVDWHVWIRUFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGV&DOFXODWHGXVLQJDFURVVSURGXFWRIWKH
GLIIHUHQWLDORSHUDWRUZLWKWKHYHFWRUHOG curl F u F. )RUWKHYHFWRUHOG)x, y, z,
wP wN
wy  wz

curl F  x , y , z 

wP wM wN wM
i  wx  wz j  wx  wy

u F  x, y , z 

i
w
wx
M

j
w
wy
N

k
w .
wz
P

curvature: A measure of how much a curve bends,

K

Tc( t )
.
r c( t )

The curvature of y = f x is
K

y cc
1   y c  2

.
2

See Calculus II, Lesson 36.

FXUYH: $SODQDUFXUYHLVGHQHGE\WKHIXQFWLRQVx = f t, y = Jt, and z = Kt. A curve is called simple

if it does not cross itself.

Glossary

F\OLQGHU: ,QHOHPHQWDU\JHRPHWU\DF\OLQGHUUHVXOWVZKHQOLQHVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRDFLUFOHJHQHUDWHDWXEH
shape, but LQKLJKHUPDWKHPDWLFVDF\OLQGHURUF\OLQGULFDOVXUIDFHFDQUHIHUWRDQ\VXUIDFHFUHDWHGZKHQ
DQ\JHQHUDWLQJFXUYHLQDSODQHnot just a circleLVH[WHQGHGLQWRDWKLUGGLPHQVLRQE\OLQHVLQWHUVHFWLQJ
that curve and orthogonal to its plane.

F\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV: The three-dimensional generalization of polar coordinates: x

y r sin t , z z.

196

r cos t ,

cycloid: 7KHFXUYHWUDFHGRXWE\DSRLQWRQWKHFLUFXPIHUHQFHRIDFLUFOHUROOLQJDORQJDOLQH See Calculus II,

Lesson 28.

GHQLWHLQWHJUDO: Let fEHGHQHGRQWKHLQWHUYDO>D, E@3DUWLWLRQWKHLQWHUYDOLQWRn equal subintervals of

length 'x b  a , x0 a , x1 , x2 , }, xn 1 , xn b.
n
n

Assume that the following limit exists: lim f  ci  'x , where xi 1 d ci d xi .

n of

i 1

7KHQWKLVOLPLWLVWKHGHQLWHLQWHJUDO of f from a to b and is denoted

f  x  dx. See Calculus II, Lesson 3.

a

GHO: See differential operator.

delta x x: 7KHV\PERO x is read delta x and denotes Dsmall change in x. Some textbooks use h
LQVWHDGRIx.

GHQVLW\: 8VXDOO\PDVVSHUXQLWYROXPHEXWIRUSODQDUODPLQDVGHQVLW\LVPDVVSHUXQLWRIVXUIDFHDUHD

derivative: ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVWKHGHULYDWLYH of f at xLVJLYHQE\WKHIROORZLQJOLPLWLILWH[LVWV

f c x

lim

'x o 0

f  x  'x   f  x 
.
'x

Notations for the derivative of y = f x:

f c x,

dy
, y c, d f  x  , D > y @ .
dx
dx

7KHGHQLWLRQVRIVORSHDQGWKHGHULYDWLYHDUHEDVHGRQWKHGLIIHUHQFHTXRWLHQWIRUVORSH
slope

change in y
change in x

'y
.
'x

In multivariable calculus, WKHIXQFWLRQVDUHRIWZRor more variables, and we use partial derivatives:

f x  x, y 

lim

'x o 0

f  x  'x , y   f  x , y 
, f y  x, y 
'x

lim

'y o 0

f  x , y  'y   f  x , y 
.
'y

197

GHWHUPLQDQWQRWDWLRQ: ,QWKLVFRXUVHZHXVHDGHWHUPLQDQWIRUPRQO\WRKHOSXVUHPHPEHUDQG
calculate the cross product RIWZRYHFWRUV7HFKQLFDOO\DGHWHUPLQDQWLVDVLQJOHUHDOQXPEHUREWDLQHGE\
using determinant notation, but in that sense, this course has no determinantswhich are a topic covered
in linear algebra. See cross product.

differentiable : In multivariable calculus, a function z = f x, yLVGLIIHUHQWLDEOHDWWKHSRLQWx0, y0LIz

can be written in the form 'z f x  x0 , y0  'x  f y  x0 , y0  'y  H 1'x  H 2 'y , where 1 and 2 tend to zero
as  'x , 'y  o  0, 0  . 'LIIHUHQWLDELOLW\DWDSRLQWRQDVXUIDFHLPSOLHVWKDWWKHVXUIDFHFDQEHDSSUR[LPDWHG
E\DWDQJHQWSODQHDWWKDWSRLQW

differential: ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVZHOHWy = f x be a differentiable function. Then, dx x is called the

differential of x. The differential of y is dy f c  x  dx. For multivariable calculus, see total differential.
See Calculus II, Lesson 2.

differential equation: A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x, y, and derivatives of y.
The order RIDGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHKLJKHVWRUGHUGHULYDWLYHLQWKHHTXDWLRQ
dy
$UVWRUGHUOLQHDUGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQFDQEHZULWWHQLQWKHVWDQGDUGIRUP
 P  x y Q  x.
dx
See Calculus II, Lessons 46.

GLIIHUHQWLDORSHUDWRUGHO:
del, or grad, or nabla.

w ,
wx

w , or
wy

w . 8VHGLQFXUOGLYHUJHQFH3URQRXQFHG
wz

GLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYH$JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHFRQFHSWRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHWKDWFDQEHXVHGWRQGWKH
VORSHDZD\IURPDSRLQWLQDQ\JLYHQGLUHFWLRQ

GLUHFWLRQQXPEHUV: Component numbers in a direction vector.

Glossary

GLVN: Two-dimensional analog for intervals along the x-axis in beginning calculus. An open disk that is the
interior of a circle. Compare with planar lamina.

GLYHUJHQFHRIDYHFWRUHOG: $VFDODUWKDWPHDVXUHVRXWZDUGX[SHUXQLWYROXPHWKHWHQGHQF\
RIDYHFWRUHOGWRGLYHUJHIURPDJLYHQSRLQW3RVLWLYHGLYHUJHQFHLVDsource, negative divergence is a
sink, and divergence = 0 is divergence free or incompressible. Calculated using a dot product of the
GLIIHUHQWLDORSHUDWRUZLWKWKHYHFWRUHOG div F < F.
198

GLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHP: A generalization of Greens theorem that relates a X[LQWHJUDORYHUWKHERXQGDU\

of a solid with a triple integral over the entire solid:

F < N dS divF dV <F dV .

S

GRWSURGXFW: The dot product of two vectors, u u1 , u 2 , u3 and v v1 , v2 , v3 , is u < v u1v1  u 2 v2  u3 v3 .

The dot product of two vectors is a real number, not a vector, and provides a method for determining the
angle between two nonzero vectors; when the dot product equals zero, the two vectors are perpendicular
to each other. For vectors in two dimensions, see Calculus II, Lesson 32.

GRXEOHLQWHJUDO: If fLVGHQHGRQDFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQLQR in the xy-plane, then the double

integral of f over R is

f  x, y  dA
R

lim f  xi , yi  'Ai .
' o0

i 1

To solve, rewrite as an iterated integral. Can be used to solve for area, volume, mass, surface area, etc.

HUURUDQDO\VLV: Using the total differential to approximate function values.

extreme value theorem : If z = f x, y is continuous on the closed and bounded region R in the plane, then
there is at least one point in R at which f takes on a minimum value and at least one point in R at which f
takes on a maximum value.

exponential function: The inverse of the natural logarithmic function y OQx is the exponential function
y = ex. The exponential function is equal to its derivative, d e x e x. The exponential function to base
dx
a, a!LVGHQHGE\ a x e  ln a  x. See Calculus, Lesson 1.

UVWGHULYDWLYHWHVW: ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVZH let c be a critical number of f. If f FKDQJHVIURPSRVLWLYHWR

negative at c, then fKDVDUHODWLYHPD[LPXPDWc, f c. If f FKDQJHVIURPQHJDWLYHWRSRVLWLYHDWc, then f
KDVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPDWc, f c. See second derivative test. See Calculus II, Lesson 2.

X[LQWHJUDO$VXUIDFHLQWHJUDOWKDWLVXVHGWRPRGHOWKHRZRIDOLTXLGWKURXJKDWZRVLGHGVXUIDFH
an orientable surface. )OX[LQWHJUDOVDUHQRWGHQHGIRUVXUIDFHVWKDWDUHQRWRULHQWDEOH

199

IXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHV: $IXQFWLRQZLWKWZRLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVoften x and y and one dependent

YDULDEOHoften z or t. Let Dthe domain be a set of ordered pairs of real numbers. If to each ordered pair
x, y in D there corresponds a unique real number f x, y, then f is a function of x and y.

IXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIFDOFXOXV: If f is a continuous function on the closed interval [D, E@DQGF is

an antiderivative of f, then
b

f  x  dx
a

F b   F  a .

This theorem and the second fundamental theorem of calculus show how integration and differentiation
DUHEDVLFDOO\LQYHUVHRSHUDWLRQV,If is continuous on an open interval I containing a, the second
fundamental theorem of calculusVD\VWKDWIRUDQ\x in the interval,
d x f t dt
 
dx a

f  x.

fundamental theorem of line integrals : 6WDWHVWKDWWKHOLQHLQWHJUDOIRUDQ\WZRSRLQWVLQDFRQVHUYDWLYH

YHFWRUHOGLVVLPSO\WKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHYDOXHVRIWKHpotential function at those two points.

Gausss law 5HODWHVWKHX[RXWRIDVXUIDFHWRWKHWRWDOFKDUJHLQVLGHWKHVXUIDFH,QSDUWLFXODULIE is an

HOHFWULFHOGWKHQ

E< N dS
S

H0

Here, Q is the electric charge inside a sphere and 0LVWKHSHUPLWWLYLW\RIVSDFHRUWKHHOHFWULFFRQVWDQW

*HQHUDOL]HGWREHFRPHWKHUVWRI0D[ZHOOVODZVRIHOHFWURPDJQHWLVP

Glossary

JUDGLHQW: A vector that points in the direction of maximum increase or steepest ascent; is orthogonal
WROHYHOFXUYHVfor functions of two variablesDQGOHYHOVXUIDFHVfor functions of three variables.
7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRor more variables is a vector-valued function; for a function of two
variables, the gradient is grad f  x , y  f  x , y  f x  x , y  i  f y  x , y  j. The dot product of the
gradient with the unit vector gives the directional derivative.

200

*UHHQVWKHRUHP: A theorem about points in the plane that UHODWHVDOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGWKHERXQGDU\RI

a region with a double integral over the entire region:

M dx  N dy

wN

wx 
R

wM
wy

dA.

Here, M and N are the components of a vector-valued function F. This theorem generalizes to space, in
WZRGLIIHUHQWZD\VZLWKWKHdivergence theorem and Stokess theorem.

dy
JURZWKDQGGHFD\PRGHO: 7KHVROXWLRQWRWKHJURZWKDQGGHFD\PRGHO
dt
Calculus II, Lesson 5.

half-angle formulas: sin 2 x

1  cos 2 x ; cos 2 x
2

ky is y

Ce kt . Introduced in

1  cos 2 x .
2

Used when exponents m and n are both even in the integral sin m x cos n x dx. Reviewed in Calculus II,
Lesson 11.

KDUPRQLFIXQFWLRQ: $IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLVHV/DSODFHVSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQIRUWKHVWHDG\VWDWH
distribution of the temperature in plates or solids.

horizontal asymptote: The line y = LLVDKRUL]RQWDODV\PSWRWH of the graph of f if lim f ( x )

x of
lim f ( x ) L. See Calculus II, Lesson 5.

L or

x of

implicit differentiation$WHFKQLTXHXVHGZKHQLWLVGLIFXOWWRH[SUHVVy as a function of xH[SOLFLWO\7KH

steps are as follows: Differentiate both sides with respect to x, collect all terms involving dy/dx on the left
side of the equation and move all other terms to the right side, factor dy/dx out of the left side, and solve
for dy/dx. See Calculus II, Lesson 2.

improper integral$QLQWHJUDOZKHUHRQHRIWKHOLPLWVRILQWHJUDWLRQLVRURIWKHIRUP
f

f  x  dx
a

lim f  x  dx ,

b of a

RUWKRVHWKDWDUHQRWFRQWLQXRXVRQWKHFORVHGLQWHUYDO>a, b@6HHCalculus II, Lesson 15.

201

integrating factor: For a linear differential equation, the integrating factor is u

Lesson 6.

P ( x ) dx

. See Calculus II,

integration by partial fractions: An algebraic technique for splitting up complicated algebraic expressions
LQSDUWLFXODUUDWLRQDOIXQFWLRQVLQWRDVXPRIVLPSOHUIXQFWLRQVZKLFKFDQWKHQEHLQWHJUDWHGHDVLO\
using other techniques. See Calculus II, Lesson 13.

integration by parts: u dv

uv  v du. See Calculus II, Lesson 10.

integration by substitution: Let F be an antiderivative of f. If u = Jx, then du

f  g  x   g c  x  dx

F  g  x    C because

f  u  du

g c  x  dx , so we have

F u   C.

See Calculus II, Lesson 3.

iterated integrals : Repeated simple integrals, such as double integrals and triple integrals. The inside
limits of integration can be variable with respect to the outer variable of integration, but the outside limits
of integration must be constant with respect to both outside limits of integration.

inverse functions7KRVHZKRVHJUDSKVDUHV\PPHWULFDFURVVWKHOLQHy = x.
A function g is the inverse function of the function f if f Jx = x for all x in the domain of g and
Jf x = x for all x in the domain of f. The inverse of f is denoted f 1 . Reviewed in Calculus II, Lesson 1.

LQYHUVHVTXDUHHOGV : Fields where the force decreases in proportion with the square of distance.
k u.
Given r xi  yj  zk , WKHYHFWRUHOGFLVDQLQYHUVHVTXDUHHOGLI F  x , y , z 
2
r

Glossary

inverse trigonometric functions: These inverse functions DUHGHQHGE\UHVWULFWLQJWKHGRPDLQRIWKHRULJLQDO

function, as follows.

202

arcsin x

sin 1 x sin y

arccos x

cos 1 x cos y

x , for  1 d x d 1 and  S d y d S .
2
2
x , for  1 d x d 1 and 0 d y d S .

arctan x

tan 1 x tan y

x , for  f  x  f and  S  y  S .
2
2

arcsec x

sec 1 x sec y

x , for x t 1, 0 d y d S , and y z S .
2

Reviewed in Calculus II, Lesson1.

.HSOHUVODZV: 1 The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the two foci; 2 a line
joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time; 3 the square of the
RUELWDOSHULRGRIDSODQHWLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFXEHRIWKHVHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHRUELW

/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHU: A scalar, XVHGLQDSRZHUIXOWHFKQLTXHJLYHQE\/DJUDQJHVWKHRUHPIRUVROYLQJ

optimization problems that have constraints.

ODPLQD$WKLQDWSODWHRIPDWHULDOXVXDOO\RIXQLIRUPGHQVLW\

/DSODFHVSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQ'HVFULEHVWKHVWHDG\VWDWHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLQSODWHVRU
2
2
solids. w z2  w z2 0. $IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLVHVWKLVHTXDWLRQLVVDLGWREHharmonic.
wx
wy

ODZRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRIHQHUJ\,QDFRQVHUYDWLYHIRUFHHOGWKHVXPRISRWHQWLDODQGNLQHWLFHQHUJLHVRI
an object remain constant from point to point.

OHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQH: 8VHGWRWDOLQHWRDVHWRISRLQWVLQWKHSODQH:RUNVEHVWZKHQWKHGDWDLV
QHDUO\OLQHDU'HULYHGE\PLQLPL]LQJWKHVXPRIWKHVTXDUHVRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHGDWDDQGWKH
line. If f x = ax + b, then the values of a and bDUHJLYHQE\
n

i 1

i 1

i 1

n xi yi  xi yi
a

n
n
n xi 2  xi
i 1
i 1

,b

n
n
1 y  a x .
i
i

n i 1
i 1

level curve : Also known as a contour lineWKHVHWRIDOOSRLQWVLQWKHSODQHVDWLVI\LQJf x, y = c, when

z = f x, y and c is a constant. Contrast with trace, which is the intersection of a surface with a plane.

203

level surface : Although a function in three variables f x, y, z cannot itself be graphed, it is possible to
graph a level surface, the set of all points in space where that function equals a constant, f x, y, z = c.

LHpitals rule: A technique for evaluating indeterminate forms for limits such as 0 or f , where no
f
0
guaranteed limit exists. See Calculus II, Lesson 14.

limit'HQHGLQIRUPDOO\LIf xEHFRPHVDUELWUDULO\FORVHWRDVLQJOHQXPEHUL as x approaches c from either

VLGHZHVD\WKDWWKHOLPLWRIf x as x approaches c is L, which we write as lim f  x  L.
x oc

Also, the equation lim f  x 

x oc

f means that f x increases without bound as x approaches c.

0RUHIRUPDOO\/HWfEHDIXQFWLRQGHQHGRQDQRSHQLQWHUYDOFRQWDLQLQJc H[FHSWSRVVLEO\DWc, and let

L be a real number. The statement lim f  x  L means that for each > 0, there exists a > 0 such that if
x oc
0  x  c  G , then f ( x )  L  H .
See Calculus II, Lesson 1.
7KHGHQLWLRQIRUDOLPLWLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVLVVLPLODUWRWKDWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVH[FHSWWKDWZH
XVHRSHQGLVNVDQGDSSURDFKIURPDQ\GLUHFWLRQLQVWHDGRIXVLQJRSHQLQWHUYDOVDSSURDFKLQJIURPRQO\
two directions:HVD\WKDW
lim
f  x , y  L if for each > 0, there exists > 0 such that
 x , y  o x0 , y0 

f  x , y   L  H whenever 0<

 x  x0    y  y 0 

 G.

OLQHDUPRGHO: Given a set of data, a linear model is a function y = ax + bWKDWFORVHO\WVWKHGDWD

OLQHLQWHJUDO: Integration over a piecewise smooth curve, which can be used to calculate the mass of
DWKLQZLUHwhere the value of the integral does not depend on the orientation of the curveRUZRUNE\D
IRUFHHOGwhere the orientation of the path does matter and determines the sign of the answer. Greens
theoremLPSOLHVWKDWWKHOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGDQ\FORVHGFXUYHZLWKLQDFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRUHOGLV]HUR
See fundamental theorem of line integrals.

Glossary

OLQHVLQVSDFH'HQHGXVLQJDSRLQWDQGDGLUHFWLRQYHFWRUWKHVHDUHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPOLQHVLQWKHSODQH
GHQHGXVLQJVORSHDQGy-intercept. See planes in space and parametric equations.

204

log rule for integration:

x dx

ln x  C .

For a logarithmic function to base a, when a > 0 and a log a x

See Calculus II, Lesson 3.

1 ln x. See Calculus, Lesson 27.

ln a

mass 7KHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIWKHGHQVLW\IXQFWLRQ

0D[ZHOOVHTXDWLRQV: Four partial differential equations, and their integral forms, describing the
LQWHUDFWLRQRIHOHFWULFDQGPDJQHWLFHOGV7KHLUGLIIHUHQWLDOIRUPVDUHDVIROORZV

 )RUDQHOHFWULFHOGE and a surface S enclosing a charge Q, <E

U
, where LVWKHFKDUJHGHQVLW\
H0

 If B LVDPDJQHWLFHOG <B 0.

 If ELVDQHOHFWULFHOGDQGBLVDPDJQHWLFHOG u E  wB
wt

0 DOVRNQRZQDV)DUDGD\VODZ.

 If ELVDQHOHFWULFHOGBLVDPDJQHWLFHOGDQGJLVWKHFXUUHQWGHQVLW\ u B

wE  J.
wt

Mbius strip $VXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH

PRPHQW: Related to the turning force of a mass around a pivot or fulcrum. 0RUHSUHFLVHO\LIDPDVVm
is concentrated at a point and if x is the distance between the mass and another point P, then the
moment of m about P is mx. Formulas for the moments with respect to the axes are much simpler
WKDQWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUPXODVLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV M x y U  x , y  dA, M y x U  x , y  dA.
Covered in Calculus II, Lesson 9.

PXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXV: Calculus of more than one variable. That is, the calculus of functions of two or
more independent variables, and their graphs in space.

natural logarithmic function: 7KHQDWXUDOORJDULWKPLFIXQFWLRQLVGHQHGE\WKHGHQLWHLQWHJUDO

x
ln x 1 dt , x ! 0. See Calculus II, Lesson 3.
1 t

205

normal: 3HUSHQGLFXODURURUWKRJRQDO$YHFWRULVQRUPDOWRDVXUIDFHDWDSRLQWLILWLVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKH
surface at the point. Also, the normal component of acceleration is the direction of the acceleration and is
2
JLYHQE\ aN
v Tc a < N
a  aT 2 , where the normal vector is written N or n. See Calculus II,
Lesson 35.

one-sided limits: The limit from the right means that x approaches c from values greater than c. The
HOHPHQWDU\QRWDWLRQLV lim f  x  L.
x oc

6LPLODUO\WKHOLPLWIURPWKHOHIWPHDQVWKDWx approaches c from values less than c, notated lim f  x 

x oc
See Calculus, Lesson 5.

L.

RSWLPL]DWLRQ: )LQGLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVextrema of a function. The candidates for

extrema are the critical points.

orientable : A surface is orientable when its unit normal vector NFDQEHGHQHGDWHYHU\QRQERXQGDU\
point on a surface SVXFKWKDWWKHQRUPDOYHFWRUVYDU\FRQWLQXRXVO\RYHUWKHVXUIDFH

orthogonal 7ZRYHFWRUVDUHRUWKRJRQDOperpendicular if their dot product is zero. The orthogonal

WUDMHFWRULHVRIDJLYHQIDPLO\RIFXUYHVDUHDQRWKHUIDPLO\RIFXUYHVHDFKRIZKLFKLVRUWKRJRQDO
perpendicularWRHYHU\FXUYHLQWKHJLYHQIDPLO\ See normal and dot product.

SDUDOOHOHSLSHG: A three-dimensional object whose faces are all parallelograms.

SDUDPHWHU: 8VHGWRGHQHGDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQDSDUDPHWHULVDQLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH

Glossary

SDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQ: %\HTXDWLQJFRUUHVSRQGLQJFRPSRQHQWVRIDGLUHFWLRQYHFWRU x  x1 , y  y1 , z  z1
with three direction numbersa, b, c, we can GHQHDOLQHLQVSDFHLQWHUPVRIWKUHHSDUDPHWULF
JJJG
equations, PQ x  x1 , y  y1 , z  z1 t a , b, c :

206

x1  at

y1  bt

z1  ct .

In the special case where a, b, and c are all nonzero, the parameter t can also be omitted in favor of soFDOOHGV\PPHWULFHTXDWLRQVWKDWRPLWt of the form ( x  x1 ) / a ( y  y1 ) / b ( z  z1 ) / c. 0RUHJHQHUDOO\
IRUDQ\SDUDPHWULFFXUYHZHFRQVLGHUx, y, and zDVIXQFWLRQVRIDIRXUWKYDULDEOHparameter t. The
FXUYHWUDFHGRXWE\WKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQV x f  t  , y g  t  , z h  t  induces an orientation to the
curve as the parameter t increases. See Calculus II, Lesson 28.

SDUDPHWULFVXUIDFH$JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIDSDUDPHWULFFXUYHJLYHQE\DYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQKDYLQJ
two parameters. As the parameters u and vYDU\RYHUWKHLUGRPDLQVWKHIXQFWLRQWUDFHVRXWDVXUIDFHLQ
space: r  u , v  x  u , v  i  y  u , v  j  z  u , v  k . For example, the paraboloid z = x2 + y2 can be described as
a parametric surface r  u , v  ui  vj   u 2  v 2  k .

partial derivatives 7KHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIGHULYDWLYHVIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVGHQHGDV

wf
wx

f x  x, y 

lim

'x o 0

f  x  'x , y   f  x , y  wf
;
'x
wy

f y  x, y 

lim

'y o 0

f  x , y  'y   f  x , y 
.
'y

There are four second-order partial derivatives:

w wf
wx wx

w2 x
wx 2

w wf
wy wx

w2 f
wywx

w2 y
wy 2

wf
f xx ; w
wy wy
wf
f xy ; w
wx wy

w2 f
wxwy

f yy
f yx .

SDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQ: An equation containing partial derivatives. See Laplaces partial

differential equation.

SDUWLFOHPRWLRQ7KHSRVLWLRQYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQDUHDOOYHFWRUVWKHVSHHGLVDVFDODU


3RVLWLRQ

r t 

x t  i  y t  j  z t  k.

9HORFLW\

v t 

rc t 

xc  t  i  y c  t  j  z c  t  k .

Acceleration:

a t 

r cc  t 

xcc  t  i  y cc  t  j  z cc  t  k .

Speed:

v t 

rc t 

xc  t   y c  t   z c  t  .

207

SLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFXUYH: $FXUYHIRUZKLFKWKHLQWHUYDORIWKHFXUYHFDQEHSDUWLWLRQHGLQWRDQLWH
number of smooth subintervals. The lower-dimensional counterpart of a simply connected region.

SODQDUODPLQD: $DWSODWHRIXQLIRUPGHQVLW\6HHCalculus II, Lesson 9.

SODQHLQVSDFH: $SODQHLQVSDFHLVGHWHUPLQHGE\DSRLQWRQWKHSODQHDQGDYHFWRUQRUPDOWRWKHSODQH
The standard equation of a plane in space is a  x  x1   b  y  y1   c  z  z1  0. The general form of a
plane is ax  by  cz  d 0, where a, b, and c are components of the normal vector to the plane.

SRODUFRRUGLQDWHV: $QDOWHUQDWLYHWRUHFWDQJXODUCartesian coordinates of P x, y, with each point

LQVWHDGJLYHQE\r, , where r is the distance from P to the origin and is the angle the segment OP
makes with the positive x-axis. Useful for solving double integrals involving circles, cardioids, rose
FXUYHVDQGDQ\WKLQJLQYROYLQJx2 + y2. See Calculus II, Lesson 29.

planimeter : An engineering device, based on Greens theoremIRUFDOFXODWLQJWKHDUHDRIDUHJLRQE\

WUDFLQJRXWLWVERXQGDU\

SRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQ: The differentiable function whose gradient can represent a particular conservative
YHFWRUHOGF as follows: F f . Finding a potential function is comparable to antidifferentiation:
VRPHWLPHVHDV\WRVHHDWDJODQFHEXWVRPHWLPHVGLIFXOWRULPSRVVLEOHWRQG

SURMHFWLRQ: When a vector u is projected onto a vector v, the result is a multiple of v, written
projv u

u < v2
v

v.

7KHSURMHFWLRQLVXVHGWRQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSODQHDQGDSRLQWQRWLQWKDWSODQH

Glossary

quadric surface $IDPLO\RIWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOVXUIDFHVDQDORJRXVWRFRQLFVHFWLRQVFRQVLVWLQJ

RISDUDERORLGVHOOLSVRLGVof which the sphere is a special case, elliptic cones, elliptic paraboloids,
K\SHUERORLGVof one or two sheetsDQGK\SHUEROLFSDUDERORLGV7KHJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQRIDquadric
surface is
Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J

208

0.

radian: Calculus uses radian PHDVXUH,IDSUREOHPLVVWDWHGLQGHJUHHPHDVXUH\RXPXVWFRQYHUWWRUDGLDQV

360 is 2 radians; 180 is radians. See Calculus II, Lesson 1.

UHODWLYHH[WUHPD: A relative maximum or relative minimum.

second derivative test: Let f c  c  0 c is a critical number of f. If f cc  c  ! 0, then f has a relative minimum
at c. If f cc  c   0, then f has a relative maximum at c. See Calculus II, Lesson 2.

VHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVW6LPLODUWRWKHVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHWHVWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVXVHGWRGHWHUPLQH
ZKHWKHUFULWLFDOSRLQWVDUHUHODWLYHH[WUHPDRUQRW/HWa, b be a critical point of f'HQHWKHTXDQWLW\
2
d f xx  a , b  f yy  a , b   f xy  a , b  . Then, we have the following.

 d ! 0, f xx  a , b  ! 0 relative minimum.

 d ! 0, f xx  a , b   0 relative maximum.
 d  0 saddle point.
 d

0: Test is inconclusive.

VLPSO\FRQQHFWHGUHJLRQ$UHJLRQWKDWLVFRQQHFWHGin one pieceDQGHYHU\VLPSOHFORVHGFXUYH

LQWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHVRQO\SRLQWVWKDWOLHLQWKHUHJLRQ$KLJKHUGLPHQVLRQDODQDORJRIWKHpiecewise
smooth curve.

Snells law RIUHIUDFWLRQ: When light waves traveling in a transparent medium strike the surface of
DVHFRQGWUDQVSDUHQWPHGLXPWKH\WHQGWREHQGundergo refraction in order to follow the path of
minimum time.

solid of revolution: If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution,
and the line is called the axis of revolution. When the plane is a circle, the resulting solid is a torus.
See theorem of Pappus. See Calculus II, Lesson 7.

solution curves7KHJHQHUDOVROXWLRQRIDUVWRUGHUGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQUHSUHVHQWVDIDPLO\RIFXUYHVNQRZQ
DVVROXWLRQFXUYHVRQHIRUHDFKYDOXHRIWKHDUELWUDU\FRQVWDQW6HHCalculus, Lesson 35, and Calculus II,
Lesson 5.
209

VSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV6LPLODUWRORQJLWXGHDQGODWLWXGHFRRUGLQDWHVRQ(DUWKEXWWKHUVWFRRUGLQDWH
is a distance, while the other two are angles. The distance is from a point in space P to the origin O, is
the same angle as used in cylindrical coordinates, and is the angle between the positive z-axis and the
line segment OP , . (VSHFLDOO\XVHIXOIRUOLNHVSKHUHVWKDWKDYHDFHQWHURIV\PPHWU\

6WRNHVVWKHRUHP: A higher-dimension analog of Greens theorem that relates a line integral around a
closed curve C to a surface integral of a closed, oriented surface S for which CLVWKHERXQGDU\/HWWLQJ
the unit normal to that surface be N and )x, y, zEHDYHFWRUHOGZKRVHFRPSRQHQWIXQFWLRQVKDYH
FRQWLQXRXVUVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVWKHQStokess theorem states that F < dr  curl F < N dS .
C

summation formulas:
n

c  c "  c

cn.

i 1
n

n ( n  1)
.
2

i
i 1
n

n ( n  1)(2 n  1)
.
6

i 1

VXUIDFH: Surfaces are graphs in space, such as quadric surfaces and surfaces of revolution. A
surface is simply connectedLIHYHU\VLPSOHFORVHGFXUYHLQWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHVRQO\SRLQWVWKDWDUH
inside that region.

VXUIDFHDUHD: In space, surface area equals the double integral of the differential of surface area.
If z = f x, yLVGHQHGRYHUDUHJLRQR in the xy-plane, the surface area is
S

1  f x  x , y   f y  x , y  dA.

surface integral $JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIOLQHLQWHJUDOVZKLFKLQVWHDGRIEHLQJGHQHGRQDFXUYHLQVSDFH

DUHGHQHGRQDVXUIDFHLQVSDFH/HWWKHVXUIDFHSEHJLYHQE\z = Jx, y, let f x, y, zEHGHQHGDWDOO
points on S, and let R be the projection of S onto the xySODQH:LWKVXLWDEOHK\SRWKHVHVRQf and g, the
surface integral is

f  x, y , z  dS f  x, y , g  x, y  
Glossary

210

1   g x    g y  dA.

theorem of Pappus: If a region is rotated about the y-axis, then the volume of the resulting solid of revolution
is V 2S xA. See Calculus II, Lesson 9.

torus$VXUIDFHRUVROLGVKDSHGOLNHDWLUHRUGRXJKQXWDQGIRUPHGE\UHYROYLQJWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\WKH
circle x2 + y2 = r2 about the line x R  r  R  . See Calculus II, Lesson 31.

WRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDO: 6LPLODUWRWKHWDQJHQWOLQHDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRDFXUYHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVWKHWRWDO
differential is a tangent plane approximation to a surface. The total differential of z is the expression
dz

wz dx  wz dy
wx
wy

f x  x , y  dx  f y  x , y  dy.

WUDFH: The intersection of a surface with a planefor example, the intersection with one of the three
coordinate planes. The trace of a surface is a curve in space, unlike a level curveZKLFKLVDFXUYHRQO\LQ
the xy-plane.

trigonometric functions7KHULJKWWULDQJOHGHQLWLRQRIWKHWULJRQRPHWULFIXQFWLRQVXVHVWKHIROORZLQJ
right triangle.

sin T

a.
c

cos T

b.
c

tan T

sin T
cos T

T
a.
b

)RUDSRLQWx, y on the unit circle x2 + y2 WKHXQLWFLUFOHGHQLWLRQRIWKHWULJRQRPHWULFIXQFWLRQVLV

sin T

y , cos T

x , tan T

csc T

1 , sec T
sin T

sin T
cos T

1 , cot T
cos T

y
x
1
tan T

x.
y

These are reviewed in Calculus II, Lesson 1.

211

trigonometric identities: Trigonometric identities are trigonometric equations that are valid for all values
RIWKHYDULDEOHW \SLFDOO\x or DQGRIIHUDQLPSRUWDQWWHFKQLTXHIRUVLPSOLI\LQJGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQDQG
integration problems. These are presented in Calculus II, Lesson 2. In addition to those described under
trigonometric functions, some of the most useful are as follows.
sin 2 x  cos 2 x 1.
tan 2 x  sec 2 x 1.
cos 2 x

cos 2 x  sin 2 x.

sin 2 x

2sin x cos x.

cos 2 x

1  cos 2 x .
2

sin 2 x

1  cos 2 x .
2

trigonometric substitution: A technique for converting integrands to trigonometric integrals. See Calculus II,
Lesson 12.

WULSOHLQWHJUDO: 7KHGHQLWLRQLVVLPLODUWRWKHGHQLWLRQRIGRXEOHLQWHJUDO
n

f  x, y , z  dV

lim

' o0

f  x , y , z  'V .
i

i 1

There are six orders of integration for triple integrals in Cartesian coordinates:
dz dy dx, dz dx dy, dy dz dx, dy dx dz, dx dy dz, dx dz dy.

WULSOHVFDODUSURGXFW: Using three vectors, we take the dot product of one vector with the cross product of
WZRRWKHUYHFWRUV&DQEHXVHGWRQGWKHYROXPHRIDSDUDOOHOHSLSHGGHQHGE\WKUHHYHFWRUVWKDWGRQRW
lie in the same plane.

Glossary

u < v u w 

u1
v1
w1

u2
v2
w2

u3
v3 .
w3

XQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRU: A unit vector pointing in the direction of motion is T  t 

YHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQposition vector.

212

rc t 
rc t 

, where r is a

YHFWRU: )RUTXDQWLWLHVWKDWKDYHERWKPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQVXFKDVYHORFLW\DFFHOHUDWLRQDQG
IRUFH&RQWUDVWHGZLWKVFDODUVZKLFKKDYHRQO\PDJQLWXGHVXFKDVVSHHGPDVVYROXPHDQGWLPH
8VXDOO\DSSHDULQORZHUFDVHEROGOHWWHUV

YHFWRUHOG: $YHFWRUHOGDVVLJQVDYHFWRUWRHDFKSRLQWLQVSDFH$YHFWRUHOGLVconservative if there

exists a differentiable function fcalled the potentialVXFKWKDW F f . The gradient of a function is a
YHFWRUHOG$URWDWLRQYHFWRUHOGis of the form F  x , y   yi  xj ; aUDGLDOYHFWRUHOGis of the form
F  x , y  xi  yj .

YHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV)XQFWLRQVWKDWLQSXWDVFDODUWRJHWDYHFWRU0RUHSUHFLVHO\IXQFWLRQVWKDWXVH
YHFWRUVLQVWHDGRIDOJHEUDLFYDULDEOHVWRGHQHWKHLURXWSXWVXVXDOO\RIWKHIRUPUt = f tL + JtM + KtN,
or the more compact form, r  t 
f  t  , g  t  , h  t  , where f and g and h are the component functions and
t is the input parameter. See Calculus II, Lessons 33.

YHORFLW\: The GHULYDWLYHRIWKHSRVLWLRQIXQFWLRQ7KHYHORFLW\YHFWRULVWDQJHQWWRWKHSDWKRIDSDUWLFOH

DQGSRLQWVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ7KHPDJQLWXGHRIWKHYHORFLW\a scalar is the speed. See particle
motion. See Calculus II, Lessons 34.

YROXPH: 7KHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIDQRQQHJDWLYHIXQFWLRQGHQHGRQDFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQLQ
the plane.

ZRUN: Force times distance: W F < D. ,QRQHGLPHQVLRQLIWKHIRUFHLVYDULDEOHJLYHQE\f x, then

b
the work WGRQHE\PRYLQJWKHREMHFWIURPx = a to x = b is W F  x  dx. In multivariable calculus,
a
W F < dr. See Calculus II, Lessons 8.
C

213

Summary of Differentiation Formulas

 Constant multiple rule: d > cu @ cu c

dx

 Sum or difference rule:

d
>u r v @ uc r vc
dx

 3URGXFWUXOH d >uv @ uvc  vu c

dx

 Quotient rule: d u
dx v

vu c  uvc .
v2

 Constant rule: d > c @ 0.

dx

 Chain rule: d f  u 
dx

f c  u  u c one generalization of which is

Summary of Differentiation Formulas

 General power rule: d u n nu n 1u 

dx



d x 1.
> @
dx



d e x
dx

ex .

 d e x e x .
dx
 d > log a x @
dx

 d a x
dx

 ln a  x

 ln a  a x .

 d >sin x @ cos x.

dx

214

dw
dt

ww dx ww dy

.
wx dt wy dt

 d > cos x @  sin x.

dx

 d > tan x @ sec 2 x.

dx

 d > cot x @  csc 2 x.

dx

 d >sec x @ sec x tan x.

dx

 d > csc x @  csc x cot x.

dx

 d > arcsin x @

dx

 d > arctan x @

dx

 d > arc sec x @

dx

1 .
1 x2
1 .
1 x2

1
.
x2 1

 Derivative of the cross product: d >r u u @ r u uc  r c u u.

dt

215

Summary of Integration Formulas



kf  x  dx

k f  x  dx.



f  x  r g  x  dx f  x  dx r g  x  dx.



d  x

x  C.

 3RZHUUXOHIRULQWHJUDWLRQ x n dx

x n 1  C , for n z 1.
n 1

Summary of Integration Formulas

 Log rule for integration: e x dx e x  C.



e dx



a dx



sin x dx

 cos x  C.



cos x dx

sin x  C.



tan x dx

 ln cos x  C.



cot x dx

ln sin x  C.



sec x dx

ln sec x  tan x  C.



csc x dx

 ln csc x  cot x  C.

216

e x  C.

1 a x  C.

ln a

 sec 2 x dx tan x  C.

 csc 2 x dx  cot x  C.

 sec x tan x dx sec x  C.

 csc x cot x dx  csc x  C.



dx
a2  x2



dx
a2  x2



dx
x x2  a2

arcsin x  C .
a
1 arctan x  C .
a
a

1 arc sec x  C .
a
a

217

Quadric Surfaces

4XDGULFVXUIDFHVdiscussed in Lesson 12DUHWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDODQDORJVRIFRQLFVHFWLRQVcircle, ellipse,

SDUDERODK\SHUEROD. Their general equation is Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Exz  Fyz  Gx  Hy  Iz  J 0.

1RWLFHWKDWWKHVTXDUHGWHUPVGHWHUPLQHWKHRYHUDOOVKDSHIRUHDFKTXDGULFVXUIDFH$Q\FURVVPXOWLSOLHG
WHUPVsuch as xy, xz, or yzDVZHOODVOLQHDUWHUPVDQGFRQVWDQWVPHUHO\WLOWRUVKLIWWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH
overall shape.
z

y
x
z
+ 2 + 2 = 1.
2
a
b
c
2

ellipsoid:

All three squared terms are positive.

Is a sphere when a = b = c.

Traces are all ellipses.

K\SHUERORLGRIRQHVKHHW

x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

1.

2QO\RQHRIWKHWKUHHVTXDUHGWHUPVLVQHJDWLYH
z
7UDFHVSDUDOOHOWRWKHWZRSRVLWLYHWHUPVxy are ellipses;
WUDFHVSDUDOOHOWRWKHSODQHRIWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPxz and yz
DUHK\SHUERODV
Other orientations are
x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

y
1
x

and

Quadric Surfaces

218

x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

1.

K\SHUERORLGRIWZRVKHHWV 

x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

z 2 x2 y2

 .
c2 a2 b2

Two of the three squared terms are negative.

z
Traces parallel to the plane of one negative term
xz or yzDUHK\SHUERODVIRUWKHSODLQZLWKERWKVTXDUHG
terms negative, there is no trace plane.
Other orientations are
x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

y
1
x

and


x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

elliptic cone:

1.

x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

0.

$GRXEOHFRQHVLPLODUWRK\SHUERORLGRIRQHVKHHW
H[FHSWWKHWZRHOOLSWLFFRQHVWRXFKRQO\DWDVLQJOHSRLQW

2QO\RQHRIWKHWKUHHVTXDUHGWHUPVLVQHJDWLYH
Traces parallel to the plane of the two positive terms
DUHHOOLSVHVRWKHUVDUHK\SHUERODV
y
Other orientations are
x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

x
0

and


x2 y2 z 2


a2 b2 c2

0.

219

elliptic paraboloid:

x2 y2

a2 b2

z.

Two positive squared terms set equal to a linear third term.

$F\OLQGHUFUHDWHGE\URWDWLQJDSDUDERODZKHQa = b = 1.
Traces are ellipses in planes parallel to the squared terms
x2, y2; traces are parabolas in planes parallel to the plane
RIWKHWHUPWKDWLVQRWVTXDUHGz.

K\SHUEROLFSDUDERORLG

x2 y2

a2 b2

y
x

z.

6\PPHWULFDOVDGGOHVKDSHZKHQa = b = 1.
z
One positive squared term and one negative squared
term set equal to a linear third term.
Traces are parabolas in the plane parallel to the
VTXDUHGWHUPVx2, y2WUDFHVDUHK\SHUERODVLQSODQHV
SDUDOOHOWRWKHSODQHRIWKHWHUPWKDWLVQRWVTXDUHGz.
An alternative orientation is

Quadric Surfaces

y2 x2

b2 a2

220

z.

y
x

Bibliography

Fleisch, Daniel. A Students Guide to Maxwells Equations&DPEULGJH&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV

$FOHDUDQGWKRURXJKGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHLQWHJUDODQGGLIIHUHQWLDOIRUPVRI0D[ZHOOVIDPRXVHTXDWLRQVRI
electromagnetisman interesting supplement at the conclusion of this course. Includes a few worked problems
for each equation, plus a free website providing hints and solutions to several dozen more problems.
Larson, Ron, and Bruce H. Edwards. Calculus. 10th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2014. This text covers an
entire three-semester calculus sequence.
. Calculus: Early Transcendental Functions. 6th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2015. This text
offers a different approach to the exponential and logarithmic functions, presenting them in the beginning of
the textbook.
Larson, Ron, and Bruce H. Edwards. Multivariable Calculus. 10th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2014.
&RQWDLQVWKHFKDSWHUVDERXWPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVChapters 1014IURPWKHIXOOWKUHHVHPHVWHUWH[WERRNE\
the same authors, Calculus, 10th edition.
. Precalculus Functions and Graphs: A Graphing Approach. 5thHG%RVWRQ+RXJKWRQ0LILQ
$QH[FHOOHQWVRXUFHIRUSUHFDOFXOXVDOJHEUDDQGWULJRQRPHWU\
3HQURVH5RJHUThe Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. New York: Vintage, 2007.
6RPHRQHFRPSOHWLQJWKLVFRXUVHZLWKDQLQWHUHVWLQWKHRUHWLFDOSK\VLFVPLJKWHQMR\UHDGLQJ&KDSWHURealNumber CalculusRU&KDSWHUSurfacesRIWKLVHQF\FORSHGLFDWWHPSWWRVXUYH\DOOPDWKHPDWLFVRI
LPSRUWDQFHIRUFRQWHPSRUDU\SK\VLFV
Saxon, John H., Jr., and Frank Y. H. Wang. Calculus with Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry. 2nd ed. Edited
E\%UHW/&URFNDQG-DPHV$6HOOHUV:LOPLQJWRQ0$6D[RQ3XEOLVKHUV7KLVLVDQRWKHUJRRGFKRLFH
DPRQJFDOFXOXVWH[WVDQGLVHGLWHGE\-DPHV$6HOOHUVZKRSURGXFHGAlgebra I, Algebra II, and Mastering the
Fundamentals of Mathematics with The Great Courses.
Simmons, George. Calculus with Analytic Geometry. 2ndHG1HZ<RUN0F*UDZ+LOO$VRPHZKDW
different approach to the three-semester calculus sequence.
Internet Resource
Wolfram|Alpha. www.wolframalpha.com. From the makers of Mathematicathe software used to create
PDQ\RIWKHJUDSKLFVIRXQGLQWKHYLGHROHVVRQVIRUWKLVFRXUVHWKLVIUHHZHEVLWHFDQVROYHPDQ\TXHVWLRQV
WKDWPLJKWDULVHGXULQJWKLVFRXUVH7KHZHEVLWHJLYHVWKHGHULYDWLYHLQWHJUDODQGJUDSKIRUDZLGHYDULHW\
of functions.

221