EDUC-230A

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Special Education Resource

Darren Desmarais

Learning Disabilities
A. Definition32
i. Specific learning disabilities Represents a heterogeneous group of
students who, despite adequate cognitive functioning and the ability to
learn some skills and strategies quickly and easily, have great difficulty
learning other skills and strategies
ii. A child may be determined to have a specific learning disability if the
student:
a. does not achieve commensurate with his or her age and ability
level in one or more of several specific areas when provided with
appropriate learning experiences
b. has participated in but does not respond adequately to a scientific,
research-based intervention. In the updated definition, a child no
longer needs to have a severe discrepancy between achievement
and intellectual ability to qualify for a specific learning disability
c. needs special education services
B. Characteristics1
i. Demonstrates unexpected low achievement in one or more academia area
ii. Has trouble understanding and following directions
iii. Has a short attention span, is easily distracted
iv. Is overactive and impulsive
v. Has difficulty with handwriting and fine motor activities
vi. Has difficulty with visual or auditory sequential memory
vii. Has difficulty memorizing words or basic math facts
viii. Has difficulty allocating time and organizing work
ix. Has difficulty segmenting words into sounds and blending sounds
x. Confuses similar letters and words, such as b and d, and was and saw
xi. Listens and speaks well but decodes poorly when reading
xii. Has difficulty with tasks that require rapid naming of pictures, words, and
numbers
xiii. Is not efficient or effective in using learning strategies
C. Accommodations13
i. Control the task
ii. Teach students with LD in small interactive groups of six or fewer
students
iii. Use graphic organizers and other visual displays to illustrate key ideas and
concepts
iv. Use a combination of direct instruction and cognitive strategy
v. Provide modeling and think-alouds to demonstrate strategies and
learning practices
vi. Teach students to self-regulate and self-monitor their learning and to fixup when they have learning problems
vii. Providing opportunities for extended practice with feedback
D. Assistive technology24
i. Computer-based instruction

Commented [MD1]: Individuals with Disabilities Education

Improvement Act of 2004, sec. 614(b) (2), (3)

Commented [u2]: e.g., teach at the students instructional level

and sequencing examples and problems to maintain high levels of
student success
Commented [u3]: e.g., students respond better when the
instruction provides opportunities for them to practice and respond
Commented [u4]: e.g., students learn better when they have a
picture or diagram to illustrate key ideas and concepts
Commented [u5]: e.g., direct and explicit instruction is
necessary but not sufficient for most students, and thus they
benefit when teachers think aloud and illustrate how they think
about the math or reading task
Commented [u6]: e.g., describing how to perform a task is
often insufficient and thus teachers can show how to do tasks by
talking aloud as they think through the task while they are doing it
Commented [u7]: e.g., students can learn to ask themselves
questions such as, Did I check the problem twice to be sure the
answer is right? to benefit their learning
Commented [u8]: e.g., students need lots of opportunities to
practice what you want them to learn and to receive immediate
feedback with instruction to support their learning.

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a. Software used to help students with learning difficulties in reading,

writing, math, and other subject areas
Autism Spectrum Disorders
A. Definition32
i. Autism Spectrum Disorders A sub-group of pervasive developmental
disorders
B. Characteristics2
i. Social Skills
a. Interact with others atypically or not at all
b. Have difficulties interpreting social cues
c. May appear not to notice other people
d. May give the impression they are deaf
e. Lack core skills to initiate, responds to, and maintain social
interactions
f. May be unable to get in the head of other people and realize that
other people have goals and feelings
g. May struggle to comprehend the behaviors of other people
h. Social world may be an unpredictable place for student
i. Have difficulties regulating emotions
j. May engage in what appears to be spontaneous outbursts of
aggression (hitting other students), self-injury (banging their
heads), or sadness (weeping)
ii. Communication Skills
a. Many children with autism do not talk
b. Some children with autism only develop extremely limited verbal
language
c. Some of these children pass early milestones of language
acquisition (e.g., babbling), but then stop
d. Many who develop language use single words or phrases but do
not combine these words and phrases into meaningful sentences
e. May repeat what they hear verbatim
f. Others may have mild delays in language development or may
possess large vocabularies, yet have difficulties sustaining
conversations with others
g. May be more than able to carry on a detailed monologue about a
favorite topic, but will not give any other students an opportunity
to engage in the conversation about the topic (Aspergers)
h. Body language (facial expressions, posture, orientation, gestures)
may not match what the student is saying
i. Tone of voice often monotone, high-pitched, or robotic
j. May speak like adults and will not use the vocal nuances of their
peer group (Aspergers)
k. May be expressing genuine interest in a topic or an individual but
fail to accurately communicate this interest (Aspergers)
l. May have difficulties expressing wants and needs

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m. May communicate their intent by other means (grabbing, pulling,

screaming, hitting, self-injury)
n. May be able to aware of their communication difficulties that can
in some instances cause frustration, embarrassment, and social
isolation (high-functioning)
iii. Repetitive Behaviors and Routines
a. Engage in subtle (repeated head turning when they appear to be
alone) or blatant (continuous or vigorous body rocking) behaviors
b. Typical behaviors include hand-flapping, finger flicking, and tiptoe walking
c. Tend to demand strict adherence to a routine or consistency in the
environment
d. Changes in daily routines (time, venue, menu for meals, route to
school, personal hygiene, bedtime routines) can result in
challenging behavior
e. May be intensely preoccupied with very specific interests (train
schedules, dinosaurs, specific television shows)
f. Repetitive behaviors and routines may underpin consistency and
predictability in the childs world
C. Accommodations14
i. Get a comprehensive picture of what the students likes and dislikes are in
terms of activities by performing a preference assessment at least twice a
year
ii. Establish a classroom routine
iii. Teach communication skills
iv. Teach social skills
a. Initiate conversations with others
b. Respond to initiations
c. Maintain conversations
d. Respond to criticism
v. Social story interventions
vi. Use functional behavioral assessment to address challenging behaviors
a. Indirect assessment
b. Direct assessment
c. Functional analysis
vii. Use positive behavioral support
a. Teacher conduct functional behavioral assessment
b. Team approach to problem solving and intervention design
involving professionals and family members who know the student
well
c. Teacher implement practical and effective interventions
d. Student is taught new skills
e. Data collection and monitoring
D. Assistive technology25
i. Alternative and Augmentative Communication
a. Unaided approaches
3

Commented [u9]: Figure out what contexts the students find

challenging. For part of the assessment, generate a list of items
(toys, foods, activities) that the students like by interviewing
parents and past teachers; then tailor the emphasis to each
student. This is done at least twice a year because students
preferences change over time.
Commented [u10]: The routine established with the student
with ASD should fit within the regular classroom routine. When
establishing the routine, make sure high- and low-preference
activities are evenly balanced. In between high- and low-preference
activities, incorporate a neutral activity to make the transition
easier for them. Also, make sure the schedule is posted for them to
reference.
Commented [u11]: Develop a comprehensive plan that maps
out the skills you plan to teach them and try to incorporate
communication goals in each scheduled activity. Use augmentative
and alternative communication if needed to enhance
communication
Commented [u12]: Strategies include verbal gesture, and
physical prompts; role-play; and a variety of self-management
strategies.
Commented [u13]: e.g., Initiate interactions with peers on the
playground
Commented [u14]: e.g., Respond appropriately to parent
initiations
Commented [u15]: e.g., Expand interactions with co-workers
Commented [u16]: 1) Tailored to a students comprehension
level 2) May consist of a series of simple sentences and/or picture
cues that describe the context and provide examples of desired
responses, explain the perspectives of others, and explain the rules
of social engagement 3) Provide a description of a social context
and social exchange and be directive in telling the student how to
behave.
Commented [u17]: Interviews with parents and previous
teachers as well as rating scales allow you to clearly describe the
challenging behavior, along with some of the possible reasons for
why it occurs.
Commented [u18]: Involves observing your student during
those times of the day when challenging behavior is most likely to
occur and documenting the sequence of behaviors around the
challenging behavior
Commented [u19]: Consists of an experiment in which you
manipulate one variable in your classroom to determine its effects
on challenging behavior (all possible variables must be manipulated
and rates of challenging behavior must be compared across each
condition).
Commented [MD20]: Used to enhance, expand and develop
communication skills

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1. Signs
2. Gestures
b. Low-tech picture-based systems
1. Picture Exchange Communication System
c. Speech Generating Devices
1. Portable word processor
2. Talking word processor
3. Text to speech software
ii. Visual assistants organizers
iii. Headphones
iv. Assistive listening systems
Intellectual and developmental disabilities
A. Definition32
i. Intellectual disabilities Limited cognitive functioning, which affects
learning
ii. Developmental disabilities Refers to a disability that is attributable to
mental retardation or related conditions that include cerebral palsy,
epilepsy, autism, or other neurological conditions when such conditions
result in impairment of general intellectual functioning or adaptive
behavior similar to that of a person with mental retardation
B. Characteristics3
i. Intellectual
a. Learn slowly
b. Fail to notice relevant features of what is being taught
c. Do not demonstrate learned skills spontaneously
d. Have difficulties learning complex skills and abstract ideas
e. Have difficulties making generalizations
f. Learn less overall than other students
g. Many students experience difficulties with memory (remembering
incorrectly or not remembering automatically) and attention when
focusing on learning tasks
h. Have communication challenges in such areas as comprehension,
expressing what they have learned, or describing individual needs
i. Most students demonstrate difficulties with expressive (speaking,
writing) and receptive (listening, reading) language that impact
communication in academic and social situations
ii. Social and Behavioral
a. Students may have friends and participate in social activities, but
often have difficulties developing friendships
b. Limited communication skills
c. Stereotypical behaviors
d. Limited social judgment
e. Frequently nave and gullible, making them prone to risky or
inappropriate behaviors in attempt to please others
C. Accommodations15

Commented [MD21]: Voice- output devices that provide and

effective way for students who cannot speak naturally to
communicate.
Commented [MD22]: Addresses poor fine motor or motor
planning skills for writing
Commented [MD23]: Addresses poor fine motor, motor
planning, cognitive or a combination
Commented [MD24]: Addresses poor reading comprehension,
decoding, fluency
Commented [MD25]: Addresses behavior issues, focus,
language and communication skills
Commented [MD26]: Addresses auditory overstimulation
issues
Commented [MD27]: Addresses deficits inattention and
listening comprehension and auditory overstimulation issues

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i. Take ownership of the students with disabilities by demonstrating that

these students are members of the class and are valued
ii. Become familiar with the full range of goals and objectives on the
students IEP
iii. An aide may be assigned to a student with disabilities for all or part of the
school day
iv. Planning
a. McGill Action Planning System
b. Person-Centered Planning
D. Assistive technology
i. Computer software
a. 101 Animations26
b. Dollars & Cents28
Behavioral and Emotional Disorders
A. Definition32
i. Behavior that falls considerably outside of the norm
B. Characteristics4
i. Inability to maintain satisfying relationships with others
ii. Demonstrate externalizing (aggression, hitting, lack of attention,
impulsivity) or internalizing (shyness, withdrawal, depression,
fears/phobias, anxiety) behaviors
iii. Interfere with others
iv. Distressing to themselves and their families
v. Extreme worry, fearfulness, and concern even when little reason for those
feelings exist (anxiety)
vi. Avoid ordinary activities because of fear or anxiety
vii. Reoccurring fears about everyday situations (Generalized Anxiety
Disorder)
viii. Persistent thoughts about worrisome subjects, such as germs, objects out
of order, or safety, that result in ritual routines to alleviate those thoughts
including hand washing, reorganizing objects, or taking safety precautions
(Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)
ix. Sudden onset of intense fear resulting in extreme mental or physical
reactions (Panic Disorder)
x. Persistent anxiety resulting from a traumatic experience such as a death of
a family member, natural disaster, or life-threatening experience
(Posttraumatic Stress Disorder)
xi. Exaggerated fear of social situations and anticipations of nonacceptance
and ridicule from others (Social Phobia, or Social Anxiety Disorder)
xii. Frequently withdraw from others and appear reclusive, preferring solitary
activities
xiii. May avoid participating in group work, volunteering, or answering
questions
xiv. Exhibit tendencies toward perfectionism and are afraid of making
mistakes
xv. Irritability, sadness, fatigue
5

Commented [u28]: Purpose is to foster relationships to

improve the quality of life for severe disabilities and to facilitate
participation in inclusive settings such as a general education
classroom.
Commented [u29]: Builds from other techniques to provide
long-range planning and transition.
Commented [MD30]: Basic cause and effect software
Commented [MD31]: Software that connects what the
students learn to the real-world application of currency

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xvi. Extreme, unpredictable mood swings (excessive happiness, excitement,

increased energy and excitability, sadness, anxiety, irritability, thoughts of
death)
xvii. Acting sad, lonely, or apathetic
xviii. Exhibiting low self-esteem or hopelessness
xix. Decreased interests in activities
xx. Having chronic complaints about physical ailments, such as stomachaches
or aching arms or legs, with no apparent causes
xxi. Frequently being absent from school
xxii. Talking of suicide or self-destructive behaviors
xxiii. Persistent boredom or low energy
xxiv. Poor school performance
xxv. Increased irritability, anger, or hostility
xxvi. Habitually question authority
xxvii. Intentionally misbehave or ignore rules
xxviii. Are temperamental or negative
xxix. Blame others for their actions
xxx. Frequent temper tantrums
xxxi. Excessive arguing
xxxii. Excessive questioning or rules
xxxiii. Active defiance of adults
xxxiv. Deliberately annoying or upsetting people
xxxv. Being spiteful and revenge seeking
xxxvi. Covert (stealing, lying, burglary, use of drugs and alcohol) or overt
(coercion, bullying, manipulation of others, escalated interactions with
teachers, parents, and peers) behaviors
xxxvii. Repeated and routine display of antisocial behaviors
xxxviii. Demonstrate loss of contact with reality (inappropriate actions or bizarre
thought processes)
C. Accommodations16
i. Create an appropriate emotional environment
a. Respond to students feelings and behaviors rather than to overt
behavior
b. Before responding, listen to demonstrate caring and concern to the
student
c. Develop a positive relationship with the student about one topic
d. Establish rules and consequences
e. Consider changes you can make
f. Catch the student being good
g. Use humor to build relationships and to decrease tension
h. Create an emotionally classroom environment
ii. Promote desirable behaviors and decreasing undesirable ones
a. Do not use threats
b. Establish consequences that do not punish you as well as your
students
c. Listen and talk to your student but avoid arguing
6

Commented [u32]: To help provide the structure that students

with emotional and behavioral disorders needs

Commented [u33]: In which students accept one anothers

strengths and weaknesses and treat one another with respect and
consideration
Commented [u34]: Issue consequences that you are prepared
to execute if students do not behave appropriately
Commented [u35]: If you are stressed or inconvenienced by
the consequence, you might resent the student
Commented [u36]: If you are tempted to argue, recognize that
that you need a break and set another time to finish the discussion

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d. Use logic, principles, and effective guidelines to make decisions

e. Focus on the problems that interfere the most; ignore minor
misbehaviors
f. Build into your instruction a strategy that shows students that the
work they complete is necessary and meaningful
g. Avoid comparing a student with emotional or behavioral problems
to other students
h. Resist the temptation to solve students problems for them
i. Let your student know how many chances he or she has before a
consequence will be applied
iii. Resolve conflicts and promote self-control
a. Group work solutions
1. Compromise
2. Share
3. Take turns
4. Chance
b. Communication strategies
1. Apologizing
2. Sending an I-message
3. Active listening
4. Self-talk
c. Diffusing a potentially volatile conflict
1. Distract/postpone
2. Humor/exaggerate
3. Abandon
4. Seek assistance
iv. Teach self-monitoring skills
a. Practical and takes little extra time on the part of the teacher;
consequently, it can free up time for the teacher to work with other
students
b. Used to improve a variety of academic and social skills
c. Uses monitoring systems that provide the student with concrete
evidence of improved behavior
d. Provides more immediate feedback than a teacher is able to
provide
e. Increases students independence and helps them become
responsible for their own behavior
f. Facilitates communications with parents by providing data that can
be easily shared during meetings
g. Encourages individual improvement rather than competition across
students
v. Teach self-management skills
a. Teacher and student identify and agree on the behavior to be
changed
b. Identify when and where the behavior most frequently occurs
c. Establish realistic goals for changing the behavior
7

Commented [u37]: do not flaunt your authority as a teacher to

make students do something, always provide a clear sense of what
is right and the best thing to do

Commented [u38]: Comparisons do not help students

understand and accept themselves or be understood and accepted
by others
Commented [u39]: The long-term goal of any behavior
management strategy is to motivate students to behave
appropriately and to shift the responsibility of controlling
behavior from teacher to student
Commented [u40]: Follow through on whatever consequence
was designated
Commented [u41]: Everyone gives up a little while still getting
some of what he or she originally wanted
Commented [u42]: Individuals decide to share for mutual
benefit. Requires waiting for the benefit to occur in the future
Commented [u43]: It is important to teach the student who
goes second has not lost. Let students decide the order in taking
turns
Commented [u44]: Strategy to alleviate a dispute around turntaking: flip a coin, draw straws, or use another method that leaves
the resolution to chance
Commented [u45]: Admitting responsibility if you recognize
that your behavior was wrong. Can also be a way to take
responsibility for causing the problem
Commented [u46]: Express how you feel without blaming the
other person
Commented [u47]: Involves trying to understand how another
person is feeling by listening carefully to what he or she says
Commented [u48]: Self-control method used to reduce stress
or remain calm by engaging in rehearsed positive self-talk
Commented [u49]: Attention on the conflict is diverted to
diffuse a conflict
Commented [u50]: Poke fun at the situation or engage in an
exaggerated recounting in order to help students put their issues in
perspective
Commented [u51]: If a person realizes he or she cant handle a
situation, walking away may be the best way to exercise self-control
Commented [u52]: An individual or group should seek
assistance if other conflict-resolution strategies are not working
Commented [u54]: Such as charting progress using graphs,
charts, and checklists
Commented [u53]: So each student can work towards his or
her own goals

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d. Identify a timeline showing how long the behavior change plan

will be in effect
e. Identify reinforcers and consequences
f. Self-evaluate the success of the program each day
vi. Teach social skills
a. Develop cooperative learning
b. Involve peers in the training program for low social status students
c. Use principles of effective instruction
d. Teach needed skills
e. Teach for transfer of learning
f. Empower students
g. Identify strengths
h. Encourage reciprocal friendships
vii. Adapt instruction
a. Use different groupings [individual, small groups, pairs, large
groups] to give students opportunities to acquire academic and
social skills
b. Use materials that will generate high interest
c. Provide alternative ways for students to complete tasks and
demonstrating learning
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders
A. Definition32
i. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder A disorder consisting of two subtypes of behavior:
a. Inattention Refers to difficulty sustaining attention
b. Hyperactivity-impulsivity Refers to a group of behaviors
associated with restlessness, excess motor activity, and an inability
to control ones actions
B. Characteristics5
i. Core Characteristics
a. Feeling fidgety and restless
b. Blurting out answers
c. Having poor sustained attention and vigilance and being easily
distracted
d. Skipping from one incomplete task to the next, thus rarely
completing work
e. Being impulsive or having poor delay of gratification
f. Being hyperactive or having difficulty regulating activities
g. Exhibiting diminished rule-governed behavior
h. Having increased variability of task performance
ii. Inattention
a. Failing to pay close attention to details and making careless
mistakes that are inconsistent with the childs developmental level
b. Failing to sustain attention to tasks and/or play activities
c. Failing to listen, even when spoken to directly
d. Failing to complete tasks
8

Commented [MD55]: Classrooms structured for cooperative

learning let children work alone, in pairs, and in groups, helping one
another master the assigned material
Commented [MD56]: Including popular peers in the social skills
training program increases the likelihood that they will have
opportunities to observe the changes in target students and to cue
and reinforce appropriate behavior in the classroom
Commented [MD57]: Obtain student commitment, identify
target behavior, pretesting, teaching, modeling, rehearsing, role
playing, providing feedback, practicing in controlled settings,
practicing in other settings, post testing, and following up
Commented [MD58]: social skills that learning- and behaviordisordered students frequently need to be taught include body
language (e.g., what his or her body says, gestures, eye contact,
facial reactions), using greetings, initiating and maintaining a
conversation, giving and accepting positive feedback, identifying
feelings in self and others, and using problem-solving/conflictresolution strategies
Commented [MD59]: Social skills training programs need to
ensure that learned skills are systematically demonstrated in the
classroom, on the playground, and at home
Commented [MD60]: Offer choices, teaching about
consequences, documenting progress, and helping students to
exercise control of what happens to them
Commented [MD61]: Students with social skills deficits may
benefit from acquiring strengths in athletic activities so they have
areas of strength from which to build their social skills. Other areas
such as hobbies or special interests can be presented in the
classroom so that the student with difficulties with social
relationships has an opportunity to be perceived as one who is
knowledgeable
Commented [MD62]: Because it is unlikely that all students in
the classroom are going to like all the other students equally, the
notion of developing a reciprocal friendship is a more realistic goal
Commented [MD63]: Provide opportunities for students to be
tutored and to serve as tutors themselves. Learning to work with
others is an important skill for students with emotional and
behavioral problems.
Commented [MD64]: Teachers can reduce incidences of
inappropriate behaviors by using materials; for example, some
students may enjoy working on computers, whereas others might
like to write or use artistic means for approaching a task.
Commented [MD65]: Allow students to express their individual
learning-style preferences. As long as students are working,
learning, and not interfering with the progress of others, providing
appropriate alternatives for completing tasks makes sense.

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e. Having difficulty with organization

f. Resisting working on tasks that require sustained attention
g. Losing materials and objects
h. Becoming easily distracted
i. Being forgetful
iii. Hyperactivity
a. Fidgeting or squirming
b. Having a difficult time remaining seated during class, even when
other students are able to do so
c. Running or climbing excessively when it is not appropriate
d. Having difficulty playing quietly
e. Acting as though he or she is driven by a motor
f. Talking too much
iv. Impulsivity
a. Blurting out answers
b. Having difficulty waiting for his or her turn
c. Interrupting others or butting into activities
C. Accommodations17
i. Positive attitude toward inclusion of students with ADHD
ii. Ability to collaborate as a member of an interdisciplinary team
iii. Knowledge of behavior management procedures
iv. Personal characteristics
Orthopedic Disability
A. Definition32
i. Includes deficits caused by congenital anomaly, impairments caused by
disease, and impairments from other causes
B. Characteristics6
i. Episodes of difficulty in breathing (asthma)
ii. Lack of coordination
iii. Speech disorders
iv. Motor problems
v. Extreme weakness
vi. Walk with difficulty
vii. Lack complete bladder and bowel control
viii. Tendency to have recurrent seizures (Epilepsy)
ix. Diminishing ability to 1) walk and 2) effectively use their arms and hands
(Muscular Dystrophy)
x. Loss of stamina
xi. Developmental delays
xii. Progressive neurological defects
xiii. Repeated bacterial infections
xiv. Psychological stresses
C. Accommodations18
i. Use others as resources
ii. Be flexible in your planning
iii. Be ingenious and creative
9

Commented [MD66]: Teachers have a significant influence on

how students are perceived by others in the class. Even subtle
preferences expressed by teachers are noticed by students and give
them the right to like or not like certain students.
Commented [MD67]: Express interest in what you can do to
promote the academic and social success of the students and ask
professionals for ideas they think might make the instructional
setting more productive.
Commented [MD68]: If the behavioral practices that are
typically effective with students are not effective with the student
with ADHD in your class, ask a classroom management expert
(school psychologist, special education teacher) to observe your
classroom and provide suggestions
Commented [MD69]: Teaching students with ADHD requires
understanding, compassion, patience, concern, respect,
responsiveness, and a sense of humor
Commented [MD70]: e.g., clubfoot, absence of some member
Commented [MD71]: e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis
Commented [MD72]: e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and
fractures or burns that cause contractures
Commented [u73]: Cerebral Palsy
Commented [u74]: Spina Bifida
Commented [u75]: HIV and AIDS
Commented [MD76]: Call on the expertise of the student,
parents, other school personnel, and others in health-related
professions, as well as the students classmates.
Commented [MD77]: Be willing to make last-minute changes
in response to day-to-day changes in the students condition and
readiness to learn.
Commented [MD78]: One of the greatest rewards from
working with students is helping them discover their strengths and
ways to demonstrate them.

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iv. Retrace or enlarge print with a dark marker to help students see material
more clearly
v. Schedule study buddies to help a student with disabilities gather learning
materials
vi. Assign a classmate or ask for a volunteer to take or copy notes for a
student with disabilities
vii. Ask students for whom writing is difficult whether they would prefer an
oral assignment or test
viii. Ask the special education teacher to provide (or advise you on acquiring)
materials for securing small objects
ix. Ask parents to provide a bandana or sweatband, worn on the wrist, to help
a student with limited control of facial muscles wipe off excess saliva
x. Arrange with the special education teacher for the assistance of an aide in
moving a student from a wheel chair to a beanbag chair during floor
activities
D. Assistive technology24
i. Mobility
a. Wheelchairs
b. Walkers
c. Adapted bicycles
ii. Positioning
a. Adjustable chairs, tables, and standers
b. Wedges
c. Straps
Hearing Impairments & Deafness
A. Definition32
i. Hearing impairment An impairment in hearing, whether permanent or
fluctuating, that adversely affects a childs education performance but that
is not included in the definition of deafness in IDEA sec. 300.8(c)(5)
ii. Deafness A hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is
impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or
without amplification that adversely effects a childs educational
performance, IDEA 300.8(c)(3)
B. Characteristics7
i. May be significantly delayed in vocabulary development and reading
skills
ii. Have difficulty accessing their environment and language system
iii. Experience difficulty in learning to produce the speech sounds (they might
not get accurate or complete feedback from hearing the sounds they are
producing
iv. Hear at 16 dB or more
a. 1625 dB = Minimal loss
b. 2540 dB = Mild hearing loss
c. 4065 dB = Moderate hearing loss
d. 6590 dB = Severe hearing loss
e. > 90 dB = Profound hearing loss
10

Commented [MD79]: Velcro and a Dysem mat on a students

desk prevent books, calculators, pencil boxes, and the like from
slipping off.

Commented [MD80]: This way, the student can be both

supported physically and seated on the same level as peers
Commented [MD81]: Allows student to move independently
and safely

Commented [MD82]: Any support that helps a student remain

in good position for learning without becoming tired.

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C. Accommodations19
i. Provide preferential seating
a. Minimize listening distance sit near you
b. Make sure the student can see you, the interpreter, and visual aids
clearly
c. Eliminate glare from windows or lights
ii. Minimize environmental noise
a. Use carpets, rugs, cork, and curtains to help absorb noise
b. Avoid unnecessary background noise
iii. Use visual clues and demonstrations
a. Face the student directly when you talk
b. Use an interactive whiteboard so that you can face the student
while you write
c. Use natural gestures
d. Use modeling to demonstrate how to do different procedures and
tasks
e. Use pictures, diagrams, and graphic organizers
f. Provide opportunities for experiential learning
iv. Maximize the use of visual media
a. Provide closed-captioned television
b. Provide access to computers
v. Monitor the students understanding
a. Ask the student to repeat or rephrase important information or
directions
b. Reword statements for clarification
c. Provide written instructions and summaries
vi. Promote cooperation and collaboration
a. Use peer and classroom tutors and note takers
b. Identify speakers in a group discussion
c. Inform interpreters of topics before class, and provide study guides
or teaching
D. Assistive technology24
i. Assistive listening
a. Hearing aids
b. Amplifiers
c. Captions on television
d. Typing telephones
Visual Impairments & Blindness
A. Definition32
i. Visual impairment including blindness An impairment in vision that even
with correction, adversely affects a childs educational performance,
IDEA 300.8(c)(13)
B. Characteristics8
i. Have a more difficult time developing basic concepts owing to their vision
loss

11

Commented [MD83]: Seat students away from loud noises

such as high-traffic areas, doors, air conditioning and heating units.

Commented [MD84]: e.g., music or hallway noise

Commented [MD85]: Help student who is either deaf or has

hearing loss

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ii. Have difficulty learning from the activities of others because the child
might not might not be able to determine visually what someone is doing
and what the results of the activities are
iii. May not have access to clues such as color that can aid in conceptual
development and vocabulary
iv. Lack of access to appropriate adaptive materials may limit development in
communication through the written word
v. May be delayed in gross motor skill development and may engage in
fewer activities that use visual-motor (running, jumping, kicking) skills
vi. May also have delays in fine motor skills (writing, cutting, grasping small
items)
vii. Might not be able to fix a snack, independently select clothing, or dress
themselves if not given responsibilities or guidance
viii. Might not know when individuals are speaking to them
ix. Unable to see how others initiate interactions, give nonverbal indications
of their feelings and desires, and how peers are responding to interactions
and common situations
C. Accommodations20
i. Physical environment
a. Announce your presence and identify yourself
b. Leave doors fully opened or closed and drawers closed so the
student does not run into them
c. Describe the locations of things
d. Provide an extra desk or shelf space for the student to store
materials
e. Provide access to an outlet for audio equipment, braillers, lamp, or
other electrical equipment
f. Allow early dismissal from class so the student has time to travel
to other classes
ii. Learning environment
a. Familiarize students with classroom materials
b. Have concrete examples students can touch
c. Provide lessons with tactual and auditory components, and adapt
assignments so that the students can participate
d. Provide written copies of any materials you use on the board or
interactive white board
e. Allow a peer to take notes for the student
f. Provide opportunities for the students to work in groups, especially
when the assignment has a visual component
iii. Testing environment
a. Provide test materials in the students primary learning medium
b. Allow extra time to complete test items
c. Give students who read braille twice as much time as other
students to complete a test
d. Give students who read regular or large print time and a half to
complete a test
12

Commented [MD86]: Also, announce your departure.

Commented [MD87]: Especially after rearranging the

classroom, start with the door and travel around the room
systematically, noting locations.

Commented [MD88]: e.g., give them time to visually or

tactually explore a globe before asking them to locate the longitude
and latitude of a city.
Commented [MD89]: e.g., in science have fossils, not just
pictures of fossils
Commented [MD90]: Say what you are writing as you write on
the board.
Commented [MD91]: Check that the student is still paying
attention and participating.
Commented [MD92]: e.g., conducting experiments in science
class
Commented [MD93]: e.g., braille, large print, or audio tape

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e. Read instructions to students with visual impairment to minimize

the amount of reading they need to do
f. Present test items orally if doing so will not compromise the
integrity of the test
g. Allow students to write on the test material instead of a bubble
sheet, or provide a large print bubble sheet
D. Assistive technology
i. Braille Labeler28
ii. Computer hardware/software26
a. Find the Buttons
b. Thunder-RJ
Traumatic Brain Injury
A. Definition32
i. An injury to the brain, caused by an external physical force, that causes
total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both,
which adversely affects a students educational performance
B. Characteristics9
i. Agitation and irritability
ii. Flat affect with sudden outbursts
iii. The degree of initial recovery from the injury will vary widely and require
frequent review of the students IEP
iv. Memory, attention, and executive function difficulties are common
v. Slowed processing of information and faulty reasoning are common
vi. Pre-injury skills may be preserved but are not predictive of new learning
abilities
vii. Lowered social inhibition and judgment, lowered impulse control,
depression, and overestimation of abilities are typical
viii. Less initiative and motivation, as well as general fatigue, are typical
ix. Services and supports are often needed in at least four areas: cognition,
speech and language, social and behavioral skills, and physical
functioning
C. Accommodations18
i. Make environmental modifications
a. Changes in locations of materials and equipment
b. Work surface modifications
c. Object modifications
d. Manipulation aids
ii. Promote literacy development
a. Positioning
1. Position students so they can see the print while listening
b. Siblings and peers
1. Inclusion of peers or siblings during story time could help
make the story time livelier
c. Print in the environment
1. Having print everywhere in the environment is important
d. Accessing literacy
13

Commented [MD94]: Labeler-maker that has the alphabet,

punctuation, and common contractions
Commented [MD95]: Computer software that helps students
know where the mouse cursor is on the computer
Commented [MD96]: A screen reader for the computer

Commented [MD97]: e.g., so that students in wheelchairs can

reach items independently
Commented [MD98]: e.g., raising a desk so a wheelchair fits
under it
Commented [MD99]: e.g., attaching clips to a students desk to
secure papers
Commented [MD100]: e.g., using a page turner to reduce
dependency on others
Commented [MD101]: This helps them begin to make the
connection between print and speech
Commented [MD102]: When peers or siblings were present,
children related text to real-life activities and asked and answered a
greater variety of questions.
Commented [MD103]: For students with physical disabilities,
the print needs to be at eye level based on their adaptive
equipment.

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1. Students need a method by which to independently access

storybooks, writing instruments, and other literacy related
items
2. Drawing and writing can be made easier with adaptive
holders for the writing utensil
3. Taping paper down or stabilizing items with Velcro also
helps the student draw or write
iii. Educating classmates
a. What is wrong with the student?
b. Is the disease contagious?
c. Will the student die from it?
d. Will the student lose any limbs or hair?
e. Should we talk about the students illness, or ignore it?
f. What will other students think if I am still friends with this
student?
iv. See VI. B. i-x.
D. Assistive technology27
i. Slant board
ii. Weighted pencil grip
iii. Double-lined paper
Communication Disorders (Speech/Language)
A. Definition32
i. Difficulties with the transfer of knowledge, ideas, opinions, and feelings
B. Characteristics10
i. Delay in the development of articulation
ii. Stuttering
iii. Voice disorder (quality, pitch, intensity)
iv. Frequently ask for information to be repeated or clarified
v. Difficulties following directions
vi. Difficulties understanding abstract concepts
vii. Difficulties comprehending multiple meanings
viii. Communicate less frequently than peers
ix. Difficulty using correct grammar, thinking of the right word to convey
meaning, and repairing communication when listener does not understand
x. Limited vocabulary
xi. Difficulties pronouncing certain sounds and using prefixes, suffixes, and
endings on words
xii. Have difficulty generating rhyming words, , segmenting words into their
individual sounds, or producing individual sounds and then blending them
together to make words
xiii. Difficulty learning to spell or read
xiv. May experience difficulties in the area of syntax
C. Accommodations21
i. Create an atmosphere of ease and comfortable pacing
ii. Listen in a calm and thoughtful manner of what students have to say
iii. Do not criticize or point out speech errors
14

Commented [MD104]: This could be books on tape, podcasts,

or switches to access computer programs for reading, writing, and
drawing.

Commented [MD105]: Classmates will most likely have limited

knowledge and many questions. The following are six common
questions asked by students.

Commented [MD106]: Promotes the development of proper

hand and wrist position
Commented [MD107]: Improves control, reduces fatigue,
increases muscle strength
Commented [MD108]: Gives students more room to form
their letters

Commented [MD109]: Avoid an atmosphere that creates time

pressures and tensions.
Commented [MD110]: Allow time for students to finish their
thoughts. Do not disregard ideas just because students have
difficulty expressing them.
Commented [MD111]: You may demonstrate correct speech
by correctly repeating what the student said.

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iv. Establish classroom rules that do not allow for ridicule of students or their
speech errors
v. Take care not to place students with speech problems in situations in
which their communication difficulties might interfere or be highlighted
vi. Use flexible grouping so that students have opportunities to talk in small
groups and with a partner
vii. Allow time for students to respond
viii. Develop cueing systems that allow students to let you know when they are
comfortable responding
ix. Read aloud in a slow and easy manner to give students an opportunity to
practice fluency strategies or new sounds they are learning
x. Avoid competition among students, particularly when it highlights oral
communication
D. Assistive technology
i. Alternative and Augmentative Communication
a. Computer software
1. Communication board software29
2. Interactive software30
b. Also see II. C. i.
English Language Learners
A. Definition32
B. Students for whom English is a second language
C. Characteristics11
i. Rely on first-language translation
ii. Rely on visuals, drawing pictures, and known phrases to understand and
communicate
iii. Require significant repetition and practice before adopting new classroom
routines
iv. Respond with one or two words or memorized phrases
v. Observes others before attempting a task
vi. More characteristics can be found at Learn Alberta
D. Accommodations22
i. Culturally responsive teaching
a. Have high expectations of students and believe that all students are
capable of academic success
b. See yourself as a member of the community and see teaching as a
way to give back to the community
c. Display confidence in your ability to be successful with students
who are culturally and linguistically diverse
d. Provide explicit instruction to monitor students progress, and
provide immediate feedback
e. Integrate the students native language and dialect, culture, and
community into classroom activities to make input more relevant
and comprehensible, to build trust and self-esteem, and to promote
cultural diversity and cultural pluralism

15

Commented [MD112]: Students often need time to get their

ideas organized and to plan their communication. Speech may be
labored and slow.

Commented [MD113]: Students become more fluent with

multiple readings, so the use of repeated reading may be beneficial.

Commented [MD114]: Used to enhance, expand and develop

communication skills
Commented [MD115]: Software that has templates and
incorporates pictures to easily make communication board
Commented [MD116]: Software that has the student talk and
interact to stimulate speech and encourage expressive language.

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f. Use curriculum and teaching strategies that promote coherence,

relevance, progression, and continuity
g. Structure opportunities for students to use English
h. Challenge your students and teach higher-order thinking
ii. Best practices in ELL
a. Encourage strategic use of first language
b. Encourage acquisition in first-language reading and writing while
also learning to read and write in English
c. Encourage students to use their first language around school
d. Provide opportunities for students from the same language group
to communicate with one another in their first-language
e. Recruit people who can tutor the students in their first language
f. Provide, in classroom and in the school library, books written in
various languages
g. Incorporate greetings and information in various languages in
newsletters and other official school communications
iii. Promote content in second-language learning
a. Beginning to mid-intermediate proficiency level
1. Provide a supportive environment in which help is readily
available to second-language learners
2. Establish consistent patterns and routines in the classroom
3. Use gestures, visuals, and demonstrations to present
concepts
4. Connect content to students home cultures
5. Simplify grammar and vocabulary
6. Slow the pace of presentation, enunciate clearly, and
emphasize key concepts through gesture, facial expression,
intonation, and repetition
7. Record your lectures or talks on tape, and make them
available for students
8. Make copies of your notes, or have another student take
notes, so that second-language learners can concentrate on
listening
9. Build in redundancy by restating concepts in a simpler
form, providing examples, and giving direct definitions
10. Extend wait time so second-language learners have time to
volunteer
11. Avoid forcing second-language learners to speak
12. Arrange cooperative learning so that students with the same
first language work together
13. Encourage students to use their second language in
informal conversations
14. Whenever possible, use tutors who speak the native
language of the second-language learners
15. Alter criteria for grading
b. High-intermediate to advanced proficiency level
16

Commented [MD117]: e.g., in cooperative learning groups

during informal discussions

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1. Add contextual support to your lesson

2. Take into account the linguistic demands of the content
3. Provide opportunities for students to write within the
content area
4. Provide opportunities for second-language learners to
practice critical thinking skills
5. Coach second-language learner in appropriate learning
strategies for mastering content
iv. Working with parents
a. Be inviting and welcoming
b. Learn the correct pronunciation of the childs first name and of the
family name, and learn a few words of the childs native language
c. When preparing your classroom and curriculum, make certain that
the heritage of your student is reflected
d. Explore the best ways to communicate with parents
e. Do not talk down to parents, provide them with the respect you
would expect as a parent
f. Enlist the support of a translator or encourage parents to bring a
translator or a person who can provide support to parent
conferences
g. Do your best to provide written communication in the parents
native language
h. Interview parents to determine how they could be a resource at
home or at school
E. Assistive technology
i. Computer software31
a. Text reader
b. Word predictor (for typing)
c. Talking word processor
d. Graphic organizer
Gifted
A. Definition32
i. Students who have extraordinary talent or natural ability
B. Characteristics12
i. Outstanding academic talent
ii. Perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of
accomplishment
iii. Score in the top 5% locally in that area of aptitude
C. Acommodations23
i. Curriculum compacting
a. What the student already knows about the topic
b. What the student needs to learn
c. What adaptations or activities are appropriate for facilitating
student learning
ii. Parallel Curriculum Model
a. Core Curriculum
17

Commented [MD118]: e.g., advanced organizers, study guides,

glossaries, videos/film

Commented [MD119]: All parents have time treasure or talent

(funds of knowledge) to share in large or small ways.

Commented [MD120]: SOLO Literacy Suite is a program that

incorporates these four computer software types. It helps ELL
students as well as students with disabilities to read and write.

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1. Key concepts to be learned

b. Curriculum of Connections
1. Making interdisciplinary linkages
c. Curriculum of Practice
1. Supporting students in learning to think like a practitioner
d. Curriculum of Identity
1. Helping students make personal meaning and clarification
of what they are learning
iii. Best Instructional Practice
a. Using advanced subject matter taught at an accelerated rate
b. Using flexible grouping practices
c. Incorporating opportunities for higher-level thinking
d. Fostering inquiry in learning
e. Providing problem-solving opportunities related to real-world
situations

18

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Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional, Diverse, and at Risk in the General Education by
Sharon R. Vaughn, Candace S. Bos, and Jeanne Shay Schumm is an exceptional resource for
all teachers. It is full of useful information including characteristics, identification,
accommodations and many more for a variety of different types of students.
Learn Alberta is a website devoted to resources for teachers. It is published by the Alberta
government (Canada), and has many articles about teaching strategies and information. The
pdf I found was published by Learn Alberta and has many characteristics of English
Language Learners in each of the divisions.
The Illinois General Assembly is a great resource if you plan on teaching in Illinois. On the
website, it has all of the laws and regulations for the state. This is where I found how the
state of Illinois defines a gifted student.
The PBS Parent website has a great amount of information for learning disabilities and some
strategies and tips to teaching students with learning disabilities.
The Missouri Assistive Technology Advisory Council website had some examples of
assistive technology and what types of students are benefitted by each type of technology.
RJ Cooper, EnableMart, Enabling Devices, Laureate, Mayer-Johnson, and Spectronics are all
on-line catalogues for assistive technology. Each carry a variety of technologies for most, if
not all, types of disabilities. They have descriptions of how each technology works and what
it is used for.
1

Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th ed.) (p. 153). New Jersey:
Pearson.
2
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 244-245). New Jersey:
Pearson.
3
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 262-264). New Jersey:
Pearson.
4
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 210-215). New Jersey:
Pearson.
5
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 166-170). New Jersey:
Pearson.
6
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 292-294). New Jersey:
Pearson.292-294
7
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 286). New Jersey:
Pearson.
19

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Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 279-280). New Jersey:
Pearson.
9
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 294-295). New Jersey:
Pearson.
10
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 182-190). New Jersey:
Pearson.
11
Learn Alberta
12
Illinois General Assembly
13
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 158). New Jersey:
Pearson.
14
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 246-256). New Jersey:
Pearson.
15
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 266-277). New Jersey:
Pearson.
16
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 224-234). New Jersey:
Pearson.
17
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 173). New Jersey:
Pearson.
18
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 296-297). New Jersey:
Pearson.
19
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 289). New Jersey:
Pearson.
20
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 283-284). New Jersey:
Pearson.
21
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 197). New Jersey:
Pearson.
22
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 118-122). New Jersey:
Pearson.
23
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 316-317). New Jersey:
Pearson.
24
PBS
25
Missouri Assistive Technology
20

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26

RJ Cooper
EnableMart
28
Enabling Devices
29
Laureate
30
Mayer-Johnson
31
Spectronics
32
Bos, C. S., Schumm, J. S., Vaughn, S. R. (2014). Teaching Students Who Are Exceptional,
Diverse, and At Risk in the General Education Classroom (6th Ed.) (p. 480-490). New Jersey:
Pearson.
27

21