Contents

Introduction........................................................................................................... 2
Bacteriological Analysis (MF Technique).............................................................2
Jar Test (Coagulation and Flocculation)...............................................................3
Source determination......................................................................................... 4
Objectives.............................................................................................................. 5
PROCEDURE........................................................................................................... 5
RESULTS AND SAMPLE CALCULATION....................................................................5
Sample Calculation:..................................................................................... 6
Jar Test................................................................................................................ 7
Source Determination......................................................................................... 8
Sample Calculations........................................................................................... 9
Discussion.............................................................................................................. 9
Source of error.................................................................................................. 12
Conclusion........................................................................................................ 12
Questions............................................................................................................. 12
References........................................................................................................... 13

Introduction
Water is essential to the lives of many people living in the Caribbean and
the rest of the world, the main purpose of water treatment is to reduce or
eliminate the transmission of waterborne diseases. The three (3) main

sources of water are the ocean, groundwater and surface water. All
contain some measure of impurities that are not healthy to ingest or use
in households therefore it is necessary to treat the water prior to
distribution.
When talking about water sources, ocean water has the highest supply of
possible drinking water. However, the oceans water concentration of salts
and minerals is very high and would have to go through a process of
desalination. Surface water which is the most commonly uses source of
water in Trinidad, meaning rivers, reservoirs and dams goes through a
typical water treatment process. Groundwater is usually the cleanest of
the three sources; although it is usually high in mineral content found in
the ground will have to be treated for this. Treatment of water is
important as it primarily serves the purpose of avoiding many waterborne
diseases such as cholera and typhoid.

Bacteriological Analysis (MF Technique)

The discharge of wastes from municipal sewers is one of the most
important water quality issues world-wide. It is of particular significance
to sources of drinking-water. Municipal sewage contains human faeces
and water contaminated with these effluents may contain pathogenic
(disease-causing) organisms and, consequently, may be hazardous to
human health if used as drinking-water or in food preparation. Faecal
contamination of water is routinely detected by microbiological analysis. It
is impractical to attempt the routine isolation of pathogens because they
are present in relatively small numbers compared with other types of
micro-organism. Moreover, there are many types of pathogen and each
requires a unique microbiological isolation technique. The approach that
has been adopted is to analyse for indicator organisms that inhabit the
gut in large numbers and are excreted in human faeces. The presence of
these indicator organisms in water is evidence of faecal contamination
and, therefore, of a risk that pathogens are present. If indicator organisms
are present in large numbers, the contamination is considered to be
recent and/or severe. Within this lab we used the membrane filter method
to indicate these bacteria.
The membrane filter method gives a direct count of total coliforms and
faecal coliforms present in a given sample of water. A measured volume
of water is filtered, under vacuum, through a cellulose acetate membrane
of uniform pore diameter, usually 0.45 m. Bacteria are retained on the
surface of the membrane which is placed on a suitable selective medium
in a sterile container and incubated at an appropriate temperature. If
coliforms and/or faecal coliforms are present in the water sample,
characteristic colonies form that can be counted directly.

(Cited from
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqmchap10.
pdf) 20/10/14

USE OF WATER
Drinking Water
Swimming (pools)
Boating (lakes etc.)
Treated Sewage Effluent
Cited from lab manual

ACCEPTABLE COLIFORM
STANDARD
1 TC
200 FC
1000 FC
<200 FC

Jar Test (Coagulation and Flocculation)

Raw water may contain suspended particles of color, turbidity, and
bacteria that are too small to settle in the reasonable time period and
cannot be removed by simple filtration. The object of coagulation is to
alter these particles in such a way as to allow them to adhere to each
other. Thus they can grow to a size that will allow removal by
sedimentation and filtration. Coagulation is considered to be a chemical
treatment process that destabilizes colloidal particles as opposed to the
physical treatment operations of flocculation, sedimentation and filtration
that follow.
Cited ( Gilbert M. Masters )
Most colloids of interest in water treatment remain suspended in solution
because they have a net negative surface charge that cause the particles
to repel each other. The intended action of the coagulant is to neutralize
that charge, allowing the particles to come together to form larger
particles that can be more easily removed from the raw water. The usual
coagulant is alum AL2 (SO4)3 18H2O although FeCL3 . FeSO4
The Jar test is a simulation of the coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation process in a water treatment plant. The results that it
produces are used to help optimize the performance of the plant. Alum is
most popularly used in Trinidad and Tobago for coagulation. This test
serves the purpose of determining the optimum alum dose to apply to the
raw water. The more alum you add to the water, the more floc you will
gain. However, the disadvantage to adding more alum is the fact that it is
acidic and will corrode the insides of distribution pipes that feed the
homes being served. It also causes for increased costs due to the
procuring of lime in order to adjust the pH. Also with adding too much
alum a reversal process can occur.

Source determination
A source determination is very often used to determine the source or
origins of a water leak or unidentified body of water.

Residual Chlorine
Chlorine is a relatively cheap and readily available chemical that, when
dissolved in clear water in sufficient quantities, will destroy most disease
causing organisms without being a danger to people. The chlorine,
however, is used up as organisms are destroyed. If enough chlorine is
added, there will be some left in the water after all the organisms have
been destroyed, this is called free chlorine.
Cited: (http://www.wsportal.org/uploads/IWA%20Toolboxes/WSP/WHO_How
%20to%20measure%20chlorine%20residual.pdf) 19/10/14

Hardness
Many industrial and domestic water users are concerned about the
hardness of their water. Hard water requires more soap and synthetic
detergents for home laundry and washing, and contributes to scaling in
boilers and industrial equipment. Hardness is caused by compounds of
calcium and magnesium, and by a variety of other metals. Water is an
excellent solvent and readily dissolves minerals it comes in contact with.
As water moves through soil and rock, it dissolves very small amounts of
minerals and holds them in solution. Calcium and magnesium dissolved in
water are the two most common minerals that make water "hard."
Cited https://www.fcwa.org/water/hardness.htm) 19/10/14

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a measure of the capacity of water to neutralize acids (see pH
description). Alkaline compounds in the water such as bicarbonates
(baking soda is one type), carbonates, and hydroxides remove H+ ions
and lower the acidity of the water (which means increased pH). They
usually do this by combining with the H+ ions to make new compounds.
Without this acid-neutralizing capacity, any acid added to a stream would
cause an immediate change in the pH. Measuring alkalinity is important in
determining a stream's ability to neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or
wastewater. It's one of the best measures of the sensitivity of the stream
to acid inputs.
Total alkalinity is measured by measuring the amount of acid (e.g.,
sulphuric acid) needed to bring the sample to a pH of 4.2. At this pH all
4

the alkaline compounds in the sample are "used up." The result is
reported as milligrams per litre of calcium carbonate (mg/L CaCO3).

Total Alkalinity, T = (HCO3) + (CO32) + (OH)

Cited: (http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms510.cfm)

Objectives
The objectives of this lab are:
i.

To introduce the student to the different tests of water

ii.
Through these tests help the student to understand the importance
of these tests and hence provide recommendations for treatment.

PROCEDURE
The procedure presented in the Lab Manual was followed; only three
changes were made:

Put 1000ml of the river water provided, in each of the six

beakers.
For the jar test the dosages of stock alum desired were
changed to; 0mg/L, 20mg/L, 40mg/L, 600mg/L, 80mg/L and
100mg/L
For the jar test; mixing of the samples began after the calculated
volumes of alum were added to all of the samples.
For the jar test the rapid mix (coagulation) started first for 1
minute; and then the slow mix stage (flocculation) was for 7
minutes.

RESULTS AND SAMPLE CALCULATION

Sample

Volume of
sample
filtered

Faecal
coliform

T coliform

Fecal
Colifor
m
Colonie
s for
100ml
of
sample
-

T
Colifor
m
Colonie
s for
100ml
of
sample
-

A
B

100
25

50

C110ml

0.1

37

TNTC

37X10

TNTC

C11ml
C210ml

0.01
0.001

6
1

11
3

60X103
100x103

110X103
300x103

C21ml

0.0001

TD

TD

TD

TD

C310ml

0.00001

TD

TD

TD

TD

Bacteriological Analysis using Membrane Filter (MF) Technique

TD too dilute
TNTC too numerous to count

Sample Calculation:
Fecal Coliform Colonies for 100ml of sample =
of colonies counted
x 100
volume of sample filtered

Fecal Coliform Colonies for 100ml of sample C bottle 1=

37
x 100
10
(
)
100

= 37 x 103 coliform colonies

Jar Test
Note: the results are a combination of the lab results from our group and
the group doing the same lab next to us
Dosage
(mg/L)
Vol. of
stock
alum (mg)
Turbidity
(NTU)
pH

Jar Test
0
10
20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

117 122 129 139

99

120

33

42

15

6.5
2

6.3
6

6.1
9

5.9
7

5.7
2

5.5
5

109
7.3
9

7.23

6.8
7

6.8
8

6.6

Sample Calculation:
Volume of stock alum =

Dosage of alum x volume of sample

concentration of alum

Volume of stock alum10 mg/L =

10 x 1 000
10 000

= 2ml

Note: some of the results were omitted from the graph for a more ideal
curve.

Raw River water

From the graph shown above it is seen that the most removal took place
between 50 and 60 mg/l which was chosen to be the optimum dosage of
alum to be added so as to avoid acidity of the water due to too much
alum.

Source Determination
Chlorine Residual

Sample

Free Residual

Total Residual

2.6

2.7

0.6

0.9

0.2

0.4

Hardness
Volume tested: 25ml
sample

Start

final

Titre

6.2

6.2

Hardnes
s as mg
CaCO3 /L
248

6.2

7.5

1.3

52

7.5

9.2

1.7

68

Bicarbona
te, HCO3(mg
CaCO3/L)
3.0

Alkalinity
Volume Tested: 100ml
sample

Start

final

Titre

0.4

15.4

15

TAlkalinity
(mg
CaCO3/L)
3.0

15.4

17.4

0.4

0.4

17.4

19

1.6

0.3

0.3

sample

Start

final

Titre

56.45

56.54

Chloride
as mg/L
as CL1129.0

38.60

38.6

772.0

16.8

16.8

328.0

Chloride
25ml tested

pH results
Sample

pH

6.92

7.01

5.95

Sample Calculations
Hardness calculations

Hardness as mg CaCO3 /L =

Titre Value x 1000

Vol . of sample tested

6.2 x 1000
25

= 248mg

Alkalinity
Alkalinity (T or P) mg CaCO3/L =
2.0 x 0.02 x 50000
100

Titre Value x 0.02 x 50000

Vol . of sample tested

= 20mg

Chloride
Chloride as mg/L as CL-

TitreValue x 500
Vol . of sample Tested

56.5 x 500
25

= 1129mg

Discussion
The results from the bacteriological analysis test indicates that both tap
water from the lab and river water which was treated with household
bleach were found to be safe to drink by the standards for potable water.
As seen in table 1(provided in the lab script) drinking water is a maximum
of 1 T coliform should be present in the water supply of 100ml. The tap
water and the bleached river water tests revealed no evidence of both Tcoliform or faecal coliform.
With the river water a total of 37x103 faecal coliform colonies at a volume
of 0.1ml and T-coliform were too numerous to count. With a volume of
0.01ml T- coliform was found to be 110x103 and faecal coliform 60x103.
The river water at a volume of 0.001ml FC was found to be 100x103 and
TC was 300x103. The remaining volumes were too diluted. The values
indicate that the raw river water tested is unsafe to drink.
With relation to the raw river water which was treated with bleach, the
bleach eliminated a reasonable amount of coliform thus making the water
drinkable. The untreated raw water as shown from the results is much
polluted.

10

The Jar Test is a small representation of a water treatment plant in real

life. Alum, which is used as a coagulant reduces the electrostatic charges
that keep the particles in the water from moving and prevent them from
both colliding and sticking together. After this they undergo flocculation to
form much larger particles which settle to the bottom over time.
Colloidal particles in the water cause significant turbidity which is
measured in Nephelometric Turbidity units (NTU). Turbidity describes the
insoluble (colloidal) particles, which impede the passage of light through
the water. This value is used to quantify the degree to which light
travelling through a water column is scattered by the suspended organic
matter and particles. A turbidity in excess of 5 NTU is noticeable to the
consumer and is usually unacceptable. As the dosage Alum is increased
more settlement of particles occur and the turbidity value decreases to
acceptable levels. However if too much alum is added the water becomes
acidic making it unsafe to drink and it would also cause corrosion of the
pipelines. It is very important that the right balance of alum dosage which
is the least amount of alum with the maximum turbidity removal. They
are four main reasons why this is important.
These reasons are:
1. Too much Alum added causes the water to become acidic and
unsafe to drink.
2. Reducing the cost of Alum usage.
3. The entire process could reverse if too much Alum is added to the
water.
4. Filters after this process would take care of the remaining sediment.
As observed from the lab Alum at 10mg/l resulted in small flocc particles
whereas with th100mg/l the flocc particles are much larger and settle
much faster. For the optimum dosage which reduced the most turbidity
without causing the water to be too acidic was found to between 50 and
60 mg/l as the safest dosage to use. This is keeping in mind the water will
also pass through a filtration system to eliminate the remaining particles.
The pH at 50mg/l was found to be 6.52 and the pH for 60mg/l is 6.36
which is acceptable for drinking.
Note: from the results the above for the jar test the results appear mixed
(turbidity values going up and down at different dosage) this could be due
to human error or machine error. Some of the results were pulled out
when constructing the graph.

Tests were conducted to determine the source of three water samples.

Sample X (groundwater) , sample Y (surface water) and sample Z
( seawater).

11

The results for the alkalinity test indicated that the highest alkalinity was
found in sample X at 150mg CaCo3/L . The is because ground water is
interacting with minerals underground, this means the pH is high. Sample
Y was the second highest and sample Z being the lowest. The hardness of
water is the result of many minerals which exist in the water from
dissolving.
Therefore sample X (groundwater) has the highest hardness value. The
samples Y and Z were 52 and 68 mgCaCO3/L respectively.

From the results sample X was chosen as sourced from ground water
because it has the highest hardness and alkalinity due to it contact with
many minerals underground, this happens as a result of infiltration as the
water percolates through the surface. The evidence of high alkalinity and
chloride indicates that the water had constant contact with minerals and
ions in the ground.

Sample Y was chosen as sourced from the river, the river is easily
contaminated with minerals because it is in contact with surface minerals.
From observation of the pH which is highest it is assumed that the water
is full with contaminants. The hardness for this sample was lowest among
the three samples.

Sample Z was chosen to be from the desalination plant. The minerals in

the water from a desalination plant was found to be low, this means less
interactions with minerals. The pH of the water was the lowest of the
three samples. The sample also has the lowest alkalinity level.

Sample X groundwater has to undergo treatment for dissolved mineral

such as calcium carbonate which result in it hardness. Precipitation and
flocculation is conducted. The water is then sent through sedimentation,
filtration and distribution.

Sample Y (river water) undergoes screening, sedimentation, coagulation,

flocculation, secondary sedimentation, filtration and disinfection for
distribution.

12

Source of error
Inaccurate alum being added could have affected the turbidity
values in the jar test.
Finger prints on colorimeter bottles when testing for turbidity, they
could block light from passing during the testing phase and give
false high values for turbidity.
Human error in judging readings and volumes dosages when adding
alum, etc.

Conclusion
From the Bacteriological Analysis the treated tap water and chlorinated
river water were safe to drink. Whereas the river was polluted
In the jar test the optimum dosage of alum was chosen to be between 50
and 60mg/l.

Questions
2. The fecal bacteria found is usually an indicator of fecal contamination.
This indicates the potential presence of pathogens as well. These can
spread waterborne diseases such as cholera for example causing harm to
humans. Therefore to obtain 0.00001 ml of a very contaminated waste
water sample. Put 1ml of the water sample into a diluted bottle 1. Put 1
ml from dilution bottle 1 into dilution bottle 2. Put 1ml from sample
dilution bottle 2 into bottle 3. This should give a dilution of 0.00001ml.
Then cap and shake well.

4
A high turbidity would mean suspended particles in the water to
absorb heat from sunlight causing the water to become warmer. This
reduces the dissolve oxygen in water. The aquatic life would suffocate and
die as a result of this. The reduction of turbidity in water is done by
adding alum which is a coagulant. This causes coagulation to take place
which results in the removal of colloid particles which are responsible for
the turbidity. The flocculation process allows the particles to settle to the
bottom.

13

References
Richardson, Althea. 2013. CVNG 3007 Environmental Engineering
Lab Manual. Lab Manual, St. Augustine: The University of the West
Indies.

Weiner, Ruth F, and Robin A Matthews. 2003. Environmental

Engineering. Burlington: Butterrworth-Heinemann.

Gilbert M. Masters , Introduction to Environment Engineering and

Science

http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqmchap10.
pdf) 20/10/14

http://www.wsportal.org/uploads/IWA%20Toolboxes/WSP/WHO_How%20to
%20measure%20chlorine%20residual.pdf) 19/10/14

14

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