Soran University

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering
Third Stage

Borehole
Instability

Prepared by: Zerdasht Jamshid Haydar

Supervisors: Mr. Jagar Abdulazez
Mr. Nazir Mafakheri
2015-2016

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

2015-2016

Table of Contents
Abstract:...................................................................................................................................................................2
Introduction:.............................................................................................................................................................2
Important Terminology.............................................................................................................................................3
Elasticity...............................................................................................................................................................3
Stress................................................................................................................................................................3
Anisotropy and Isotropy...................................................................................................................................4
In-Situ Stresses.....................................................................................................................................................4
Determining the overburden (vertical) stress v:...........................................................................................5
Determining the maximum and minimum horizontal stresses (Hmax and Hmin):.......................................6
Far-Field Stresses.................................................................................................................................................6
Normal Faulting:..............................................................................................................................................6
Reverse Faulting (Thrust Faulting):.................................................................................................................6
Strike-Slip Faulting:.........................................................................................................................................7
Factors leading to borehole instability:....................................................................................................................8
Impact of mud on borehole instability:....................................................................................................................9
Choosing the appropriate mud weight:................................................................................................................9
Choosing the proper mud type:..........................................................................................................................10
Discussion..............................................................................................................................................................10
References..............................................................................................................................................................11

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

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Keywords: borehole, instability, geomechanics

Abstract:
Borehole instability is the unwanted condition in which an uncased, noncemented wellbore (open hole) does not maintain its desired size and/or
shape. This report discusses the factors that cause it, whether it be
uncontrollable (natural) or controllable factors, some theories and methods of
determining stresses that lead to the instability of a borehole. Even though
borehole stability problems are much more common in deviated or horizontal
wells, the focus of this report will mainly be about vertical wells. Possible
prevention methods and techniques will also be discussed.

Introduction:
Borehole instability is one of the major technical problems encountered
during drilling. Starting in the exploration phase and continues through the
development and production phases. Predicting the location of the vulnerable
region(s) of the underground formations, although not so accurate and
usually unexpected, is a fundamental step in reducing the risks associated
with borehole instability. Drilling a hole causes the pre-existing stresses in a
rock to be released, which causes elastic deformation of the rocks The risks
associated with wellbore instability include: loss of time, waste of money on

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

2015-2016

numerous operations such as side-tracking, fishing operations etc. It may

also lead to permanent well abandonment in certain situations. (PetroWiki,
2015) (Pai, et al., 2007). The total money spent on borehole stability
related problems costs the oil and gas industry more than 1 billion U.S dollars
each year (Zeynali, 2012). The next section will briefly introduce some of the
basic laws and theoretical subjects for a better comprehension of borehole
stability problems.

Important Terminology
Before how borehole instability can be possibly prevented or its effects minimized, one should be
familiar with certain terms related to stress determination of rocks.

Elasticity
Most materials possess the ability to withstand and recover deformations caused by forces, this
property is called is elasticity. It is the fundamental basis of all rock mechanics. When it comes to
petroleum related rock mechanics, the focus is mainly on rocks with a significant amount of
porosity and permeability rather than solid materials. Thus, the concept of poroelasticity must be
taken into account. (Fjr, et al., 2008)

Stress : is the force acting per unit area and can be formulated as shown below :

F
A

The SI unit for Stress () is the Pascal (Pa= N/m2) indicating that if the area decreases while
having a constant force acting on an object, the stress will increase, which leads to eventual
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failure of any object. Stresses and the determination of stress orientations will be discussed in
more detail in the later sections of this paper.

Anisotropy and Isotropy

i.

Isotropic materials are those types of materials whose response does not depend on the

ii.

orientation of the stress being applied.

Anisotropic materials : If the elastic response of a material is not independent of the
materials orientation for a given stress configuration, the material is said to be

anisotropic. (Fjr, et al., 2008)

In the case of formations in the earth, rocks are considered to be anisotropic and extremely
complex in nature. Meaning they are strongly dependent on the orientation of the stress. But for
simplified calculations, they are assumed to be isotropic in most cases.

Types of Stresses:
In-Situ Stresses
Formations deep under the ground are under the influence of numerous
stresses caused by the weight of overlaying formations. Although the number
of stress vectors on a certain point might be infinite if all three axes are taken
into consideration, only three of the stresses are significant enough to be
used in calculations for estimation of stress on a single point or defined area.
These three stresses are (Hmax, Hmin and v) which stand for maximum
horizontal stress, minimum horizontal stress and the vertical stress (also

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

2015-2016

called the

overburden stress)

respectively.

These stresses are

illustrated below:

Figure 1 ; Shows the major

horizontal stresses acting around
the borehole. In the case of
vertical wells, the vertical stress
(v) is parallel to the axis into
the page.
courtesy of (Zoback, 2007)

Figure 2 Wellbore
stresses in and around
the borehole (Pai, et
al., 2007)

Determining the overburden (vertical) stress v:

Usually, the formations that are

underlying carry the weight of the

formations that are overlaying them. If

a homogenous (same material in

each and every point) height column is

taken into consideration , the

vertical stress at the bottom will be

calculated as follows : v =

gz

where is the density of the

material (the formation) , g is the

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gravitational acceleration , and z is the depth. Meaning the stress will increase as depth and density increase.
However, if the density changes with depth, the vertical stress at a given depth (D) will become:

V = ( z ) gdz
0

Notice here that the z-axis is pointing vertically downwards. And z = 0 at the surface of the Earth. However, to
find the pore pressure, the previous equation must be modified even further. See the equation below :

Pfn = f ( z ) gdz
0

Where Pfn is the normal pore pressure. (Fjr, et al., 2008)

Determining the maximum and minimum horizontal stresses (Hmax and Hmin):
The most simplified version of determining these stresses is using Kirsch equations
Minimum Horizontal Stress:
Hmin =

v
( p p ) + p p
1v v

Where : v is Poissons ratio

is the Biot coefficient for the specific type of rock.
pp is the pore pressure

Maximum Horizontal Stress:

Hmax=3 Hmin 2 p p +0.1( Hmin p p )
The variables are defined above. (Fjr, et al., 2008) (Zoback, 2007)
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Far-Field Stresses
These are the types of stresses formed in the earth naturally by the activities of the tectonic plates.
These stresses are most significant in regions near plate boundaries, they are mainly faults and
are of three types which are listed below.

Normal Faulting:
Is a fracture in a rock volume, in which a rock layer or (strata) has been significantly displaced
because of tectonic movement. This type of faulting happens when the layers above slip down.
(see figure 3)

Reverse Faulting (Thrust Faulting):

This type of fault is similar to a normal fault but the direction is opposite. Thus, the layers above
move up the dip (see figure 3)

Strike-Slip Faulting:
Horizontal displacement parallel to fault trace are the dominant feature of this type of fault.

Figure 3: Types of faults . Courtesy of pixshark.com

By incorporating the knowledge obtained from the equations above and knowing what type of
tectonic activity is happening or has happened in the region, borehole instability problems and

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

2015-2016

fracture initiation can be predicted. The figure below shows the tendency of breakouts and
fractures in the three different kinds of faulting scenarios.

Factors leading to borehole instability:

Figure 4: Tendency for the initiation of tensile fractures (left) and

wellbore breakouts (right) (Jia, et al., 2014)

Generally, a combination of factors cause borehole instability, these factors may be roughly
categorized as being either uncontrollable (natural) or controllable in origin. The main causes
divided into the main two categories can be seen in Table1 below:

Causes of borehole instability

Uncontrollable (Natural) Factors
Naturally Fractured or Faulted Formations
Tectonically Stressed Formations
High In-situ Stresses
Mobile Formations
Unconsolidated Formations
Naturally Over-Pressured Shale
Induced Over-Pressured Shale Collapse

Controllable Factors
Bottom Hole Pressure (Mud Density)
Well Inclination and Azimuth
Transient Pore Pressures
Physico / chemical Rock-Fluid Interaction
Drill String Vibrations
Collapse Erosion
Temperature

Table 1 ; Causes of Borehole Instability (Pai, et al., 2007)

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As it can be seen in table 1, there are numerous factors that lead to borehole instability, however
the focus of this report will mainly be the pressure differential of the bottom hole pressure (which
refers to the density of the mud) and pore pressure, and hydration of clay materials in shale.

Impact of mud on borehole instability:

Choosing the appropriate mud weight:
Choosing the right mud density, or (mud weight as usually referred to in the oil and gas industry)
is crucial to keep the borehole in a safe and stable state, numerous additives are added to mud to
increase its weight/density (bentonite, barite, haematite etc.). When choosing the right mud
weight, one must consider the lifting capacity (the ability of the mud to lift cuttings to the
surface) , the gel strength The ability of drilling mud to suspend drill cuttings (Rabia, 2002)
and several other properties. Mud weight should be in a safe window, one where it is higher than
the pore pressure, but at the same time does not exceed the least principle stress at that certain
point. See the figure below :

Borehole Instability Zerdasht J. Haydari

2015-2016

Figure 5 Effect of depth on borehole stability.

Courtesy of (Pai, et al., 2007) . Notice that
as depth increases, the mud weight should
increase gradually with it to resist the pore
pressure around the borehole.

Choosing the proper mud type:

Appropriate mud type must be carefully chosen when drilling to avoid a condition called shale
sloughing (swelling). This condition happens when WBM (water based mud) is used during
drilling, water particles react with clay minerals in shale formations, causing them to swell. Thus,
reducing the borehole radius, leading to several consequences, such as stuck pipe. OBMs (Oil
based muds) are more reliable for such situations, because water particles are emulsified within
the oil phase, thus almost completely reducing (shale-water) contact. (Rabia, 2002)

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Discussion
Borehole stability issues strongly depend on the difference between the principal horizontal
stresses and mud weight differential in the case of break outs. So if we take as an example, a mud
pressure of 30MPa, and a pore pressure of 25MPa, this will induce accidental hydraulic
fracturing. If the mud weight is 27 MPa and pore pressure is 30 MPa, then the probability of
kicks will increase significantly. The difference, between this and a break out is that, breakouts
happen because of the difference in the principal stresses in the earth, SHmax and SHmin. When
drilling is in process and parts of the formations are removed, pressure is released and this extra
stress to be put on the zone where horizontal stress is max, this will support that half of the
borehole arc, and the remaining arc will break out.

References
1. Fjr, E. et al., 2008. Petroleum Related Rock Mechanics. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
2. Jia, Q., Schmitt, D., moeck, I. & Kofma, R., 2014. Improving Borehole Instability Analysis by
Investigating the Impacts of Stress and Rock Anisotropy. GeoConvention2014 :Focus, p. 7.
3. Pai, B., Gaurina-Meimurec, N. & Matanovi, D., 2007. WELLBORE INSTABILITY: CAUSES
AND CONSEQUENCES. Volume 19, p. 12.
4. PetroWiki, 2015. Borehole Instability. [Online]
Available at: http://petrowiki.org/Borehole_instability
[Accessed 13 November 2015].
5. Rabia, H., 2002. Well Engineering and Construction. 1st ed. s.l.:Entrac Consulting .

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6. Schlumberger, 2015. slb.com. [Online]

Available at:
http://www.slb.com/services/technical_challenges/geomechanics/drilling_management/wellbore_stabil
ity.aspx
[Accessed 20 November 2015].
7. Zeynali, M. E., 2012. Mechanical and physico-chemical aspects of wellbore stability during drilling
operations. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, Volume 82-83, pp. 120-124.
8. Zoback, M. D., 2007. Reservoir Geomechanics. 1st ed. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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